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Sound
In physics, sound is a vibration that typically propagates as
an audible wave of pressure, through a transmission medium
such as a gas, liquid or solid.

In human physiology and psychology, sound is the reception

of such waves and their perception by the brain.[1] Humans
can only hear sound waves as distinct pitches when the
frequency lies between about 20 Hz and 20 kHz. Sound
waves above 20 kHz are known as ultrasound and is not
perceptible by humans. Sound waves below 20 Hz are known
as infrasound. Different animal species have varying hearing
ranges.

Contents
Acoustics
Definition
Physics of sound
Longitudinal and transverse waves
Sound wave properties and characteristics A drum produces sound via a vibrating
Speed of sound membrane.
Perception of sound
Pitch
Duration
Loudness
Timbre
Sonic texture
Spatial location
Sound pressure level
Ultrasound
Infrasound
See also
References
External links

Acoustics
Acoustics is the interdisciplinary science that deals with the study of mechanical waves in gases, liquids, and solids
including vibration, sound, ultrasound, and infrasound. A scientist who works in the field of acoustics is an
acoustician, while someone working in the field of acoustical engineering may be called an acoustical engineer.[2] An
audio engineer, on the other hand, is concerned with the recording, manipulation, mixing, and reproduction of sound.

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Applications of acoustics are found in almost all aspects of modern society, subdisciplines include aeroacoustics, audio
signal processing, architectural acoustics, bioacoustics, electro-acoustics, environmental noise, musical acoustics,
noise control, psychoacoustics, speech, ultrasound, underwater acoustics, and vibration.[3]

Definition
Sound is defined as "(a) Oscillation in pressure, stress, particle displacement, particle velocity, etc., propagated in a
medium with internal forces (e.g., elastic or viscous), or the superposition of such propagated oscillation. (b) Auditory
sensation evoked by the oscillation described in (a)."[4] Sound can be viewed as a wave motion in air or other elastic
media. In this case, sound is a stimulus. Sound can also be viewed as an excitation of the hearing mechanism that
results in the perception of sound. In this case, sound is a sensation.

Physics of sound
Sound can propagate through a medium such as air, water and
solids as longitudinal waves and also as a transverse wave in solids
(see Longitudinal and transverse waves, below). The sound waves
are generated by a sound source, such as the vibrating diaphragm of
a stereo speaker. The sound source creates vibrations in the
surrounding medium. As the source continues to vibrate the
medium, the vibrations propagate away from the source at the speed
of sound, thus forming the sound wave. At a fixed distance from the
Experiment using two tuning forks oscillating
source, the pressure, velocity, and displacement of the medium vary
usually at the same frequency. One of the forks is
in time. At an instant in time, the pressure, velocity, and
being hit with a rubberized mallet. Although only
displacement vary in space. Note that the particles of the medium the first tuning fork has been hit, the second fork is
do not travel with the sound wave. This is intuitively obvious for a visibly excited due to the oscillation caused by the
solid, and the same is true for liquids and gases (that is, the periodic change in the pressure and density of the

vibrations of particles in the gas or liquid transport the vibrations, air by hitting the other fork, creating an acoustic
resonance between the forks. However, if we place
while the average position of the particles over time does not
a piece of metal on a prong, we see that the effect
change). During propagation, waves can be reflected, refracted, or
dampens, and the excitations become less and
attenuated by the medium.[5] less pronounced as resonance isn't achieved as
effectively.
The behavior of sound propagation is generally affected by three
things:

A complex relationship between the density and pressure of the medium. This relationship, affected by
temperature, determines the speed of sound within the medium.
Motion of the medium itself. If the medium is moving, this movement may increase or decrease the absolute
speed of the sound wave depending on the direction of the movement. For example, sound moving through wind
will have its speed of propagation increased by the speed of the wind if the sound and wind are moving in the
same direction. If the sound and wind are moving in opposite directions, the speed of the sound wave will be
decreased by the speed of the wind.
The viscosity of the medium. Medium viscosity determines the rate at which sound is attenuated. For many
media, such as air or water, attenuation due to viscosity is negligible.
When sound is moving through a medium that does not have constant physical properties, it may be refracted (either
dispersed or focused).[5]

The mechanical vibrations that can be interpreted as sound can travel through all forms of matter: gases, liquids,
solids, and plasmas. The matter that supports the sound is called the medium. Sound cannot travel through a
vacuum.[6][7]

Longitudinal and transverse waves

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Sound is transmitted through gases, plasma, and liquids as longitudinal

waves, also called compression waves. It requires a medium to propagate.
Through solids, however, it can be transmitted as both longitudinal waves
and transverse waves. Longitudinal sound waves are waves of alternating
pressure deviations from the equilibrium pressure, causing local regions of
compression and rarefaction, while transverse waves (in solids) are waves
of alternating shear stress at right angle to the direction of propagation.

Sound waves may be "viewed" using parabolic mirrors and objects that
produce sound.[8] Spherical compression (longitudinal)
waves
The energy carried by an oscillating sound wave converts back and forth
between the potential energy of the extra compression (in case of
longitudinal waves) or lateral displacement strain (in case of transverse waves) of the matter, and the kinetic energy of
the displacement velocity of particles of the medium.

Sound wave
properties and
characteristics

Longitudinal plane wave. Transverse plane wave.

Longitudinal and transverse plane wave.

Although there are many complexities relating to the transmission of

sounds, at the point of reception (i.e. the ears), sound is readily dividable
into two simple elements: pressure and time. These fundamental elements
form the basis of all sound waves. They can be used to describe, in absolute
terms, every sound we hear.

In order to understand the sound more fully, a complex wave such as the
one shown in a blue background on the right of this text, is usually
A 'pressure over time' graph of a 20
separated into its component parts, which are a combination of various
ms recording of a clarinet tone
sound wave frequencies (and noise).[9][10][11] demonstrates the two fundamental
elements of sound: Pressure and
Sound waves are often simplified to a description in terms of sinusoidal
Time.
plane waves, which are characterized by these generic properties:

Frequency, or its inverse, wavelength

Amplitude, sound pressure or Intensity
Speed of sound
Direction
Sound that is perceptible by humans has frequencies from about 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. In air at standard temperature
and pressure, the corresponding wavelengths of sound waves range from 17 m (56 ft) to 17 mm (0.67 in). Sometimes
speed and direction are combined as a velocity vector; wave number and direction are combined as a wave vector.

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Transverse waves, also known as shear waves, have the additional

property, polarization, and are not a characteristic of sound waves.

Speed of sound
Sounds can be represented as a
The speed of sound depends on the medium the waves pass through, and is mixture of their component
a fundamental property of the material. The first significant effort towards Sinusoidal waves of different
measurement of the speed of sound was made by Isaac Newton. He frequencies. The bottom waves
have higher frequencies than those
believed the speed of sound in a particular substance was equal to the
above. The horizontal axis
square root of the pressure acting on it divided by its density:
represents time.

This was later proven wrong when found to incorrectly derive the speed.
The French mathematician Laplace corrected the formula by deducing that
the phenomenon of sound travelling is not isothermal, as believed by
Newton, but adiabatic. He added another factor to the equation—gamma—
and multiplied by , thus coming up with the equation

. Since , the final equation came up to be

U.S. Navy F/A-18 approaching the
, which is also known as the Newton–Laplace equation. In this speed of sound. The white halo is
formed by condensed water droplets
equation, K is the elastic bulk modulus, c is the velocity of sound, and is thought to result from a drop in air
the density. Thus, the speed of sound is proportional to the square root of pressure around the aircraft (see
the ratio of the bulk modulus of the medium to its density. Prandtl–Glauert singularity).[12]

Those physical properties and the speed of sound change with ambient
conditions. For example, the speed of sound in gases depends on temperature. In 20 °C (68 °F) air at sea level, the
speed of sound is approximately 343 m/s (1,230 km/h; 767 mph) using the formula v [m/s] = 331 + 0.6 T [°C]. In fresh
water, also at 20 °C, the speed of sound is approximately 1,482 m/s (5,335 km/h; 3,315 mph). In steel, the speed of
sound is about 5,960 m/s (21,460 km/h; 13,330 mph). The speed of sound is also slightly sensitive, being subject to a
second-order anharmonic effect, to the sound amplitude, which means there are non-linear propagation effects, such
as the production of harmonics and mixed tones not present in the original sound (see parametric array).

If relativistic effects are important, the speed of sound is calculated from the relativistic Euler equations.

Perception of sound
A distinct use of the term sound from its use in physics is that in physiology and psychology, where the term refers to
the subject of perception by the brain. The field of psychoacoustics is dedicated to such studies. Webster's 1936
dictionary defined sound as: "1. The sensation of hearing, that which is heard; specif.: a. Psychophysics. Sensation due
to stimulation of the auditory nerves and auditory centers of the brain, usually by vibrations transmitted in a material
medium, commonly air, affecting the organ of hearing. b. Physics. Vibrational energy which occasions such a
sensation. Sound is propagated by progressive longitudinal vibratory disturbances (sound waves)." [13] This means
that the correct response to the question: "if a tree falls in the forest with no one to hear it fall, does it make a sound?"
is "yes", and "no", dependent on whether being answered using the physical, or the psychophysical definition,
respectively.

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The physical reception of sound in any hearing organism is limited to a range of frequencies. Humans normally hear
sound frequencies between approximately 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz (20 kHz),[14]:382 The upper limit decreases with
age.[14]:249 Sometimes sound refers to only those vibrations with frequencies that are within the hearing range for
humans[15] or sometimes it relates to a particular animal. Other species have different ranges of hearing. For example,
dogs can perceive vibrations higher than 20 kHz.

As a signal perceived by one of the major senses, sound is used by many species for detecting danger, navigation,
predation, and communication. Earth's atmosphere, water, and virtually any physical phenomenon, such as fire, rain,
wind, surf, or earthquake, produces (and is characterized by) its unique sounds. Many species, such as frogs, birds,
marine and terrestrial mammals, have also developed special organs to produce sound. In some species, these produce
song and speech. Furthermore, humans have developed culture and technology (such as music, telephone and radio)
that allows them to generate, record, transmit, and broadcast sound.

Noise is a term often used to refer to an unwanted sound. In science and engineering, noise is an undesirable
component that obscures a wanted signal. However, in sound perception it can often be used to identify the source of a
sound and is an important component of timbre perception (see above).

Soundscape is the component of the acoustic environment that can be perceived by humans. The acoustic
environment is the combination of all sounds (whether audible to humans or not) within a given area as modified by
the environment and understood by people, in context of the surrounding environment.

There are, historically, six experimentally separable ways in which sound waves are analysed. They are: pitch,
duration, loudness, timbre, sonic texture and spatial location.[16] Some of these terms have a standardised definition
(for instance in the ANSI Acoustical Terminology ANSI/ASA S1.1-2013). More recent approaches have also considered
temporal envelope and temporal fine structure as perceptually relevant analyses.[17][18][19]

Pitch
Pitch is perceived as how "low" or "high" a sound is and represents the
cyclic, repetitive nature of the vibrations that make up sound. For simple
sounds, pitch relates to the frequency of the slowest vibration in the sound
(called the fundamental harmonic). In the case of complex sounds, pitch
perception can vary. Sometimes individuals identify different pitches for
the same sound, based on their personal experience of particular sound
patterns. Selection of a particular pitch is determined by pre-conscious
Figure 1. Pitch perception
examination of vibrations, including their frequencies and the balance
between them. Specific attention is given to recognising potential
harmonics.[20][21] Every sound is placed on a pitch continuum from low to high. For example: white noise (random
noise spread evenly across all frequencies) sounds higher in pitch than pink noise (random noise spread evenly across
octaves) as white noise has more high frequency content. Figure 1 shows an example of pitch recognition. During the
listening process, each sound is analysed for a repeating pattern (See Figure 1: orange arrows) and the results
forwarded to the auditory cortex as a single pitch of a certain height (octave) and chroma (note name).

Duration
Duration is perceived as how "long" or "short" a sound is and relates to onset and offset signals created by nerve
responses to sounds. The duration of a sound usually lasts from the time the sound is first noticed until the sound is
identified as having changed or ceased.[22] Sometimes this is not directly related to the physical duration of a sound.
For example; in a noisy environment, gapped sounds (sounds that stop and start) can sound as if they are continuous
because the offset messages are missed owing to disruptions from noises in the same general bandwidth.[23] This can
be of great benefit in understanding distorted messages such as radio signals that suffer from interference, as (owing

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to this effect) the message is heard as if it was continuous. Figure 2 gives an

example of duration identification. When a new sound is noticed (see
Figure 2, Green arrows), a sound onset message is sent to the auditory
cortex. When the repeating pattern is missed, a sound offset messages is
sent.

Figure 2. Duration perception

Loudness
Loudness is perceived as how "loud" or "soft" a sound is and relates to the
totalled number of auditory nerve stimulations over short cyclic time
periods, most likely over the duration of theta wave cycles.[24][25][26] This
means that at short durations, a very short sound can sound softer than a
longer sound even though they are presented at the same intensity level.
Past around 200 ms this is no longer the case and the duration of the
sound no longer affects the apparent loudness of the sound. Figure 3 gives
an impression of how loudness information is summed over a period of
about 200 ms before being sent to the auditory cortex. Louder signals Figure 3. Loudness perception
create a greater 'push' on the Basilar membrane and thus stimulate more
nerves, creating a stronger loudness signal. A more complex signal also
creates more nerve firings and so sounds louder (for the same wave amplitude) than a simpler sound, such as a sine
wave.

Timbre
Timbre is perceived as the quality of different sounds (e.g. the thud of a
fallen rock, the whir of a drill, the tone of a musical instrument or the
quality of a voice) and represents the pre-conscious allocation of a sonic
identity to a sound (e.g. “it’s an oboe!"). This identity is based on
information gained from frequency transients, noisiness, unsteadiness,
perceived pitch and the spread and intensity of overtones in the sound over
an extended time frame.[9][10][11] The way a sound changes over time (see
figure 4) provides most of the information for timbre identification. Even
though a small section of the wave form from each instrument looks very
Figure 4. Timbre perception
similar (see the expanded sections indicated by the orange arrows in figure
4), differences in changes over time between the clarinet and the piano are
evident in both loudness and harmonic content. Less noticeable are the different noises heard, such as air hisses for
the clarinet and hammer strikes for the piano.

Sonic texture
Sonic texture relates to the number of sound sources and the interaction between them.[27][28] The word 'texture', in
this context, relates to the cognitive separation of auditory objects.[29] In music, texture is often referred to as the
difference between unison, polyphony and homophony, but it can also relate (for example) to a busy cafe; a sound
which might be referred to as 'cacophony'. However texture refers to more than this. The texture of an orchestral piece
is very different from the texture of a brass quintet because of the different numbers of players. The texture of a
market place is very different from a school hall because of the differences in the various sound sources.

Spatial location

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Spatial location (see: Sound localization) represents the cognitive placement of a sound in an environmental context;
including the placement of a sound on both the horizontal and vertical plane, the distance from the sound source and
the characteristics of the sonic environment.[29][30] In a thick texture, it is possible to identify multiple sound sources
using a combination of spatial location and timbre identification. This is the main reason why we can pick the sound of
an oboe in an orchestra and the words of a single person at a cocktail party.

Sound pressure level

Sound pressure is the difference, in a given medium, between average local
pressure and the pressure in the sound wave. A square of this difference
Sound measurements
(i.e., a square of the deviation from the equilibrium pressure) is usually Characteristic Symbols
averaged over time and/or space, and a square root of this average
Sound pressure p, SPL,LPA
provides a root mean square (RMS) value. For example, 1 Pa RMS sound
pressure (94 dBSPL) in atmospheric air implies that the actual pressure in
Particle velocity v, SVL
the sound wave oscillates between (1 atm Pa) and (1 atm Pa), Particle δ
that is between 101323.6 and 101326.4 Pa. As the human ear can detect displacement
sounds with a wide range of amplitudes, sound pressure is often measured Sound intensity I, SIL
as a level on a logarithmic decibel scale. The sound pressure level (SPL)
Sound power P, SWL,
or Lp is defined as
LWA
Sound energy W
Sound energy w
density
where p is the root-mean-square sound pressure and Sound exposure E, SEL
is a reference sound pressure. Commonly used
reference sound pressures, defined in the standard Acoustic Z
ANSI S1.1-1994, are 20 µPa in air and 1 µPa in water. impedance
Without a specified reference sound pressure, a value Speed of sound c
expressed in decibels cannot represent a sound
pressure level. Audio frequency AF
Transmission loss TL
Since the human ear does not have a flat spectral response, sound
pressures are often frequency weighted so that the measured level matches
perceived levels more closely. The International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) has defined several weighting schemes. A-weighting attempts to match the response of the human
ear to noise and A-weighted sound pressure levels are labeled dBA. C-weighting is used to measure peak levels.

Ultrasound
Ultrasound is sound waves with frequencies higher than
20,000 Hz (or 20 kHz) . Ultrasound is not different from
"normal" (audible) sound in its physical properties, except in
that humans cannot hear it. Ultrasound devices operate with
frequencies from 20 kHz up to several gigahertz. Approximate frequency ranges corresponding to
ultrasound, with rough guide of some
Ultrasound is commonly used for medical diagnostics such as applications
sonograms.

Infrasound

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Infrasound is sound waves with frequencies lower than 20 Hz. Although sounds of such low frequency are too low for
humans to hear, whales, elephants and other animals can detect infrasound and use it to communicate. It can be used
to detect volcanic eruptions and is used in some types of music.[31]

See also
Sound sources Sound energy flux
Sound impedance
Earphones Sound intensity level
Musical instrument Sound power
Sonar Sound power level
Sound box General
Sound reproduction
Sound measurement Acoustic theory
Beat
Acoustic impedance Doppler effect
Acoustic velocity Echo
Characteristic impedance Infrasound — sound at extremely low frequencies
Mel scale List of unexplained sounds
Particle acceleration Musical tone
Particle amplitude Resonance
Particle displacement Reverberation
Particle velocity Sonic weaponry
Phon Soundproofing
Sone Structural acoustics

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External links
Eric Mack (20 May 2019). "Stanford scientists created a sound so loud it instantly boils water" (https://www.cnet.c
om/news/stanford-scientists-created-a-sound-so-loud-it-instantly-boils-water/). CNET.
Sounds Amazing; a KS3/4 learning resource for sound and waves (uses Flash) (http://www.acoustics.salford.ac.u
k/schools/index1.htm)
HyperPhysics: Sound and Hearing (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/sound/soucon.html)
Introduction to the Physics of Sound (http://podcomplex.com/guide/physics.html)
Hearing curves and on-line hearing test (http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/hearing.html)
Audio for the 21st Century (http://www.audiodesignline.com/howto/audioprocessing/193303241)
Conversion of sound units and levels (http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-soundlevel.htm)
Sound calculations (http://www.sengpielaudio.com/Calculations03.htm)
Audio Check: a free collection of audio tests and test tones playable on-line (http://www.audiocheck.net)
More Sounds Amazing; a sixth-form learning resource about sound waves (http://salfordacoustics.co.uk/sound-wa
ves)

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