APPLICATION QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

Section 24.1

*16. For each of the following characteristics, indicate whether it would be considered a
discontinuous characteristic or a quantitative characteristic. Briefly justify your
answer.

a. Kernel color in a strain of wheat, in which two codominant alleles segregating

at a single locus determine the color. Thus, there are three phenotypes present in
this strain: white, light red, and medium red.

Solution:
This is a discontinuous characteristic because only a few distinct phenotypes are
present and it is determined by alleles at a single locus.

b. Body weight in a family of Labrador retrievers. An autosomal recessive allele

that causes dwarfism is present in this family. Two phenotypes are recognized:
dwarf (less than 13 kg) and normal (greater than 23 kg).

Solution:
This is a discontinuous characteristic because there are only two phenotypes
(dwarf and normal) and a single locus determines the characteristic.
 c. Presence or absence of leprosy. Susceptibility to leprosy is determined by
multiple genes and numerous environmental factors.

Solution:
This is a quantitative characteristic because susceptibility is a continuous trait
that is determined by multiple genes and environmental factors. It is an example
of a quantitative phenotype with a threshold effect.

d. Number of toes in guinea pigs, which is influenced by genes at many loci.

Solution:
A quantitative characteristic because it is determined by many loci. The number
of toes is an example of a meristic characteristic.

e. Number of fingers in humans. Extra (more than five) fingers are caused by the
presence of an autosomal dominant allele.

Solution:
A discontinuous characteristic because there are only a few distinct phenotypes
determined by alleles at a single locus.

*17. Assume that plant weight is determined by a pair of alleles at each of two
independently assorting loci (A and a, B tanadreba)dtdhiative in their effects.
Further assume that each allele represented by an uppercase letter contributes 4 g to
weight and that each allele represented by a lowercase letter contributes 1 g to
weight.

a. If a plant with genotype AA BB is crossed with a plant with genotype aa bb,

what weights are expected in the F1 progeny?

Solution:
All the F1 progeny will have genotype Aa Bb, so they should all have 4 + 1 + 4
+ 1 = 10 grams of weight.

b. What is the distribution of weight expected in the F2 progeny?

Solution:
We can group the 16 expected genotypes by the number of uppercase and
lowercase alleles:
4 uppercase: AA BB = 1/16 with 16 grams
3 uppercase: 2 Aa BB, 2 AA Bb = 4/16 with 13 grams
2 uppercase: 4 Aa Bb, aa BB, AA bb = 6/16 with 10 grams
1 uppercase: 2 Aa bb, 2 aa Bb = 4/16 with 7 grams
0 uppercase: aa bb = 1/16 with 4 grams
18. Assume that three loci, each with two alleles (A and a, B and b, C and ec)te,rdmine
the differences in height between two homozygous strains of a plant. These genes
are additive and equal in their effects on plant height. One strain (aa bb icsc)10cm
in height. The other strain (AA BB CC) is 22 cm in height. The two strains are
crossed, and the resulting F1 are interbred to produce F2 progeny. Give the
phenotypes and the expected proportions of the F2 progeny.

Solution:
The AABBCC strain is 12 cm taller than the aabbcc strain. We therefore
calculate that each dominant allele adds 2 cm of height above the baseline 10 cm
of the all-recessive strain. The F1, with genotype AaBbCc, therefore will be 10 + 6
= 16 cm tall. The seven different possible phenotypes with respect to plant height
and the expected frequencies in the F2 are listed in the following table:

Number of dominant
alleles Height (cm) Proportion of F2 progeny
6 22 1/64
5 20 6/64
4 18 15/64
3 16 20/64
2 14 15/64
1 12 6/64
0 10 1/64
Total = 64/64

The proportions can be determined by counting the numbers of boxes with one
dominant allele, two dominant alleles, and so on from an 8 × 8 Punnett square.

*19. A farmer has two homozygous varieties of tomatoes. One variety, called Little Pete,
has fruits that average only 2 cm in diameter. The other variety, Big Boy, has fruits
that average a whopping 14 cm in diameter. The farmer crosses Little Pete and Big
Boy; he then intercrosses the F1 to produce F2 progeny. He grows 2000 F2 tomato
plants and doesn’t find any F2 offspring that produce fruits as small as Little Pete or
as large as Big Boy. If we assume that the differences in fruit size of these varieties
are produced by genes with equal and additive effects, what can we conclude about
the minimum number of loci with pairs of alleles determining the differences in
fruit size of the two varieties?

Solution:
That six or more loci are involved. Generally, (¼)n of the F2 progeny should
resemble one of the homozygous parents, where n is the number of loci with pairs
of alleles that determine the differences in the trait. If five genes were involved, the
farmer should have found approximately 1/1000 of the F2 that resembled either
Little Pete or Big Boy. Because he did not, we can conclude that at least six loci are
involved in the difference in fruit size between the two varieties: (¼)6 = 1/4096
would be expected to resemble one of the parents if six loci were involved.
20. Seed size in a plant is a polygenic characteristic. A grower crosses two pure-
breeding varieties of the plant and measures seed size in the F1 progeny. She then
backcrosses the F1 plants to one of the parental varieties and measures seed size in
the backcross progeny. The grower finds that seed size in the backcross progeny has
a higher variance than seed size in the F1 progeny. Explain why the backcross
progeny are more variable.

Solution:
The F1 progeny all have the same genetic makeup: They are all heterozygotes for
the loci that differ between the two pure-breeding strains. The backcross progeny
will have much greater genetic diversity as a result of the genetic diversity from
meiosis of the F1 heterozygotes.

Section 24.2

21. The following data are the numbers of digits per foot in 25 guinea pigs. Construct a
frequency distribution for these data.

4, 4, 4, 5, 3, 4, 3, 4, 4, 5, 4, 4, 3, 2, 4, 4, 5, 6, 4, 4, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5

Solution:

Frequency distribution of digits in feet

of guinea pigs
Frequency in sample of 25

20

15

10 Number of…
feet

2 3 4 5 6
Number of digits per foot

*22. Ten male Harvard students were weighed in 1916. Their weights are given here in
kilograms. Calculate the mean, variance, and standard deviation for these weights.

51, 69, 69, 57, 61, 57, 75, 105, 69, 63

 Solution:
xi |xi – mean| (xi – mean)2
51 16.6 275.56
69 1.4 1.96
69 1.4 1.96
57 10.6 112.36
61 6.6 43.56
57 10.6 112.36
75 7.4 54.76
105 37.4 1398.76
69 1.4 1.96
63 4.6 21.16
Sum = 676  = 2024.4
Mean = 67.6

The sum of the weights is 676, divided by 10 students, yields a mean of 67.6 kg.
̅)
The variance is: ∑( = 2024.4/9 = 224.9
The standard deviation = √ = 15

23. Among a population of tadpoles, the correlation coefficient for size at

metamorphosis and time required for metamorphosis is –0.74. On the basis of this
correlation, what conclusions can you make about the relative sizes of tadpoles that
metamorphose quickly and those that metamorphose more slowly?

Solution:
Size at metamorphosis and time required for metamorphosis are inversely
correlated (negative correlation coefficient). The greater the time required for
metamorphosis, the smaller the size, and vice versa. Therefore, tadpoles that
metamorphose quickly are larger than tadpoles that metamorphose slowly.

*24. Body weight and length were measured on six mosquito fish; these measurements
are given in the following table. Calculate the correlation coefficient for weight and
length in these fish.

Wet weight (g) Length (mm)

115 18
130 19
210 22
110 17
140 20
185 21
 Solution:
The correlation coefficient r is calculated from the formula
.
First, we calculate the covariance of the two traits and their standard deviations.

xi yi xi – x yi – y (xi – x )(yi – y ) (xi – x )2 (yi – y )2

115 18 –33.33 –1.5 50 1111.11 2.25
130 19 –18.33 –0.5 9.17 336.11 0.25
210 22 61.67 2.5 154.17 3802.78 6.25
110 17 –38.33 –2.5 95.83 1469.44 6.25
140 20 –8.33 0.5 –4.17 69.44 0.25
185 21 36.67 1.5 55 1344.44 2.25
x = 148.3 y = 19.5  = 360  = 8133.33  = 17.5

covxy = (xi – x )(yi – y )/(n – 1) covxy = 72 s2x = 1626.67 s2y = 3.5

sx = 40.33 sy = 1.87

r = 72/[(40.33)(1.87)] = 0.95

25. The heights of mothers and daughters are given in the following table:

Height of mother (in) Height of daughter (in)

64 66
65 66
66 68
64 65
63 65
63 62
59 62
62 64
61 63
60 62

a. Calculate the correlation coefficient for the heights of the mothers and daughters.
 Solution:
The correlation coefficient r is calculated from the formula:
.
X y
xi– x yi– y (xi– x )(yi– y ) (xi– x )2 (yi– y )2
64 66 1.3 1.7 2.21 1.69 2.89
65 66 2.3 1.7 3.91 5.29 2.89
66 68 3.3 3.7 12.21 10.89 13.69
64 65 1.3 0.7 0.91 1.69 0.49
63 65 0.3 0.7 0.21 0.09 0.49
63 62 0.3 –2.3 –0.69 0.09 5.29
59 62 –3.7 –2.3 8.51 13.69 5.29
62 64 –0.7 –0.3 0.21 0.49 0.09
61 63 –1.7 –1.3 2.21 2.89 1.69
60 62 –2.7 –2.3 .21 7.29 5.29
x = 62.7 y = 64.3  = 35.9  = 44.1  = 38.1

covxy = (xi – x )(yi – y )/(n – 1) cov(x,y) = 3.99 s2x = 4.9 s2y = 4.23
sx = 2.2 sy = 2.1

r = 3.99/[(2.2)(2.1)] = 0.88

b. Using regression, predict the expected height of a daughter whose mother is 67

inches tall.

Solution:
In the regression equation, y = a + bx, b is given by the formula and
the value of a by the equation ̅ ̅.
b = 3.99/4.9 = 0.81
a = 64.3 – 0.81(62.7) = 13.5
If the mother is 67 inches tall, the regression equation y = a + bx becomes y =
13.5 + 0.81(67) = 67.8 inches.

Section 24.3

*26. Phenotypic variation in tail length of mice has the following components:

Additive genetic variance (VA) = 0.5

Dominance genetic variance (VD) = 0.3
Genic interaction variance (VI) = 0.1
Environmental variance (VE) = 0.4
Genetic-environmental interaction variance (VGE) = 0.0

a. What is the narrow-sense heritability of tail length?

 Solution:
Narrow-sense heritability is VA/VP = 0.5/1.3 = 0.38.

b. What is the broad-sense heritability of tail length?

Solution:
Broad-sense heritability is VG/VP = (VA + VD + VI)/VP = 0.9/1.3 = 0.69.

27. The narrow-sense heritability of ear length in Reno rabbits is 0.4. The phenotypic
variance (VP) is 0.8, and the environmental variance (VE) is 0.2. What is the additive
genetic variance (VA) for ear length in these rabbits?

Solution:
Narrow-sense heritability = VA/VP = 0.4
Given that VP = 0.8, VA = 0.4(0.8) = 0.32

28. Assume that human ear length is influenced by multiple genetic and environmental
factors. Suppose you measured ear length on three groups of people, in which group
A consists of five unrelated persons, group B consists of five siblings, and group C
consists of five first cousins.

a. With the assumption that the environment for each group is similar, which
group should have the highest phenotypic variance? Explain why.

Solution:
Group A, because unrelated individuals have the greatest genetic variance.

b. Is it realistic to assume that the environmental variance for each group is

similar? Explain your answer.

Solution:
No. Siblings from the same family and who are raised in the same house should
have smaller environmental variance than group A of unrelated individuals.

29. A characteristic has a narrow-sense heritability of 0.6.

a. If the dominance variance (VD) increases and all other variance components
remain the same, what will happen to the narrow-sense heritability? Will it
increase, decrease, or remain the same? Explain.

Solution:
The narrow-sense heritability will decrease. Narrow-sense heritability is VA/VP.
Increasing the VD will increase the total phenotypic variance VP. If VA remains
unchanged, then the proportion VA/VP will become smaller.

b. What will happen to the broad-sense heritability? Explain.

 Solution:
The broad-sense heritability VG/VP will increase. VG is the sum of VA + VD + VI.
VP is the sum of VA + VD + VI I+nV crEe.asing the numerator and denominator
of the fraction by the same arithmetic increment will result in a larger fraction,
if the fraction is smaller than 1, as must be the case for VG/VP.

c. If the environmental variance (VE) increases and all other variance components
remain the same, what will happen to the narrow-sense heritability? Explain.

Solution:
The narrow sense heritability VA/VP will decrease because the total phenotypic
variance VP will increase if VE increases.

d. What will happen to the broad-sense heritability? Explain.

Solution:
The broad-sense heritability VG/VP will decrease because VP = VG + VE will
increase.

30. Flower color in the varieties of pea plants studied by Mendel is controlled by alleles
at a single locus. A group of peas homozygous for purple flowers is grown. Careful
study of the plants reveals that all their flowers are purple, but there is some
variability in the intensity of the purple color. What would the estimated heritability
be for the variation in flower color? Explain your answer.

Solution:
The plants are homozygous for the single color locus; therefore, there is no genetic
variance: VG = 0. Because heritability is VG/VP, if VG is zero, then heritability is
zero.

*31. A graduate student is studying a population of bluebonnets along a roadside. The

plants in this population are genetically variable. She counts the seeds produced by
100 plants and measures the mean and variance of seed number. The variance is 20.
Selecting one plant, the student takes cuttings from it and cultivates them in the
greenhouse, eventually producing many genetically identical clones of the same
plant. She then transplants these clones into the roadside population, allows them to
grow for 1 year, and then counts the number of seeds produced by each of the
cloned plants. The student finds that the variance in seed number among these
cloned plants is 5. From the phenotypic variance of the genetically variable and
genetically identical plants, she calculates the broad-sense heritability.

a. What is the broad-sense heritability of seed number for the roadside population
of bluebonnets?
 Solution:
In the genetically identical population, VG = 0, and VP = VE = 5. In the original
population, VG = VP – VE = 20 – 5 = 15. The broad-sense heritability is then
VG/VP = 15/20 = 0.75.

b. What might cause this estimate of heritability to be inaccurate?

Solution:
This estimate may be inaccurate if the environmental variance of the genetically
identical population is different from the environmental variance of the
genetically diverse population. For example, the weather conditions may be
different and the transplanted clones may not be dispersed over as wide of an
area as the original 100 roadside plants.

32.y rM
esaenarchers have estimated the heritability of human traits by comparing the
correlation coefficients of monozygotic and dizygotic twins (see p. 731-732). One
of the assumptions in using this method is that two monozygotic twins experience
environments that are no more similar to each other than those experienced by two
dizygotic twins. How might this assumption be violated? Give some specific
examples of how the environments of two monozygotic twins might be more
similar than the environments of two dizygotic twins.

Solution:
One obvious way a monozygotic twins may have a more similar environment is if
the dizygotic twins differ in sex. Dizygotic twins also differ more in physical traits
than monozygotic twins. Such differences, in hair color, eye color, height, weight,
and other characteristics lead to different preferences in clothing, whether or when
eye glasses or braces are required, and differences in preferred activities such as
different aptitudes for sports.

33. What conclusion can you draw from Figure 24.18 about the proportion of
phenotypic variation in shell breadth that is due to genetic differences? Explain
your reasoning.

Solution:
The narrow-sense heritability equals the proportion of the phenotypic variance that
is due to additive genetic variance. Because the regression coefficient equals 0.7
and narrow-sense heritability equals the regression coefficient, the proportion of the
phenotypic variance in shell breadth that is due to additive genetic variance is 0.7.

*34. A genetics researcher determines that the broad-sense heritability of height among
Southwestern University undergraduate students is 0.90. Which of the following
conclusions would be reasonable? Explain your answer.

a. inS
ce Sally is a Southwestern University undergraduate student, 10% of her
height is determined by nongenetic factors.
 b. Ninety percent of variation in height among all undergraduate students in the
United States is due to genetic differences.
c. Ninety percent of the height of Southwestern University undergraduate students
is determined by genes.
d. Ten percent of the variation in height of Southwestern University undergraduate
students is determined by variation in nongenetic factors.
e. Because the heritability of height among Southwestern University students is so
high, any change in the students’ environment will have minimal impact on
their height.

Solution:
Heritability is the proportion of total phenotypic variance that is due to genetic
variance, and applies only to the particular population. Thus, the only reasonable
conclusion is (d). Statement (a) is not justified because the heritability value does
not apply to absolute height nor to an individual, but to the variance in height
among Southwestern undergraduates. Statement (b) is not justified because the
heritability has been determined only for Southwestern University students;
students at other universities, with different ethnic backgrounds and from different
regions of the country may have different heritability for height. Statement (c) is
again not justified because the heritability refers to the variance in height rather than
absolute height. Statement (e) is not justified because the heritability has been
determined for the range of variation in nongenetic factors experienced by the
population under study; environmental variation outside this range (such as severe
malnutrition) may have profound effects on height.

*35. The length of the middle joint of the right index finger was measured on 10 sets of
parents and their adult offspring. The mean parental lengths and the mean offspring
lengths for each family are listed in the following table. Calculate the regression
coefficient for regression of mean offspring length against mean parental length and
estimate the narrow-sense heritability for this characteristic.

Mean parental length (mm) Mean offspring length (mm)

30 31
35 36
28 31
33 35
26 27
32 30
31 34
29 28
40 38
33 34

Solution:
The narrow-sense heritability is equal to the regression coefficient b of a regression
of the means of the parents and the means of the offspring.
 x y
xi– x yi– y (xi– x )(yi– y ) (xi– x )2 (yi– y )2
30 31 –1.7 –1.4 2.38 2.89 1.96
35 36 3.3 3.6 11.88 10.89 12.96
28 31 –3.7 –1.4 5.18 13.69 1.96
33 35 1.3 2.6 3.38 1.69 6.76
26 27 –5.7 –5.4 30.78 32.49 29.16
32 30 0.3 –2.4 –0.72 0.09 5.76
31 34 –0.7 1.6 –1.12 0.49 2.56
29 28 –2.7 –4.4 11.88 7.29 19.36
40 38 8.3 5.6 46.48 68.89 31.36
33 34 1.3 1.6 2.08 1.69 2.56
x = 31.7 y = 32.4  = 112.2  = 140.1  = 114.4

covxy = (xi – x )(yi – y )/(n – 1) cov(x,y) = 12.47 s2x = 15.6 12.7

= 12.47/15.6 = 0.80

From the above table, the narrow-sense heritability = b = 0.8.

36. Assume that in Figure 24.14, x equals the mean phenotype of the parents and y
equals the mean phenotype of the offspring. Which line represents the highest
heritability? Explain your answer.

Solution:
The red line, with b = 1. When regressing the mean phenotype of the offspring (y)
against the mean phenotype of the parents (x), the regression coefficient b equals
the narrow-sense heritability. Because the red line has the highest regression
coefficient, it has the highest heritability.

37. a D
burzozsaotpihil is a fruit fly that feeds on the rotting fruits of cacti in Australia.
Timothy Prout and Stuart Barker calculated the heritabilities of body size, as
measured by thorax length, for a natural population of D. buzzati raised in the wild
and for a population of D. buzzati collected in the wild but raised in the laboratory
(T. Prout and J. S. F. Barker. 1989. Genetics 123:803–813). They found the
following heritabilities.

Population Heritability of body size (± standard error)

Wild population 0.0595 ± 0.0123
Laboratory-reared population 0.3770 ± 0.0203

Why do you think the heritability measured in the laboratory-reared population is

higher than that measured in the natural population raised in the wild?
 Solution:
Heritability is the proportion of total phenotypic variance that is due to genetic
variance: H2 = VG/VP. The difference in heritability between the wild population and
the laboratory-reared population could be due to either the wild population having
less genetic variance, or the wild population having greater phenotypic variance due
to greater environmental or genetic-environmental interaction variance. Because the
laboratory-reared population was collected in the wild, it is unlikely that the
laboratory-reared population has greater genetic variance than the wild population.
Therefore, the more likely explanation is that the wild population has greater
phenotypic variance due to environmental factors. Variance due to differences in
availability of food, parasitism, and ambient temperature may be some such
environmental factors.

38. Mr. Jones is a pig farmer. For many years, he has fed his pigs the food left over
from the local university cafeteria, which is known to be low in protein, deficient in
vitamins, and downright untasty. However, the food is free, and his pigs don’t
complain. One day a salesman from a feed company visits Mr. Jones. The salesman
claims that his company sells a new, high-protein, vitamin-enriched feed that
enhances weight gain in pigs. Although the food is expensive, the salesman claims
that the increased weight gain of the pigs will more than pay for the cost of the feed,
increasing Mr. Jones’s profit. Mr. Jones responds that he took a genetics class at
university and that he has conducted some genetic experiments on his pigs;
specifically, he has calculated the narrow-sense heritability of weight gain for his
pigs and found it to be 0.98. Mr. Jones says that this heritability value indicates that
98% of the variance in weight gain among his pigs is determined by genetic
differences, and therefore the new pig feed can have little effect on the growth of
his pigs. He concludes that the feed would be a waste of his money. The salesman
doesn’t dispute Mr. Jones’s heritability estimate, but he still claims that the new
feed can significantly increase weight gain in Mr. Jones’ pigs. Who is correct and
why?

Solution:
The salesman is correct because Mr. Jones’ determination of heritability was
conducted for a population of pigs under one environmental condition: low
nutrition. His findings do not apply to any other population or even to the same
population under different environmental conditions. High heritability for a trait
does not mean that environmental changes will have little effect.

Section 24.4

*39. Joe is breeding cockroaches in his dorm room. He finds that the average wing
length in his population of cockroaches is 4 cm. He chooses six cockroaches that
have the largest wings; the average wing length among these selected cockroaches
is 10 cm. Joe interbreeds these selected cockroaches. From earlier studies, he knows
that the narrow-sense heritability for wing length in his population of cockroaches
is 0.6.
 a. Calculate the selection differential and expected response to selection for wing
length in these cockroaches.

Solution:
Use the equation: R = h2 × S, where S is the selection differential. In this case, S
= 10 cm – 4 cm = 6 cm, and we are given that the narrow-sense heritability h2 is
0.6. Therefore, the response to selection R = 0.6(6 cm) = 3.6 cm.

b. What should be the average wing length of the progeny of the selected
cockroaches?

Solution:
The average wing length of the progeny should be the mean wing length of the
population plus R: 4 cm + 3.6 cm = 7.6 cm.

40. Three characteristics in beef cattle—body weight, fat content, and tenderness—are
measured, and the following variance components are estimated:

Body weight Fat content Tenderness

VA 22 45 12
VD 10 25 5
VI 3 8 2
VE 42 64 8
VGE 0 0 1

In this population, which characteristic would respond best to selection? Explain

your reasoning.

Solution:
Tenderness would respond best because it has the highest narrow-sense heritability.
The response to selection is given by the equation R = h2 × S, where the narrow-
sense heritability h2 is equal to VA/VP.

41. A rancher determines that the average amount of wool produced by a sheep in her
flock is 22 kg per year. In an attempt to increase the wool production of her flock,
the rancher picks five male and five female sheep with the greatest wool
production; the average amount of wool produced per sheep by those selected is 30
kg. Sinhte rbreeds these selected sheep and finds that the average wool production
among the progeny of the selected sheep is 28 kg. What is the narrow-sense
heritability for wool production among the sheep in the rancher’s flock?

Solution:
We use the equation R = h2 × S. The value of R is given by the difference in the
average wool production of the progeny of the selected sheep compared to the rest
of the flock: 28 kg – 22 kg = 6 kg. The value of S is the difference between the
selected sheep and the flock: 30 kg – 22 kg = 8 kg. Then, h2 = R/S = 6/8 = 0.75.
42. A strawberry farmer determines that the average weight of
individual strawberries produced by plants in his garden is 2
g. He selects the 10 plants that produce the largest
strawberries; the average weight of strawberries among these
selected plants is 6 g. He interbreeds these selected plants.
The progeny of these selected plants produce strawberries
that weigh 5 g. If the farmer were to select plants that
produce an average strawberry weight of 4 grams, what
would be the predicted weight of strawberries produced by
the progeny of these selected plants?

Solution:
Here we can use the equation R = h2 S. R, the response to
selection, is the difference between the mean of the starting
population and the mean of the progeny of the selected
parents. In this case, R = 5 g – 2 g = 3 g. S, the selection
differential, is the difference between the mean of the starting
population and the mean of the selected parents; in this case S
= 6 g – 2 g = 4 g. Substituting in the equation, we get
3 g = gh2);(4 h2 = 0.75. If the selected plants averaged 4 g, then S would be 2 g
and
R = 0.75(2 g) = 1.5 g. Therefore, the predicted average weight
of strawberries from the progeny plants would be 2 g + 1.5 g =
3.5 g.

43. Has the response to selection leveled off in the strain of corn
selected for high oil content shown in Figure 24.22? What
does this observation suggest about genetic variation in the
strain selected for high oil content?

Solution:
No. The percentage of oil content has continued to go up and
shows no signs of leveling off. This suggests that genetic
variation for oil content is still present in the strain.

*44. The narrow-sense heritability of wing length in a

population of Drosophila melanogaster is 0.8. The
narrow-sense heritability of head width in the same
population is 0.9. The genetic correlation between wing
length and head width is
–0.86. If a geneticist selects for increased wing length
in these flies, what will happen to head width?

Solution:
The head width will decrease. These two traits have high
 negative genetic correlation. Therefore, selection for one trait
will affect the other trait inversely.

45. Pigs have been domesticated from wild boars. Would you
expect to find higher heritability for weight among
domestic pigs or wild boars? Explain your answer.

Solution:
Wild boars will probably have higher heritability than
domestic pigs. Domestic pigs, because of many generations of
breeding and selection, are likely to have less variance, and
higher degree of homozygosity, for genes that affect
commercial traits such as weight.