Counting numbers – numbers that we use in counting; also called Note: Divisibility rules for two or more relatively

relatively prime numbers (GCF

natural numbers. Using the roster method, N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5..} is 1) may be combined to serve as a divisibility rule for their
product.
Whole numbers – union of the number zero and the set of counting e.g. The rules for 3, 4, and 13 may be
numbers. Again using the roster method, W ={0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …} combined to serve as the rule for their product -
156 since 3, 4, and 13 are relatively prime.
Integers – the union of the set of counting numbers, their negatives, Prime and Composite Numbers
and zero. Using the roster method, In = {… -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5..} Prime – counting number that has exactly two factors
e.g. 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, …
Divisibility Rules Composite – counting number that has more than two factors
e.g. 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, …
2: Number ends with 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8, meaning the number is even *Note that 1 is neither prime nor composite and that 2 is the only
e.g. 512 even prime.
3: Sum of the digits (digital root) is divisible by 3.
e.g. 216 Prime Factorization
4: Last two digits form a number that is divisible by 4. - refers to both the process as well as to the result of the process
e.g. 1012 of expressing a counting number as the product of its prime
5: Last digit is 0 or 5. factors
e.g. 340 - if the counting number is already prime, its prime factorization is
6: Divisible by 2 and 3. the number itself
e.g. 192 e.g 126: 2 x 32 x 7
7: Difference obtained after subtracting twice the last digit from
the number formed by the remaining digits is divisible by 7. Methods of getting the prime factorization of numbers
e.g. 364 Repeated division by primes
8: Last three digits form a number that is divisible by 8. e.g.
e.g. 1024 2 126
9: Sum of the digital root is divisible by 9 3 63
e.g. 423 3 21
10: Last digit is 0 7
e.g. 3540 Thus, the prime factorization for 126 is 2 x 32 x 7.
11: Difference between the sum of the 1st , 3rd , 5th, … digits, and Factor Tree
the sum of the of the 2nd, 4th, 6th, … digits is divisible by 11. e.g. Again using 126:
e.g. 90816
12 Divisible by both 3 and 4. 126
e.g. 4128.
2 63
13: The sum of four times the last digit and the number formed by
the remaining digits is divisible by 13
e.g. 182 is divisible by 13 since 4 times 2 is 9 7
8, and 18 + 8 = 26 which is divisible by 13.
3 3
 Prime Factorization – write the prime factorization for each of
Thus, again, the prime factorization for 126 is 2 x 32 x the given numbers so that common, and only common, prime
7. factors are in the same column. The LCM is the product of the
Greatest Common Factor (GCF) – largest whole number divisor of highest powers occurring in a column of any of the prime
the given numbers. The GCF of two numbers, say a and b, is factorizations.
denoted by (a,b). e.g. Again, for 12, 15 and 30, we have
e.g. The GCF of 8 and 28 is 4
Methods of finding the GCF 12: 22 x 3
Intersection of Sets Method – for each of the given 15: 3x5
numbers, list their factors from least to greatest and pick 30: 2 x 3x5
out the greatest factor that is common to all lists. 22 x 3 x 5 = 60 (LCM)
e.g. Find (8, 28)
8 : {1, 2, 4, 8} Euclidean Algorithm – the LCM of two numbers may be
28: {1, 2, 4, 7, 14, 28}, obtained by dividing their product by their GCF. In symbols,
The GCF is thus 4.
Prime factorization – write the prime factorization for 𝑎×𝑏
[𝑎, 𝑏] =
each of the given numbers so that common, and only (𝑎, 𝑏)
common, prime factors are in the same column. The GCF
is the product of the lowest powers occurring in columns e.g. Find the LCM of 12 and 15.
common to all prime factorizations
e.g. Find (12, 15, 90) 12 × 15 180
12: 22 x 3 [12,15] = = = 60
(12,15) 3
15: 3 x 5
90: 2 x 32 x 5 Repeated Division – The task is to divide the two numbers by
3 = 3 (GCF) a common prime factor and dividing the resulting quotients
Least Common Multiple (LCM) of two or more counting numbers – also by a common prime factor. This step is repeated until the
the smallest non-zero number that is a multiple of the given numbers. resulting quotients are already relatively prime (GCF=1). The
The LCM of two number, say a and b, is denoted by [a, b]. LCM is product of the prime divisors and the relatively prime
e.g. The LCM of 5, 6 and 8 is 120 because it is the quotients. This may better understood through an illustration
smallest non-zero number that is a multiple of e.g. 12 and 30
5, 6 and 8. 2 12 30
Methods of finding the LCM 3 6 15
2 5
Intersection of Sets Method – for each of the given numbers,
list their multiples from least to greatest, and pick out the The LCM is therefore 60.
smallest non-zero multiple that is common to all lists.
e.g. Find [12, 15, 30] Fractions
Meanings
12: {0, 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, 84, 96, 108, 120, …} a. part of a whole or group
15: {0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 105, 120, 135,…} b. indicated division
30: {0, 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, …} c. ratio
Kinds of Fractions ad = bc.
As to relation between the numerator and the denominator
a. Proper – the numerator is less than the denominator. e.g. e.g. Find k in 3 : 5 :: k : 30.
3/4
b. Improper – the numerator is equal to or greater than the Solution: ad = bc
denominator. e.g. 5/3 3(30) = 5k
k = 18
As to relation of the denominators of two or more fractions
a. Similar – the denominators are equal. e. g. 2/5 and 4/5 Word Problems Involving
b. Dissimilar – the denominators are not equal. e.g. 3/7 and Direct Proportion – the ratios of two quantities being
4/9 compared is constant.
e.g. Five bananas weigh as much as 3 star apples. At
Other classes this rate, how many star apples will weigh as much as
a. Equivalent – fractions having the same value e.g. 3/7 and 9/21 30 bananas?
b. Mixed – composed of a whole number and a proper fraction
(e.g. 5 ¼ ) The ratio of the weight of bananas to that of apples is 5
Rules involving Zero : 3. We thus have
a. Zero numerator and non-zero denominator – the value is zero b1 : a1 = b2 : a 2
b. Zero denominator – no value, undefined 5 : 3 = 30 : a 2
c. Zero value – the numerator is zero
5a 2 = 3(30)
Ratio and Proportion a 2 =18
Ratio – comparison of two numbers a and b, where b ≠ 0, and Inverse Proportion – the product of two quantities being
expressed as “a to b”, or “a:b”, or “a/b”. compared is constant.
Proportion – a statement of equality between two ratios e.g. If 10 of a certain car model running for 3 hours
use up 150 liters of gas, how many of the same car
Given two equal ratios, one comparing a to b and another model running for 6 hours will use up the same amount
comparing c to d, the proportion may be expressed thus: of gas?
a : b :: c : d, or alternatively, a/b = c/d. a =r ×t
In either of the above forms, a and d are referred to as r1 × t1 = r2 × t2
extremes, while b and c are referred to as the means. 10 ×3 = r2 ×6
Note: If a/b = c/d, its alternation (a/c = b/d) and inversion (b/a 5 = r2
= d/c) are both true provided a, b, c, d ≠ 0.
Partitive Proportion
Finding the missing term of a proportion – As ratios may be p1 , p2 , p3 , . . . , pn , so that the
If a quantity q is to be partitioned into
treated as fractions, and proportions as equations relating two
equivalent fractions, then a missing term of a proportion may be found partitions are in the ratio
by equating the cross products and solving for the unknown. Stated
differently, the product of the means equals the product of the a1 : a2 : a3 : . . . : an ,
extremes. In symbols, given the proportion a : b :: c : d,
 then the size of the kth partition may be computed as follows: 5. Existence of Inverses – For any real number a, there exists a –
a such that a + -a = 0, and a 1/a such that a x 1/a = 1.
e.g. If 24 hours is to be partitioned into 3 parts so that the 6. Distributive Property – For any real numbers a, b and c, a(b +
parts are in the ratio 1 : 2 : 5, how many hours would c) = ab + ac.
the third part be?
B. Properties of Equality
5 1. Reflexive – if a is a real number, a = a.
p3   24 2. Symmetric – if a and b are real numbers and a = b, then b = a.
1 2  5
3. Transitive – if a, b and c are real numbers and a = b and b = c,
5
  24  15 then a = c.
8

Per Cent – literally meaning “per hundred”, it is one way of writing C. Some Basic Terms
fractions in which the denominator which is required to be 100 is 1. Variable – any symbol that is used to represent an element of
written as “%”, and read as “per cent”. a set. e.g. x, y, θ,
e.g 2. Domain – the set of all elements represented by a particular
3 75
= = 75% variable
4 100
3. Constant – a symbol with only one element in its variable. e.g.
Percentage, Base and Rate – In the statement 15 is 30% of 3, -2, π
50, three quantities are involved – Percentage (P), Rate (R), 4. Algebraic expression – a constant, a variable, or any
and Base (B). combination of constants and variables involving indicated
Percentage is that which bear to the base in the same ratio as operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
the rate. raising to a power, or extraction of a root) on them.
The statement “15 is 30% of 50”, is telling us that 15 (the
x y 1
percentage) bears to 50 (the base) in the same ratio as 30% e.g. -4 25x2 -1,3x3 – 2xy + y2, , 2x 
(the rate). In symbols, 15 = 30% x 50. 4 y
5. Polynomial – an algebraic expression consisting only of non-
The basic formula P = R x B, has two other useful forms: R =
negative integer powers of variables, and with no variable in a
P/B and B = P/R.
denominator. Among the examples of the algebraic expression
ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA above, only the last is not polynomial
A. Properties of Real Numbers 6. Term of a polynomial – a constant or a constant multiplied by
1. Closure Property – For any real numbers a and b, a + b and a non-negative integer powers of variables. A polynomial with
x b are also real numbers only 1 item is monomial; polynomial with 2 is a binomial and a
2. Commutative Property – For any real numbers a and b, a + b polynomial with 3 is a trinomial.
= b + a and a x b = b x a. e.g. -24x2 y3 z4 is a monomial
3. Associative Property – For any real numbers a, b, and c, 2x2 – 3y + xy3 is a trinomial
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c) and (a x b) x c = a x (b x c) 7. Numerical Coefficient – that constant that is multiplied by the
non-negative powers of variables in a term.
4. Existence of Identity Elements – For any real number a, there
exist real numbers 0 and 1, such that a + 0 = a and a x 1 = a.
 8. Literal Coefficient – the non-negative powers of variables in a Solution of an equation – refers to an element of the domain of the
term variable that makes the equation true
e.g. ln – 2x3y2, the numeral coefficient is -2, while the literal Solving Linear Equations – refers to the process of finding, through
coefficient is x3y2 the use of the properties of equality, all the solutions of the
9. Similar terms – terms with the same literal coefficient. If the equation
terms as not similar, they are said to be dissimilar.
10. Degree of a term – sum of the exponents of all variable factors Some Pointers in solving linear equations
of a term 1. Simplify each side of the equation by
11. Degree of a polynomial – degree of that term of the polynomial a. removing grouping symbols using the distributive law
with the highest degree b. removing fractions by multiplying both sides of the
equation by the LCD of all fractions
D. Evaluating Algebraic Expressions 2. Use the APE/SPE to have all variables only on one side of the
equation and the constants on the other
Evaluating algebraic expressions refers to the process of 3. Use the MPE/DPE to make the numerical coefficient of the
finding the value of the expression upon substitution of the variable equal to 1.
given values for the respective variables.
e.g. Evaluate x2y3 – 2y2 + 4 when x = 2 and y = -1 Solving Word Problems Involving Linear Equations
(2)2(-1)3 – 2(-1)2 + 4 Some Pointers
4(-1) – 2(1) + 4 1. Read the problem carefully.
-2 2. Determine what is to be found.
3. Choose a variable to represent an unknown, usually that which
Equation – statement expressing in symbols the relationship of needs to be found.
equality between two quantities 4. Translate word phrases to algebraic expressions.
5. Formulate the equation.
Linear Equations in one variable – an equation that can be written in 6. Solve the equation.
the form ax + b = 0, where a and b are constants and a  0. 7. Solve the problem.

e.g. 3x -4 = 0, 4- 2x = 3x +5 Example 1. Three times the sum of a number and five is 21. What
Addition and Subtraction Property of Eq.(APE, SPE) is the number?
If a, b and c are real numbers and a = b, then 3( x + 5) = 21
a + c = b + c, 3x + 15 = 21
a – c = b - c. x=2
Multiplication and Division Property of Eq.(MPE, DPE) Example no. 2. Arman is twice as old as Andrea. Two years ago,
If a, b and c are real numbers and a = b, then Arman was three times as old as Andrea. Find their ages now.
a x c = b x c, m = 2n
ac = bc, provided c  o. m – 2 = 3(n -2)
2n – 2 = 3n – 6
 4=n except that, again, instead of using the properties of equality,
Inequalities we use the properties of inequality.
Inequality – a statement that says one quantity is less than (<) or e.g.
greater than (>) another (strict inequality). In some instances, Ani’s grades in the last four tests were 85, 89, 90 and
however, one quantity may be less than or equal to (≤), or 93. What must be her grade in the fifth and last test to
greater than or equal to (≥) to another. get an average of at least 90?
e.g. 3 < 5x – 2, 4x-5 ≥ x + 15
Compound Inequality – a compound statement that says one Solution
quantity is less than (or greater than) another but is greater 85 + 89 + 90 + 93 + g5
90 ≤
than (or less than) a third. 5
e.g. -4 < 2x-3 ≤ 9 357 + g5
90 ≤
Properties of Inequality 5
1. Trichotomy – If a and b are real numbers, then a < b, a = b, or 450 ≤357 + g5
a > b. 93 ≤g5
2. Transitive – If a < b and b < c, then a < c.
If a > b and b > c, then a > c. GEOMETRY
3. Addition Property – If a, b and c are real numbers and a < b, BASIC DEFINITIONS
then a + c < b + c
If a, b and c are real numbers and a > b, then a Undefined terms: the basic geometric concepts for which no
definitions are given. These are the points, lines and planes.
Solution of a Linear Inequality – an element of the domain of the Collinear points: points that lie on the same line.
variable which makes the inequality true Coplanar points: points that lie on the same plane.
Solving a Linear Inequality – the process of finding, through the use
Space: the set of all points.
of the properties of inequality, all the solutions of the
inequality Line segment: a part of a line consisting of two endpoints and all the
points in between them.
Note: Solving a linear inequality is similar to solving linear
equations except that instead of using the properties of Ray: a part of a line having one endpoint and extending infinitely in
equality, we use the properties of inequality. one direction.
e.g. -4 ≤ 2x - 3 ≤ 9 Opposite rays: rays with a common endpoint but extending in
-4 + 3 ≤ 2x – 3 + 3 ≤ 9 + 3 opposite directions.
-1 ≤ 2x 12 Congruent segments: Two segments having the same measure or
-1/2 ≤ x ≤ 6 length.
Angle: formed by two non-collinear rays with a common endpoint.
Word Problems Involving Linear Inequalities – the steps in solving The two rays are the sides of the angle. The common endpoint of the
word problems involving linear inequalities are the same as two rays is the vertex of the angle.
those in solving word problems involving linear equations POSTULATES
 Space contains at least 4 noncoplanar points. Exterior Angle Theorem for Polygons: The sum of the
measures of the exterior angles of a convex polygon (one at
Every plane contains at least three noncollinear points.
each vertex) is 180°.
Every line contains at least two points.
TRIANGLES
Two points determine a line.
Classifying Triangles According to Sides
Three noncollinear points determine a plane.
a) Scalene: No two of its sides are congruent.
If two points are in a plane, then the line containing the points b) Isosceles: At least two of its sides are congruent.
are in the same plane.
The two congruent sides are the legs. The third side is called
If two lines intersect, then their intersection is a point. the base. The angle opposite the base is the vertex. The
If two planes intersect, then their intersection is a line. angles adjacent to the base are the base angles.
c) Equilateral: All of its sides are congruent.
POLYGONS
Classifying Triangles According to Angles
Polygon: a closed plane figure formed by fitting together segments
end to end with each segment intersecting exactly two others. a) Acute: all of its angles are acute.
b) Right: has one right angle.
Diagonal of a polygon: a line segment that connects two
nonconsecutive vertices. The hypotenuse is the longest side. The legs are the other
two sides.
Convex polygon: no diagonal is in the exterior of the polygon. c) Obtuse: One of its angles is obtuse.
Concave polygon: at least one diagonal is in the exterior of the d) Equiangular: all of its angles are congruent.
polygon. Secondary Parts of a Triangle
Equilateral polygon: all the sides have equal lengths. Altitude of a triangle: a segment from a vertex perpendicular to the
Equiangular polygon: all the angles have equal measure. line that contains the opposite side.

Regular polygon: it is both equilateral and equiangular. Median of a triangle: a segment from one vertex to the midpoint of
the opposite side.
Interior angles of a polygon: the angles formed by the sides of a
polygon. Concurrent lines: Three or more lines that meet at the same point.

Exterior angles of a polygon: the angles formed in the exterior of

the polygon when its sides are extended. QUADRILATERALS
THEOREMS A quadrilateral is a four-sided polygon.
Angle-Sum Theorems for Triangles: The sum of the measures
Kinds of Quadrilaterals
of the three angles of any triangle is 180°.
Angle-Sum Theorems for Quadrilaterals: The sum of the A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if and only if one of the following is
measures of the four angles of any quadrilateral is 360°. satisfied:
Angle-Sum Theorems for Polygons: The sum (s) of the 1. Both pairs of opposite sides are parallel.
measures of the interior angles of any polygon with n sides is 2. Both pairs of opposite sides are congruent.
given by s = (n - 2)180°. 3. Both pairs of opposite angles are congruent.
 4. Consecutive angles are supplementary. RELATIONS INVOLVING SEGMENTS AND ANGLES
5. Diagonals bisect each other.
Segment-Addition Postulate:
6. Each diagonal divides the quadrilateral into two congruent
triangles. Point Y is between X and Z if and only if X, Y, and Z are
collinear and XY + YZ = XZ.
A quadrilateral is a rectangle if and only if it is a parallelogram and
Midpoint of the segment: A point that bisects a segment, or divides
one of the following is satisfied:
a segment into two congruent segments.
1. It has four right angles.
2. Its diagonals are congruent. Bisector of the line segment: A ray, line or line segment that
A quadrilateral is a rhombus if and only if it is a parallelogram and contains the midpoint.
one of the following is satisfied: Angle bisector: A ray that contains the vertex and divides the angle
1. Its sides are all congruent. into two congruent parts.
2. Its diagonals are perpendicular.
3. Its diagonals bisect the angles of the quadrilateral.
A quadrilateral is a square if it is both a rhombus and a rectangle. PERPENDICULAR LINES AND BISECTOR OF A LINE
A quadrilateral is trapezoid if it has a pair of parallel opposite sides. Perpendicular lines: two lines that intersect at right angles.
The parallel sides are the bases and the non-parallel sides are its
Perpendicular bisector of a segment: the line which is
legs. If the legs are congruent, the trapezoid is said to be an
perpendicular to the segment at its midpoint.
isosceles trapezoid.
A trapezoid is isosceles if it satisfies one of the following: Theorem: The shortest segment from a point to the lines is the
1. Its legs are congruent. perpendicular segment.
2. Each pair of base angles is congruent.
3. Diagonals are congruent.
ANGLE PAIRS
CIRCLES
Adjacent angles: two angles with a common vertex, a common side,
Circle: the set of all points in a plane at a given distance (radius) from and no common interior points.
a given point (center) in the plane. Supplementary angles: two angles whose measures have a sum of
Radius: the line segment from the center to any point of the circle. 180°.
Chord: a line segment whose endpoints lie on the circle. Complementary angles: two angles whose measures have a sum of
Diameter: a chord containing the center. 90°.
Secant: a line that intersects the circle in two points. Vertical angles: Two angles are vertical if and only if their sides form
Tangent: a line lying on the same plane as the circle that intersects two pairs of opposite rays and their angles are nonadjacent formed by
the circle in exactly one point. two intersecting lines.
Point of Tangency: The point where the tangent touches the circle. Linear pair: two angles which are adjacent and supplementary.
Congruent circles: two or more circles having the same radius.
Theorems:
Concentric circles: two or more coplanar circles sharing the same
center. Supplements of congruent angles are congruent.
 Complements of congruent angles are congruent. Alternate interior angles: / 3 and / 6, / 4 and / 5
Vertical angles are congruent. Alternate exterior angles: / 1 and / 8, / 2 and / 7
ANGLES AND SIDES OF A TRIANGLE Same-side interior angles: / 3 and / 5, / 4 and / 6
Exterior angle of a triangle: an angle which forms a linear pair with
one of the triangle’s interior angles.
Postulates:
Remote interior angles: two interior angles of the triangle not
If parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then:
adjacent to the exterior angle.
1. the alternate interior angles are congruent.
Theorems:
2. The corresponding angles are congruent.
The measure of an exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the 3. The alternate exterior angles are congruent.
sum of the measures of the two remote interior angles. 4. The same-side interior angles are supplementary.
The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is greater COUNTING TECHNIQUES
than the length of the third side.
Experiment: any activity that can be done repeatedly (e.g. tossing a
In a triangle, if one side is longer than the other side, the angle coin, rolling a die).
opposite the longer side is the larger angle. Sample space: the set of all possible outcomes in an experiment.
Example: In rolling a die, the sample space is S = {1, 2, 3, 4,
In a triangle, if one angle is larger than the other angle, the
5, 6}.
side opposite the larger angle is the longer side. Sample point: an element of the sample space.
PARALLEL LINES AND TRANSVERSALS Example: In rolling a die, there are 6 sample points.
Counting Sample Points
Intersecting lines: coplanar lines having a point in common
1. Fundamental Principle of Counting (FPC)
Perpendicular lines: lines that intersect at right angles
If a choice consists of k steps, of which the first can be
Parallel lines: coplanar lines that do not intersect performed in n1 ways, for each of these the second can be
Skew lines: noncoplanar lines that do not intersect performed in n2 ways, for each of these the third can be
performed in n3 ways…, and for each of these the kth can be
Transversal line: a line intersecting two or more coplanar lines at made in nk ways, then the whole choice can be made in
different points n1n2n3…nk ways.
1 2 Interior angles: / 3, / 4, / 5, / 6
Example: In how many ways can two dice fall?
3 4 Exterior angles: / 1, / 2, / 7, / 8 Ans. : 6 · 6 = 36 ways
5 6 2. Permutation

Permutation is an arrangement of objects wherein the order is

Corresponding angles: / 1 and / 5, / 2 and / 6 / 3 and / 7, / 4 and / 8 important.
 a. Linear Permutation 𝒏!
nCr = , 𝒏 ≥ 𝒓.
𝒓!(𝒏−𝒓)!
If n objects are to be arranged r objects at a time, then the
number of distinct arrangements is given by the formula Example: In how many ways can a committee of 4 be chosen
𝒏! from 6 persons?
nPr = (𝒏−𝒓)! , 𝒏 ≥ 𝒓.
6!
Answer: 6C4 = 4!(6−4)! = 15 ways
Example: In how many can the first, second and third
winners may be chosen in a beauty pageant with 10 PROBABILITY
contestants?
Probability: the likelihood of the occurrence of an event.
10!
10P3 = (10−3)!
= 10 · 9 · 8 =
If E is any event, then the probability of an event denoted by
720 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 P(E) has a value between 0 and 1, inclusive. In symbol,
b. Circular Permutation 0 ≤ P (E) ≤ 1
If n objects are to be arranged in a circular manner, then If P(E) = 1, then E is sure to happen.
the number of distinct arrangements is (n - 1)!
If P(E) = 0, then E is impossible to happen.
Answer: (7 - 1)! = 6!
Moreover, is the probability that E will not happen is P(E’),
c. Permutation with Repetitions then P (E) + P (E’) = 1.
The number of distinct permutations of n things of which p
are of one kind, q are of a second kind, … r of a kth kind is 1. Theoretical Probability
Theoretically, the probability of an event E, denoted by P(E), is
𝒏!
P= 𝒑!𝒒!…𝒓!
where p + q + … + defined as
r = n. 𝒏 (𝑬)
P(E) =
𝒏 (𝑺)
Example: How many different permutations are there in the
word COMMITTEE if all letters are to be taken? where n(E) = number of favorable outcomes
9!
Answer: P= = 45 360 n(S) = number of possible outcomes
2!2!2!

3. Combination 2. Experimental Probability

Combination is the arrangement of objects regardless of order. The probability of an event may also be obtained
In other words, the order of arranging the objects is not experimentally. Suppose we want to find out the probability of
important. If n objects are to be arranged r at a time, the obtaining a tail in a toss of coin. We can perform an
number of distinct combinations is given by the formula: experiment by tossing the coin 50 times and record the
number of occurrences of tail. Suppose that tail occurred 24
 times, then the probability of getting a tail based on this frequency or percentage of the given class or category. The
experiment is categories are in turn placed in either horizontal
3. Frequency Polygon- a special type of line graph, where each
24
P (tail) = class frequency is plotted directly above the midpoint or class
50
mark of its class interval and lines are then drawn to connect
STATISTICS the points.
4. Pie Chart- an effective way of presenting categorized
Statistics is the branch of mathematics used to summarize quantities
(qualitative) distributions, where a circle is divided into sectors
of data and help investigators draw sound conclusions. Its two main
- pie-shaped pieces - which are proportional in size to the
branches are descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.
corresponding frequencies or percentages.
A sample is a specified set of measurements or data, which is drawn 5. Pictogram- known as picture graph where picture symbols are
from a much larger body of measurements or data called the used to represent values.
population.
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
Kinds of Sampling
A measure of central tendency is a single, central value that
1. Random sampling techniques are used to ensure that every summarizes a set of numerical data. The measures of central
member of the population has an equal chance of being tendency are the mean, median and mode.
included in the sample. A random sample is said to be
Measure Definitio How to find Advantages Disadvantage
representative of the entire population. The two methods of
s of n s
random sampling are lottery method and the use of the table Central
of random sampling. Tendenc
2. Systematic sampling is a technique which selects every nth y
element of the population for the sample, with the starting Mean The sum Ungrouped A single, Not
point determined at random from the first n elements. of the data: unique value appropriate for
3. Stratified random sampling is a technique of selecting data that is skewed
divided ∑𝐱 representativ distribution as
simple random samples from mutually exclusive groupings or 𝐱̅ = 𝐍
by the e of all the it is affected
strata of the population. number scores by extreme
Grouped
of data scores or
Graphical Representations of Data Data:
Stable from outliers
∑ 𝐱𝐟 group to
1. Histogram - a graphical picture of a frequency distribution 𝐱̅ =
𝐍 group
consisting of a series of vertical columns or rectangles, each
drawn with a base equal to the class interval and a height May be used
corresponding to the class frequency. The bars of a histogram in further
are joined together, that is, there are no spaces between bars. computation
2. Bar Chart- uses rectangles or bars to represent discrete s
classes of data. The length of each bar corresponds to the
Median The Ungrouped More stable Not
middle data: from group necessarily
number to group than representative
of the set The middle the mode of all scores
when the for the
data are 𝐍+𝟏
( 𝟐 ) 𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 Appropriate Unstable from
arranged for skewed group to group
in distribution
numerica Grouped Cannot be
Data:
l order used in further
analyses
Mdn = L +
𝐧
− 𝐜𝐟
𝟐
( )𝐢
𝐟

Mode The Ungrouped Easy to Not

number data: obtain necessarily
that The most representative
occurs frequent of all scores
most score
frequentl Cannot be
y in the Grouped used in further
data Data: analyses
The class
mark of the
class interval
with the
highest
frequency

MEASURES OF VARIABILITY

A measure of variation or variability describes how large the

differences between the individuals are on a trait. The common
measures of variability are range and standard deviation.
Measure Definitio How to Advantages Disadvantage ** Some parts were taken from PNU LET Reviewer 2013 Edition
s of n find s authored by Dr. Gladys Nivera and Atty. Antonio Ferrer.
Variation

Range The Ungroupe Easy to Unstable

difference d data: compute
between R = HS - Not
the LS Gives a representative
highest unique value of the set of
score and Grouped data
the lowest Data: Easy to
score understand
R = Upper Not used in
Limit of further
the computations
Highest
Class
Interval -
Lower
Limit of
the Lowest
Class
Interval
Standard The Ungroupe Most stable Affected by
deviation square d data: extreme scores
root of the Gives a
variance S= unique value More difficult to
of the set ∑(𝐱− 𝐱̅)𝟐 compute and
of data √ Most understand
𝐧−𝟏
Grouped representativ
Data: e

S= Used in
∑ 𝐟(𝐱− 𝐱̅)𝟐 further
√ computations
𝐧−𝟏