Proc. of the Second Intl. Conf. on Advances in Applied Science and Environmental Engineering - ASEE 2014.

Copyright © Institute of Research Engineers and Doctors, USA .All rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-1-63248-033-0 doi: 10.15224/ 978-1-63248-033-0-06

Pyrolysis of Pineapple Peel

Effect of Temperature, Heating Rate and Residence Time on the Bio-char Yield
Anurita Selvarajoo and Svenja Hanson

Abstract— The depletion of fossil fuel is creating awareness of few researches reported on extraction and purification of
the need for a sustainable future, and interest in alternative bromelain from pineapple peels [5-7].
energy sources has increased tremendously in recent years.
Pyrolysis is one of the efficient thermo-chemical method of Hu et al. [8] prepared hydrogels and polyvinyl pyrrolidone
harnessing energy from biomass. The aim of this work was to (PVPP) composite hydrogels from pineapple peel cellulose
conduct an experimental study on the pyrolysis of pineapple with 1-allyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride via different
(Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.) peel with the emphasis on the heating and cooling processes. Pineapple peels which have a
characterisation of the peels and their chars. Pineapple peel was high content of cellulose and hemicellulose were used in the
pyrolysed in a horizontal tubular reactor under inert production of bioethanol by fermentation [9] and biomethane
atmosphere. The effects of pyrolysis temperatures, heating rates
and residence time on the yield of the bio-char were investigated.
through anaerobic digestion [10]. Apart from pineapple peels,
Pyrolysis runs were performed at temperatures between 300 and investigations on other wastes from pineapple were reported
700 0C with heating rates of 5 and 50 0C min-1. The residence time elsewhere. Pineapple leaves [11, 12] and stem [13] were
was between 0 to 3 hours. The obtained bio-char ranged between utilized as low-cost adsorbent to remove basic dye (methylene
29.3 and 47.1 %wt, at different pyrolysis conditions. The blue and basic green 4) from aqueous solution by adsorption.
optimum bio-char yield was obtained at 425 0C with a heating In a different study, the juice of rotten or discarded pineapples
rate of 5 0C min-1 and residence time of 1 hour. According to the was used for ethanol production [14]. Citric acid was derived
results obtained under the conditions of this study, the pyrolysis from pineapple wastes and used in the removal of heavy
temperature had the most significant effect on bio-char yield metals from contaminated sewage sludge [15, 16].
compared to heating rate and residence time. The results from
the pyrolysis showed the potential of pineapple peel as an In general, considerable research has been conducted in
important source of solid fuel. producing char using different agricultural wastes as raw
material such as residues of rape and sunflower [17], almond
Keywords— Pyrolysis, Bio-char, Biomass, Pineapple
shell, walnut shell, almond tree pruning, olive stone [18], olive
husk, corncob, tea waste [19], pistachio shell [20], rice husk
I. Introduction [21], sunflower shell, pinecone, rapeseed, cotton refuse, olive
refuse [22], sugarcane bagasse [23], wood, hazel nut shells,
Pineapple (Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.) is an important olive husks, corn cobs, wheat straw, Lucerne pressed cake
tropical and subtropical plant widely cultivated in many places [24], and corn stover [25]. However, the use of pineapple peel
including Hawaii, Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia, Mexico, as a feedstock for pyrolysis for bio-char production has never
South Africa and China [1]. They grow only in tropical been studied. The objective of this study was to determine the
lowlands but are relatively drought tolerant. The fruit may be optimum pyrolysis temperature, heating rate and residence
oval or cylindrical and grows out of the ground surrounded by time for the formation of bio-char.
a rosette of waxy, strap-like leaves that have spines at their
tips.
Malaysia is the world’s 17th largest producer of pineapple
II. Materials and Methods
and in the year 2012, the production of pineapple reached The sample of pineapple peel was obtained from a juice
334,400 tonnes [2]. The planted area in that particular year processing mill in Johor, Malaysia. The freshly obtained
was 15,611 hectares. Pineapple is widely grown in the state of biomass has a very high moisture content of around 82% wt.
Johor, Selangor, Kelantan, Sarawak and Penang in Malaysia As an initial step, the samples was cut into smaller pieces to a
[3]. dimension of 1 x 5 cm to increase the surface area and left for
air drying. The moisture content of the samples was
Numerous studies on pineapple wastes can be found in open determined by air-drying 20 g of the sample and weighing it at
literature. Mainoo et al. [4] reported that pineapple waste can
time interval of 24 hours until there was no significant change
be decomposed in vermicomposters by E. eugeniae, a native in the weight. If the sample was not suitable for air-drying due
earthworm, recycling this waste into a soil amendment, a to very high moisture content, which can induce mould
simple and low cost technology. In the biotechnology field, a growth, it was then oven dried at temperature of 80 0C to attain
_________________________________________________ the moisture that corresponds to the air-dried moisture content.
Anurita Selvarajoo and Svenja Hanson Once the air-dried moisture content was achieved, the samples
The Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering
were ground using a grinder (Retsch, model SM100) to a
The University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus particle size of ≤5 mm. The samples were then sieved using
Malaysia sieves and a sieve shaker. Sieve sizes of 2 mm and 1 mm were

24
 Proc. of the Second Intl. Conf. on Advances in Applied Science and Environmental Engineering - ASEE 2014.
Copyright © Institute of Research Engineers and Doctors, USA .All rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-1-63248-033-0 doi: 10.15224/ 978-1-63248-033-0-06

used to segregate the samples. The sample fraction retained on

the 1 mm sieve was used for further analysis. The fine HV
particles that pass through the 1 mm sieve were discarded as
fine particles may cause blockage to the pyrolysis unit.
The pyrolysis experiments were carried out in an electric
tubular furnace, Carbolite model STF 12/65/550. The main
component was the stainless steel cylindrical working tube of Biochar
length 1200 mm, inner diameter 50 mm, outer diameter 60 Biomass
mm inserted into electrically heated tubular furnace. A
thermocouple was placed in the middle of the working tube to
obtain the sample temperature. A 20 g sample of pineapple
peels was placed inside the working tube of which the inlet
Figure 1 : Effect of temperature on char yield and heating value of biomass
was connected to a nitrogen (N2) tank. The flow rate of N2 was
2 Lmin-1. The outlet of the working tube was connected to a
corresponding temperature. The trend of char yield and
volumetric flask with sidearm submerged into a 5 liter beaker
heating rate at different temperature set points is shown in
filled with distilled water. Prior to each run, the reactor was
Fig.1. The char yield decreased with increasing pyrolysis
purged with N2. Pyrolysis was carried out at temperatures in
temperature. The decrease was 46.4 % (from 47.1 to 29.3 %
the 300 to 700 0C range with a heating rate of 5 0Cmin-1. At
wt) when the temperature increased from 300 to 700 0C. Based
the end of the run, the tubular furnace was switched off and
on the results, pyrolysis runs were conducted in smaller
was left to cool to room temperature. The resulting bio-char
temperature intervals to find the optimum temperature for
was collected and weighed after each test. The yield was
maximum char yield with highest heating value. The samples
calculated using (1).
were carbonized to the extent just to produce enough char with
m1 moderately high heating value. Optimum temperature for
Char yield (%) = x 100 (1)
m2 carbonization was at 425 0C for pineapple peels. It was
recorded that the char yield at optimum temperature was 39.0
m1 is the mass, in grams, of the char;
%wt. Heating value for pineapple peel char was 26.1 MJ kg-1.
m2 is the mass, in grams, of the sample;
Thermogravimetric behaviour of the samples at heating
The thermogravimetric (TG) analysis of the pineapple peel rate 5 0Cmin-1 in nitrogen atmosphere is shown in Fig. 2.
sample was carried out in a Thermo-Gravimetric Analyzer Derivative thermogravimetric (DTG) profiles of the samples,
(TGA/DSC1 Stare System Mettler Toledo) using nitrogen and which show the rate of loss in mass versus temperature, were
oxygen. In the TG analysis, 50 mg of the sample was loaded derived from the TGA curves as shown in Fig. 3. The first
into the instrument and heated from room temperature to 920 stage of the weight loss was observed when the sample was
0
C at a heating rate of 5 0Cmin-1 in nitrogen flow during heated from 25 to 110 0C. Weight losses incurred were 9.9 %.
pyrolysis test. The continuous records of weight loss and It may correspond to the loss of water and light volatile
temperature were obtained. It was used to predict char yield compounds in the pineapple peel sample. As can be observed,
and to determine degradation rates. The heating value of the devolatilization of pineapple peel started at temperature 211
0
air dried pineapple peels and the pyrolysis char were carried C. The weight loss started to decrease rapidly after that
out using an oxygen bomb calorimeter (Model 6100 Parr temperature. This corresponds to the release of volatile matter
Instruments). from the biomass. The DTG peaks differ in position and
height.
III. Results and Discussions
Studies using pineapple peels for pyrolysis to produce solid
fuel are scarce and this common Malaysian biomass waste has
never been thoroughly explored. In this work pineapple peels
was studied for determining the main characteristic of raw
biomass and their respective chars, and quantify the yield of
their solid pyrolysis products. The effect of temperature was
investigated together with heating rates and residence time.

A. Effect of Temperature
To determine the effect of temperature on char yield and
heating value, pyrolysis experiments were conducted at
temperatures ranging from 300 to 700 0C. The yield of char
was calculated using (1) and the average was taken for each Figure 2 : TG curve of different biomass sample

25
 Proc. of the Second Intl. Conf. on Advances in Applied Science and Environmental Engineering - ASEE 2014.
Copyright © Institute of Research Engineers and Doctors, USA .All rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-1-63248-033-0 doi: 10.15224/ 978-1-63248-033-0-06

and minerals in biomass) and chemical structures (e.g.

functional groups and chemical bonds) [27].
Furthermore, Demirbas [31] stated in his findings that the
heating value of the char increases with increasing both
heating rate (from 2 to 100 0C s-1) and temperature up to 477
0
C from pyrolysis of beech trunk barks. On the other hand
Apaydin-Varol et al. [20] reviewed and stated that higher final
temperatures (600 0C and above) favour gas formation and
relatively lower temperatures (400 0C and below) favour char
formation. Parihar et al. [23] also concluded a decrease in char
yield with an increase in temperature and attributes it to a
greater primary decomposition at higher temperature or to
secondary decomposition of the char residue. During
secondary decomposition, the char may also produce non-
Figure 3 : DTG curve of different biomass sample condensable products which would also contribute to the
increase in gas yield with increasing temperature of pyrolysis.
At the second stage, the derivative plot showed one The effect of temperature on the biochar yield on pineapple
observable peak at 305 0C. Maximum rate of weight loss at the peel are in agreement with the previously reported results in
peak temperature was found to be 1.45 mgmin-1. Major the literature for grapeseed and chestnut shell [32], hazelnut
devolatilization for pineapple peel ended approximately at 399 shell, walnut shell, almond shell and sunflower shell [33],
0
C. Most of the weight loss occurred at this zone where grape bagasse [34] and pistachio shell [35]. For a high char
pineapple peel lost 48.5 % of the total weight. This shows that production, a low temperature, low heating rate process would
almost half of the weight loss was during the devolatilization be chosen [19].
between temperatures 154 and 423 0C. Average degradation
rates at this zone were 0.62 mgmin-1. After this temperature B. Effects of Heating Rate
slight devolatilization occurred where constant weight loss had Under the optimum pyrolysis temperature found for the
been recorded and represented by the long tailing section. It pineapple peel, the effect of heating rate was investigated
can also be seen that the rate starts to increase slowly again at using 50 0C min-1 representing high heating rate. Table 1 lists
around 600 0C. The total weight loss at the end of 920 0C was the data from the heating rate experiments. Percentage yield
90.4 %. for each sample were calculated for low and high heating rate
From Fig. 1-3, it illustrates that with increasing operating at their corresponding optimum temperature. It can be seen
temperature, the weight loss increased. With increasing that lower heating rate, 5 0Cmin-1 gave a higher yield of char
temperature, char yield decreased as the weight loss is higher compared to higher heating rate 50 0C min-1. However, the
primarily due to the initial large amount of volatiles that can percentage yield does not differ much. Pineapple peel showed
be easily released. To a lesser extent, the release of moisture a difference of 4.8 % in the char yield.
also contributes to the weight loss. As the pyrolysis proceeded, This finding is in line with Demirbas [31] and Chen et al.
the gas generated reduces the mass of the remaining char and [36]. It was explained by Tran and Rai [37] that rapid heating
also reduced the volatile matter of the biomass [26]. The leads to fast depolymerization of the solid material to primary
reducing char yield with increasing pyrolysis temperature are volatiles, while at lower heating rates dehydration to more
in line with findings from other studies found in literature [19- stable anhydrocellulose is limited, thus more yield can be
21, 26-30]. However, unique trend was observed for pineapple obtained at lower heating rates. High heating rates favour
peels in Fig.1, the char yield dropped at temperature 450 and higher liquid yields [20, 38]. Thus, it can be concluded that
475 0C and increased back at carbonization temperature 500 heating rate has an effect on the char yield, but unless very
0
C. This phenomenon is not reported in any other studies in high rates are employed it is minor compared with the effect
the literature. The possible cause for a drop in char yield could of the final carbonisation temperature considered preciously.
be due large amount of volatiles that was released during Further studies on variations within the low heating rate
pyrolysis at temperature 450 and 475 0C. Destruction of bracket are not recommended, as a tenfold increase from 5 to
cellulose and hemicelluloses that occur before 400 0C could 50 0C min-1 had comparatively little effect.
have change the char surface morphology which leads to faster
decomposition of the char. This is purely based on TABLE I. CHAR YIELD AT DIFFERENT HEATING RATE
assumptions and further tests need to be conducted to explain Sample Heating Rate
this phenomenon. Definitely, biomass cannot be represented 5 0C min-1 50 0C min-1
by a single homogeneous material and therefore, it is Pineapple Peels 39.0 34.2
necessary to examine the pyrolytic products of biomass by
simultaneously considering the differences in the physical
texture (e.g. the distribution of hemicellulose, cellulose, lignin,

26
 Proc. of the Second Intl. Conf. on Advances in Applied Science and Environmental Engineering - ASEE 2014.
Copyright © Institute of Research Engineers and Doctors, USA .All rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-1-63248-033-0 doi: 10.15224/ 978-1-63248-033-0-06

C. Effects of Residence Time References

Optimum residence time was investigated by obtaining
char yield and its heating value at smaller time intervals [1] Z.-P. Zheng, J. Ma, K.-W. Cheng, J. Chao, Q. Zhu,
between 0 to 3 hours for the pineapple peel samples. This R. C.-C. Chang, M. Zhao, Z.-X. Lin, and M. Wang,
factor was taken into account as longer residence time will "Sulfur-containing constituents and one 1H-pyrrole-
undoubtedly increase the total energy consumption for the 2-carboxylic acid derivative from pineapple [Ananas
pyrolysis process. Variation of char yield and heating value comosus (L.) Merr.] fruit," Phytochemistry, vol. 71,
with residence time for pineapple peel are plotted in Fig. 4. pp. 2046-2051, 2010.
For pineapple peels, the char yield and heating value does not [2] MARDI, "Agrofood Statistics 2012," Department of
show much variation as the residence time increased. Agriculture, Ed., ed, 2012.
[3] MARDI. (2006, 30th May ). Myfruits Malaysian
However, the energy content in the char was determined
Tropical Fruit Information System. Available:
assuming 1 kg of sample carbonised at the optimum
http://myfruits.mardi.my/main
temperature. The results are plotted in Fig. 4. Although no
[4] N. O. K. Mainoo, S. Barrington, J. K. Whalen, and L.
residence time was required to obtain char with highest energy
Sampedro, "Pilot-scale vermicomposting of
content, it cannot be justified as the sample temperature
pineapple wastes with earthworms native to Accra,
lagged from the furnace temperature and needed sufficient
Ghana," Bioresource Technology, vol. 100, pp. 5872-
time to reach and stabilize at the operating temperature.
5875, 2009.
Energy content of pineapple peels was 9.2 MJ at holding time
[5] S. Kumar, A. B. Hemavathi, and H. U. Hebbar,
of 30 minutes and increased to 10.2 MJ at 60 minutes and
"Affinity based reverse micellar extraction and
remained the same energy content for longer holding time.
purification of bromelain from pineapple (Ananas
Thus, optimum residence time with highest energy content
comosus L. Merryl) waste," Process Biochemistry,
was chosen. Optimum residence time pineapple peels was 1
vol. 46, pp. 1216-1220, 2011.
hour. It shows that the biomass samples did not need residence
[6] S. Ketnawa, S. Rawdkuen, and P. Chaiwut, "Two
time of 3 hours to complete pyrolysis which eventually
phase partitioning and collagen hydrolysis of
increase the cost of operation.
bromelain from pineapple peel Nang Lae cultivar,"
Biochemical Engineering Journal, vol. 52, pp. 205-
211, 2010.
[7] H. Umesh Hebbar, B. Sumana, and K. S. M. S.
Raghavarao, "Use of reverse micellar systems for the
extraction and purification of bromelain from
pineapple wastes," Bioresource Technology, vol. 99,
pp. 4896-4902, 2008.
[8] X. Hu, K. Hu, L. Zeng, M. Zhao, and H. Huang,
"Hydrogels prepared from pineapple peel cellulose
using ionic liquid and their characterization and
primary sodium salicylate release study,"
Carbohydrate Polymers, vol. 82, pp. 62-68, 2010.
[9] C. Ruangviriyachai, C. Niwaswong, N. Kosaikanon,
S. Chanthai, and P. Chaimart, "Pineapple Peel Waste
Figure 4: Energy content of char at different residence time
for Bioethanol Production," Journal of
Biotechnology, vol. 150, pp. 10-10, 2010.
IV. Conclusions [10] N. Bardiya, D. Somayaji, and S. Khanna,
"Biomethanation of banana peel and pineapple
Pineapple peel was studied for determining the main waste," Bioresource Technology, vol. 58, pp. 73-76,
characteristic of raw biomass and their respective char and to 1996.
quantify the solid product. The effect of temperature was [11] C.-H. Weng, Y.-T. Lin, and T.-W. Tzeng, "Removal
investigated together with heating rate and residence time. The of methylene blue from aqueous solution by
purpose of this study was to determine the characteristics of adsorption onto pineapple leaf powder," Journal of
raw biomass and their char formed for their applicability as Hazardous Materials, vol. 170, pp. 417-424, 2009.
solid fuel. Process parameters were optimized to establish [12] S. Chowdhury, S. Chakraborty, and P. Saha,
biochar as a potential solid fuel. Along with the previously
"Biosorption of Basic Green 4 from aqueous solution
described findings, this illustrates that temperature is the most
important factor determining the char yield The optimum by Ananas comosus (pineapple) leaf powder,"
condition for pineapple peel was at 425 0C with a heating rate Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces, vol. 84, pp.
of 5 0C min-1 and residence time of 1 hour with char yield of 520-527, 2011.
37.6 % wt and heating value of 27.2 MJ kg-1. [13] B. H. Hameed, R. R. Krishni, and S. A. Sata, "A
novel agricultural waste adsorbent for the removal of

27
 Proc. of the Second Intl. Conf. on Advances in Applied Science and Environmental Engineering - ASEE 2014.
Copyright © Institute of Research Engineers and Doctors, USA .All rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-1-63248-033-0 doi: 10.15224/ 978-1-63248-033-0-06

cationic dye from aqueous solutions," Journal of [26] S. Maiti, S. Dey, S. Purakayastha, and B. Ghosh,
Hazardous Materials, vol. 162, pp. 305-311, 2009. "Physical and thermochemical characterization of
[14] K. Tanaka, Z. D. Hilary, and A. Ishizaki, rice husk char as a potential biomass energy source,"
"Investigation of the utility of pineapple juice and Bioresource Technology, vol. 97, pp. 2065-2070,
pineapple waste material as low-cost substrate for 2006.
ethanol fermentation by Zymomonas mobilis," [27] N. Worasuwannarak, T. Sonobe, and W.
Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering, vol. 87, Tanthapanichakoon, "Pyrolysis behaviors of rice
pp. 642-646, 1999. straw, rice husk, and corncob by TG-MS technique,"
[15] D. Del Mundo Dacera and S. Babel, "Removal of Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, vol. 78,
heavy metals from contaminated sewage sludge using pp. 265-271, 2007.
Aspergillus niger fermented raw liquid from [28] Y. B. Yang, A. N. Phan, C. Ryu, V. Sharifi, and J.
pineapple wastes," Bioresource Technology, vol. 99, Swithenbank, "Mathematical modelling of slow
pp. 1682-1689, 2008. pyrolysis of segregated solid wastes in a packed-bed
[16] D. Del Mundo Dacera, S. Babel, and P. Parkpian, pyrolyser," Fuel, vol. 86, pp. 169-180, 2007.
"Potential for land application of contaminated [29] G. Chen, J. Andries, Z. Luo, and H. Spliethoff,
sewage sludge treated with fermented liquid from "Biomass pyrolysis/gasification for product gas
pineapple wastes," Journal of Hazardous Materials, production: the overall investigation of parametric
vol. 167, pp. 866-872, 2009. effects," Energy Conversion and Management, vol.
[17] M. E. Sánchez, E. Lindao, D. Margaleff, O. Martínez, 44, pp. 1875-1884, 2003.
and A. Morán, "Pyrolysis of agricultural residues [30] A. Demirbas, "Yields of hydrogen-rich gaseous
from rape and sunflowers: Production and products via pyrolysis from selected biomass
characterization of bio-fuels and biochar soil samples," Fuel, vol. 80, pp. 1885-1891, 2001.
management," Journal of Analytical and Applied [31] A. Demirbas, "Determination of calorific values of
Pyrolysis, vol. 85, pp. 142-144, 2009. bio-chars and pyro-oils from pyrolysis of beech
[18] J. F. González, S. Román, J. M. Encinar, and G. trunkbarks," Journal of Analytical and Applied
Martínez, "Pyrolysis of various biomass residues and Pyrolysis, vol. 72, pp. 215-219, 2004.
char utilization for the production of activated [32] D. Özçimen and A. Ersoy-Meriçboyu, "A study on
carbons," Journal of Analytical and Applied the carbonization of grapeseed and chestnut shell,"
Pyrolysis, vol. 85, pp. 134-141, 2009. Fuel Processing Technology, vol. 89, pp. 1041-1046,
[19] A. Demirbas, "Effects of temperature and particle 2008.
size on bio-char yield from pyrolysis of agricultural [33] A. Demirbas, "Effect of temperature on pyrolysis
residues," Journal of Analytical and Applied products from four nut shells," Journal of Analytical
Pyrolysis, vol. 72, pp. 243-248, 2004. and Applied Pyrolysis, vol. 76, pp. 285-289, 2006.
[20] E. Apaydin-Varol, E. Pütün, and A. E. Pütün, "Slow [34] I. Demiral and E. A. Ayan, "Pyrolysis of grape
pyrolysis of pistachio shell," Fuel, vol. 86, pp. 1892- bagasse: Effect of pyrolysis conditions on the product
1899, 2007. yields and characterization of the liquid product,"
[21] W. T. Tsai, M. K. Lee, and Y. M. Chang, "Fast Bioresource Technology, vol. 102, pp. 3946-3951,
pyrolysis of rice husk: Product yields and 2011.
compositions," Bioresource Technology, vol. 98, pp. [35] A. E. Pütün, N. Özbay, E. Apaydin-Varol, B. B.
22-28, 2007. Uzun, and F. Ates, "Rapid and slow pyrolysis of
[22] H. Haykiri-Acma, S. Yaman, and S. Kucukbayrak, pistachio shell: Effect of pyrolysis conditions on the
"Gasification of biomass chars in steam-nitrogen product yields and characterization of the liquid
mixture," Energy Conversion and Management, vol. product," International Journal of Energy Research,
47, pp. 1004-1013, 2006. pp. 506-514, 2007.
[23] M. F. Parihar, M. Kamil, H. B. Goyal, A. K. Gupta, [36] G. Chen, Q. Yu, and K. Sjöström, "Reactivity of char
and A. K. Bhatnagar, "An Experimental Study on from pyrolysis of birch wood," Journal of Analytical
Pyrolysis of Biomass," Process Safety and and Applied Pyrolysis, vol. 40-41, pp. 491-499, 1997.
Environmental Protection, vol. 85, pp. 458-465, [37] D. Q. Tran and C. Rai, "A kinetic model for pyrolysis
2007. of Douglas fir bark," Fuel, vol. 57, pp. 293-298,
[24] G. Maschio, C. Koufopanos, and A. Lucchesi, 1978.
"Pyrolysis, a promising route for biomass utilization," [38] A. V. Bridgwater, D. Meier, and D. Radlein, "An
Bioresource Technology, vol. 42, pp. 219-231, 1992. overview of fast pyrolysis of biomass," Organic
[25] A. Kumar, L. Wang, Y. A. Dzenis, D. D. Jones, and Geochemistry, vol. 30, pp. 1479-1493, 1999.
M. A. Hanna, "Thermogravimetric characterization of
corn stover as gasification and pyrolysis feedstock,"
Biomass and Bioenergy, vol. 32, pp. 460-467, 2008.

28