M.Sc.

Thesis
Master of Science in Electrical Engineering

Control Strategies for Battery Energy

Storage System Services
Project Nordhavn

Mads Blumensaat

Kongens Lyngby 2016

DTU Electrical Engineering
Department of Electrical Engineering
Technical University of Denmark

Ørstedsplads
Building 348
2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
Phone +45 4525 3031
[email protected]
www.elektro.dtu.dk
 Preface
This Master thesis was prepared at the department of Electrical Engineering at the
Technical University of Denmark in fulfillment of the requirements for acquiring a M.Sc.
degree in Electrical Engineering.

Kongens Lyngby, February 29, 2016

Mads Blumensaat
s103028
ii
 Acknowledgements
In relation to the process of which this thesis has been created I would like to thank
the people surrounding me throughout this period. Firstly, I wish thank my supervisor
Chresten Træholt for proving to be a great sparing partner throughout this project in
the discussions surrounding the subject. Secondly, I would like to thank my supervisor
from DONG Energy, Daniel Sandermann Jensen for dedicating so much of his time to
supervise on the project and share his deep insights on the industry, it has been highly
appreciated.
iv
 Abstract
The ambitious climate goals set out by the Danish government are heavily dependent on
the continued integration of renewable energy in the Danish Power System. With the
increased penetration of renewable energy the power system faces a series of challenges,
which must be solved if the TSO and subsequently DSOs are to maintain security of
supply for their customers. The stochastic nature governing the electricity production
from renewable energy sources gives rise to fluctuating grid frequency, voltage issues,
congestion issues and the apparent need to upgrade the grid capacity to cope with the
increasing peaks in the grid. Battery energy storage is reaching a level of maturity which
entails that they might prove able to support the distribution system in a cheap and
effective manner while facilitating the renewable energy through energy time shifting.
The focus of this thesis is to investigate the potential service and control strategies gov-
erning a 1MWh battery system, which is to be located in Nordhavn, an area in central
Copenhagen, Denmark, the battery will be part of a big research project, EnergyLab
Nordhavn where tomorrows energy solutions are demonstrated in and urban environ-
ment. The DSO covering Nordhavn, DONG Energy, is a participating actively in the
Nordhavn project and is entity owning the battery investigated, therefore DONG Energy
has been a included in the works of this project. The analysis done is based on a Mixed
Integer Linear Programming (MILP) optimisation approach, where an algorithm has
been developed to schedule the optimum strategy seen from a DSOs perspective. This
entail that distribution upgrade deferral is the primary motivation for installing the
battery, hence this service remains the top priority in the scheduling of the operation.
Additional services synergies are therefore investigated to identify the most valuable
strategy.

DTU, January 2016

vi
 Contents
Preface i

Acknowledgements iii

Abstract v

Contents vii

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Research Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Approach and Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 EnergyLab Nordhavn 5

3 Battery Energy Storage & Applications 9

3.1 Bulk Energy Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2 Distribution System Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.3 Transmission Infrastructure Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.4 Ancillary Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.5 Customer Energy Management Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.6 Services for Renewable Energy Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.7 Chosen Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

4 Battery Energy Storage 23

4.1 Battery Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.2 Battery Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.3 Energy Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

5 Optimisation and Control Techniques 33

5.1 Linear Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.2 Binary Integer Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.3 Mixed Integer Linear Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.4 Quadratic Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.5 Heuristic Optimisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
viii Contents

6 Algorithm and Modelling 43

6.1 MATLAB MILP - Yalmip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.2 Problem Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.3 Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

7 Case Analysis 53
7.1 Distribution Grid Upgrade Deferral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.2 PV Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.3 EV Charging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
7.4 FDR - Frequency Disturbance Reserve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

8 Discussion 77

9 Conclusion 81
9.1 Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Bibliography 85

A Appendix 89
A.1 MATLAB CODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
A.2 Datasheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
A.3 CleanCharge DC fastcharge datasheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
This chapter explains the motivation of this Master thesis and the potential and pos-
sibilities of having a grid connected Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) providing
various power system services. Further an elaboration of the scope, limitations and
outline of the thesis is presented. The reader is assumed to have basic knowledge of elec-
trical energy systems entailing an understanding of electrical components, power system
operation, power system control and the regulation and governance surrounding this
industry.

1.1 Background
In the past years the world and particularly the EU have seen a significant increase in
the penetration of renewable energy production. Especially Denmark has set a range of
ambitious goal, which culminates with the goal of being completely independent from
fossil fuels by 2050 [15]. If Denmark is to accommodate this long-term goal the en-
ergy sector needs to change significantly. Traditionally the power system was driven
by centralized dispatchable power plants, which were fired by coal, oil, natural gas or
more recently biomass. However, in order to satisfy the ambitions set out for 2050,
the energy sector has had to evolve significantly over the past decaded. In particular,
centralised power production is being challenged as continuously more power is being
produced by decentralised plants and distributed energy resources (DERs) at all levels of
the power system. The introduction of DERs and their stochastic characteristics behind
the power production of such sources has provided the grid operators with additional
challenges.The Transmission System Operator (TSO) and Distribution System Operator
(DSO) will have to be more responsive when balancing the power grid [18]. This devel-
opment is mainly due to increased penetration of renewable energy sources contributing
to an increased forecast error, which is then remedied on the balancing market, which
is the mechanism that ensures an ongoing equilibrium between production and demand
[17]. A general trend, which will only add the complexity of the system is an increased
electrification of various industries. In the future heating is assumed to divert its source
of heat from power plant, which are witnessing a general decrease in production, to
heating being produced from renewable electricity. Moreover, the transportation sec-
tor is driven by a big political incentive to bring more electric vehicles (EV’s) onto the
street as well as electrifying public transportation. The correlation between an increased
fluctuation in production due to the stochastic nature of renewables and the immediate
need to increase the production levels, it becomes apparent that storage of renewable
2 1 Introduction

energy will have a progressively larger role in the future.

Regarding the recent technical development in the battery industry, grid sized bat-
teries have reached a quality and capacity which makes them an attractive addition to
the components in the electrical infrastructure today. Their storage capabilities allow for
them to: defer grid expansions, provide ancillary services and regulation. Furthermore,
having the opportunity to store renewable energy in a feasible manner is a key objective
if Denmark is to realise its political goals for a fossil fuel independence by 2050[1].

1.2 Research Scope

The objective of this thesis is to investigate the use and applications of a power grid con-
nected BESS, located in Nordhavn Copenhagen a full scale energy development project,
with the ambition to demonstrate how future energy solutions can be integrated in a
residential neighbourhood. A control algorithm, which determines the optimal hourly
control strategy based on several external inputs, is developed. The BESS is a part of
the research project Energylab Nordhavn that focuses on the electrical infrastructure
and how to improve the future design of such infrastructure to facilitate the produc-
tion of renewable energy and to cope with fluctuations in power supply, without over-
dimensioning the grid. As this thesis is being done in collaboration with DONG Energy,
Customer & Markets, the biggest DSO in the Danish power system [9], the perspective
of the investigation is from a DSOs perspective. This implies that the battery, under
real operation, is subject to the rules and regulations governing a DSO, which is reflected
in the BESS analysis and further is an integral part of the discussion throughout this
thesis.
The primary objective of the battery is to defer distribution grid extensions, which is
handled through peak-shaving at hours where the grid capacity is breached. Further-
more, the BESS should facilitate the use of renewable energy locally at Nordhavn and
in the entire distribution system. This goal is reaches by exploring potential synergies
by having the BESS connected to a local PV system in Nordhavn and the two entities
exchange power to secure a stable consumption. To maintain the DSO focus on the
services the possibility of having the BESS provide reserve power at times where the
grid is not facing the need for distribution grid deferral is also analysed.
The scope described above culminates in the following action points:

• Determine the necessary input for the algorithm. Review and model the proposed
services the BESS provides, in order to simulate the algorithm on a realistic back-
ground.

• Develop the control strategy and algorithm for the prioritised control.

• Investigate sensitivity and robustness of the algorithm under different test condi-
tions and assumptions.
1.3 Approach and Outline 3

• Identify the potential and threats of the BESS operating in a distribution grid
environment.

1.3 Approach and Outline

In order to cover the potential of a grid connected BESS in relation to EnergyLab Nord-
havn, an overview of the electrical grid services a BESS can provide are investigated.
By comparing the specifications of the battery and the main technical characterisations
that governs batteries and their performance, the grid services best suited for the BESS,
as seen from a DSO perspective, are selected and modelled in order to determine how
the BESS would operate under such conditions.

To implement the controls and simulate the BESS, MATLAB was the chosen pro-
gram. In addition to MATLAB the toolbox YALMIP was integrated [25]. YALMIP is
a free toolbox, which helps algorithm development, is consistent with general MATLAB
syntax, but enables the developer to implement the algorithm as a high-level model
that follows the general mathematical expressions governing Mixed Integer Linear Pro-
gramming (MILP), whereas the standard MATLAB syntax for MILP uses a low-level
approach. Because of MATLAB’s internal solvers are based on low-level modelling, the
implementation of an external solver will decrease the computation time significantly.
The solver chosen to handle the mathematical optimization is called, MOSEK, which is
widely used in the financial, energy and forestry industry.

1.4 limitations
The general scope of the thesis is to present a demonstration of how a battery could
operate as an incorporated part of the power grid, with emphasis on the EnergyLab
Nordhavn project with the operations parameters reflecting the ones of a DSO. In order
to highlight the key findings connected to the BESS operation the analysis is done with a
relatively holistic approach, which helps the intuitive understanding of the impact each
proposed energy service has on the system and the BESS. However, such an approach
requires a range of assumptions and limitations to be made if the analysis is to have the
impact intended in this thesis. The limitations are described below:

The EnergyLab Nordhavn project is the focal point of this analysis and many of the
synergies that hopefully are created as the research project progresses are still governed
by a large degree of uncertainty. The radial of which the PV systems and EV chargers
are connected to is yet to be determined, this case assumes that they are connected to
the same radial as the BESS.
4 1 Introduction

The complete specifications of the BESS have not been available in the works sur-
rounding this thesis, some specifications have been delivered verbally from DONG En-
ergy, and others have been estimated based on a best guess estimate originating from
the known specifications. Along with the estimates specifications it is known that the
BESS is to be delivered as a turn-key solution. This entails that all electric components
are assumed to be delivered and functional to the intend of the applications provided
by the BESS. Furthermore, the operation of the BESS would most likely be subject to
various regulations from the TSO but in the light of this being a research project the
BESS is assumed to be allowed to operate with a large degree of freedom, which gives
rise to the BESS being able to demonstrate its potential to the fullest.

The created algorithm created to demonstrate the scheduled control strategy is cre-
ated with the intend of demonstrating how a BESS could operate under certain known
conditions. Therefore, what the BESS would perceive as a forecasted load, PV produc-
tion, EV charge pattern etc. is provided as a hind cast of known values. This is not
reflecting real operations as these inputs always will be subject to a degree of uncertainty
due to the stochastic nature of the parameters. While this renders the current algorithm
unreliable for real operation the final conclusions based on the analysis is regarded as ro-
bust due to the knowledge of the context above, i.e. potential pitfalls are acknowledged
and with the intend of the analysis and algorithm dynamic optimisation and random
variables does not affect the final findings.
CHAPTER 2
EnergyLab Nordhavn
EnergyLab Nordhavn is an ongoing full scale urban development project in Copenhagen.
The project aims to develop future energy solutions and demonstrate these in an urban
environment, where people are living and going about with their normal lives. The
project is aimed at future energy solutions, which covers a broad area of research top-
ics such as, smart-grids, facilitation of renewable energy, energy efficient buildings and
electric transportation. All these topics are combined into one big intelligent full scale
smart city. The project has a total budget of DKK 143m funded by the Danish Energy
Technology Development and Demonstration Programme (EUDP), which contributes to
the cost of the project for its entire lifetime 2015-2019 [4].

Figure 2.1: Overview of Research areas of EnergyLab Nordhavn [29].

Figure 2.1 provides an overview of all the solutions that the project aims to demon-
strate. As mentioned the span in the project portfolio is wide and covers amongst other
things, heating storage solutions where water is heated with excess electricity from re-
newables instead of heat being delivered as a side-product from the conventional power
plants. With the increasing level of renewables it is apparent that we would need to
find a way to replace the heating infrastructure of today with an electrically driven heat
infrastructure. This change is mainly due to the role of conventional power plants, which
are the main source of heating, however, that role might change if an electrical infras-
6 2 EnergyLab Nordhavn

tructure proves just as reliable as todays infrastructure. Such an infrastructure must

have heating storage due to the fluctuating generation of renewables. Besides the heat
storage, heat pumps can be used to control how buildings are heated via an electrical
input. The infrastructure that distributes the heat is a natural part of the change in
mention. Nordhavn experiments with a lower temperature while distributing the heat.
This will lead to reduced energy losses and lead the way for solar heating and geother-
mal heating, which otherwise prove infeasible if the heat is not lowered. The whole
heating infrastructure requires intelligent control in order to cope with the hourly un-
certainty in electrical production and securing a steady heat supply. The energy control
is a big part of Project Nordhavn because it ties the various research areas together. [29]

It is expected that several EVs will be present in the area. In order to meet the
demand of the EVs the Danish EV-infrastructure operator CleanCharge plans on build-
ing several fast-charge charging spots. These charging spot will be able to charge a
regular vehicle in 30min with 22kW AC charging. DC charging is also expected to be
implemented, which charges a battery to 80% with a 50kW output.
Photovoltaic production is an integral part of the housing vision, with electrical heating
and a local production of energy each individual building becomes less dependent on the
grid, and hence helps to maximise the potential of renewable energy sources. Electric
heating is thought as a storage option for the PV systems. Heating is however a seasonal
commodity. During summer the demand for heating is limited compared to the demand
at winter. Whereas the PV production faces opposite characteristics in the seasonal
variations, the PV output is expectedly remarkably higher in the summer months than
during winters. [29]

This thesis is a product of Work-Package (WP) 6, Electricity infrastructure of the En-

ergyLab Nordhavn project. The WP leader of this work-package is the DSO responsible
for Nordhavn, DONG Energy. The scope of the WP is to:

The WP investigates flexible and dynamic consumption patterns and new grid designs.
A number of innovative add-ons to the current grid layout will be developed and
evaluated for grid performance and financial feasibility. [29]

The use of a BESS in the current grid is mentioned as an add-on that has the potential
of proving how a future grid and its dimensions could be designed in a more cost efficient
way. In theory BESS could be utilised to support the grid at times where the grid is
overloaded and prevent bottlenecks and congestion in the grid, both on transmission and
distribution level, provide regulation and various ancillary services. Furthermore, the
BESS overreaches into WP 7 which covers electric transportation. Especially securing a
”clean” charging of the EVs is a crucial point. It is expected that the charging patterns
of the cars will follow the ’rhythm’ of a normal day with activity in the mornings and
evenings. This, combined with the planned fast-chargers and their heavy loading of the
grid when charging, it is important to investigate how the charging is done in the most
feasible way. A BESS connected to the chargers would be able to support the grid at
2 EnergyLab Nordhavn 7

hours when the power grid is overloaded or the renewable power generation is limited,
this limits the impact of the EV charging on the grid and also helps in the facilitation
of renewables.
Lastly, the BESS is able to absorb excess PV production when the electric heating
systems are saturated. With the vast possibilities of services that a BESS is able to
provide, it is crucial that the operating philosophy and scope of operation is closely
considered [29].
8
CHAPTER 3
Battery Energy Storage &
Applications
Until recently energy storage where restricted to facilitate the optimal output of the
dominating electricity production i.e. coal, and provide services to stabilise the grid.
In the US, this was done by applying hydro storage, which utilised the excess energy
at times with low production to store any surplus energy in the hydro storage, and
dispatching it at times with peak load. This service ensured that the output remained
stable and optimally driven at all times. Applications fitting this description are today
defined as Time-Shifting services, which are the original motivation that led to the first
push for battery energy storage in the 1980s. However it proved infeasible at the time
due to capacity limits in the batteries. The fast discharge capabilities of battery storage
remained in focus, and with the ever increasing penetration of renewable energy, todays
power grid could benefit tremendously by the storage capabilities of an BESS.

In the 1990s Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) pinpointed 13 electric energy stor-
age services that electrical energy storage technologies are able to cover. These services
remain key drivers for maintaining a secure and stable power system all over the world
[8]. These 13 services are shown in figure 3.1.
10 3 Battery Energy Storage & Applications

Figure 3.1: Overview of the 13 electric energy storage services presented by

SNL [2].

The services described by SNL are categorised into five sections each covering differ-
ent topics of storage applications. The categories are: Bulk Energy, Distribution Infras-
tructure Services, Transmission Infrastructure Services, Ancillary Services and Customer
Energy Management Services. The following sections briefly elaborates on all 13 services
[2].

3.1 Bulk Energy Storage

Bulk Energy refers to the utilisation of an electric storage system that is able to avoid
or decrease cost related to the time shift of electrical energy. A main topic which
these services aim to capture is the optimised utilisation of renewable energy by having
production stored and released in a manner which suits the production of renewable
energy. i.e. nightly wind production.

3.1.1 Electric Energy Time Shift

The principles behind energy time shifting are; energy being bought at hours with low
prices, which is the case when the penetration of renewables is high. The governing idea
is to store the energy and dispatch it at times, where the marginal price of energy is high
i.e. the penetration of renewables is low. This mechanism works well when the issue
of facilitating renewable energy is addressed, due to the fact that the excess energy is
being bought and stored. The entities operating within energy time-shifting are driven
by the lowest possible costs surrounding the energy storage device in this case a BESS.
3.2 Distribution System Services 11

The main drivers for reducing cost are high round-trip efficiency and energy capacity,
which means that the ratio between energy stored and energy dispatched is kept as close
to unity as possible.

3.1.2 Energy Supply Capacity

When storing energy through time shifting the conventional power plant could experience
a drop in scheduling, due to the stored energy is being prioritized before the power plant’s
production being utilized. This again due to the economic assessment, that the marginal
price of the BESS dispatch is lower than the one offered by a conventional power plant.
Currently the energy storage devices are only capable of delivering a small amount of
energy for a short period of time relative to a power plant, whereas a power plant is much
more reliable and can offer energy regardless of the current penetration of renewables.

3.2 Distribution System Services

The utilisation of BESS’s in the distribution system is the main driver in this thesis,
with DONG Energy being a DSO and Project Nordhavn being within the distribution
grid. The focus of application revolves around the applications presented in this section
as well as in Ancillary Services. Furthermore, the current state of BESS systems are in
terms of capacity, the physical space required to install the systems and discharge ratio
more suited for local grid expansion deferrals in weaker grids [6].

3.2.1 Distribution grid Upgrade Deferral

Distribution grid upgrade deferral aims to postpone or remove completely the need for
upgrading the existing grid, which would be a necessity if the grid capacity is not to be
exceeded at peak periods or to prevent bottlenecks at the transformers. By installing
BESSs in the system the power system could theoretically be run with a much higher
efficiency while maintaining the high degree of availability, which will always remain the
top priority from a distribution and transmission perspective.
12 3 Battery Energy Storage & Applications

Figure 3.2: Distribution grid deferral by discharging a BESS at peak hour[2].

From figure 3.2 an example of how a storage system could support a system where
the grid capacity threshold is about to be exceeded, is shown. On the upper figure
the peak at Wednesday evening is exceeding the local grid capacity, which would put
unwanted tension on that part of the grid, resulting in a decreased lifetime of the cable.
This is clearly an undesired scenario seen from the perspective of the DSO. To mitigate
the issue the excess demand relative to the threshold limit is discharged from the BESS
simultaneously as the peak occurs. This is seen on the lower part of figure 3.2, after
the peak the BESS is recharging which generally happens at night where the demand
is lowest. Furthermore, this charging pattern helps to facilitate the utilisation of renew-
able energy, as wind power could potentially charge the battery at times where no other
apparent load is able to make use of the wind power. It is clear that the key issue in
such a solution is that the BESS must have capacity and discharge capabilities, which
enables the BESS to meet the demand of the DSO, in order to push the loading of the
distribution grid below the capacity limit during the entire peak period. A BESS is a
good fit for deferrals in the distribution grid due to a relatively high predictability of
peak hours and the periodic characteristics in the loads gives the BESS a reasonable
time frame to provide the service and in the post peak period recharging the battery.

Many applications are being investigated for BESS in the distribution system. De-
pending on the chosen application, the BESS could be constructed in various ways that
would optimise the operation of the BESS. The typical installation is a stationary bat-
tery that handles various tasks locally e.g. the battery being purchased for EnergyLab
Nordhavn or BESS systems at a renewable energy source that ensures a smooth output
and ensures that the relevant grid codes are met. An alternative solution could be a
mobile BESS, which could be moved and provide a more dynamic way of supporting the
grid over a larger geographical area [40]. Such a solution would be beneficial in many
solutions e.g. scheduled outages, support for weaker grids or at nodes where a DSO
3.2 Distribution System Services 13

expect a peak to arise, this could be at events, concerts etc. The utilisation methods of
BESSs is shown in figure 3.3

Figure 3.3: Different strategies of which a BESS can handle regulation[40].

14 3 Battery Energy Storage & Applications

3.3 Transmission Infrastructure Services

Transmission services are in numerous ways similar to the services proposed in the dis-
tribution grid. Transmission upgrade can be deferred or completely cancelled, due to
storage systems operating near the heavily loaded area and thereby ease the strain on the
transmission grid. Since this thesis is done in collaboration with DONG Energy, trans-
mission services have been carved out from consideration due to transmission services
not being an area of responsibility for a DSO [5].

3.3.1 Transmission Grid Upgrade Deferral

The sole purpose of this service is to postpone grid extensions, reinforcement or other
otherwise necessary grid upgrades, which are required to maintain an acceptable opera-
tion of the transmission grid in a power system. If at peak hours the transmission grid
is reaching its capacity limit, the TSO would naturally be forced to reinforce the power
grid, at the node where the capacity is reached. Good industry conduct is to dimension
ones transmission grid to handle peak loading. Such grid investments are substantial
and would further stress the remaining system while the work is carried out. Alterna-
tively the TSO could pursue an alternative solution, where a relatively small electric
storage system is integrated locally at the node where the capacity is insufficient. This
storage unit could then operate at peak hours resulting in a transmission grid upgrade
deferral similar to figure 3.2.

3.3.2 Transmission Congestion Relief

Transmission congestion relief follows the same principles of 3.3.1. Congestion can occur
throughout the entire energy system. When cheap, scheduled power is unable to reach
the load due to the transmission capacity of the transmission line is reached, the system
will experience congestion. This issue is purely geographical in terms of the distance
between load, source and the transmission capacity between them. BESSs in the trans-
mission grid could defer transmission grid expansions by supporting the local load at
hours with congestion. This operation would ease the congested area as the power flow
would decrease or be injected to other loads in the system.

3.4 Ancillary Services

Ancillary services is a term which covers several applications and services that aims
to support the power system and maintain grid security. The supportive services are
quantified by looking at how they help to stabilise the system in terms of ensuring that
the operational specifications in the local grid code are upheld.
3.4 Ancillary Services 15

3.4.1 Regulation
Regulation is one of the ancillary services where the potential of a BESS could be utilised
with the biggest impact. Regulation is the service that offsets any potential difference
between generation and demand in the power grid. To secure grid stability, it is key
that the grid frequency is kept at the specified grid frequency to comply with the grid
codes of that region. Power generation units in operation are regulated by changing
their output according to the change in frequency at the orders of the TSO. However,
the ability of power plants to quickly change their power output is limited. This is due to
the rotating physical mass being the driver for change in the power output of the power
plant. Such a mass cannot be ramped up and down fast enough to compensate for the
regulation requirements from the TSO. To cover the imbalances today gas turbines are
often used. They are quick to turn on an off and their power output is consequently very
quickly established, making gas turbines a good and responsive instrument for handling
regulation in cases of insufficient generation. Power plants are able to reduce their power
output in cases where the grid experiences a momentary excess production and when the
power plant is able to prepare for the change in output. Again, significant instantaneous
changes in the power plant has a negative effect in the expected lifetime of the plant
due to the material stress the turbine experiences[42].
The natural characteristics governing battery energy systems. i.e. fast response time,
makes them a very attractive player to include in the regulation market. Furthermore,
a BESS specifically focused on the regulation market could follow the deviation much
more accurately and provide up- and down-regulation instantaneously, whereas a con-
ventional power plant or other mechanical generator would not be as responsive.

Figure 3.4: Different strategies of which a BESS can handle regulation [2].
16 3 Battery Energy Storage & Applications

Figure 4.2 provides an comparison of how a generation unit could provide regulation,
compared to a BESS. It is apparent that the storage unit is able to deliver a wider range
of regulation the generation unit i.e. power plant, can only provide additional output or
limit its existing output, whereas the BESS is able to discharge additional power to the
grid or absorb the same amount.

3.4.2 Frequency response

Depending on the local power system, the grid frequency must be kept at 50Hz in
Europe and 60Hz in the US. Every time the system experiences a mismatch between the
instantaneous demand versus the instantaneous production a deviation from the nominal
frequency is seen. If demand is higher than production, the frequency decreases and vice
versa. In the local grid codes an acceptable deviation band is defined, which in EU is
±5%. The elasticity of the fluctuations in frequency in a power system is determined by
the inertia in the system, a high inertia system will see a smaller impact in frequency
deviation compared to a low inertia system [22].
ωN L − ωF L
R% = ( ) · 100% (3.1)
ω0
Where R% is the percent droop with ωN L is the steady state frequency at no load,
ωF L is the steady state frequency at full load and ω0 is the nominal frequency.

Figure 3.5: Steady state characteristics of droop control[22].

Figure 3.5, illustrates how the power output supplied by a generator or BESS is
dependent with a change in grid frequency, when it deviates from the nominal frequency
of 50Hz. The generator will inject additional power to the system when the frequency
is below nominal and decrease generation or in the areas of BESS, stop charging. From
3.4 Ancillary Services 17

figure 3.5 it is apparent, that the power output of a generator or BESS is able to change
between ±100% with the steady state nominal frequency ω0 as reference.

3.4.3 Voltage support

As mentioned, when a generation unit is connected to the grid, they are required to
follow certain grid codes, which is specified by the grid operator DSO or TSO. The grid
code has a range of specifications that governs how the grid should be operated, some
of the specifications are:
• Voltage levels
• Synchronism with grid
• Power factor limits
• Reactive power compensation
Voltage support is delivered by many different ways. One of the most common is by
controlling the reactance locally at the point where the generation is supplied into the
grid. There is a direct correlation between reactive power output and the local voltage
level, hence reactive power compensation is viable way of offering voltage support. In
Denmark, the purpose of voltage support in regards to ancillary services is to maintain
the voltage between the acceptable nominal voltage level within a limit of ± 10%. Bat-
tery storage systems are capable of absorbing - or injecting reactive power (VARs) into
the grid. Theoretically active power could also be used to balance the deviations, but
VARs are classically used for voltage generation [22].

Voltage support service originating from storage technologies is currently neglected,

due to various static and dynamic technologies, which are capable of maintaining the
voltage level required, through reactive power compensation from capacitor banks and
synchronous condensers.

3.4.4 Reserve Capacity

The physical balance of any power grid, measured in Hz, is the top priority for any
power system operator DSO or TSO. In order to secure that balance reserve capacity
must be kept available at all times, this capacity is called upon when the system faces
imbalances. The term Spinning Reserve is from when conventional power plants were
the only actors on the reserve market. It implies that in order to deliver primary reserve
capacity ones generator must be kept synchronous to the grid and have a power output
that is below its nominal output. The output is defined thought the droop characteristics
from equation 3.1. The primary control is the first of three control protocol, which are
used to maintain the balance in the electrical grid. The reaction time for the primary
spinning reserve, in DK2, has to be within 15 seconds of the imbalance [7]. The reaction
18 3 Battery Energy Storage & Applications

times demanded for the three types of control: primary, secondary and tertiary control
are showed in figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6: The response time for, primary, secondary and tertiary response
in East Denmark, DK2.

The secondary control refers to, non-spinning reserves which implies production units
that are not operating but are kept idle. Due to the readiness of these turbines the typ-
ical response time for a non-spinning reserve is 10min. Thirdly, supplemental reserves
are classified as production units that are able to replace spinning- and non-spinning
reserves within the hour of a given order. It could in some instances be regarded as a
reserve or backup to the primary and secondary reserves and not necessarily a reserve
for the grid, even though they represent two sides of the same coin.

The implementation of battery energy storage technologies for spinning-reserve ser-

vices, is facilitated by the ability of the storage to be synchronized to the electricity
system frequency via the power electronics. In addition, the energy storage technolo-
gies have the capability of providing bidirectional capacity as reserve capacity during a
charging event, as the reversibility of the charging will simultaneously decrease the load
in the network, and increase the generation from discharging the battery. Furthermore,
the energy storage technologies are capable of providing both non- spinning and supple-
mental reserve services, which however, is typically regarded as lower value propositions
for energy storage technologies compared to spinning reserves.
3.5 Customer Energy Management Services 19

3.4.5 Load following

Load following is a service where the BESS constantly changes it output in order to
accommodate the constant imbalance between load and generation locally. The varia-
tion to the BESSs power output is determined by the grid frequency, more specific the
difference in momentary frequency compared to the nominal frequency of 50Hz. Tradi-
tionally, the larger generation units provide load following. If the grid experiences a fall
in frequency i.e. insufficient production, the generators will pick up the generation need
to restore the frequency to nominal. The same goes with load following down; where
a frequency above 50Hz is seen. In such a scenario, the generators will decrease their
output to follow the frequency, back to 50Hz. During a normal day of operation, the
generators follow the load up as the consumption rises in the morning and then follows
it back down, when the loading decreases at night.

A storage system is a good fit to provide load following services due to several rea-
sons; the fast response time of a BESS makes it able to do small instantaneous changes
when either following the load up or down, this could increase grid integrity since the
small fluctuations are smoothened out, a service the conventional generation unit can-
not do. This is mainly due to the ramping time of the turbines, but it also strains the
machinery, which decreases the lifetime of the unit.

3.4.6 Black start

In the event that a blackout occurs in the power grid, and a system collapses because
all ancillary services have proven inadequate to maintain the integrity of the system.
Black start capacity is the capacity to restart the system followed by system collapse
and return it to operation. Such a capacity is typically considered a low value capacity
in Denmark, due to the availability of the power system, which is among the best in
the world. Theoretically a BESSs could provide Black Start Capacity in the case of a
blackout. But with the current market design of today, it would never prove to be an
economically feasible solution due to the requirement of constant availability of 100%
capacity on the BESS and the frequency of a single schedule easily being similar to
the designated lifetime of the battery, the return of investment would have a time-line
exceeding the life of the battery.

3.5 Customer Energy Management Services

Customer energy management services, entails services that are directly coupled to the
last step in the energy value-chain i.e. the end-users and loads. The recent trends are
indicating that an increasing number of residential and commercial electricity consumers
20 3 Battery Energy Storage & Applications

are simultaneously becoming local power producers [16], mainly driven by increasing im-
plementation of commercial PV systems. There is a big, uncovered potential in utilising
energy storage on the consumer side of the distribution system. This potential is most
likely to be explored further in the coming years. The most prominent energy services
seen from a customer energy management perspective are described in the paragraphs
below [37] [17] [8].

3.5.1 Power Quality

A BESS has an obvious potential in securing the local power quality on a consumer grid
level. This service could be called upon if a short term event causes the power quality
to be jeopardised, power quality, that is not able to meet the required standards can
be seen as: voltage magnitude deviating from the required nominal voltag e in the area,
harmonic disturbances or a low power factor.
If a BESS were to provide power quality services the energy storage would have to
monitor the instantaneous utility power quality, enabling the BESS to function as a
filter that smoothens the output locally. The smoothening would be driven by the
BESS’s output, which would discharge, charge or adjust its PQ output.

3.5.2 Power Reliability

In the event that a black-out occurs a BESS with the right dimension relative to the
size of the local load would be able to reenergise the local grid and keep it running in an
isolated ‘island-mode’. Once the black-out is mitigated, the BESS has the capability of
restoring synchronism with the grid. Obviously, power reliability of the type described
above is only possible, with a ratio between the BESS capacity and the consumer load
that enables the BESS to operate for a long period of time.

3.5.3 Retail Electric Energy Time-Shift

Retail energy time-shift incorporates a BESS with the local end-user energy consump-
tion the aim is to lower consumers overall cost of energy. The governing concept of
retail energy time-shift is very similar to the energy time-shift presented in [8]. The
BESSs charging schedule is dependent on the energy-prices i.e. charging in periods with
low pricing and discharging at high prices. However, where the procedure of utilizing
energy storage for arbitrage is based on the discrepancy in wholesale prices throughout
the day, the service for retail electric energy time-shift is based on the customers retail
energy prices, which requires that the consumer is able to track the price fluctuations
continuously.
3.6 Services for Renewable Energy Integration 21

3.6 Services for Renewable Energy

Integration
Another key potential with BESS is that such a system can support the world wide inte-
gration of renewable energy. One of the main issues by the ever increasing penetration
of renewables is that they pose a challenge proportional to the amount of renewables in
the grid. BESSs could be positioned to deliver services directly to the generator in the
grid, those explicit services relates directly to renewable energy sources e.g. smoothening
of a renewable energy sources output. Services relating to the grid codes of an operator
have a potential to be very valuable since certain degree of generating losses are subject
to the requirement of the generator to be compliant with the grid-codes.

3.7 Chosen Applications

Numerous services explained in the sections in this chapter have the physical and techni-
cal potential to provide the service in question, however, they generally are disregarded
due to: lack of relevance, no economic feasibility, not DSO relevant or does not fit the
research scope of both Nordhavn and this thesis. The services selected for implementing
as the control strategies for the algorithm are:

• Distribution Grid upgrade deferral

• FDR - Frequency Controlled Reserve

• PV optimisation

• EV charging

The reasoning behind the pursuit of these services are rooted in the apparent Best fit
for the BESSS and the philosophy behind the Nordhavn as well as the criteria defined in
WP6. Lastly, through discussion with DONG Energy proposed services were discarded
as the relevance to Nordhavn were deemed to have a lesser impact compared to others.
The most prominent discarded services are:
Voltage regulation was a service that initially were on the list of services worth pursuing.
However, from discussions with DONG Energy it became apparent that the electric grid
radial rarely experienced voltage issues, hence the need for reactive power control i.e.
voltage regulation, is of less importance to the Nordhavn area.
22
CHAPTER 4
Battery Energy Storage
This chapter aims to give an overview of the different components of a BESS and the
basic properties governing battery technology. Large-scale batteries have evolved tremen-
dously over the last decade and various battery technologies have emerged. The battery
type involved at Energylab Nordhavn a lithium ion battery. To explain and justify this
selection a brief description of the most dominant battery types is provided. Lastly
the generic properties of BESSs is provided, these characteristics are key considerations
when determining the battery type and the applications it offers. Any optimised bat-
tery for a certain application will offer close to instantaneous switching speed and output
power, which are the two governing factors that makes large-scale battery systems so
interesting for the power system. However, the choice of chemical compound and cell
construction in correlation with the chosen application plays a vital role, when inves-
tigating the feasibility of such a system [8] [33]. In the recent years the integration of
battery storage has increased significantly and the increase is expected to continue in
the future figure 4.1 shows the how the worldwide integration of storage is expected to
develop.

Figure 4.1: The recent development and expectations for Li-ion battery
growth [20].
24 4 Battery Energy Storage

4.1 Battery Chemistry

The functional principles for all battery types are similar; all battery cells are made
up from two electrodes, an anode and a cathode. These electrodes are separated by an
electrolyte. The electrolyte works as an insulator between the two electrodes, this implies
that electrons are unable to travel between the electrolytic material. However, the
electrons can flow through the terminals of the electrodes. When a battery is discharging
the electrons flow from the cathode to the anode, the ions created due to the dispersed
electrons are able to travel though the electrolyte and attach at the other electrode.
Battery cells, which can only be discharged are called primary batteries whereas batteries
with the capability of recharging once discharged are called secondary batteries. When
recharging a secondary battery, the chemical reaction leading to the discharge is reversed
and the energy flows back to the original electrode [33].

Figure 4.2: The principles behind a secondary battery cell [33].

4.2 Battery Characteristics

When integrating battery energy systems in the grid, the system must meet a mini-
mum set of requirements in order to have an impact on the electrical grid and to be
economically feasible. The most important specifications are:[32]
Specif icEnergy = EnergyCapacityperelement/massof element[J/kg] (4.1)
The Specific Energy is a term, which identifies the amount of energy stored in a
battery per unit mass. In some instances, it is desired to have the battery as light as
possible while keeping the energy capacity high. For non-stationary BESSs, for instance
in EVs a heavy battery has a big impact of the range of the car, therefore the reduction
of in mass for EV purposes is a key parameter.
EnergyDenisty = EnergyCapacity/volumeof system[Joules/m3 ] (4.2)
4.3 Energy Technologies 25

Especially in urban environments where the price of land is generally high, the space
a BESS occupies is a parameter which must be closely considered. Technically En-
ergy Density has little value, however, when determining the economic feasibility of the
system the space of which the system occupies is directly coupled to the price of the
leased/bought land.
State of Charge (SoC) is the term, which describes the current charged capacity relative
to the rated capacity of the BESS.
SoC = currentCapacity/ratedCapacity (4.3)
Depth of Discharge (DoD) is an alternate way of describing the current state of
the battery. DoD is an expression which indicates the amount of energy that has been
discharged from the BESS, relative to the rated capacity.
DoD = 1 − SOC (4.4)
Two main governing measures for battery energy storage are the rated output and
the energy capacity of the system. The output is the instantaneous power, which the
system can supply to the system, whereas the energy capacity is the total energy a BESS
is able to supply over time.

4.2.1 Round-trip Efficiency

Round-trip efficiency is a term in energy storage systems, which characterises the ratio
between the input - and output energy. It depends on the losses associated with charging
and discharging of the BESS. Specifically, when the system has charged from SOC =
zero to SOC = 100% the system has been subject to various losses throughout the
process e.g. cooling, conversion from AC/DC – DC/AC and control power. In addition,
the BESS could be subject to standby losses, if the system is offering short term services
i.e. regulation, load following etc. the overarching requirement to always be available
must be obeyed. When the BESS is operating with long term services i.e. predetermined,
scheduled services standby losses have little effect, which is the assumption governing
this project. A BESS operating with an 80% round-trip efficiency will use 1250 kWh to
charge a 1 MWh system.

4.3 Energy Technologies

Through conversations with DONG Energy the BESS that is to be installed in Nord-
havn is very likely to be a Lithium-ion battery system. With that being determined,
an in-depth description of the various storage option is not presented in this thesis,
primarily due to the lack of relevance in relation to Nordhavn. However, an overview
of the landscape governing emerging storage technologies and the proven storage tech-
nologies is presented. From this presentation the motivation of the selected technology,
26 4 Battery Energy Storage

Lithium-ion becomes clear. Following the overview, a detailed description of lithium ion
technology and the current developments within the technology is presented.

There are several types of storage, which all share the overarching capability of
storing electrical energy in various ways, and releasing it when necessary. Overall there
are five different ways one could store electrical energy, each way having several specific
technologies which handles the storage. the five types are [1]

• Mechanical

• Electrical

• Chemical

• Electrochemical

• Thermal

Mechanical storage has two types of storage, which are broadly implemented through-
out the electrical grids in the world. Pumped hydro storage is widely implemented in
geographical areas with mountains. It is a very simple and elegant method of storing
energy. Pumped hydro storage pumps water up in reservoirs at times where the price
of electricity is low e.g. at times with a high penetration of renewable production or at
night where the load is low, simply storing the energy as potential energy. At high load
times, when there is limited renewable energy in the grid - the locks in the reservoirs are
opened and the stored water flows through a turbine generating electricity. The second
form of mechanical storage is flywheels. Here the electrical energy is stored as rotational
energy within a rotating mechanical device that spins a high velocity. When slowing
down the rotational speed of the flywheel a large amount of energy is released back into
the grid, the power is released over a short period of time.

Two types of electrical energy storage are Super capacitors and superconducting
magnetic energy storage (SMES). SMES is not developed to a point, where it is com-
mercially attractive. The technology however shows great promise due to high efficiency,
low maintenance and quick response. The technology demonstrates of electric energy is
stored in a magnetic field that is created within a super-cooled coil. The low tempera-
tures creates an environment for electric current where almost no resistance is present,
hence the losses become very small and the prospect of long time storage are possible.
The electricity demanded to maintain the temperature of the coil is the current break-
ing point for the technology, before the issue of feasibly cooling the coil is solved the
technology remains economically infeasible. [17] Super-capacitors utilises electrostatic
fields between two conducting plates to store energy. The Super-capacitors provide a
high power low energy service to a power grid. The discharged energy comes in short
burst, which makes them quick to react. Another positive features are high round trip
efficiency (80-95%) and long life compared to conventional batteries of around 100.000
4.3 Energy Technologies 27

charge cycles. Super-capacitors are being integrated in power grids to provide voltage
support, frequency regulation and in breaking systems in the locomotive industry.

Chemical storage is mainly based on the utilisation of Hydrogen in various forms, the
two most dominant technologies being Hydrogen fuel cells and Hydrogen combustion.
Hydrogen fuel cells are using the reversed process of electrolysis where H2 O is split into
H2 and O2 . The reversed process takes the two elements and produces H2 O and elec-
tricity via a fuel cell, which then can be fed into the grid. Despite the efficiency being
approximately 35% fuel cell has huge focus due to the minimal environmental impact
is has. Hydrogen combustion is utilising Hydrogen as a fuel. Hydrogen can be used
to drive a turbine, similar to gas-turbines that widely integrated in the power systems
today. The combination of natural gas-turbines already well integrated in the system
and the highly explosive nature of Hydrogen makes it hard for Hydrogen- turbines to
penetrate the market.

Lastly, electrochemical storage is the most versatile storage technology today. The
most dominant type of electromechanical storage are lead acid batteries, Sodium sulphos
(NaS) and finally Lithium-ion. Lead acid batteries are the most mature technology and
widely integrated in the power system. The electrolytes are typically made from lead
metal and lead oxide and the electrolyte consist of sulphuric acid. Compared to other
electrochemical technologies the DoD in lead acid batteries are comparatively smaller.
In NaS batteies the electrochemical process in the battery cell occurs under high temper-
atures (300 - 350 deg C). The positive electrode is molten sulphur and molten sodium
at the negative electrode. The electrolyte is made from solid ceramic alumina. NaS
batteries are costly to operate due to the high operating temperature, further, there
are few manufactures in the industry that produces NaS batteries, which is causing the
development within the technology to progress slowly, due to the lack of competition.
28 4 Battery Energy Storage

Figure 4.3: Overview of different storage technologies their efficiencies and

typical applications [1].

Figure 4.3 shows how the most prominent storage technologies compare against each
other and which applications the individual technology has the most potential. The
potential is expressed by creating a matrix with the ’Discharge Time at Rated Power’
and the rated capacity and compare how those characteristics match different energy
services presented in chapter[3]. From the figure the high versatility of lithium-ion is seen,
with the opportunity to provide quick response services such as frequency regulation and
the high power discharging potential, which could be used in balancing [8].

4.3.1 Lithium Ion

Lithium-Ion (Li-ion) battery technology has been developed and optimised for half a
century, the batteries are widely integrated in various consumer electronics today. The
battery technology is especially attractive due to the high energy density, efficiency,
lifetime and low self-discharging levels. Lithium (Li) is the main element in the battery
cells, the battery characteristics are therefore mainly determined by the characteristics
of Lithium of which a high electromechanical potential and low molecular mass is the
most important i.e. high power and energy density. The various implementations of
Lithium ion batteries have matured the technology for consumer use. The preferred
4.3 Energy Technologies 29

battery technology in EVs have been lithium ion, which have pushed development of
the technology towards higher capacity, better efficiency and increased lifetime. Li-ion
batteries have currently reached efficiency levels around 85-98% with lifetimes in the
range of 5-15 years. Besides the technological improvements, the overall cost of Li-ion
batteries has decreased rapidly making the use of Li-ion even more promising and one
of the emerging battery technologies with the biggest potential. [32]

Figure 4.4: Lithium ion overview [NEXEON].

The process of charging and discharging Li-ion batteries is shown in equation.

Lix C + Li1−x ⇀
↽ LiM O2 + C (4.5)
From 4.4 the schematics of a Li-ion cell is presented. The Lithium ions passes through
the electrolyte from the cathode to the anode when discharging and vice versa when the
battery is recharging. The negative electrode consists of a graphene layered structure
whereas the positive electrode is often different complex compositions of lithiated metal
oxide.

The growing interest in Li-ion batteries have led to a big decrease in prices, the
interest is primarily driven by storage potential in power system and electric vehicles.
Generally the global renewable agenda and the emerging interest from the electrical
energy sector are driving down cost. In Germany the price of PV related BESS dropped
by 25% in 2014. This development has clear economy of scale benefits, which are adding
30 4 Battery Energy Storage

to the price reductions.

Figure 4.5: Lithium ion overview [17].

Figure 4.5 shows the projected development in price for different electrochemical
technologies. This shows the dramatic drop in price for Li-ion technology. The de-
velopment in Li.ion prices as described above could have a negative on the remaining
electrochemical technologies since an asymmetry in competition could skew the market.
This is naturally beneficial for Li-ion tech companies. However, it is crucial that tech
companies are able to demonstrate cost reductions if BESS want a real foothold in the
energy sector. A general requirement for renewable energy sources is to demonstrate
cost reductions in order to be independent of governmental subsidies in the future and
that trend has to follow throughout the entire industry.
4.3 Energy Technologies 31

Figure 4.6: Lithium ion overview[1].

With Lithium-ion batteries expected to get a significant role in the future energy
storage systems, the available reserves of Lithium and the accessibility of such reserves
become a key area of focus. With the growing demand increasing and the various en-
ergy infrastructures looking towards battery-based solutions, the demand may witness
a spike in the coming years - a conventional EV requires roughly 4kg of Lithium for
their battery. Currently there exists 39 million tons of known lithium reserves, however,
only 30economicallyf easibletorecover.Lithium − ionis100than extraction through min-
ing. Figure 4.6 shows some of the biggest markets for producing and extracting Lithium,
which indicates that the increasing demand for lithium requires an added effort in secur-
ing the Lithium reserve for the future.[1]
32
CHAPTER 5
Optimisation and Control
Techniques
The selected BESS applications described in chapter 3 are subject to an in-depth analy-
sis of how the applications operate under real life simulations. These simulations can be
done through mathematical optimisation. By converting the BESS characteristics and
applications to constraints subject to a problem formulation. Depending on the perspec-
tive of the BESS the problem formulation can be constructed in different ways. With
this thesis being done in collaboration with the Danish DSO DONG Energy, the scope
of the problem formulation is to maximise the earning of the battery. This formula-
tion includes both capital expenditure (CAPEX) and operational expenditure (OPEX).
CAPEX covers the initial investments in order to get the BESS to operate i.e. battery
purchase, installation, certifications and land rights. OPEX covers the costs related to
operation of the battery i.e. maintenance, charge pricing etc. This should however be
offset by the revenue from the services provided and how often the battery is scheduled.

Mathematical optimization is a very generic tool, which has been used for decades
in many different aspects and industries. Generally, optimisation is used when multiple
solutions exists to a problem, the primary motivation behind optimisation is not to assess,
whether a problem is calculated correctly this is a precondition. Optimisation works
within the realm of solutions that satisfy an objective function i.e. the mathematically
expressed function, which is defines the problem where the ”best” solution must be
identified. The quality or fitness of the solution is expressed as the global maxima
or minima of the function. The objective function is subject to a range of conditions
and constraints, this scopes and specifies the realm of which the problems need to be
optimised. Due to the high variety of problems, which general optimisation is able
to solve - many different optimisation techniques have been developed throughout the
years. Generally optimisation can be split into deterministic and heuristic optimisation.
Deterministic optimisation aims to have the optimisation converge towards a global
optimum. The most significant deterministic optimization techniques includes:

• Linear Programming (LP)

• Binary Integer Programming (BIP)

• Mixed Integer Linear Programming (MILP)

34 5 Optimisation and Control Techniques

• Stochastic programming

• Quadratic programming

Heuristic optimisation is searching for a global optimum, where random inputs are
inserted in the algorithms that conduct the search. Examples of heuristic optimisation
are:

• Evolutionary algorithms

• Genetic algorithms

• Particle swarm optimisation

• Differential evolution

Heuristic algorithms are able to search for the global optimum while analysing a
non-linear function, an application deterministic algorithms are unable to handle. The
non-linear properties and random inputs can however cause problems when determining
whether or not the global optimum is found. The optimum could easily be a local opti-
mum.

The following sections provides a brief overview of some of the most significant op-
timisation techniques. The overview is not meant to provide in-depth explanation to
every technique and the reader is assumed to have a basic understanding of mathemati-
cal optimisation. The overview is aimed to give insight to why the selected optimisation
technique was chosen.

5.1 Linear Programming

Linear programming is one of the most valuable tools within optimisation and is the
sole reason that companies and entire industries have saved millions. The fundamental
idea governing linear programming is taking a scarce resource and utilising it in ways
that maximises profit, minimises cost or generally optimises a given problem. The
extremely generic nature of the mathematics used in LP makes is usable in big variety
of problems ranging from: The travelling sales man optimising his route to customers
based on distance and profit, production companies maximising their warehouse based
on materials and demand and energy dispatch in power systems. LP has been used in
several decades and many varieties of the optimisation process has since been discovered
[11]. The standard LP formulation is seen in equation: 5.1.
5.2 Binary Integer Programming 35

maximise Z = c1 x1 + c2 x2 + ... + cn xn
subject to
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn ≤ b1
a21 x2 + a22 x2 + ... + a2n xn ≤ b1
(5.1)
...
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + ... + amn xn ≤ b1
where
x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0, xn ≥ 0

Equation 5.1 displays a maximisation problem where the objective is to maximise

the value of the objective function. Z is the objective function where the global maxima
is to be identified or approximated. The chosen methodology then assesses the combi-
nation of variables that provides the best fitness. Another take on LP is to minimise
the objective function, this could be interpreted as minimising costs, lost time or the
distance a postman has to take. The relationship between a maximisation problem and
a minimisation problems is as follows:

max(f (x)) = −min(−(x)) (5.2)

This relation has in recent times cleared the way for important discovery. That fact
that every maximisation problem has a corresponding minimisation problem has led to
an investigation of the Dual solution to the original solution (Primal). In economics
the marginal price is of extreme interest, the marginal price or shadow price is the
incremental change in profit in which management is willing to invest the next unit.
When the marginal price is zero any incremental change would prove to infeasible as
that next step would have zero or negative effect on the profit. The shadow price has
been discovered to be the solution to the dual problem.
The objective function is subject to a range of constraints, which narrows the fitness
landscape. These constraint are vital for the usability of the returned solution. By
modelling the problem through constraints a problem can be simulated with a very high
degree of accuracy. Generally, the quality of the solution is ultimately defined by the
level of detail provided by the input. Constraints limits the variables in the objective
function respect certain values in a given parameter. These constraints can be defined
as an equality constraint, binary or inequality constraint.

5.2 Binary Integer Programming

Binary Integer Programming (BIP) is a very simple yet effective tool one can use when
facing a line of complex ”yes-no” decisions. These types of decisions could be whether
or not to make a investment in one or several companies, locations, factories etc. The
36 5 Optimisation and Control Techniques

classic formulation of a BIP problem is [11]:

maximise Z = c1 x1 + c2 x2 + ... + cn xn
subject to

1 if decisionj is yes
xj = (5.3)
0 if decisionj is no
where
j = 1, 2, 3, ..., n

BIP optimisation is deemed far to simple to cover the complexity of this thesis, how-
ever, BIP modelling introduce an interesting addition to conventional LP optimisation
that is worth investigating.

5.3 Mixed Integer Linear Programming

This section is not meant to exhaust the areas governing mixed integer programming
but rather give a fundamental understanding of the methodology behind Mixed Integer
Linear Programming (MILP). Generally, MILP is an extension of LP and BIP, where the
decision variables have multiple characteristics for example, binary variables, continuous
variables or integer values. This capability to include different types of decision variables
supersedes the capabilities of LP. The general formulation of MILP is as follows:

maximise Z = cx + hy
subject to
Ax + Gy ≤ b (5.4)
x ∈ R+
y ∈ Z+

The integer variable x is a set of non-negative integers with the dimension m and
continuous variable y is a set of n dimensional non-negative real vectors. An optimiza-
tion problem is defined by specifying the following data with: c as a n-vector, A as a
m × n matrix, G as a m × p matrix and b as a m-vector. The problem formulation in
3.1 only contains inequality constraints but can be converted to equality constraints by
adding slack variables [11].

MILP optimisation is very powerful optimisation method, due to the allowed diversity
of the variables the method is able to handle. The objective function is still linear and
serves the same purpose as presented in the LP section. MILP optimisation is regarded
as a good fit for the optimisation purpose proposed in this thesis. The variables are
presumably going to have many characteristics covering different aspects of the BESS
simulation, which a MILP algorithm is able to cover. Furthermore, the optimisation
5.3 Mixed Integer Linear Programming 37

method is not bringing unnecessary complexity to the problem. The problem function
remains linear and non-quadratic, which removes the necessity to include quadratic
programming or heuristic programming. However, the optimisation techniques are very
relevant to power system optimisation and will be an implementation requirement if
the algorithm in this thesis is to be developed further. Therefore a brief overview of
quantitative approach to these optimisation techniques are presented below.
38 5 Optimisation and Control Techniques

5.4 Quadratic Programming

Quadratic programming is very similar to LP, it handles the same type of constraints
as regular LP optimisation and the approach is generally the same. The difference
between quadratic programming and LP is in the formulation of the problem. Quadratic
programming introduces a squared decision variable or the product between making
the objective function quadratic. Quadratic programming is a very important mainly
because many natural phenomena does not follow a strict linear function. The standard
formulation of a quadratic problem is as follows:

1
maximise f(x) = cx − xT Qx
2
subject to
Ax ≤ b (5.5)
where
x≥0

c and b are vector parameters used in constraining the problem and defining the
object function. Q is a matrix in the problem formulation, the individual elements in Q
(qij ) are constant meaning qij = qji which explains the 12 .
5.5 Heuristic Optimisation 39

5.5 Heuristic Optimisation

The advantage of heuristic algorithms is that they are able to handle non-linear functions
and non-linear constraints. However, the search methods are implementing a random
inputs or a range of initial solutions, which means that a global optimum is not guar-
anteed and thus the final conclusions must be subject to large degree of scepticism and
sensibility analysis. An in-depth introduction to heuristic optimisation is not given in
the following section but a brief overview of the methodology is presented. The motiva-
tion for doing so is to give an insight to optimisation techniques but most importantly
to support the decision of doing the analysis and simulation of the BESS using a MILP
approach. The following consist of brief introductions to some of the most prominent
heuristic algorithms.

5.5.1 Evolutionary Algorithms

A general upside to heuristic algorithms and especially evolutionary algorithms are that
solutions to complex non-linear problems are often found quicker and more accurately
than standard optimisations. Therefore evolutionary algorithms have been a research
area with a growing focus, mainly due to the characteristics described above as well as
a big potential within multi-modal -, combinatorial - and multi-objective optimisation.

The main inspiration behind Evolutionary optimisation is based on biological evolu-

tion, where a candidate solution is gradually improving over time, in the biological world
these improvements originate from reproduction, mutations and a constant selection of
the strongest candidates to pass its genes on to the next e.g. ’survival of the fittest’. In
optimisation terms this implies that the evolutionary algorithm evolves as the optimisa-
tion proceeds. To initiate and run an Evolutionary algorithm three main components
must be provide :

• Population; A population is a set of n initial solutions, which satisfies the con-

straints, however, there is no guarantee that the solutions contain the optimum
solution.
• Fitness; This is an indicator of how strong each solution from the population is.
This is calculated based on how close the solution is to a given criteria of the
optimisation.
• Evaluate: Each individual solution in the population will be evaluated and adjusted
to determine who has the best fitness and who has the worst.

After that process, a set of m weakest solutions will be discarded from the previous
population and m new solutions based on the strongest solutions in the previous solutions
are added to the population. This process continues until a stopping criteria is found i.e.
sufficiently strong fitness, maximum number of iterations or computational time-limit is
reached [44].
40 5 Optimisation and Control Techniques

5.5.2 Genetic Algorithms

The Genetic Algorithm is a type of Evolutionary Algorithm, which uses the same funda-
mental iterative process to search for an optimum with a given problem. Its population
is created from a set of randomly generated individuals and the fitness is usually deter-
mined from the objective function.

Each individual has has two main components; the location and the fitness. Again the
fitness is the parameter that indicates which individual gets to pass on its characteristics
and which individuals that gets discarded at the end of each iteration. The reproduction
or crossover is a term used when creating a new set of individuals in the population, the
process uses two solution with a strong fitnesses two generate a new solution. The
individual then undergoes a mutation to keep a certain amount of diversity among the
strong population, this mutation helps the algorithm in avoiding settling on a local
minimum by potentially having the individual miss a local minima and now be on the
path to better fitness. Mutation is a random step each reproduced individual undergoes
this could be reflected in a random change to a parameter in the fitness determination
function, e.g. the problem formulation. The iterative process continues until one of
several stopping criteria is reached. Figure 5.5.2 illustrates how a heuristic algorithm
searches for a solution and how it may converge towards a local minima and not the
global. Or that the mutation step in the algorithm pushes a individual onto the ’correct’
slope and hence reaches an optimum solution [41].

Figure 5.1: An example of a multidimensional search space which a genetic algorithm

is navigating in the search of a optimum minima or maxima [36].
5.5 Heuristic Optimisation 41

5.5.3 Particle Swarm

The original idea behind Particle Swarm method is to replicate a swarm of birds ability to
navigate and fly synchronously. The method has various similarities with Evolutionary
algorithms and Genetic algorithms. The method starts with an initialisation of the
process similar to the process described above, each candidate solution created in the
initialisation i.e. each particle, has an initial knowledge about four characteristics, these
are:

• Current location

• Historically personal best location

• The global best location of any particle in the population

• Current velocity

The particle swarm method introduces the velocity as a new parameter, which is a
new addition compared to the genetic and evolutionary algorithms. The method is a
iterative process, however the there is no crossover or mutation operators in the process,
as seen in the two techniques described above. In stead each individual updates its posi-
tion i.e. solution based on the a number of parameters. The previous solution/location,
historically best location, the best global position of the entire population and a few
weighting parameters. The new velocity i.e the change in variables subject to the loca-
tion is then used to calculated a new position for the particle. This process continues
until a stopping criterion is reached [21].
42
CHAPTER 6
Algorithm and Modelling
This chapter discusses the final BESS strategy and how it is formulated as a MILP
problem. The controls implemented in this thesis are peak-shaving, virtual spinning
reserve, local PV optimisation and EV charging, which are discussed in chapter 3. The
problem formulation of the strategy is a generic cost minimisation problem, which aims
to keep the battery operating in the most feasible way. The governing idea of the
control strategy, is to use various forecast for the upcoming day of operation, which gives
the BESS an opportunity to prioritise the dispatch. The simulations uses real historic
data; solar radiation, load-profiles and day a-head prices. These inputs are fed to the
algorithm and the optimisation commences. In the scenario where all applications cannot
be handled, the control is formulated in a way, that the control algorithm prioritises
certain applications. Prioritisation is relevant, when the current SOC, total capacity or
maximum discharge in the period is insufficient to cover all applications with a certain
period. All applications are pre-prioritised so that the most important applications are
ensured to operate, this is done by disregarding other applications. The order of priority
for applications covered in this thesis is:

1. Peak-shaving
2. Primary Control - Virtual reserve
3. PV optimisation
4. EV charging

The chosen order of priority is set to reflect the applications most valuable to a
DSO. The order is relative to the owner of the battery and the business case governing
that business. An EV operator would for instance have good reason to prioritise EV
charging, which is the application that ensures that whenever an EV is charging at the
BESS, that the energy is provided to the EV’s is the cheapest and most sustainable. By
having the perspective of a DSO, i.e. DONG Energy peak shaving is the application
that originally motivated the utilisation of grid connected BESSs, as mentioned in 3 by
successfully shaving the energy drawn from the grid at peak hours a DSO can postpone
grid extension and therefore run a more profitable business without compromising the
security of the system.
The control algorithm itself is created without prejudice as to the agenda of the
owner. This ensures that if possible all applications are utilised whenever it is possible
only in the case of an infeasible solution the prioritisation is activated. This prioritisation
44 6 Algorithm and Modelling

is independent of the overall optimisation and therefore adaptable to any given scenario
or owner. The flowchart of the algorithm including prioritisation is shown in ??.

Figure 6.1: flowchart of BESS control algorithm.

From figure 6.1 the overall procedure for the control algorithm is seen. Firstly, the
”forecasts” are initialised this includes: load profile for the period, spot-price for the pe-
riod, solar radiation data to calculate solar production, the EV specifications i.e. number
of EVs, battery size and charging schedules and lastly the battery specifications. This
last point makes the algorithm sensitive to different battery-types and characteristics.
When the initialisation is completed the inputs are loaded to the algorithm and the con-
trol strategy for the given period is decided, the specifics of the optimisation is described
below. When the optimisation and strategy for the period is determined a check for a
general feasible solution is performed. If the solution proves to be feasible the algorithm
check if any additional periods are in the pipeline for further optimisation. This is meant
to give the algorithm a rolling time horizon, where the optimisation only includes the
data within the horizon but actually has knowledge of the parameters beyond the hori-
zon. If that is the case, the horizon can be pushed back and the optimisation thereby
continues.
6.1 MATLAB MILP - Yalmip 45

6.1 MATLAB MILP - Yalmip

The following section explains the main reasoning behind the implementation of the
YALMIP toolbox together with the MOSEK solver. When a MILP problem is being
constructed through MATLAB’s regular syntax, the creator must follow the syntax in
equation 6.1:

maximisef t x
subject to
A·x≤b (6.1)
Aeq · x = beq
lb ≤ x ≤ ub

Where f is the function vector subject to the vector variable x, which defines the
objective function of the problem. A is a matrix which multiplied with the variable x
defines the value that is constrained by the vector b as an inequality constraint. Aeq is
the matrix that together defines the inequality constraints that are subject to the value
in the vector beq. Finally, lb and ub represent the upper and lower bounds to the variable
x. These bounds are not a strict necessity however they can limit the computation time
of the optimisation, if the solver knows beforehand which ranges of the variable x to look
for. The variables and parameters are defined as: f , x, b, beq, lb, and ub are vectors,
and A and Aeq are matrices.

maximisez = cx + hy
subject to
Ax + Gy ≤ b (6.2)
x ∈ R+
y ∈ Z+

The programming structure allowed by implementing the YALMIP toolbox enables

the user to follow the standard MILP formulation presented in equation 5.4. This en-
ables a purely mathematical approach to be taken instead of having to transfer the math
into a programming syntax, which complicates the process. Especially the distinction
of variables and their corresponding constraints are much more intuitive when YALMIP
is implemented and it gives the reader a more direct understanding of the approaches
taken in the design phase of the algorithm

The variables implemented in the algorithms are shown in table 6.1. The variables
cover among other things the active outputs of the BESS as well as the SOC.
46 6 Algorithm and Modelling

Table 6.1: Decision variables of optimisation algorithm.

Variable Description Unit Type
charge Charging level of the BESS kWh Real value
discharge Charging level of the BESS kWh Real value
chargeFlag Used to ensure that charg- [0-1] Binary
ing and discharging is not
done simultaneously
SOC indicator of the State of kW Real Value
Charge, heavily constrained
by ’charge’ and discharge’

The parameters used to initiate and constrain the optimisation and algorithm are
shown in table 6.2.
6.2 Problem Formulation 47

Table 6.2: Optimisation parameters for algorithm.

Parameter Description Unit Value
period Number of days the simula- Days
tion runs
horizon Timesteps within period Minutes 96
(15min)
numCycles Charge cycles of BESS ’Integer’ 7
chargeMax Maximum charge power kW 500
BESSCap BESS maximum energy ca- kWh 1000
pacity
GridCapacityLimit Capacity limit of the grid, kW 1450
which gives rise for the peak
shaving limit
RTE Round trip Efficiency of % 80
BESS
schoolLoad Energy load from the school, kWh 90
which owns the PV system
InitialInv CAPEX for BESS DKK 10000
price Hourly price vector with DKK
spot price (REF to SPOT
market)
PV Hourly PV production, ex- kWh
cess power is distributed to
the BESS
EV Charge pattern of EV’s in kWh
the area
peak Hours where the load Integer
exceeds the GridCapac-
ityLimit withing a period
doublePeakFlag Checking parameter for
multiple peak hours
NordHavnLPV total load at Nordhavn in- kWh
cluding PV production and
EV consumption

6.2 Problem Formulation

The problem formulation is normally the heart of all optimisation problems, due to the
wanted solution being to maximise or minimise a specific problem. The problem formu-
lation in this thesis reflects the more holistic approach this thesis takes, the main goal is
to minimise cost for the DSO. This perspective is driven by the fact that any failure in
48 6 Algorithm and Modelling

the algorithm at peak loads could result in the DSO being forced to upgrade the distri-
bution grid, which they want to avoid. The problem formulation is shown in equation 6.3.

minz = −dischargeh · powerP riceh + Chargeh · powerP riceh (6.3)

Due to the lack of an indepth economic, NPV angle to this project the problem for-
mulation is kept quite simple. All energy flowing into the battery is subject to a price
which is paid. All discharged energy is seen as a part of a service, which is connected
to a price that bears a profit. However, the final figure of the objective function is of
little interest in this thesis. As previously stated the scope is to define an algorithm that
forces the BESS to behave according to a set of services available, therefore the focal
point of the algorithm is the constraints defining the services, which the BESS provides,
not the end results in terms of a monetary value.

If the prices where quantified and a real commercial setup were assumed, the prob-
lem formulation would have been highly complex and include several cost - and revenue
parameters. Despite the interesting results such an analysis would provide, this falls out
of the scope of this work. Since since BESS associated with EnergyLab Nordhavn is a
research project that aims to demonstrate the possibilities, limits and overall potential
of installing and running a battery storage system in the distribution grid, seen from a
pure electrical perspective. Therefore by keeping a very simple objective function the
final analysis will not provide a blurred picture in terms of the most feasible solution.
on the contrary, it shows a clear indication of the limits of the battery and the upsides
and potential downside of the various combinations of hybrid solutions.

6.3 Constraints
As YALMIP ensures the constraints subject to the problem formulation can be kept on
a high-level, which makes it easier for the reader to comprehend each constraint and
thereby the roots of the algorithm. Below, a complete review of all constraints is given.

0 ≤ charge(h) ≤ chargeM ax · (1 − chargeF lag(h) ) (6.4)

0 ≤ discharge(h) ≤ chargeM ax · chargeF lag(h) (6.5)

The constraints from eq. 6.4 and eq.6.5 is used to determine if the BESS is charging
or discharging within a certain timeframe. The binary variable chargeFlag is utilised to
ensure that the battery is unable to charge and discharge simultaneously in the same
time-step. If the battery is scheduled to charge in a given period, chargeFlag is set to
zero in the optimisation, this creates the boundaries for the variable charge to be strictly
between.
6.3 Constraints 49

0 ≤ charge(h) ≤ chargeM ax · (1 − 0) ⇒ 0 ≤ charge(h) ≤ chargeM ax

where chargeMax is the parameter deciding the power level the BESS can charge
with.
In the case that the battery is to discharge in a given period, chargeFlag is set to one.
This gives creates the boundaries for charge to:

0 ≤ charge(h) ≤ chargeM ax · (1 − 1) ⇒ 0 ≤ charge(h) ≤ 0

The inverse relation between eq. 6.4 and eq. 6.5 makes it possible for discharging
constraints similar to the ones presented above. The negative magnitude for discharging
is applied elsewhere in the constraints, the reason for the positive magnitude is to distinct
between the revenue from services, where the BESS discharges a certain amount and
when the SOC is updated where discharge is subtracted from the previous SOC.

discharge ≤ SOC(h) (6.6)

Equation 6.6 ensures that the discharge level of the battery is limited to the SOC at
that time-frame. The overall discharge level is secure in eq. 6.5, however, in the scenario
where SOC < chargeM ax the BESS can only discharge the amount available from the
BESS SOC.

nordHavnLP V(h) − (discharge(h) · RT E) + charge(h) ≤ GridCapacityLimit (6.7)

A central equation in the peak-shaving capabilities of the BESS is shown in eq.6.7.
The idea behind peak-shaving is that the local load cannot exceed the power transfer
capabilities of the installed capacity in the grid. Therefore by setting a constraint that
requires the total load including EV’s and PV production in peak hours to be lower than
the parameter GridCapacityLimit this should be avoided. When the discharge variable
is included it motivates the optimisation to discharge the battery at peak hours, since it
is the only variable in the equation that has a chance to ensure the requirement is met,
at peak hours.

0 ≤ SOC(h) ≤ BESSCap (6.8)

Equation 6.8 defines the capacity limit of the BESS, this ensures that the SOC does
not exceed the capacity specified by the physical battery.A lower bound is introduced
to make sure that the discharging is only available, when energy is stored in the BESS.

SOC(h+1) == SOC(h) +(charge(h) −(discharge(h) ·RT E))+(P V(h) −schoolLoad) (6.9)

With the maximum capacity of the SOC set in equation 6.8, the actual charging
and discharging mechanism that connects the charging and discharging variables to the
50 6 Algorithm and Modelling

SOC is defined in equation 6.9. Here the SOC for the upcoming time-step is defined
by; the current SOC level added the charging and discharging variables for that time
instance. When the optimisation is done in MATLAB, it introduces the possibility of
conditional constraints. Equation 6.9 is a conditional constraint which is dependent on
the last part of the equation. If the PV production of the PV-system installed on the
local school, exceeds the static school load the excess PV production is absorbed by
the battery. (P V(h) − schoolLoad) covers the additional PV power that is fed into the
battery.

SOC(h+1) == SOC(h) + (charge(h) − (discharge(h) · RT E)) (6.10)

When introducing conditional constraints, at least one additional constraint must be
introduced. This constraint aims to cover the scenario where the first condition cannot
be met. Equation 6.10 is the else condition, in programming terms, that is the active
constraint whenever a specific condition is unachievable. In this case, when the PV
production is insufficient compared to the school load. SOC is updated as in equation
6.9 but without the part including PV production.
∑
charge(h) ≤ chargeM ax · numCycles (6.11)

∑
discharge(h) ≤ chargeM ax · numCycles (6.12)
Battery degradation is unavoidable when operating a battery and even though the BESS
manufacturer or supplier might offer a time based guarantee it is desirable not to run
a battery with too many charge cycles per day. Therefore 6.11 and 6.12 introduces
constraints that limits the total charged and discharged energy in one period i.e. one
day.

∑
SOC(peak(1)−1) ≥ N ordHavnLP V(peak) − GridCapacityLimit · length(peak) (6.13)

Equation 6.13 is the second part of the peak shaving application. Where eq: 6.7 is
the driver for the discharge during peak hours, eq: 6.13 is the constraint that ensures
that the battery has enough stored energy before entering the first peak time-slot. The
algorithm searches for the length of the peak, being continuous periods where the load
exceeds the grid capacity limit. When the peak period is determined the constraint is
set so that the cumulated peak energy is smaller than or equal to the energy stored in
the battery prior one time-step before the peak period commences. The constraint from
eq: 6.13 dictates that the SOC p
SOC(h)
discharge(h) ≥ (6.14)
length(peak)
Equation 6.14 is a conditional constraint in the case of peak-shaving. It constraints
the discharge power to equal to or greater than the delta from the grid capacity limit to
the load in the system.
6.3 Constraints 51

The algorithm also searches for the case where several peaks are to be shaved within
one period. This is an unlikely scenario, since the peak hours often come in continuous
blocks. The case where the load oscillates around the grid capacity limit could create
such a case. Regardless, this constraint adds robustness to the algorithm. Again a
conditional constraint is added, which is dependent on the double peakFlag
52
CHAPTER 7
Case Analysis
7.1 Distribution Grid Upgrade Deferral
The first case-study demonstrates the how optimal scheduling of the peak-shaving al-
gorithm works in a 48 hour window, where a peak load is forecasted to occur. The
BESS, will based on the two day-ahead prices determines, when to charge the battery
so the DSO will minimise the cost of charging, prior when to the peak-shaving service
is activated. The algorithm generates the operation schedules with 24 hourly intervals,
this way the daily operation is simulated, even though the data inputs for the entire
period is inserted initially.

For this case, the desired outcome is to see how the peak-shaving algorithm schedules
a day with a forecasted peak-load. In order to show the capabilities to the fullest a few
assumptions surrounding the market set up and the BESS’s behaviour are made. As
mentioned, the scope is to demonstrate how the BESS reacts to a forecasted peak in the
grid, the BESS must prepare for the upcoming peak and have the capacity charged to
the level required to resolve the peak. Commercial key aspects of the BESS operation is
omitted, due to the nature of the Nordhavn project and the obligations a DSO obligations
towards security of supply.

7.1.1 Methodology
The scheduling of the BESS is done based on the MILP optimisation process described
above, the operating schedule, post optimisation will be analysed and the subsequent
operational results will give a clear indication of how the BESS’s overall availability is
being utilised properly. Availability generally defines the ratio between actual operation
time and the theoretical maximum operational time.

A financial analysis and how the market mechanism influences the battery and its
operational scheduling is of clear interest. However, from a project perspective the
financials were omitted due to various uncertainties. The objective function defines
a classic minimisation problem, where the services defined in the constraints of the
problem are to be upheld. Due to the lack of insight to the financial dimensions of
running and operating the BESS the final cost of running the services are of little
importance, since decisive conclusions based on the problem statement simply gives
and indication of a cost, which is under many and vast assumptions such as, CAPEX,
54 7 Case Analysis

OPEX, maintenance etc. By associating the charging schedule with a real power price,
the physical and operational aspects of the BESS system becomes directly connected to
the optimisation problem, which then become subject to the constraints defined by the
selected applications for the BESS.

7.1.2 Simulation
The peak-shaving initialisation parameters for the peak-shaving algorithm is shown in
table 7.1. The algorithm will schedule 48 hours of operation, each 24 hour will be
handled separately to reflect the battery operation when installed. Before running the
simulation the following inputs are passed to the algorithm.

Table 7.1: Input parameters for Case 1, Grid Upgrade Deferral.

Parameter Description Unit Value
horizon Timesteps within period Minutes 96
(15min)
numCycles Charge cycles of BESS ’Integer’ 7
numEV Number of EV’s in the sys- ’Integer’ 0
tem
chargeMax Maximum charge power kW 500
BESSCap BESS maximum energy ca- kWh 1000
pacity
CapacityLimit Capacity limit of the grid, kW 1450
which gives rise for the peak
shaving limit
RTE Round trip Efficiency of % 80
BESS
schoolLoad Energy load from the school, kWh 90
which owns the PV system
price Hourly price vector with DKK
spot price (REF to SPOT
market)
PV Hourly PV production, ex- kWh 0
cess power is distributed to
the BESS
EV Charge pattern of EV’s in kWh 0
the area
NordHavnLPV total load at Nordhavn in- kWh
cluding PV production and
EV consumption

The load at Nordhavn display in figure 7.1 shows that the loading will exceed the ca-
7.1 Distribution Grid Upgrade Deferral 55

pacity limit of the grid, which then activates the grid upgrade deferral i.e. peak-shaving
application, in the period where the loading is above the capacity limit.

Figure 7.1: 48 hour load profile for the Nordhavn radial. In the second sched-
uled day, the load momentarily exceeds the local transmission
capacity, which entails either grid upgrades or a grid upgrade
deferral service.

The surplus energy that creates the capacity problem has a magnitude of 752MWh
spread over a continuous period of 5 hours and 15 minutes, peak periods of that dura-
tion within a residential grid is regarded as being very long and therefore if the BESS is
capable of securing sufficient power delivery in that period, the peak shaving mechanism
is regarded as being reliable. By looking at figure 7.1 representing a two day load profile
it is noted that the profile does not fit a classic weekday load profile. The load curve
is however not abnormal, it fits both a typical weekend profile in a residential area and
the profile of a white collar industrial area. The fixed blue line indicates the 1.45MW
capacity limit set to define the threshold of the peak-shaving service. While the grid in
Nordhavn is capable of handling higher loads, the threshold was determined in collabo-
ration with DONG Energy.
56 7 Case Analysis

Figure 7.2: The SOC of the BESS providing grid upgrade deferral services, in
Nordhavn, subject to a peak load in the second day of operation.

When running the peak-shaving algorithm the following schedule is created seen in
figure 7.2. The figure shows the SOC of the battery in a 48 hour window, it is known
from figure 7.1 that a peak is forecasted to be present in the second day of operation.
From this knowledge it is vital that the BESSs SOC is at a level where the capacity is
sufficient to handle the grid upgrade deferral service by shaving the load peak. From the
SOC overview there is a drastic decline in the SOC, which is a clear indication of the
BESS discharging at that point, which matches the time of the peak. Due to the lack
of utilised services in the first 24 hours, the BESS is operating unconstrained in terms
of charging i.e. charging when the price is low and discharging at higher prices. This
behaviour clearly does not reflect real life operation of the battery as the power price
alone is not the only cost associated with charging the battery e.g. PSO charges, other
tariffs and battery life degradation. The second day of operation hour 24:48 clearly
shows how the BESS prepares for the upcoming peak period. The BESS is charged
with full capacity 500kW and is fully charged prior to the activation of the grid upgrade
deferral application.
7.1 Distribution Grid Upgrade Deferral 57

Figure 7.3: The forecasted load profile in Nordhavn (red) and the same the
load profile subject to the grid deferral services provided by the
BESS(grey).

Figure 7.3 provides an overview of the original load profile seen in figure 7.1 and the
new updated load profile subject to the peak-shaving mechanism provided by the BESS
that ultimately hindered a distribution upgrade requirement to that part of the grid.
From the operational perspective the discharged power from the BESS is equal to the
amount of surplus power causing the initial peak. This is due to a optimisation tech-
nicality, in order to minimise the cost of running the BESS it implies that a minimum
amount of power is used at times, with a high power price. However, the algorithm
proves to be functional to its intend by providing the required discharge power. From
a real operations perspective, a certain degree of maneuverability would be required as
any forecasted load always differs from the actual load in the system.
58 7 Case Analysis

Figure 7.4: Charge/Discharge profile of the BESS assigned to provide the

grid upgrade deferral service in the second day of operation.

Figure 7.4 provides a valuable piece of information regarding the activity level of the
BESS. From the five hour peak the BESS provides a service for an additional two hour
period could in a worst case scenario be utilised to charge the battery from zero. Having
the battery actively in operation seven hours a day, is a very infeasible way to run the
battery, due to the hours wasted being idle this however, increases the expected lifetime
of the battery, which should be taken into consideration. The smaller charging spikes
seen in figure 7.4 are, as previously stated only to be regarded mathematical MILP op-
timisation, from the perspective of the algorithm, it is a very reasonable and justifiable
action however i does not reflect the real life scenario.

7.1.3 Results
The algorithm created to handle the distribution grid deferral application clearly shows
that the BESS is able to perform peak-shaving at times where the load at Nordhavn is
experiencing its power distribution threshold.
7.1 Distribution Grid Upgrade Deferral 59

However, with the grid upgrade deferral application being the prime motivation for
installing the BESS at Nordhavn, there is obvious room for optimising the use of the
battery and its capabilities. Looking at the scheduled day of operation, containing re-
quired peak-shaving, analysed in this section, the service it self only represent 30% of
the hours available during the day of operation. Furthermore, by looking at the daily
load in Nordhavn on a yearly basis it further strengthens the point that grid upgrade
deferral services are required to work in synergies with other services if a BESS is to
have a commercial future providing distribution grid services.

Figure 7.5: Annual load on the Nordhavn radial, the grid capacity is indicat-
ing how many hours of peak-shaving the DSO requires.

7.1.4 Sensitivity
From figure 7.5 the hourly load during a full year at Nordhavn is shown. The grey line
indicates the capacity threshold, which schedules a peak shaving mechanism if the load
is above that threshold. From the figure is it seen that the hours requiring peak-shaving
are 51 hours, or roughly 5% of the time during a full year. It must be noted that the
peaks often are in several consecutive hours, meaning that the days of grid upgrade
60 7 Case Analysis

deferral days are approximately 15-20 days per annum. Having a BESS installed to
solely provide grid upgrade deferral is never going to make a solid business case. How-
ever the service remains the top priority simply due to the consequences of not being
able to defer grid upgrades. The consequences are cost of grid upgrades, reduced life-
time the power equipment experiences being strained by the heavy loading of the grid
and potential failures due to the overloading, which affects both DSO and end consumer.

To utilise the BESS potential the Operational Availability has to improve. Opera-
tional Availability is in this context an indication of the ratio between the total time a
BESS is providing services in relation to the total time available. As explained above,
the annual operational availability is:
HoursScheduled 50
OpA = = = 0.0005 = 5 (7.1)
HoursAvailable 8760
This is a clear indication that while prioritising grid upgrade deferral, the BESS
should be able to deliver additional services without compromising the requirements de-
fined in the specifications of a Grid upgrade deferral agreement. The following sections
provide a different options for implementing several services at once.
7.2 PV Support 61

7.2 PV Support
This case explores the opportunity of having the BESS absorb the local PV production
around Nordhavn. This feature while it may not have the most significant impact to
DONG Energy as the PV-systems in question are not particularly large compared to the
total capacity of the BESS. However, since Project Nordhavn is a research project that
has gotten a lot of exposure, the signal value of utilising renewable energy locally is not
to be ignored. Having the PV energy stored in the BESS and later use it for charging
of EV’s, grid deferral or even participate in frequency regulation tells a great story.

The PV system is going to be placed on a local school in Nordhavn, the school will
draw power from the solar production when needed, and otherwise the excess power will
be used to charge the battery system. The PV- system is to be placed on the roof of
the school, inclination and direction is unknown.

7.2.1 Methodology
In order to access the impact a PV system has on the BESS, the PV production must be
determined, in a realistic manner that reflects a typical PV output for a Danish summer
day. From solar data obtained from the solar production is calculated from the follow-
ing methodology: The solar input is kept very simple. A time series of insolation data
is used, the measurements are indicating a 30-degree angle with the solar panels fac-
ing south. With project Nordhavn not directly included in the PV installation process,
where little material exists for the selected PV system, a few assumptions governing the
size, type and capacity of the PV system are made. The selected PV cell is a JinKo
JKM255P-60 255W, which has the following specifications, which are used to calculate
the PV production.

insolationh
Ih = Isc · · (1 + α(Th − Ts ) (7.2)
Gt
Where insolation is the measured level of insolation at hour h, G is defined by the
standard test condition (STC) and is read from the datasheet, Isc is the short circuit
current also specified by the PV manufacturer. Ts is the temperature defined by STC.
α is the current temperature coefficient.

The cell temperature of the PV system is important to analyse as well, the cell tem-
perature is directly related to the loss of the PV system. The cell temperature is found
by:

N OCT − 20
T Cellh = Th + · insolationh (7.3)
80
62 7 Case Analysis

Where th is the measured ambient temperature, N OCT is the Nominal Operating

Cell Temperature, found in the datasheet for the PV cell.

The voltage of the PV system can now be calculated based on the cell temperature
calculated in equation 7.3.

Vh = V oc · (1 + β · (T Cellh Ts )) (7.4)

Where β is the Voltage temperature coefficient and V oc is the open circuit voltage spec-
ified by the manufacturer.

The fill factor (F F ) is a parameter which is widely used in PV characteristics. F F

is defined as the ratio of the actual maximum obtainable power to the product of the
open circuit voltage times the short circuit current.

V mp · Imp 29.3 · 8.71

FF = = = 0.752 (7.5)
V oc · Isc 36.5 · 9.32

where V mp is the voltage at maximum power, Imp is the current under maximum power,
Isc is the short circuit current of the PV panel and V oc is the open circuit voltage of
the panel.

Finally, Ph the maximum power output per solar cell is calculated.

Ph = Vh · Ih · F F (7.6)

The school load is a fixed load of 90 kW between 08:00 to 16:00, otherwise the loading
at the school is zero. Generally, the power production from the PV system is expected to
be highest during the period where the school is ‘active’. The calculated PV production
for 48 hours is shown in figure 7.6
7.2 PV Support 63

Figure 7.6: 48 hour PV production in Nordhavn. The production is based

on measurement from 1-2 July 2014.

From figure 7.6 the local load (grey area) connected to the PV system is shown to-
gether with the local PV production (red line). As stated the PV system and BESS
is assumed to be working with an interrelationship ensuring that all surplus PV power
is injected to the BESS and that the BESS provides top-up energy when the PV pro-
duction is insufficient to cover the local load. The local load is a public property that
operates from 08:00 to 16:00 this entails that the PV, BESS agreement is only enforced
in that period. The radial load remains unchanged from case 1 and is shown in figure
7.1. During the first day of scheduled operation the BESS is expected, based on figure
7.6 to discharge the amount of energy required to satisfy the loading condition.

7.2.2 Simulation
PV input is calculated based on the equations above and the production time-series is
loaded as an input to the optimisation, which then interprets the PV production for
every time-step of the optimisation. Whenever the PV production exceeds the school
load, and the battery is not charging the PV production is fed to the BESS. The PV
64 7 Case Analysis

injection to the BESS is not reflected in the objective function as the PV production is
regarded as a pure social benefit. Were the BESS to be implemented as a real commer-
cial solution, the entire power flow would have to be regarded in the objective function
in order to quantify the power flow in the business case. The PV power flow is handled
through the conditional constraints in the algorithm, this way the excess power is forced
into the BESS and is thereby a condition that the objective function has to accept. The
surplus power from the PV system helps the BESS to have a decreased charging cost
due to the direct power flow from PV system to BESS.

Figure 7.7: 48 hour SOC overview with PV and upgrade deferral services.

The SOC figure 7.7 shows the SOC development during the scheduled 48 hours of
operation. The schedule includes the two services; PV support and grid upgrade deferral.
Comparing the two SOC overview from the first two cases it is clear, that the BESS
is actively operating more in the PV case. This observation correlates well with the
knowledge gained from figure 7.6 that the BESS must inject power to the load, at the
PV system, corresponding to the deviation between load and PV output. From figure
7.7 a continuous discharge from 08:00 to 16:00 is seen. This is a clear indication that
the algorithm acknowledges the PV service for this predetermined period.
7.2 PV Support 65

Figure 7.8: The local load at Nordhavn with PV support and upgrade defer-
ral services. The red area is the initial load, and the grey area
reflect the load after BESS services.

The load in the area is shown in figure 7.8, the main point of interest is how the load
looks while the BESS is providing top-up power to the PV-load. When comparing figure
7.3 from case 7.1 the period where this is most apparent is during the first 24 hours of
operation. Here the radial load – subject to BESS services (grey area) is showing a load
decrease between 08:00 and 16:00, which again correlates excellently with the figures
above and the overarching expectations of how the PV service affects the system as a
whole.
66 7 Case Analysis

Figure 7.9: Charge/Discharge activity of BESS during 48 hours offering PV

and grid upgrade deferral services.

The final figure in this case analysis shows the charge and discharge activity of BESS
during the scheduled 48 hours. The peak-shaving mechanism activated by the grid
upgrade deferral service is working simultaneously with the PV top-up, as the service
requires. Despite the peak loading, the BESS still manages to handle both services and
keeps a reasonable distance form operating close to the limits of its capacity. Which
makes a strong indication for the BESS being able to operate both services at once with
the risk of the BESS being insufficient in providing the services, being very unlikely.

7.2.3 Results
This case demonstrates that it is possible to have the BESS operate with two services
simultaneously, which is regarded as a requirement if a BESS is to be deemed commer-
cially feasible, seen from a DSO’s perspective. By having two active services operating,
the yearly Operational Availability is:

50 + (8 · 220)
OpA = = 0.206 ∼ 21% (7.7)
8760
7.2 PV Support 67

Which is a significant increase compared to the stand-alone grid upgrade deferral service.
Furthermore, when looking at the utilised power relative to the technical limits of the
BESS, the robustness of the hybrid service becomes more apparent:

The potential energy injection over the period is clearly 1MWh, with a maximum
discharge of 500kW. From the simulation of the control the energy required throughout
the peak period is 875kW, leaving sufficient capcity to provide the PV service.
However, returning to an intuitional perspective of this hybrid solution it is likely to
prove to be an infeasible solution if the installation of the BESS is to be justified, seen
from an economical perspective. This view is rooted in the reoccurring issue of who is
the rightful owner of the BESS and more importantly who is the ruling authority when
determining the order of priority.
68 7 Case Analysis

7.3 EV Charging

The EV operator CleanCharge will install fast-chargers in Nordhavn for the locals to
use. The idea behind CleanCharge is to have DC fast-chargers working as ’gas stations’
for the EV fleet. This enables a 50kWh charging for the connected EV. The challenge in
having CleanCharge present on the Nordhavn radial is that currently the fast chargers
are charging ’unintelligently’ seen from an environmental perspective. Therefore this
thesis implements the EV charging as a non-intelligent charger that basically charges
the EV without regard for grid-loading, price or amount of renewable production in the
grid. This approach gives the opportunity to test the BESS capabilities under a worst
case scenario due to the charging be handled without regard for any strategy at hours,
were the grid is under the biggest pressure. Again, the case explores the maximum ca-
pabilities of a BESS and how it handles multiple services at once.

7.3.1 Methodology

The EVs in the vicinity of the BESS in Nordhavn are assumed as consumer cars, which
are used for the daily commute between Nordhavn and the users respective workplace.
This means that when determining the charging patterns of the EV follows a regular
loading profile of a residential area. To simulate the quick charge 50kW charging capa-
bilities in Nordhavn the hourly dataseries are interpolated to 15 min time steps to catch
the 15min charging spikes occurring in the grid. The interpolation of the spot price is
just increased in resolution and not directly interpolated, as the spot price is fixed for
all quarters of a certain hour, whereas i.e. a load is interpolated meaning the load will
vary slightly from quarter to quarter within the same hour. 30 EVs are assumed to be
active in Nordhavn and they each carry a 22kWh battery.
To emulate the cars charging patterns, which are assumed to follow a regular load pat-
tern in a residential area. To implement the EV charging pattern a function is written
that based on a regular random number generator, inserts the specified number of EV’s
between 17:00 and 20:00, which is the timeframe where most people return from work
and therefore recharges their EVs. The lack of intelligent charging causes the EVs to
begin instant charging when connected. From a 48 hour period the charging pattern is
displayed in figure 7.10.
7.3 EV Charging 69

Figure 7.10: 48 hour settled charging pattern of EV’s in Nordhavn.

From figure 7.10 the spike loading, which the EV imposed on the system and espe-
cially the BESS are observed, the interesting point is to see if the BESS has the capacity
to cover both peak-shaving and sustainable charging from the EV’s or if a constraint
has to be slacked in order to maintain the grid expansion deferral service that remains
the top priority seen from a DSO perspective. As mentioned, if the scheduling mecha-
nism e.g. the MILP optimisation finds an infeasible solution the strategy is to, half the
available charging capcity reserved for EV’s and rerun the optimisation. This occurring
decrease in EV reserved capacity continues until the BESS finds a feasible solution or
all EVs have been disregarded in the strategy.

From this point the algorithm has a shortfall, which has been circumvented in the
simulation, due to an inconsistency which was detected too late in the project to mitigate
the issue. When scaling the EV charging load for a 48 hour period with a scheduled grid
upgrade deferral service being activated on the second day. The algorithm is modelled
so all time-steps in the optimisation must give a feasible solution. With a peak occuring
in the grid, the EV charging in those hours has to be heavily reduced due to the BESS
being forced to: shave the peak and then provide the remaining capacity to the EV’s,
which is a very small amount. This affects day 1, where much larger amounts of power
70 7 Case Analysis

could be drawn from the BESS due to the grid loading being within the capacity limit
of the grid. But the algorithm adjusts the EV charging level evenly during the entire
scheduling period

7.3.2 Simulation
The simulations are run with the following parameters as inputs to the optimisation
process. This case includes the PV production explored in case 2 and further adds 30
EVs to the grid, which are all charging within the period from 17:00 to 20:00.

The shortfall of the algorithm explained in the methodology section is being handled
in the following way; With the knowledge of the peak in day two, a manual correction
to the EV charge loads are made. In the day with no peak, day one, the EV demand
is lowered by 10% for each iteration and the day with the peak, day two, is scaled by
50% this ensures that the BESS is handling the two EV schedules separately and hereby
optimises the energy delivered to the EV fleet in day one. With this approach, which
should have been implemented in the algorithm the EV load now becomes:

Figure 7.11: 48 hour charging pattern of EV’s in Nordhavn.

7.3 EV Charging 71

Where the filled area is the energy made available for the EV’s to charge during the
two days. When comparing figure 7.10 with figure 7.11 it is clear that the first scheduled
day would have become scaled far beyond what is required for the load to be within the
feasible range of the BESS. It took 3 iterations to find a charging level, which satisfied
the conditions set through the BESS. One clear conflict with the BESS’ capabilities is
that the maximum discharge level for the BESS is 500kW which is clearly violated with
the initial EV demand peaking at 150kW.

Figure 7.12: SOC during 48 hours of EV charging and peak-shaving.

The SOC overview for the 48 scheduled hours is seen in figure 7.12 above. From the
knowledge of the settled EV load during day one in the period 17:00 to 21:00 it is clearly
seen from the SOC that the BESS implements the algorithm as intended, which is by
the rapid decrease in SOC in that period. The BESS recharges during night due to the
cheap price of electricity and is ready to handle the grid upgrade deferral service in day
two as well as the minor EV charging service.
72 7 Case Analysis

Figure 7.13: Load profile of the BESS assigned to provide the grid upgrade
deferral services and providing fast charging capabilities.

While the radial load in Nordhavn remains the same, the EV’s charging patters are
now visible in day one. The EV charging pattern in day two is hardly visible due to
the significant decrease in allowed charging capacity the BESS only scheduled 62.5kWh
of reserve towards EV’s in day two. Whereas it in day one reserved 810kWh. These
smaller peaks are clearly handled by the BESS seen from the same approach as the grid
upgrade deferral service in day two. the load is out over the period, due to the BESS
injecting the energy required to charge the EV’s in the period where they are charging.
7.3 EV Charging 73

Figure 7.14: Charge/discharge profile of the BESS assigned to provide the

grid upgrade deferral service in the second day of operation..

The charging and discharging activity seen in figure 7.14 shows how the BESS han-
dles the charging and discharging of the battery. Again, having 20 EV charging in a
five hour window put a big potential strain on the grid and BESS and the charging level
was reduced by 30% in day one to enable the battery to work to its intend.

7.3.3 Results
Again the algorithm worked to the intend it was created for in this case and showed how
an infeasible solution can be turned into a feasible solution by slacking on certain input
criteria. This iterative process shows the robustness of the algorithm with the philosophy
being that if the best case scenario is beyond the technical limits of the BESS, the algo-
rithm must not provide an infeasible solution and do nothing. It must continue to search
for a viable solution which satisfies the service buyers and maintains the BESS integrity.

The Operational availability is quite conservative in this case as the EV’s are only
allowed to charge within a certain period. The reason being that the maximum stress
74 7 Case Analysis

is asserted to the BESS, by having additional peaks appear in the grid. A more evenly
distributed charging pattern would have an effect on the Operational Availability, how-
everm in this case it is found to be:

50 + (10 ∗ 220)
OpA = = 0.256 =∼ 26% (7.8)
8760

The number one priority between the two services remains the grid upgrade deferral
service, which in some cases forces the operator of the EV charging spot to experience
limitation to the power that the chargers are able to provide. This adds risk to the
operator as a key consumer concern about EV’s limitation to the degree of freedom an
EV offers compared to a conventional car. The right to prioritise remains the right of
the DSO in this case.

7.4 FDR - Frequency Disturbance Reserve

Within the last month of this project frequency data in a second resolution were provided,
which gave the opportunity to create an assessment of the impact on the services if a
BESS were to provide frequency response to the grid. As explained in the previous sec-
tion the chosen reserve was the Frequency Controled Reserve, FDR - ’Frekvensstyret
Driftforstyrrelsesreserve’ which is activated whenever the grid frequency falls below
49.9HZ. A key aspect in FDR is that the amount of reserve capacity bid into the mar-
ket is asymmetrical, which means that the FDR is only providing up-regulation. The
amount of energy that is being activated as FDR is very low, which could open up for
the opportunity to have several services running at once, or at least minimise the time
a BESS has to recharge in order to cope with an up-comming grid upgrade deferral
scenario.

Due to the short time-line of implementing this service into the algorithm, the anal-
ysis is done by circumventing the algorithm and only check how the service would affect
the SOC, during the 48 hours of operation. The algorithm was adapted to handle the
service, however the computational time of running a 48 hour simulation in a second
resolution implying that 172.800 individual time-steps all including 951.367 constraints
simply resulted in an in-depth integration of the service being impossible.

Instead the SOC analysis were conducted based on the rules and regulations gov-
erning FDR in DK2. The reserve delivered is inversely proportional to the frequency
frequency deviation within the range 49.9Hz - 49.5 Hz. 50% of the initial response must
be delivered within 5 seconds and the remaining capacity within 25 seconds. The 48
hours impact on the SOC, when providing FDR is seen in figure 7.15
7.4 FDR - Frequency Disturbance Reserve 75

Figure 7.15: SOC of the BESS during 48 hours of providing FDR service..

Figure 7.15 given an indication of how the SOC of the BESS is developing after 48
hours of continuously providing FDR. The SOC shows that the service is having a very
light effect on the battery. After 48 hours the SOC of the BESS is still above 90%, which
is adds to the potential of having a hybrid of FDR and grid upgrade deferral working
together. The low discharge level and the long periods of inactivity gives the BESS
plenty of room to recharge to unity SOC thus enabling it to quickly respond to a grid
upgrade deferral service. Thus extending the time available for providing FDR. It is
noted that a 48 hour period does not provide a sufficient foundation for a business case,
however it gives a good indication of how the BESS is effected when providing FDR.
Ownership and prioritisation issues are not as dominant as in case two and three due
to the battery owner only responding to system operators and not commercial entities,
which is also a positive with the current regulatory landscape.
76
CHAPTER 8
Discussion
The introduction of BESSs into the electrical infrastructure brings a new type of actor
to the market, which raised a number of important questions that have to be answered
if electrical energy storage is to be successful in the future. Electrical energy storage
could be regarded as one of the biggest must-wins if the existing global climate goals are
to be met. Adding renewable generation and interconnections are a big step of the way,
however, with transmission congestion and ever increasing fluctuations in production,
there is an additional incentive to search for local distribution solutions. In this place in
the electricity system, storage could play a vital role. A fundamental question regarding
battery energy storage today is whether a battery should be regarded as a Generator,
Load or a third entity. Due to the characteristics of a BESS that enables it to switch
from charge to discharge i.e. load to generation, Bess has unique opportunities for var-
ious applications. However, the fact that one of the most fundamental categorisations
regarding electrical grid components that in addition are mutually exclusive, cannot be
assigned to a BESS, indicates that the existing regulatory setup needs to be revised to
encompass and optimise the use of electrical storage in the grid.

The test cases done in this project have been selected based on their technical poten-
tial in relation to a DSO owned BESS. The potential defines the use and value added
by having a certain, or several, services operate that are controlled by the BESS’s con-
trol mechanism. A secondary goal to the operational potential was to identify areas of
concern in how these services would influence their surroundings under various real life
scenarios. These areas feed into the discussion of the fundamental view on BESSs and
the current lack of governance in the field.

The first case demonstrated the main component of the control algorithm, Distri-
bution Grid Upgrade Deferral. As mentioned, the main application of the BESS is to
defer grid upgrades in Nordhavn, and to demonstrate how it would work in weaker grids.
The case proved that the BESS is, based on the relevant inputs which are reasonably
available to a DSO, able to create a proper grid upgrade deferral schedule, and the simu-
lations shows that the BESS would execute the service. The BESS discharged the exact
amount of power corresponding to the instantaneous surplus load required to shave the
peak. This perfect balance would in practise be impossible to obtain and one could
argue that the BESS should work within a band of uncertainty to accommodate for fore-
casting errors etc. However, an interesting aspect is that BESS should in theory not be
restraining its capacity unnecessarily, disregarding life-time aspects. This is though only
relevant when providing a hybrid of services where grid upgrade deferral is provided with
78 8 Discussion

a range of other services. The argument being that the BESS in practically indemnifying
the grid for peak periods due to the grid having a fictional capacity limit determined,
if the BESS is then imposed with a fictional limit it might too need an indemnifying
entity handling the excess energy that the BESS is unable to cover. Hence, the band is
omitted in this analysis.

The second case involved a local PV-system working in synergy with the BESS. The
PV system would draw energy from the BESS at times when production was unable to
meet demand and inject surplus energy to the BESS when available. The goal in this
case was to demonstrate how two services deeply rooted in the Nordhavn project could
work together. The BESS would be limited and forced to discharge in longer periods
with no PV. The BESS was to provide the load with energy in the period 08:00 to 16:00.
This could potentially cause trouble when the BESS is providing grid deferral services
after or during the PV services are complete. Non-technical yet highly relevant question
arose from this case. How is the ownership determined between a DSO and a local load
and who defines the order of priority? Since DONG Energy is the official owner of the
BESS, they are to have the last say. However conflicts of interest are bound to happen
due to the local loads being dependent on the BESS at certain times. And the BESS
owner could be a commercial player selling grid deferral services and PV-synergies at
once. With the long frequency of peak-shaving being an active service the question may
not have a big impact for the consumer. But the connection agreements between load
and BESS or DSO are highly interesting. Which further the case of prioritised control
being a key component in the control strategies going forward.

Case three, similarly to case two, tries to disturb the grid-deferral mechanism and
further to demonstrate how the BESS is able to limit certain services rather than dis-
carding them completely, thereby optimising the use and value. The same issue arises
when reflecting on the analysis of the two services. The EV charging operator, Clean-
Charge, is assumed to have the fast charging capabilities as a prime value, which they
hope would convince many consumers to buy an EV. But, if the EV consumers want
to charge 50kW DC simultaneously to a peak period, which is this case lasts for 5.5
hours the selling point quickly diminishes. Through discussion with DONG a solution
was identified that the operator could get his own grid connection, however this scenario
severely diminishes the facilitation of renewables and the potential synergies between
storage, production and generation.

Despite the final case not being completely integrated in the algorithm, the upsides
to an FDR and grid deferral hybrid are quite distinctive. Seen from a DSO perspective
there is no conflict of interest as they are utilising the BESS for services concerning
security of supply only. However, It remains undetermined whether a DSO is allowed
to partiticate in the market for ancillary services. In this thesis it is assumed that the
DSO is allowed to be active within the market. With the research project ongoing at
Nordhavn, it seems reasonable that the BESS could have some regulatory carve-outs in
the connection agreement in order to investigate the full potential of the BESS.
8 Discussion 79

When scheduled for FDR one gets an availability payment regardless of any reserve
being called upon. Together with the calculated low discharge energy from case four
it is seen as a very interesting hybrid. The fact that FDR is only up-regulating re-
serve makes the schedule easier to make and mush more risk friendly, than if one were
to give a symmetrical bid. Furthermore, in the scenario where FDR is required and
the battery is charging could prove to be a very beneficial service for the provider and
buyer of the reserve. The provider could inject ’double’ the capacity. This is done
by stopping the charge and in addition discharging to the grid, which also provides a
very effective reserve for the buyer. From a socio-environmental perspective the down-
side is that the synergies are passed upon and the goal of supporting the facilitation of
renewables also diminishes. From the EnergyLab Nordhavn perspective the case sees
like the most feasible option, despite the EV operators likelihood to argument otherwise.

The apparent lack of economical and NPV estimations are thought to have an impact
on conclusions made based on the cases presented combined with the scope of this project.
However, some of the services described above are in hindsight regarded as infeasible
to run commercially. There are currently many ongoing debates and issues regarding
battery storage, which blur the picture when it comes to determining how a BESS should
be regarded. should a BESS pay consumer tariffs when charging outside of services that
require it to charge? How would pricing of various for services be determined and how
does the prioritisation reflect these prices and finally what are the consequences in the
scenario where the BESS owner is unable to provide a certain service.
80
CHAPTER 9
Conclusion
This thesis investigated the operational potential of having a grid connected BESS,
owned by a DSO, running with different power grid related services. The main focus
remained on identifying the operational potential in the context of having the BESS
operating in the Nordhavn area of Copenhagen.

The inputs used for initiating the algorithm are thought to emulate real forecasts,
which are available on a daily basis. Despite the lack of a band of uncertainty the the
inputs proves how the BESS is able to operate and handle, prioritise and execute several
services at once. Depending on the service a BESS operator aims to deliver, other inputs
are worth exploring such as: consumer inputs on expected periods of loading. This is
relevant for EV owners and their operators, if a BESS operator is able to approximate
or obtain the driving and charging pattern of an EV, the charging could be completed
with a higher amount of renewables since the BESS would have time to adjust its SOC
to the estimated demand. It is possible to have the BESS monitor the instantaneous
grid frequency and provide services related to the fluctuations in frequency. The test
case in this thesis demonstrates how the apparent potential of having a BESS provide
FDR services is worth further exploration.

The algorithm developed to simulate the operation and potential of the BESS proved
to work the way it was intended. Distribution Upgrade Deferral services remained the
top priority but the algorithm explored the opportunity to include other services. This
shows the flexibility of the algorithm and facilitates the option to explore several control
strategies to search for the most optimal control strategy. The determination of the
optimum control strategy is relative and subjective to the services provided, owner of
the battery and the regulatory landscape. Further, the optimum control strategy could
be viewed from a technical perspective where the flow of energy is the primary driver for
quantifying the best strategy or it could be seen from an economical perspective which
is not covered in this thesis but contain interesting aspects that are worth pursuing.

Furthermore, the algorithm demonstrated how an iterative process can ensure that
the BESS creates a feasible schedule based on the estimated net energy flow in the
scheduled period. Optimisation techniques are fragile in the way, that if a solution is
infeasible the optimisation fails and the process stops. By implementing the potential of
enabling the BESS to slack on certain parameters the best feasible solution is guaranteed
to be found. The analysis further shows that the capacity of the BESS and power-to-
energy ratio is suitable for the conditions governing the Nordhavn area and the services
82 9 Conclusion

implemented. A smaller BESS would also be able to handle many of the services shown
in this thesis, as the SOC rarely is exhausted due to a continuous discharge of the BESS
from unity SOC.

Several issues have been identified, if BESSs are to be an integrated part of the
power system. Some of these issues are probably not solved through technical ingenuity
and engineering solutions alone, but through commercial and regulatory discussions and
agreements. While these issues might fall out of the classical engineering scope they are
heavily rooted in a technical context, which rise from technical innovation and the con-
tinued push for ensuring security of supply while facilitating renewable energy. Disputes
over priorities of service, ownership and environmental agendas might be settled outside
the field of engineering but the implementation of such solutions returns to the desk
of the engineer for implementation, testing and operation. Therefore, by identifying
these issues before they arise, the mitigation process and period could be limited, which
theoretically benefits all the actors involved.

Of the different control strategies explored in this thesis the following two strategies
are regarded as the ones with the biggest potential. The combination of EV charging
services and grid upgrade deferral showed good promise, and the BESS was kept in
operation to a satisfying degree. Further, the energy flow during the simulated 48 hours
is at a level where the BESS is not being over-used and not kept idle for too long. The
second strategy is the FDR and grid upgrade deferral option, which isolates the owner
of the BESS to only deal with operative entities such as DSOs and TSOs. Further, when
providing FDR the BESS is receiving an availability payment regardless of the BESS
being activated or not. The short simulation of the 48 hour frequency data, in a second
resolution, gives an indication of how the SOC would decrease if the BESS only rode
the frequency and provided FDR as required. From the study it is clear that the BESS
is not being strained in a way, which could jeopardise the synergies in the two services.
Battery Energy Storage Systems are in the early steps on a path, which potentially
could be a game-changer if the regulatory environment surrounding them acknowledges
the huge potential of integrating large scale battery energy systems.

9.1 Future Work

Through the analysis conducted in this thesis several interesting topics have emerged,
which are worth pursuing. This thesis has approached a big research project in its early
phase and have therefore adapted a relatively holistic approach to the analysis. Further,
to maintain this approach a number of assumptions were made. These assumptions
enforce a natural limitation to the cases, if they were to be adopted in a real life sce-
nario. Therefore a more narrow approach could be pursued where a single strategy were
investigated, this could allow the researcher to implement more complex input methods
and have the algorithm adapted to a more dynamic environment.
9.1 Future Work 83

Further, the economical feasibility of the BESS in Nordhavn would add another di-
mension to the project, which carry a lot of value. Ultimately if BESSs are to have
any commercial success, an indepth NPV analysis and complete mapping of the regu-
latory landscape would be required. The regulatory discussion might be more suitable
to approach from a socio-economic perspective which further adds value to an NPV
assessment of the BESS. To summarize the proposals for future works are:

• Integrate real-time inputs

• Explore the possibilities of Evolutionary and Genetic algorithm in a power system

context

• Approach the BESS strategy from an economical perspective

• Map the regulatory landscape and elevate the discussion therein

84
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[44] M Yu X. Gen. Introduction to Evolutionary Algorithms. 2010.
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88
 APPENDIX A
Appendix
A.1 MATLAB CODE
A.1.1 MATLAB Algorithm main
1 %% BESS control optimization
2 % Master Thesis
3 % %DTU fall 2015
4 %Mads Blumensaat
5 % s103028
6 %%
7 javaaddpath ('/home/mads/mosek /7/ tools / platform / linux64x86 /bin/ mosekmatlab .
jar ');
8
9 % deactivate vertical scroll
10 %sudo synclient HorizEdgeScroll =0 HorizTwoFingerScroll =0
11
12 %% Load Parameters
13 clc; clear all; close all;
14 sdpsettings ('solver ','mosek ');
15 n = 1;
16 period = 2; % number of days to run simulation
17 horizon = 24*4; % the time - steps which the optimization utilises .
previously 49
18 numCycles = 7;
19 numEV = 50;
20 chargeMax = 500; % charge discharge hourly rate 500 kWh
21 % chargeMax = 500/4;
22 BESSCap = 1000; % battery Capacity
23 transformerCap = 1450; % transformer maximum cap
24 RTE = 0.8; %Round -trip - efficiency
25 % variables
26
27 charge = sdpvar ( horizon *period ,1);
28 discharge = sdpvar ( horizon *period ,1);
29 chargeFlag = binvar ( horizon *period ,1);
30 SOC = sdpvar ( horizon *period ,1);
31 schoolLoad = 90;
32 % schoolLoad = 90/4;
33 InitialInv = 10000;
34
35 load('dumConsum .mat ');
 90 A Appendix

36 load('dumPrice .mat ');

37 load('dischargePrice .mat ');
38 load('NordHavnLoad .mat ');
39 [NUMERIC , TXT , RAW] = xlsread ('Insolation ');
40 dischargePrice = dischargePrice ';
41 price = price ';
42
43 % interpolation of inputs .
44 dumConsum = interpft (dumConsum ,4* length ( dumConsum ));
45 % dumConsum = interpft (dumConsum ,4* length ( dumConsum ));
46
47
48 % price = interpft (price ,4* length ( price )) ';
49 price = reshape ( repmat (price ,4 ,1) ,1,[]) '; % extends priceseries from hourly
to quarterly basis '
50 dischargePrice = reshape ( repmat ( dischargePrice ,4 ,1) ,1 ,[]) ';
51 NordHavnLoad = interpft ( NordHavnLoad ,4* length ( NordHavnLoad ));
52
53 PV = getPV ( NUMERIC ) '; % insert all PV production
54
55 PV = PV (4345:4392) ; % select 48 hour PV production
56
57 PV = interpft (PV ,4* length (PV))*0;
58 for i = 1: length (PV)
59 if PV(i) <0
60 PV(i) = 0;
61 else
62 Pv(i) = PV(i);
63 end
64 end
65 doublePeakFlag = []; % used to check if there are multiple peaks in a
period .
66 peak = find( NordHavnLoad > transformerCap ); %The peaks to be shaved 1900
67
68 Constraints = [];
69 Objective = [];
70 Objective (1) = InitialInv ; % bliver overrided duer ikke
71 SOC (1) =00; % Initial Value of SOC
72
73 EV = EVCharge (horizon ,period , numEV );
74 plot(EV);
75 NordHavnLPV = (( NordHavnLoad ));
76 doublePeakFlag = [];
77 flag = 0;
78 storage = [EV ];
79
80
81 %%
82 while flag == 0
83 Constraints = [ Constraints , sum( charge (1: horizon )) <= chargeMax *
numCycles ];
 A.1 MATLAB CODE 91

84 Constraints = [ Constraints , sum( discharge (1: horizon )) <= chargeMax *

numCycles ];
85
86 for h = 1: ( horizon )
87
88 doublePeakFlag = checkPeak (peak);
89 Constraints = [ Constraints , sum( charge (1: horizon )) <= chargeMax *
numCycles ];
90 Constraints = [ Constraints , sum( discharge (1: horizon )) <= chargeMax *
numCycles ];
91 Constraints = [ Constraints , 0 <= charge (h ,1) <= chargeMax *(1 -
chargeFlag (h ,1))]; %The chargeing Power must be within the range 0
- chargeMax (500)
92 Constraints = [ Constraints , 0 <= discharge (h ,1) <= chargeMax *
chargeFlag (h ,1) ]; %The dischargeing Power must be within the range
0 - chargeMax (500)
93 Constraints = [ Constraints , discharge (h ,1) <= SOC(h ,1) ]; %added lower
bound
94 Constraints = [ Constraints , NordHavnLPV (h ,1) -( discharge (h ,1)*RTE)+
charge (h ,1)+EV(h ,1) <= transformerCap ]; %The total power
consumption must never exceed the Transformer limit .
95 Constraints = [ Constraints , 0 <= SOC(h ,1) <= BESSCap *4]; % The State
of Charge cannot exceed the Battery Capacity (1000 MW) and cannot be
lower than zero.
96
97 if h >= 68 && h <= 84
98 Constraints = [ Constraints , discharge (h ,1) >= EV(h ,1) ];
99
100 end
101 if PV(h) >= schoolLoad
102
103 % in hours where the PV production exceeds the school demand ,
104 % the battery is charged with the excees power and the SOC is
105 % updated .
106 Constraints = [ Constraints , SOC(h+1 ,1) == SOC(h ,1) +( charge (h
,1) -( discharge (h ,1)*RTE)+( PV(h ,1) -schoolLoad ))];
107 elseif h > 32 && h <64
108 Constraints = [ Constraints , discharge (h ,1) == schoolLoad - PV(
h ,1) ];
109 Constraints = [ Constraints , SOC(h+1 ,1) == SOC(h ,1) +( charge (h
,1) -( discharge (h ,1)*RTE))];
110 else
111 Constraints = [ Constraints , SOC(h+1 ,1) == SOC(h ,1) +( charge (h
,1) -( discharge (h ,1)*RTE))];
112 end
113
114
115 % Objective = [Objective ,- discharge (h ,1)* dischargePrice (h ,1)+ charge (h
,1)* price (h ,1) ];
116 Objective = [Objective , discharge (h ,1)* dischargePrice (h ,1) ];%+ charge (
h ,1)* price (h ,1) ]; %price * charge
117
 92 A Appendix

118 end
119 Constraints = [ Constraints , sum( charge (1: horizon )) <= chargeMax *
numCycles ];
120 Constraints = [ Constraints , sum( discharge (1: horizon )) <=
chargeMax * numCycles ];
121
122
123
124 for p = 2: period
125 Constraints = [ Constraints , sum( charge ((p -1)* horizon :p* horizon )) <=
chargeMax * numCycles ];
126 Constraints = [ Constraints , sum( discharge ((p -1)* horizon :p* horizon )
) <= chargeMax * numCycles ];
127 peak = find( NordHavnLPV ((( period -1)* horizon )+1 - horizon : period *
horizon )>transformerCap );
128 doublePeakFlag = checkPeak (peak);
129
130 Constraints = [ Constraints , 0 <= SOC(h ,1) <= BESSCap *4];
131 for h = (( period -1)* horizon )+1 - horizon : period * horizon
132 Constraints = [ Constraints , 0 <= charge (h ,1) <= chargeMax *(1 -
chargeFlag (h ,1))]; %The chargeing Power must be within the
range 0 - chargeMax (500)
133 Constraints = [ Constraints , 0 <= discharge (h ,1) <= chargeMax *
chargeFlag (h ,1) ]; %The dischargeing Power must be within the
range 0 - chargeMax (500)
134 Constraints = [ Constraints , 0 <= discharge (h ,1) <= SOC(h ,1) ]; %
added lower bound
135 Constraints = [ Constraints , NordHavnLPV (h) -( discharge (h ,1)*RTE)+
charge (h ,1) <= transformerCap ]; %The total power consumption
must never exceed the Transformer limit .
136 Constraints = [ Constraints , 0 <= SOC(h ,1) <= BESSCap *4];
137 % Constraints = [ Constraints , discharge (h ,1) >= EV(h)];
138 if h >= 130 && h <= 146
139 Constraints = [ Constraints , discharge (h ,1) >= EV(h ,1) ];
140
141 end
142 if PV(h) > schoolLoad
143 % in hours where the PV production exceeds the school
demand ,
144 % the battery is charged with the excees power and the SOC
is
145 % updated .
146 Constraints = [ Constraints , SOC(h+1 ,1) == SOC(h ,1) +( charge (h ,1) -(
discharge (h,RTE))+(PV(h ,1) -schoolLoad ))];
147 elseif h > 32 && h < 64
148 Constraints = [ Constraints , discharge (h ,1) == schoolLoad - PV(
h ,1) ];
149 Constraints = [ Constraints , SOC(h+1 ,1) == SOC(h ,1) +( charge (h
,1) -( discharge (h ,1)*RTE))];
150 elseif h == 192
151 Constraints = [ Constraints , SOC(h ,1) == SOC(h -1 ,1) ];
152 else
 A.1 MATLAB CODE 93

153 Constraints = [ Constraints , SOC(h+1 ,1) == SOC(h ,1) +( charge (h

,1) -( discharge (h ,1)*RTE))];
154 end
155
156
157 Objective = [Objective , discharge (h ,1)* price (h ,1) ];%+ charge (h ,1)*
price (h ,1) ]; % price * charge
158 end
159
160 end
161 optimize ( Constraints , Objective );
162 if sum(value ( discharge )) > 0
163 flag = 1;
164 else
165 flag = 0;
166 Constraints = [];
167 Objective = []
168 sum( value ( discharge ))
169 %EV = EV *0.90;
170 EV (1: horizon ) = EV (1: horizon ) *0.90;
171 EV (( horizon +1): period * horizon ) = EV (( horizon +1): period * horizon ) *0.2;
172 storage = [storage ,EV ];
173 NordHavnLPV = (( NordHavnLoad ));%+EV;
174 plot( storage )
175 end
176
177 for i = 1: length (PV)
178 if PV(i) < 0
179 PV(i) =0;
180 end
181 end
182
183 clf
184 figure (1)
185 subplot (2 ,2 ,1)
186 plot( NordHavnLoad ( horizon +1: horizon * period ),'linewidth ' ,2)
187 grid on
188 legend ('NordHavnLoad ')
189 ylabel ('Kw (MW)');
190 xlabel ('Hour ')
191 ax. XTickLabel = {'0','4','8','12 ','16 ','20 ','24 ','28 ','32 ','36 ','40 ','44 ',
'48 '};
192
193 subplot (2 ,2 ,2)
194 axis ([0 200 0 2000])
195 plot( value ( dischargePrice ( horizon +1: horizon * period )),'linewidth ' ,2)
196 grid on
197 ylabel ('Price DKK ');
198 xlabel ('Hour ')
199 legend ('Discharge Price ')
200 ax. XTickLabel = {'0','4','8','12 ','16 ','20 ','24 ','28 ','32 ','36 ','40 ','44 ',
'48 '};
 94 A Appendix

201
202 subplot (2 ,2 ,3)
203 plot( value ( price ( horizon +1: horizon * period )),'linewidth ' ,2)
204 grid on
205 ylabel ('Price DKK ');
206 xlabel ('Hour ')
207 legend ('Charge Price ')
208 ax. XTickLabel = {'0','4','8','12 ','16 ','20 ','24 ','28 ','32 ','36 ','40 ','44 ',
'48 '};
209
210 subplot (2 ,2 ,4)
211 plot(PV ,'linewidth ' ,2)
212 ylabel ('kW ');
213 xlabel ('Hour ')
214 grid on
215 legend ('PV Production ')
216 ax. XTickLabel = {'0','4','8','12 ','16 ','20 ','24 ','28 ','32 ','36 ','40 ','44 ',
'48 '};
217
218
219 figure (2)
220 subplot (2 ,2 ,1)
221 area( value (SOC( horizon +1: horizon * period )),'linewidth ' ,2)
222 grid on
223 ylabel ('Power (MW)');
224 xlabel ('Hour ')
225 legend ('SOC ')
226 axis ([0 200 -500 1100])
227 limit = ones( period *horizon ,1) *1900;
228 ax. XTickLabel = {'0','4','8','12 ','16 ','20 ','24 ','28 ','32 ','36 ','40 ','44 ',
'48 '};
229
230 subplot (2 ,2 ,2)
231 stairs ( NordHavnLoad ( horizon +1: horizon * period ),'linewidth ' ,2)
232 hold on
233 stairs ( NordHavnLPV ( horizon +1: horizon * period ),'linewidth ' ,2)
234 hold on
235 % stairs ( NordHavnLPV - value ( discharge (1: horizon * period )),'linewidth ' ,2)
236 stairs ( NordHavnLPV ( horizon +1: horizon * period )-value ( discharge ( horizon +1:
horizon * period )),'linewidth ' ,2)
237 hold on
238 plot( limit /4,'linewidth ' ,3)
239 grid on
240 ylabel ('Power (MW)');
241 xlabel ('Hour ')
242 legend ('NordHavnLoad ','NordHavnLPV ','NordHavnLoad + Battery ','Transformer
Limit ')
243 axis ([0 200 -100 2500])
244 XTickLabel = {'0','4','8','12 ','16 ','20 ','24 ','28 ','32 ','36 ','40 ','44 ','48
'};
245
246 subplot (2 ,2 ,3)
 A.1 MATLAB CODE 95

247 stairs (value (- discharge ( horizon +1: horizon * period )),'linewidth ' ,2,'color ','
r')
248 grid on
249 hold on
250 stairs (value ( charge ( horizon +1: horizon * period )),'linewidth ' ,2)
251 ylabel ('Power (MW)');
252 xlabel ('Hour ')
253 legend ('discharge ', 'charge ')
254 axis ([0 200 -500 500])
255 ax. XTickLabel = {'0','4','8','12 ','16 ','20 ','24 ','28 ','32 ','36 ','40 ','44 ',
'48 '};
256
257 %%
258 figure (11)
259 area( storage (: ,1) ,'linewidth ' ,2)
260 grid on
261 ylabel ('Price DKK ');
262 xlabel ('Hour ')
263 legend ('Charge Price ')

mainAppendix.m.
 96 A Appendix

A.1.2 MATLAB Algorithm Input PV

1 %thji
2
3 function PV = getPV ( NUMERIC )
4
5 Ins = NUMERIC (6:8765 ,2:8) ;
6 east30 = Ins (: ,1);
7 west30 = Ins (: ,2);
8 south30 = Ins (: ,3);
9 % STC Test conditions -42004 PV - panels (255 Wp)
10 %Ta =5;
11 Gt =1000; Isc =8.92; Voc =38; TcoefVoc = -0.0031;
12 T0 =25; Vmp =30.8; Imp =8.28; Eff =0.1374; L =1.65; wi =0.992; % L& wi tells the
size
13
14 %%Fill factor
15 FF =( Imp*Vmp)/( Isc*Voc);
16
17 % Tcell =[];
18 Il =[];
19 V=[];
20 Ps =[];
21
22 TCell =(0.0325* south30 );
23 day =1;
24 i=0;
25 while day <=365
26
27 for Lt =1:24
28 % Tcell (Lt+i) = T(Lt +1) +(0.0325* S15(Lt+i)); Wrong results
29 V(Lt+i) = Voc *(1+ TcoefVoc *( TCell (Lt+i)-T0));
30 Il(Lt+i)=( south30 (Lt+i)/Gt)*Isc;
31 P(Lt+i)= FF*V (Lt+i)*Il(Lt+i);%Real power output
32
33 PV = P*650;
34 end
35
36 day=day +1;
37 i=Lt+i;
38 end
39
40 end

getPV.m.
 A.1 MATLAB CODE 97

A.1.3 MATLAB Algorithm Input EV

1 %% EV
2 % The EV load is handled in this function .
3 function EVLoad = EVCharge (horizon , period , numEV )
4 % The number of EV 's in the fleet
5
6 EVLoad = zeros ( horizon *period ,1);
7 EVChargeHour = [];
8 for i = 1: period
9 if i == 1
10 % EVChargeHour = [ EVChargeHour , randi ([130 146] ,1 , numEV )];
11 EVChargeHour = [ EVChargeHour , randi ([68 84] ,1 , numEV )];
12 elseif i == 2
13 EVChargeHour = [ EVChargeHour , randi ([130 146] ,1 , numEV )];
14 % EVChargeHour = [ EVChargeHour , 0];
15
16 end
17 % 10
18 end
19 for i = 1: numEV * period
20 EVLoad ( EVChargeHour (i)) = EVLoad ( EVChargeHour (i))+50;
21 end
22 plot( EVLoad )

EVCharge.m.
98 A Appendix

A.2 Datasheets
 A.2 Datasheets 99

A.2.1 PV Panel Datasheet

www.jinkosolar.com

(4BB)
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100 A Appendix

A.3 CleanCharge DC fastcharge datasheet

A.3 CleanCharge DC fastcharge datasheet 101

A.3.1 CleanCharge DC fastcharger Datasheet

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• Servicenummer
Teknisk specifikation
Lynhurtig opladning 30-60 min*
<22 kW. Op til 10x hurtigere** end andre
K o m mu ni k at io ns
modu l
IEC / ISO 15118
ladesystemer på alm. stikkontakt med den
nye Europæiske AC-standard fra Mercedes, T ils lu tn ings Type 1 [J-1772]
VW, Audi og Renault.
s tan da r d
Type 2 [Mennekes]
U dtag 2 stk.
Intelligent opladning
Kontrolpilot-funktioner muliggør O pkoblin g
1-fase 230 V / 16 A [3,7W]
samspil med elnettet, så som at holde 3-faser 400 V / 32 A [22kW]
ladestanderen opdateret med en
konkurrencedygtig elpris. T æ t nings IP54
s tan da r d

Primær EU-platform Europæisk markedsstandard

eStationCOMBI
- løsningen til en meget hurtig opladning. tankstation
Intet abonnement

Nem betaling Ultrahurtig opladning 30 min*

Betaling med SmartPhone via APP. Understøtter begge ladeteknologier.
Oplader <22x hurtigere** end andre
offentlige ladestandere i Europa. Spørg CleanCharge om adgang.
*** CleanCharge er med i Hubject roaming samarbejdet på alle

ladesystemer på alm. stikkontakt.

Robust design
Robust kabinet med påkørselssikringer
og sikring mod hærværk.

Teknisk specifikation
** Afhænger af batterikapacitet og SoC.

K omm u n i k at i o n s
m odul
IEC / ISO 15118

U dtag 2 stk.
O pkobli ng
AC 22kW
3,7kW 1 fase 230 V
fra på op til

til 3-faser 400 V på 100%

* Ved maksimal ydelse.

batteri

DC CHAdeMO
op til

50kW 80%
op til batteri

T æ tning s
stan dar d IP54

Primær EU-platform Europæisk markedsstandard

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