Design

High strength steels

Graz University of Technology in Austria recently hosted an international conference to share
expertise about the design and behaviour of high strength steels utilised in hydropower plant
conduits. Richard Greiner, Horst Cerjak and Gerald Zenz give more information.

T
he third international conference on high and tempered as well as thermo-mechanically
strength steels for hydro power plants processed ones, while recent applications in Japan
focused on the design concepts of pressure go even up to thermo-mechanical grades with 880
conduits in September 2013. Initiated by Professor MPa yield strength. Plate thicknesses in the range
Horst Cerjak and organised in an interdisciplinary of 100mm or even up to 200mm for sickle plates
way under the chairmanship of the above three of branches are in use and demand not only high
authors, it brought together experts from all material quality, but also a high standard of welding
engineering disciplines of hydro-steel structures technology connected with advanced quality
and pressure conduit construction – starting with assurance measures. In this regard, these “hydro-
hydraulic engineering, rock mechanics and geology, steel structures” require close cooperation between
Figure 1: Erection state of the bifurcator of
structural engineering, mechanical engineering up to many engineering disciplines to guarantee high
Limberg II pumped storage project, developed
material science and welding technology. Conference quality and safe standards. by Verbund Hydro Power AG, Austria
delegates came from hydropower companies, One main outcome of the conference was the (main diameter 7.6m, HSS of
geotechnical and hydropower consultants, hydraulic presentation of the international construction grade S550QL)
steelwork suppliers, steel fabricators, steel producers standard of pressure conduits of hydropower plants
and producers of welding consumables, as well
as from universities. Representatives were from
European countries, Japan and Africa. 0 0
The conference topics comprised planning 1 1 2 2
and construction concepts of pressure conduits
(armoured and unarmoured), structural steel
Pi = Ps Pi = Ps Pi = PPf h h
design, life cycle evaluation, as well as material i Pi
F F
quality, welding and quality assurance. This paper r r 0 0
t t
highlights just a few selected aspects dealt with
during the conference, which might be of interest C(V*F)
Uniform bedding
Uniform condition:
bedding condition: Limiting rockrock
Limiting contribution
contribution
for practitioners. More information is available in the rock-modulas min
=(b) V*F V*F Lining (rock
Figure 2: (a) Steel-Penstock (self-supporting),
rock-modulas Steel-
= min pF ≤p 0≤participation)
F
= = h cosa
0F F
2
h cosa 2

proceedings* and in the selected papers published in s = sps= pr/t

s ≤r/t0,6 fy fy
≤ 0,6
s s
a dedicated issue of the Steel Construction journal**. 11 22 3 3 4 4
t t

High strength r r
hh Pi Pi Pi Pi
Penstocks of hydropower plants are nowadays PPi i
FF

usually made of high strength steels (HSS). rr 00

tt
Diameters of about 12m and more lead to steel
structures which are no longer just usual pipes, but fictitious limitlimit
fictitious condition:
condition: Cracks
Cracksin the rockrock
in the zonezone
Uniform
Uniformbedding
beddingcondition:
condition: Limiting
Limitingrock
rockcontribution
contribution free,free,
unsupported
unsupported pipepipe V*F,V* = 0,2
redF,red V*F V*F
= 0,2
are large welded shell structures with cylindrical rock-modulas==min
rock-modulas min V* V*
FF ppFF≤≤ 00== cosa22
hhcosa =
s s i= pi r/t0,9
p r/t ≤ fy fy
≤ 0,9 Crack width
Crack s = s2r= 2r
width s ≤ ts ≤ t
FF
or conical, possibly ring-stiffened forms in ducts, ss==ppss r/t 0,6 fyfy
r/t≤≤0,6
ss
bends, manifolds or surge tank components (see the 33 Figure 3: Current
44 design criteria for steel liners under internal pressure (in Austria)
tt
example in Figure 1).
rr
Under loading conditions of internal and external
PPi i δo PPi i
pressure with large cyclic and dynamic ranges – Ro
resulting from the impact of new service modes
and pump storage operation – the structural steel
δ = 2δ o -u
r zone
design – on one hand – comprises all possible limit fictitious
fictitiouslimit
limitcondition:
condition: Cracks
Cracksininthe therock
rock zone
free,
free,unsupported
unsupportedpipe pipe V*
V*FF,red 0,2 V*
,red ==0,2 V*
FF
states (ranging from stress design and shake-down ss==ppi i r/t 0,9 fyfy
r/t≤≤0,9 Crack
Crackwidth widthss==2r2r s s≤≤t t
u
to stability and to fatigue design) to be found in
δo Rp
existing codes, eg the Eurocodes, for the design
of steel and shell structures. On the other hand, Ru
the structural behaviour present when there is PF
interaction of the steel liner with the rock mass in
u
underground penstocks leads to design conditions
which call for the close collaboration of rock ro rm ro rm
mechanics and geotechnical engineers.
The new high strength steels used in European
penstock applications include steel grades with Figure 4: Ultimate limit state of rock with cracked zone: (a) stress state,
up to 700 MPa yield strength, both quenched (b) stress resultants. R0 = (2 0 – u).rm; Rp = pf.r0; Ru = u. (rm – .r0)

34 INTERNATIONAL WATER POWER & DAM CONSTRUCTION March 2014

 Design

that were just finished, under progress or in the stage

of planning. Another outcome was an overview given
on new developments of structural design and on Vertical shaft

recent research results of steel penstocks.

ock
ct r
In addition to some general reports on pressure 5.5m Inta
Inclined shaft k
shaft design, a number of interesting projects were roc
46º ed
sen
Bifurcation No. 1 Loo
presented, which were just finished, are in progress (inclined) ret
e
10.54m onc
or being planned (see Table 1).. ll c Main pipe shells
ckfi reinforcement
4.8m Ba
External
pressure
Structural behaviour of steel liners Bifurcation No. 2
Gap
The basic design principle of underground 3.9m 4 Internal
penstocks is the assumption of whether the steel Bifurcation No. 3 pressure
3 Cracking
pipe is interacting with the rock mass or not. 4 2.8m Branch pipe
Both approaches may be found (even in current 28m
2
international projects), i.e. the design as self-
supporting pipe embedded in the rock (Figure 2a) 1 42m

or the design as lining closely interacting with the

28m
surrounding rock mass (Figure 2b).
From their mechanical background the
first develops from the idea of a free penstock Figure 6: Okumino manifold (units 1-4) and model of the rock-embedded model [3]
transferring just its weight to the rock, while the that they act like isolated corner posts marking
σ σ
second starts with the structural behaviour of an a field within which the right solution should be
unarmoured conduit utilizing the steel lining either found, rather than defining mechanically consistent
just for reasons of sealing the conduit or to carry limit states. In a consistent safety concept – e.g. as It may be noted that conservatively no strength effect
part of the internal pressure. In this case – like for given by the Eurocode-concept - clear distinctions of the rock mass has been included and that the
the unarmoured conduit – the primary stress state are made between the ultimate limit state ULS results are independent of the stiffness of the rock
σ0 in the rock mass plays an important role. (increased load level γF * pi ) and the serviceability VF*. The rock would be free of cracks up to pressures
From the point of view of erection and limit state SLS (service load level pi). While criterion pF = (2σ0-u), i.e. that the rock is confined up to rm/r0
construction, the two approaches have much 1 represents a consistent SLS-limit state on basis of =1,0 (in contrary to the current criterion 4 above).
in common, such as similar concrete backfilling an allowable stress level, the real safety level of the Particular regard should be paid to the primary
around the steel pipe or contact grouting for reasons ULS-limit state remains open. An advanced design stress σ0 which becomes the governing parameter
of outside corrosion protection etc. However, concept would therefore be needed. of the design and needs sound experience of
the second approach usually applies substantial geotechnical experts, since its magnitude is not
injection measures into the rock formation aiming Innerhofer’s approach only determined by the height of the overburden
at homogenizing the rock mass and equalizing its An advanced approach was presented at the above the pressure shaft but it may as well be
stiffness. Such measures require injection nipples conference in [1] and [2]. The main progress of influenced by previous tectonic events and local
in the lining which – considering the fatigue life this concept results from the new continuous conditions of the ground surface.
of the conduit – may form weak spots due to their description of the mechanical behaviour of the rock The derivations also comprise the expressions for
pronounced notch effects. mass around a sealed (unarmoured or armoured) the radial deflections of the rock consisting of two
The current structural design of linings with pressure shaft. The idea and derivation of this parts, i.e. that of the fractured zone (rm-r0) in radial
rock participation tries to capture the complex concept is to be credited to the work of Guntram compression and that of the sound zone (outside
mechanical effects by a number of isolated design Innerhofer, sen. It consists in the equilibrium state of rm) in circumferential tension. The interaction
criteria (Figure 3). Criterion 1 describes the well- of the rock mass after a radial crack opens and between the rock mass and the steel liner can,
known interaction of steel liner, concrete and grows to a certain depth rm . Thereby, the effect therefore, be well determined.
rock under the internal pressure pi and criterion 2 of the crack water pressure u becomes active. The second use of the radial deflection is to
roughly represents the primary stress state in the The draft in Figure 4 illustrates the equilibrium of calculate the potential width of the crack Sw. Because
rock mass. Criterion 3 represents a fictitious safety the rock mass in the primary stress state σ0 when of the composite behavior of liner and rock – both
check for the pipe without any rock support, while loaded by the pressure pF in the conduit. Under are circumferentially bonded by the effect of friction
criterion 4 provides a ductility check for the liner in increasing pressure pF the fractured zone (rm-r0) under the contact pressure pF – the opening of a
case of cracks along the rock surface. propagates as long as equilibrium is found with the crack must be bridged by the liner steel plate in a
Reconsidering the four criteria makes it clear primary stress state σ0 and the crack-water pressure localized area over the length LS (see Figure 5b). This
u. Outside the boundary rm sound rock exists. enforced elongation requires adequate ductility of
Provided that the stress state may be considered the steel and may be approximated by the plastic
fu = Rm, δ B
∆ Pl as uniform about the circumference, confinement parameters ∆εpl and ∆σpl of the material behavior.
y L s/2
∆ δ Pl µ.pF is found as long as (σr=2σ0-u) is not exceeded. As Assuming linearized stress-strain behavior as
fy t
= ReH, δF resultants, the equilibrium condition can be set up illustrated in Figure 5a, the stretched length LS and
Sw crack width
Scr by the components R0, Rp and Ru. R0 represents the the critical crack-width Scr may be determined by the
Pl
∆δ
capacity of the rock mass along the boundary rm. Rp formulae given in the figure (μ ….friction factor). The
Ls = 2∆ δ Pl .t/µ.pF is the resultant of the part pF of the internal pressure. above expressions underline the high significance
Scr = t.∆δ Pl .∆ Pl/µ.pF Ru denotes the effect of the crack water pressure of strain hardening ∆σpl and of the elongation ∆εpl
v acting along the depth of the crack. As result of the (ultimate strain eu) of the material and the ability of
(a) (b)
equilibrium, one may find expressions for the crack the wall to evenly elongate over the length LS. This
Figure 5: crack-bridging: (a) linearized depth under a given pressure pF or for pF under a means that – given the case that the longitudinal
material behavior (b) critical crack-width Scr given crack ratio rm/r0: weld was in the stretched area – overmatching of

March 2014 WWW.WATERPOWERMAGAZINE.COM 35

 Design CF

pi
nx,i
nx,i = 0.5*n A
due to axial thrust D
(corresponding to steel
conduit)
pi
CF
Table 2: Overview onConstruction Details and Design Fatigue
nx,i CF nx,i Resistances/Proposal
RF pi
nx,i = 0.5*n A
nx,i Construction Detail Wohler-Strength
D A D
due to axial thrust D
(corresponding to steel Bore hole Thread Weld
conduit)
pi
∆ ∆
R R
nx,i CF nx,i [N/mm2] 1) [N/mm2] 2)
RF
125
D A D
AHP (outside weld not ground)
N1 365 260
CF N2 160
(all welds ground flush)
pi
nx,i TIW 260 110
nx,i = v*n A 365
due to Poisson- VIW 240
action Pv
pi N3 - 340 -
CF
ZUS 340 -
nx,i CF nx,i 390
RF A pi Bohrbl. Drilled hole D = 30mm (deburred) -
Pv Pv nx,i
nx,i = v*n A
due to Poisson-
(D) (D) 1), 2) ... correction factor for wall ks=( 25 ) 0,1 ks=( 25 ) 0,2 resp 0,1
action Pv ∆RF thicknesses larger than t = 22mm t t
pi
Figure 7: Rock-embedded miter bends under
internal pressure
nx,i with axial C
thrust or
nx,iPoisson
RF A
F discussed in [2]. Practical examples show that the [3]. The good agreement of the two justified the
forces [4]
Pv Pv new approach merges the different design criteria utilization of rock-interaction at the manifolds
(D) (D)
∆RF of rock mass and liner in a mechanically consistent of the large Okumino Power Plant (1.5GW) with
Lining
ning B
Backfill way, that it allows a transparent assessment of the main diameters 5.5m and three bifurcations in
con
c
concrete
material behavior of HSS and that in many cases it HSS (Figure 6). Again, measurements and FE-
tends to a reduction in the amount of steel used. In calculations well confirmed the participation of
R addition, an overview is given in [2] of studies on the the rock, which reached a benefit of about 20%.
effects of non-uniform rock stiffness VF* along the For the design of rock-embedded miter bends,
circumference of the liner. Analogous studies on non- design formulae have been derived by analytical
uniform primary stress states of σ0 are in progress. studies and comparative numerical calculations [4].
Thereby, the effects of the specific axial forces acting
Rock participation in underground installations play an important role
O
Op
Ope
Openings
The design of special parts of linings as branch (Figure 7). The analytical formulae coincide with
f grouting
fo
for gro pipes and miter bends under internal pressure is the well-known design formulae for exposed bends
usually based on the assumption of self-supporting in the case when the bedding was neglected. The
conditions. Advanced developments for rock benefits of the new design tools are – aside from
Figure 8: Section of steel-lined pressure
participation were presented in [3] and [4]. the more economical design – mainly an improved
shaft (left), outside/inside view of
welded nipple (right) In the Hongawa Power Plant in Japan, the calculation of secondary stresses and of the stress
rock-embedded bifurcator with diameters concentrations at the miters for fatigue checks.
the weld would be significant in order to avoid the 4.7/3.5m – designed without rock participation
concentration of the elongation in the weld area. The – was used to study the interaction with the Fatigue design of HSS linings
limited potential of modern HSS to provide sufficient rock mass by in situ stress measurements and Owing to the increased use of HSS in hydro plants,
ductility and the results of undermatched welds are by FE-calculations of the rock-embedded model a research project of the Austrian Research Agency

Table 1: Projects presented

Type Status of Work Name of Plant Country Max. diameter [m] Design Pressure [mwc]
Liner in operation Limberg II Austria 4,8 670
Liner finalizing Reisseck II Austria 3,6 1050
Liner starting Obervermunt II Austria 4,5 495
Liner in progress Kaunertal Austria 4,3 1007
Liner in operation Hongawa Japan 6 - 4,7 567
Liner in operation Okumino Japan 5,5 770
Penstock in progress Teles Pires Brasil 12 53
Inlet Liner finalizing Picote II Portugal 10,7 115
Branch Pipe project basis Nant de Drance Switzerland 7,0 525
Branch Pipe project basis Grimsel 3 Switzerland 6,0 650
Liner project basis Atdorf Germany 4,8 760
Liner in progress Linthal 2015 Switzerland 4,4 785
Liner in progress Innertkirchen 1 Switzerland 2,4 670

36 INTERNATIONAL WATER POWER & DAM CONSTRUCTION March 2014

 Plane specimen Design

Plane specimen
N-NRd

Thrust ring Concrete with reinforcement

N-NRd [N/mm]
N

N-NRd

N-NRd [N/mm]
N

∆ =?

NRd = ?
h

∆ =?

NRd = ?
Figure 9: General models for testing – plane specimen (left) and cylindrical test arrangement (right)
h

FFG was conducted aiming at the fatigue design of by the Austrian Research Agency FFG – was treated steels (TM). The first application of TM heavy
linings with grouting nipples (Figure 8) in HSS-grades reported in [7]. Eight tests with planar specimens steel plates of grade 700 for liners in Austria at the PSP
700 (Q and TM), since under the new dynamic and two tests with cylindrical pipes (Figure 9b) Reisseck II and the results of the qualification program
conditions of hydropower plants the then existing were carried out and numerically analyzed. The was reported in [9]. A similar report [10] illustrates
rules for nipples usually dominated the design. main focus was finding the distribution and the procedure of material testing, of pilot testing
The report given in [5] presents the experimental magnitude of the (triaxial) concrete pressure and of welding and of its quality control for the HPP
and numerical research and the statistical derivation the axial ductility of the thrust ring in the concrete Kaunertal (Austria) where the TM steel grade 580/820
of Woehler-lines (SN-curves) for the specific nipple- – all in connection with the development of a has been selected. Highly interesting insight into the
shapes used in practical applications. A total of 35 FE-software for further simulations, which finally development of heavy steel plates for penstocks was
fatigue tests (with welded and drilled nipples) were should lead to a design model for thrust rings. The given for grades up to TM-HT950 (yield 880 MPa) by
carried out with HSS-specimens of overall dimensions outcome of the research was – firstly – that the Nippon Steel in Japan [11] and for grades up to 700
280x840mm and 15mm plate thickness. Numerical maximum concrete pressure at the thrust ring was (yield) by voestalpine in Austria [12]. ■
simulations were made for reasons of evaluation considerably higher than usually applied in current
as well as for determining the stress concentration design and – secondly – that the ductility of the
factors for the specific types of nipples. Just the thrust ring was much higher than expected and Author information
final results of the development are presented in could be well simulated by the adapted program. Em.Univ.Prof Dr. Horst Cerjak, Institute
Table 2. Concerning this data, it must be noted that The work in progress should, therefore, lead to a for Material Science and Welding; Em.
the SN-curves are based on the structural hot spot much improved design procedure as a result . Univ.Prof. Dr. Richard Greiner, Institute of
stress concept, the fatigue strength ∆σR is related to An overview on the development of steel grades Steel Structures; Univ.Prof. Dr. Gerald
Zenz, Institute of Hydraulic Engineering
2x106 cycles and to HSS of grade 700 and the slope for hydro conduits in the last 50 years was presented
and Water Resources Management, Graz
is m=5. The stress range ∆σS in the design equation in [8]. It illustrates the development from quenched
University of Technology, Austria.
(equation 2) is determined by the nominal stress and tempered steels (Q+T) to thermo-mechanically
times the stress concentration factor SCF of the
nipple times the shape factor αKoll of the load spectrum References of steel grades for hydro power conduits.
(determined without cut off limit). The safety factor γf [9] Mayrhuber,J., Kirilowitsch,C., Cejak,H.
[1] Innerhofer,G.sen. and Innerhofer,G, jun.:
= 1,35 is recommended, provided fabrication quality and Enzinger,N: Qualification procedure of
Considerations on concepts for the design
thermo-mechanical steel ALFORM 700 for
corresponds to the standard defined in the project. of pressure shafts.
pressure shaft lining of Reisseck II pumped
[2] Greiner,R., Innerhofer,G.sen. and
storage HPP.
σ Stering,W.: New design aspects for steel
σ linings of pressure shafts made of high
[10] Hammer,A., Schueller,O., Maldet,R.
and Bonapace P.: The renewal of the
strength steel.
pressure shaft for the high head hydro-
[3] Takeyama,M. and Murayama,H.:
power plant Kaunertal in Austria – part 2.
Reduction in stresses in penstock
[11] Onishi,K., Okushima,M.,
bifurcations.
σ σ [4] Lechner,A., Greiner,R. and Krueger,K.:
Kurebayashi,K., Katsumoto,H., Kamo,T.,
Kawabata,T. and Fujiwara,K.: Application of
Stress analysis in rock embedded miter
The outcome of the project are design tools TMCP to high tensile strength steel plates
bends – new derivation and extension of
for penstocks.
based on experimental evidence which fulfill the existing formulae for the use in penstocks.
[12] Egger,R., Kapl,S. and Mayrhofer,F.:
requirements of modern limit state design and [5] Greiner,R. and Lechner,A.: Fatigue
High strength heavy plates for penstocks.
allow for an amended assessment of fatigue life strength of high strength steel-linings with
of pressure shaft. Further information on research different types of grouting openings.
*The Proceedings of the Conference are
in progress on the fatigue strength of steel [6] Demal,R. and Moser,C.: Fatigue
available at www.ub.tugraz.at/Verlag with
assessment of hydro power plants-pen-
penstocks was presented in [6]. the ISBN 978-3-85125-292-7
stocks using IIW-notch concept.
** Selected papers of the conference were
[7] Unterweger,H., Ecker,A. and Stering,W.:
Thrust ring research published in the Journal Steel Construc-
Load carrying behavior of thrust rings in
The experimental and numerical research on the tion-Design and Research, Volume 6,
pressure conduits.
load carrying behavior of thrust rings (or anchor November 2013, ISSN 1867-0520(print)
[8] Cerjak,H., Enzinger,N. and Pudar,M.:
and ISSN 1867-0539(online).
rings, see Figure 9a) made of steel plates – funded Development, experience and qualification

March 2014 WWW.WATERPOWERMAGAZINE.COM 37