Specimen Collection,

Handling, Transport and

Processing

1
 Part 1:
Specimen Collection
Handling and Transport

2
Specimen Quality is Important

The results of tests, as they affect patient

diagnosis and treatment, are directly
related to the quality of the specimen
collected and delivered to the laboratory.

http://www.aphl.org/aphlprograms/infectious/tuberculosis/Pages/tbtool.aspx

3
Working with Healthcare Providers
• Laboratories must develop a good working relationship
with health care providers collecting patient specimens

• Laboratories should have a reference manual for

providers that includes:
– Specimen type and volume requirements
– Specimen collection, labeling, storage and transport
instructions
– Specimen rejection criteria

• Laboratories should provide specific feedback to

individual healthcare providers regarding problems with
the quality of specimens received and provide
recommendations for improvement
4
 Specimen Types
I. Respiratory II. Non-respiratory
• Sputum • Tissue
(expectorated, • Body fluids
induced) • Blood
• Bronchoalveolar • Stool
lavage (BAL)
• Bronchial • Gastric lavage
wash/brush • Urine
• Transtracheal
aspirate
Refer to the CLSI M48-A document, Laboratory Detection and
Identification of Mycobacteria
5
Specimen Collection, Handling, Transport and Processing

RESPIRATORY (PULMONARY)
SPECIMENS

6
 Sputum
• Recently discharged material from the bronchial tree, with
minimal amounts of oral or nasal material

• Expectorated Sputum: Generated from a DEEP productive cough

• Induced Sputum: produced with hypertonic saline if patient is

unable to produce sputum on their own

• Indications for sputum collection

– To establish an initial diagnosis of TB
– To monitor the infectiousness of the patient
– To determine the effectiveness of treatment
7
 Sputum Quality
• Specimens are thick and contain
mucoid or mucopurulent material.
• Ideally, 3–5 ml in volume, although
smaller quantities are acceptable if
the quality is satisfactory.
• Poor quality specimens are thin and
watery. Saliva and nasal secretions
are unacceptable.
• Laboratory requisition form should
indicate when a specimen is induced
to avoid the specimen being labeled
as “unacceptable” quality.
Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. Laboratory detection and identification of
mycobacteria; approved guideline. CLSI Document M48-A. Wayne, PA: CLSI; 2008.

http://www.stoptb.org/wg/gli/assets/documents/29_specimen_condition_transport.doc 8
 Sputum Quality

Thick, Watery
Mucopurulent (acceptable if
induced)

Hemoptysis
Salivary
(Bloody
Sputum)

9
Indications for Sputum Collection
• Initial diagnosis of TB:
• Collect a series of three sputum specimens, 8-24 hours
apart, at least one of which is an early morning specimen
• Optimally, sputum should be collected before the initiation
of drug therapy
• For release from home isolation:
• If patient is smear positive and on treatment: Collect
sputum until 3 specimens are negative.
• Monitoring of therapy: Obtain sputum specimens for
culture at least monthly until cultures convert to
negative
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Guidelines for Preventing the Transmission of Mycobacterium
tuberculosis in Health-Care Settings, MMWR 2005:54, RR-17 10
Specimen Collection: All aerosol producing
procedures pose a risk of exposure

Whether collecting specimen via

sputum collection or bronchoscopy, if
a patient is suspected or confirmed
of have tuberculosis, airborne
precaution must be used.

11
 Specimen Collection
• Suspect or confirmed TB patients should
be in a negative pressure room
• Specimen collection is an aerosol
generating procedure, anyone in the room
during specimen collection must wear a
particulate respirator type N-95 and be
part of the respirator protection plan
• All mycobacteria specimens are collected
into a sealed leak proof container
12
Storage and Transport of Sputum
Specimens
• Collection sites should refrigerate samples that
cannot be transported immediately to reduce
growth of contaminating organisms
• Specimens should be delivered to the laboratory
as soon as possible, within 24 hours of collection
is optimal (avoid batching)
• Laboratories may include a cold pack with
specimen transport materials

13
Pulmonary Specimens Other Than Sputum:
Collection Guidance
Specimen Collection Volume Transport
Types Requirements
Bronchoalveolar Collect washing Minimum volume 50-ml conical tube or
lavage (BAL) or aspirate in is 3 ml other sterile container
sputum trap
Bronch brush or Transport as soon as
washing Place the brush possible at room
in a sterile, leak- temperature
Endotracheal proof container
aspirate with up to 5 ml If transport is delayed
of sterile saline more than 1 hour,
Transtracheal refrigerate specimen.
aspirate

• The doubling time for other common respiratory flora is 15 to 20 minutes

• The doubling time for M. tuberculosis is 12 to 24 hours

14
Specimen Collection, Handling, Transport and Processing

NON-RESPIRATORY
(EXTRAPULMONARY) SPECIMENS

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Extrapulmonary Specimens
• The laboratory should expect to receive a variety
of extrapulmonary specimens which may be
divided into two groups
– specimens from non-sterile body sites
– specimens from normally sterile body sites
• Should be collected in a sterile leak-proof
container
• Should be transported as soon as possible
• Swabs are generally not acceptable

16
 Extrapulmonary Specimen
Collection Guidance
Specimen Recommended Volume Collection Transport Recommended
from Non- Collection Time Requirements Frequency for Isolation of
Sterile Body MTBC?
Sites
Gastric Early morning 5–10 ml is One specimen Room Yes
Aspirate before patient optimal; per day on three temperature; if
eats and while maximum consecutive days delayed >1
still in bed volume is 15 ml hour, neutralize
with 100 mg
sodium
carbonate
Urine First morning 10–15 ml One specimen If delayed >1 Yes
specimen (void minimum; per day on three hour, refrigerate
midstream) prefer up to 40 consecutive days
ml

Stool No Minimum No Refrigerate if Mainly for

recommendation volume is 1 recommendation delayed >1 diagnosis of
gram hour, do not disseminated
freeze MAC disease in
patients with
17
AIDS
 Extrapulmonary Specimen
Collection Guidance
Specimen from Volume Requirements Transport Recommended for
Normally Sterile Body Isolation of MTBC?
Sites
Cerebral Spinal Fluid 10 ml is optimal; As soon as possible at Usually paucibacillary;
minimum volume is 2-3 room temperature; do not culture may have limited
ml refrigerate sensitivity

Other Body Fluids 10-15 ml is optimal; If delayed, refrigerate Yes

(pleural, peritoneal, minimum volume is 10 ml
pericardial, synovial)

Tissues or Lymph Nodes As much as possible; As soon as possible at Yes

add 2-3 ml sterile saline room temperature (no
formalin, preservatives, or
fixatives)

Blood 10ml preferred, minimum At room temperature, do Mainly for diagnosis of

5 ml. Collect in SPS or not refrigerate or freeze disseminated MAC
heparin tube, no EDTA disease in patients with
AIDS
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Specimen Collection, Handling, Transport and Processing

SUBOPTIMAL AND UNACCEPTABLE

SPECIMENS

19
Suboptimal and Unacceptable
Specimens
• Processing of suboptimal or poor quality
specimens is a burden on both financial and
personnel resources
• Results generated from processing inappropriate
specimens may not be reliable
• Each laboratory must develop its own specimen
rejection criteria and make these criteria readily
accessible to providers
• Clinicians should be notified when a specimen is
rejected and the reason for rejection should be
provided
• Specimens collected by invasive procedures
should not be rejected
20
Possible Rejection Criteria (1)
• Labeling of specimen does not match identifiers
on requisition form
• Insufficient volume
• Dried swabs
– Swabs in general are not optimal
• Provide limited material
• Hydrophobicity of mycobacterial cell envelope
inhibits transfer to media
• Pooled sputum or urine
• Sputum left at room temperature for 24 hours
21
Possible Rejection Criteria (2)
• Broken specimen containers or leaking
specimens
• Excessive delay between specimen collection
and receipt in the laboratory
• Blood specimens collected in EDTA might be
rejected for culture as these inhibit growth of
MTB
• Tissue or abscess material in formalin
• Gastric lavage fluid if pH not adjusted within 1
hour of collection
22
Specimen Collection, Handling, Transport, and Processing
SPECIMEN TRANSPORT: REFERRAL OF
SPECIMENS WITHIN A LABORATORY
NETWORK

23
Transport of Biological Substances
(Category B)
Basic triple packaging system
• (i) a leak-proof primary receptacle(s);
• (ii) a leak-proof secondary packaging containing
sufficient additional absorbent material shall be
used to absorb all fluid in case of breakage
• For cold transportation conditions, ice or dry ice shall be placed
outside the secondary receptacle. Wet ice shall be placed in a leak-
proof container.
• (iii) an outer packaging of adequate strength for
its capacity, mass and intended use.

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Transport of Biological Substances
(Category B)

Biological Substance,
Category B

25
 Sputum Collection Kit
• Insulated mailer with address label
• UN3373 marking and proper
shipping name “Biological
Substance, Category B”
• Sterile plastic conical tube with
label
• Sealable biohazard specimen
transport

• Cool pack
• Absorbent pad
An example from the Wisconsin
State Laboratory of Hygiene • Instruction sheet

26
Transport of Biological Substances
• Transport of patient specimens is regulated by
both the Department of Transportation (DOT)
and by International Air Transport Association
(IATA) rules.

• Laboratories must have personnel trained in and

familiar with these regulations

• For details regarding these regulations, please

see the information provided in the next slide.

27
Packing and Shipping Guidance
• ASM website-Guidance: Packing and Shipping Infectious
Substances

• DOT guidance: Transporting Infectious Substances Safely

• More DOT Guidance: Infectious substances guide

• IATA website: FAQs | Infectious Substances

• FedEx Guidance: Clinical Samples, Biological Substances

Category B(UN 3373) and Environmental Test Samples

• UPS Guidance: Packing Hazardous Materials

28
Specimen Collection, Handling, Transport and Processing

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

29
 Instructions for Sputum Collection
• Healthcare providers should educate patients on proper specimen
production and collection

• Patients should also be informed of the possible infectious nature of

his or her secretions

• Specimens should be collected in appropriate tubes that are sterile,

clear, plastic, and leak-proof (50 ml screw capped centrifuge tubes
that can withstand 3000 x g are preferred)

• Proper labeling protocols should be put in place by the laboratories

• Work with TB program to provide instructions for submitters

30
 Examples for Instructions for
Sputum Collection

Pennsylvania
Department of
Health 31
 Part 2:
Specimen Processing

32
Principles of Specimen Processing
Respiratory specimens (and other specimens from non-
sterile sites) require digestion, decontamination, and
concentration:

• Digestion: Mucolytic agent used to liquefy sputum

specimens to release AFB and expose normal flora for
decontamination

• Decontamination: Toxic agent used to kill rapidly growing

normal flora that would otherwise overgrow slow growing
mycobacteria

• Centrifugation: Used to sediment bacteria following

digestion/decontamination

33
 Effect of Processing Procedure
• Reagents used for digestion and decontamination, to
some extent, are toxic to mycobacteria

• Procedures must be precisely followed

– Time in contact with digestion/decontamination reagents is
critical
– Centrifugation procedures also affect mycobacteria recovery
rates and must be carefully followed

• Culture positivity rates and contamination rates should

be monitored to evaluate performance of processing
methods
34
 Safety
• Many of the steps within the specimen processing
procedure are aerosol-generating
• The following activities should be performed in a
biological safety cabinet:
 Digestion and decontamination
 Preparation of concentrated smear
 Inoculation of culture media

• Do not disrupt airflow of the cabinet

• Avoid excess clutter inside the BSC

For more information on the biosafety practices in the Mycobacteriology

laboratory, please review the module on biosafety within this series 35
Aseptic Techniques: Getting Started
• Disinfect BSC, centrifuge, and tabletop with tuberculocidal
disinfectant (repeat after specimen and culture workup
complete)

• Perform all work on absorbent pad soaked with disinfectant to

absorb any droplets that may inadvertently occur

• When possible, leave an empty space in the rack between

each specimen tube

• Work in sets equivalent to one centrifuge load (e.g., 8

specimens at a time)
36
 Aseptic Techniques: Processing
• Use a fresh individual, disposable, sterile pipette at every step to
avoid transfer of bacilli

• To avoid droplet aerosol cross-contamination, open and remove

caps from tubes one at a time

• Add diluent to centrifuge tubes from individual tubes without the lip
of the tube touching or creating an aerosol (do not use common
containers or carboys)

• Use aerosol-proof sealed centrifuge cups

• Discard supernatant from decontaminated specimens into splash-

proof container with disinfectant. Autoclave the discard container
daily

37
Digestion & Decontamination Methods
Several methods are available for digestion and
decontamination of clinical specimens:
• N-acetyl-L-cysteine-sodium hydroxide (NALC-
NaOH)
• Commercially available: Alpha-Tec NAC-PAC™, BD
MycoPrep™
• Oxalic acid
• Cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC)-sodium chloride
• NaOH method (Petroff’s method)
• Zephiran-trisodium phosphate (Z-TSP)

38
NALC-NaOH Method: Principle
• Most common and preferred method

• Rapid and relatively effective in reducing the number of

contaminants

• Addition of the mucolytic agent 2% NALC allows

effective decontamination with 1% NaOH (less harsh on
mycobacteria) (final concentrations)

• Sodium citrate also included in digestion mixture to bind

heavy metal ions in specimen that could inactivate N-
acetyl-L-cysteine 39
 NALC-NaOH Method: Reagents
• NaOH and sodium citrate can be prepared and
combined in advance
• NALC should be prepared and added fresh daily
• Once NALC added, solution should be used within 24
hours
Volume of 4% NaOH 2.9% sodium Add NALC
digestant citrate (fresh)
needed dehydrate
50 ml 25 ml 25 ml 0.25 g
100 ml 50 ml 50 ml 0.50 g
500 ml 250 ml 250 ml 2.50 g

CLSI M-48A 40
Kent and Kubica
NALC-NaOH Method: Procedure for Sputum

1. Add equal volume of NALC-NaOH solution to 5-10 ml of sputum in

50 ml plastic screw cap centrifuge tube

2. Cap tube tightly. Invert the tube so that the NALC-NaOH solution
contacts all inside surfaces of the tube and cap and then mix the
contents for approximately 5-20 seconds with a Vortex mixer.

3. Allow mixture to stand for 15 minutes at room temperature with

occasional gentle shaking by hand.

4. Add sterile distilled water or sterile pH 6.8 phosphate buffer to the

50 ml mark on tube. Securely cap tube and mix by inversion

5. Centrifuge the tubes for 15 min at 3,000 x g using aerosol-proof

sealed centrifuge cups

41
NALC-NaOH Method: Procedure for Sputum

• After centrifugation, open centrifuge cups in BSC, slowly poor off

supernatant into splash-proof discard container containing
disinfectant
– Take care to not disturb or pour off sediment (pellet)
– Take care to avoid aerosol production and to prevent contamination of
the lip of the tube

• Wipe the lip of the tube with gauze soaked with disinfectant

• Resuspend sediment in 1-2 ml of saline solution or phosphate buffer

• Mix gently and proceed to culture inoculation and smear preparation

42
 NaOH Concentration is Key
• Recommended final concentration is 1.0% NaOH

• Concentration of NaOH can be adjusted based on contamination

rate in individual laboratories

• NaOH at a FINAL concentration of ≥2.0% can be lethal to

mycobacteria (may see decrease culture sensitivity in smear
negative specimens)
Amount of % NaOH % NaOH when Final
NaOH in 100 ml added to equal concentration of
water volume Na NaOH when
citrate added to
specimen
4.0g 4.0% 2.0% 1.0%
6.0g 6.0% 3.0% 1.5%
8.0g 8.0% 4.0% 2.0%
43
CLSI M-48A
Timing is CRITICAL
• 15 MINUTES
– Time in contact with NALC-NaOH is critical since the high
pH rapidly kills microorganisms in the specimen including
mycobacteria

• Over processing results in reduced recovery of

mycobacteria

• The importance of timing must be considered when

deciding how many specimens can be processed in
one run

44
 Specimen Processing QC
• A Negative Processing Control (10 ml sterile
water or buffer) should be included with each
batch of specimens processed

• Negative control is put through entire specimen

processing procedure and inoculated to media
• Determines if contamination is introduced during
processing or culture handling
• Assures that isolates are coming from patients and
not from any other source
45
Definition of Cross Contamination
Cross contamination: the transfer of M.
tuberculosis complex bacilli (or other
mycobacteria) from one specimen to
another specimen that does not contain
viable bacilli, causing a false positive result.
– The phenomenon of misdiagnosis of tuberculosis due
to cross contamination has been widely reported and
has significant clinical and therapeutic impact on the
patient.

46
To reduce the possibility of Cross
Contamination:
• Use daily aliquots of processing reagents and buffers.
Any leftover should be discarded.

• Never use common beakers or flasks when processing.

• Keep the specimen tubes tightly closed and clean the

outside of the tube prior to vortexing or shaking.

• Pour decontamination reagents or buffers slowly on the

side of the tube without causing any splashing. Do not
touch the container of reagents to the lip of the tube at
any time during addition.

47
To reduce the possibility of Cross
Contamination:
• Open the specimen tubes very gently to avoid aerosol
generation.

• When adding reagents to the tube, open one tube at a

time. Do not keep all the tubes open at the same time.

• Do not place tubes too close to each other in the rack

• Change gloves often

• Avoid manipulation of PT specimens

• Disinfect biological safety cabinet work surfaces

routinely.
48
 Specimen Processing Proficiency
• Digestion, decontamination, and conentration
procedures should only be performed byt rrained
laboratory staff.

• Mycobacteriology laboratories should participate in an

approved proficiency testing program.

• Proficiency in culture and identification of MTV may be

maintained by digestion and culture of 15-20 specimens
per week.

49
Specimen Collection, Handling, Transport and Processing
SPECIMENS FROM CYSTIC FIBROSIS
PATIENTS AND EXTRAPULMONARY SITES

50
Cystic Fibrosis (CF) Patients
• Specimens from CF patients are often heavily
contaminated with Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
• If it is known or discovered specimen is from a
patient with CF or notable media contamination
you can process concentrated sediment using
only the 5% oxalic acid method.

51
Oxalic Acid Processing Method for Specimens
from CF Patients
• Add an equal amount of 5% oxalic acid to:
- 5-10 ml of primary respiratory specimen or
- NALC-NaOH processed concentrated sediment

• Vortex specimen and allow to incubate at room temperature for 30

minutes, mixing every 10 minutes

• Neutralize with buffer solution

• Concentrate specimen by centrifugation for 15 minutes at ≥ 3000 x g

• Decant supernatant into splash-proof container and resuspend pellet

with buffer solution

• Inoculate media

52
Processing Gastric Lavage and Urine
• Centrifuge for 30 minutes at ≥ 3000 x g

• Discard supernatant carefully into splash-proof

container

• Re-suspend pellet in sterile distilled water

• Process suspension as for sputum (NALC-

NaOH)
53
Processing Aseptically Collected Fluids

• Cerebral spinal fluid (CSF), synovial,

pleural, peritoneal, pericardial
• No decontamination required
• Concentrate specimen to maximize the
yield of mycobacteria
• Inoculate directly to culture media

54
 Processing Tissue Specimens
• Lymph node, lung tissue, biopsies

• Tissue submitted in formalin is unsatisfactory for culture

• No decontamination required

• Process tissue specimens using a sterile tissue grinder,

or mortar and pestle

• Inoculate directly to culture media

55
Processing Blood or Bone Marrow Aspirates

• Specimens inoculated directly into MYCO/F LYTIC

bottles or BacT/ALERT MB blood medium

• Direct inoculation of blood onto a solid medium is not

recommended

• If transport is necessary, sodium polyanethol sulfate,

heparin, or citrate may be used as anticoagulants

• Blood collected in EDTA and coagulated blood are not

acceptable
56
Specimen Collection, Handling, Transport and Processing

PRINCIPLES OF CENTRIFUGATION

57
 Concentration of Specimens
• Since mycobacteria do not readily sediment, centrifugation force and
time are important for maximal concentration

• Specimens should be centrifuged for at least 15 minutes at 3000 x g

• Revolutions per minute (rpm) is a measure of speed for a particular

centrifuge head and not a measure of concentration efficiency or
relative centrifugal force (RCF)

• The relative centrifugal force is measured in units and is expressed

in multiples of the earth’s gravitational field abbreviated as g

• Use of a refrigerated centrifuge at 8 to 10°C may help to eliminate

heat build-up which could be lethal to mycobacteria

58
 Calculation of Centrifugal Force
Formula for calculating a particular centrifugal force
is:
RCF = 1.12r (RPM/1000) 2
where r is the radius, which is the distance in
mm from the center of rotation to a point
within the rotor, and RPM (revolutions per
minute), which is the speed of rotation

• This information should be published in many of

the centrifuge manufacturers instruction manuals
Note: Nomogram attached in Resources section
59
Specimen Collection, Handling, Transport and Processing

QUALITY INDICATORS

60
 Quality Indicators: Contamination Rate
• “Contamination” occurs when inoculated media is completely
compromised due to overgrowth with non-acid fast
organisms.

• Contamination Rate monitors specimen preparation and the

decontamination process

• Calculation of contamination rate in Liquid media:

– Numerator: number of inoculated broth cultures discarded or re-
decontaminated in 1 month due to contamination
– Denominator: total number of broth cultures inoculated in one month

• Calculation of contamination rate in Solid media:

– Numerator: number of inoculated solid media slants or plates discarded in 1
month due to contamination
– Denominator: total number of solid media slants or plates inoculated in one
month
61
Contamination Rates
• Acceptable overall rates of contamination
– Solid media (LJ) is 2-5%
– Liquid media (MGIT960) is 7-8%
– Contamination rates for the individual laboratory can be affected
by the type of media used (i.e. media containing antibiotics)

• A contamination rate less than that of the acceptable

rate indicates that processing methods are too harsh
– NaOH concentration too high
– Specimen exposure time to NALC-NaOH too long

• A contamination rate greater than that of the acceptable

rate could indicate a pre-analytical problem, an
inadequate decontamination process, or both

62
APHL, 2009, Assessing your Laboratory
Potential Causes of High Contamination Rates

• Lack of appropriate sputum collection guidance for patients

• Delays in transport

• Lack of refrigeration prior to transport

• Inappropriate storage conditions or processing delays upon

receipt in the laboratory

• Decontamination process is ineffective

– NaOH concentration too low
– Specimen exposure time to NALC-NaOH too short

CLSI M-48A 63
Quality Indicators: Positivity (Recovery) Rate

• Establishes a baseline for a given population or

geographic area

• Assists in identifying potential false positive or false

negative cultures (MTB)

• Assists in identifying environmental contamination

• Calculation of positivity rate:

– Numerator: number of cultures reported as MTB in one
month
– Denominator: total number of cultures reported (TB, NTM,
negative, contaminated) in one month.
64
Quality Indicators: Positivity (Recovery) Rate

• Expectation: Population/geographic region dependent

• Increases may be due to:

– Shift in patient population
– Cross contamination/false positives
– Contaminated reagents, media, water (NTM)
– Specimens contaminated during collection

• Decreases may be due to:

– Shift in patient population
– Problems with specimen quality
– Problems with specimen processing
– Problems with equipment or media
– Increase in contamination
65
 What should I do if Quality Indicators or
Controls are out of range?
• Ensure quality specimens are being received in the laboratory

• Ensure quality reagents and media are being used

• Ensure water used for specimen processing is sterile and

filtered

• Ensure laboratory equipment (e.g. incubators, BSCs) is

functioning properly

• Ensure protocols are followed

• Ensure staff are trained and proficient

66
 References
• Kent and Kubica, Public Health Mycobacteriology, A Guide for
the Level III Laboratory, US Public Health Service. 1985

• ASM Press, Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 10th edition.

Volume 1. James Versalovic, editor. 2011

• CLSI. Laboratory Detection & Identification of Mycobacteria;

Approved Guidelines. CLSI document M48-A. Wayne, PA:
Clinical & Laboratory Standards Institute; 2008.

• APHL/CDC. Mycobacterium tuberculosis: Assessing Your

Laboratory. 2009

67
 References
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Guidelines for Preventing the
Transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Health-Care Settings, 2005.
MMWR 2005;54(No. RR-17).

• Public Health Mycobacteriology. A Guide for the Level III Laboratory. U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services Public Health Service. Centers
for Disease Control, Atlanta, Georgia. 1985.

• D. Rickwood, T. Ford, and J. Steensgaard. Centrifugation, Essential Data.

John Wiley & Sons. Published in association with BIOS Scientific
Publishers Limited, 1994.

• Rickman TW, Moyer NP. Increased Sensitivity of Acid-Fast Smears.

Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 1980; 11:618-20.

• A Centrifuge Primer. Published by Spinco Division of Beckman Instruments,

Inc., Palo Alto, California. Copyright 1980, Beckman Instruments, Inc.

68