Cross Country Petroleum Pipelines Pipeline Design

STAGES OF A PIPELINE PROJECT

Conceptualization
Feasibility Study
Basic Design
Detailed Engineering
Fabrication & Installation
Testing & Commissioning

CONCEPTUALIZATION

Establish Requirement
Based on product & service
o Crude pipeline for pumping crude oil to inland refinery.
o Product pipeline for evacuation of finished product (HSD, SKO, MS,
LPG, FO, LDO, Base Oil etc.) from the refinery to consumption centres.
o Jetty pipeline for pumping Crude Oil / Finished Products received at Sea
Port locations to inland storage and distribution terminals.
o Product pipeline from port locations to consumption centres.
o Spur pipeline to supply petroleum products to major consumption centres
away from the main trunk pipeline.
o Pipeline for pumping LPG to consumption centres.

Based on Demand and available modes of transport

o Whether there is enough demand of product to be pumped to the identified
consumption centres?
o Whether the available modes of transportation are capable of handling the
projected volume of petroleum products.

Economics
o Whether it is economical to lay and operate a pipeline for pumping
petroleum product for the given product & service and demand volumes
compared to available modes of transportation?

Evaluate Constraints
o Source of supply of Petroleum products
o Demand of the Petroleum products
o Investment
o Manpower

Identify Interface With Other Systems

o Network of available mode of transportation viz road, rail, tankers.

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 Cross Country Petroleum Pipelines Pipeline Design

o How the consumption centres away from the pipeline will be linked via
road / rail?

Finalize the Concept

After an analysis of above factors, the best possible pipeline system is finalized
for detailed studies of the project proposal. Following steps are followed:

FEASIBILITY STUDIES & PIPELINE ROUTE SELECTION

Preliminary Feasibility Report (PFR)

Preliminary Feasibility Report (PFR) is the first step for any pipeline project after
conceptualisation of the pipeline requirement. This involves a Desktop study
carried out based on information available from various sources. The investment
workings are done on order of magnitude basis followed by detailed revenue
workings and viability calculations. The project viabilities are reviewed based on
Project IRR (Internal Rate of Return) concept. Proposals with IRR more than 15%
are normally progressed further by seeking needed capital funds for DFR study
which includes Field route surveys, EIA/RA study etc.

Pipeline Route Selection & Surveys

Route selection is a process of identifying constraints, avoiding undesirable areas

and maintaining the economic feasibility of the pipeline. Diversion of pipeline
around obstacles can be very costly. The ideal route, of course, would be a
straight line from the origin to the terminal point. However, physiographic,
environmental, design and construction constraints usually alter the route. The
following factors would be considered while selecting the optimal route of the
pipeline for cross-country.
i) For crude oil pipelines, shortest possible pipeline route is selected.
ii) For finished product pipelines / LPG pipelines, the shortest possible
pipeline route connecting the major consumption centres is selected.
iii) While selecting the pipeline route, care is taken to route the pipeline
away from sensitive areas like Sanctuaries, Reserve Forests, Mines,
Coastal Regulatory Zones (CRZ) etc. to the maximum extent possible.
iv) The pipeline is routed away from inhabited areas like cities, towns,
villages etc. so as to minimize the possibility of hazard from future
industrial or urban development or encroachment.
v) Any obstructions like wells, monuments, built-up areas, places of
worship, burial and public events, industries etc. that may fall on the
shortest pipeline route are avoided.
vi) The shortest possible pipeline route is selected in such a manner to
minimize no. of crossings or length of crossings at rivers, canals,
ponds, lakes, Railway tracks, major roads, steep rising or falling

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Cross Country Petroleum Pipelines Pipeline Design

grounds, existing oil, gas or water pipelines, rugged and intricate

grounds with hard strata, exposed rocks, boulders and quarries etc. to
the maximum extent possible.
vii) Existing and future development in the regions, such as roads, rail
lines, canal network, reservoirs, townships, industrial units, etc. are
also taken into consideration.

o Before going to the field, the identified refinery location or storage

terminal location (crude or finished oil) or the port location or the major
consumption centres, as the case may be, are marked on the map of state /
country and a shortest possible pipeline route is marked on the map. This
route is then tentatively transferred on the Survey of India maps avoiding
the cities, towns, villages, forests, mountains, ponds, wells etc. shown in
the maps.

Reconnaissance Survey: Based on the above, a reconnaissance survey is carried

out for the selected route. Reconnaissance Survey is carried out by visiting the site
locations which are tentatively falling on the pipeline alignment at approximately
2-3 Kms intervals and checking the selected route for any obstructions. The
pipeline route is detoured in case of obstructions as per the site conditions. The
rote after reconnaissance survey is tentatively transferred on the Survey of India
maps. Arial surveys may also be carried out.

Detailed Route Survey: In detailed route survey, topographical survey is carried

out along the route of pipeline. The centreline of pipeline alignment on the ground
is located by constructing survey monuments. Field measurements are carried out
for planimetry and profiles and drawings and documents are prepared.
A preliminary survey is made along the route of the proposed pipeline and flag
control points are established. Turning Points (TPs) are located to avoid
obstruction along the line by ranging on ground. As far as possible, TP at National
Highway, State Highway, Railways, Rivers crossings are made at right angles.
Other roads / canals may be crossed at 45º-90º.

The pipeline alignment defining centre line is staked on the ground by placing
suitably painted marker stones at Turning Points (TPs) and at Intermediate Points
(IPs) between consecutive TPs. All Turning Points (TPs) and intermediate points
are referred as Intersection Points. Permanent Bench Marks (BMs) are established
at approximately every 5 km on permanent structures on or off the right of user.
Additional permanent bench marks may be established near the major pipeline
crossing sites. Underground utilities are also located and staked for a minimum
distance of 25 metres on each side of the survey line.

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Cross Country Petroleum Pipelines Pipeline Design

Azimuth control is maintained by observation of azimuth at every fifteen to

twenty kilometres by closing the traverse on existing control points. Azimuth may
be obtained by making observations to Sun or star depending upon the location of
the area and direction control.

Slack distance measurement (Chainage) is made using steel tape or chain.

However, in case of abrupt slope change the tape / chain is straightened parallel to
the probable grading. Distance between intersection Points staked along the
pipeline route is measured and recorded. In addition, distance between level
points shall also be measured and recorded. Horizontal angles are measured using
Theodolite to indicate the change in direction of alignment and specify the
horizontal bend at the Turing Points. The continuous profile of the proposed
pipeline route is established.

In modern surveying, Detailed Route Survey is

carried out using “Total Station”. A total station
is an optical instrument. It is a combination
electronic transit (theodolite) and electronic
distance measuring device (EDM). This device
measures angles and distances from the
instrument to points to be surveyed and
calculates the actual positions (x, y, and z or
northing, easting and elevation) of surveyed
points in absolute terms.

Following types of detailed route survey drawings are generally made:

o Right of Way Planimetry

o Ground Profile
o Crossing Details
o Detailed Route Map
o Cross Section for sloping Right-of -way

Cadastral Surveys: The objective of the cadastral survey is to identify the

ownership and land use details, collect data / all other details sufficient for
acquisition of ROU under the “Petroleum and Minerals Pipeline (Acquisition of
Right of User in land) Act - 1962 and its ammendments” of Govt. of India.

Cadastral Maps are prepared on the village maps showing the pipeline route and
areas on either side of centerline of pipeline route within width of the ROU.

Details of ownership, survey numbers, Part “Hissas” on survey numbers as per the
latest official revenue records, Forms VII & XII and VI & VIII are collected.

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Cross Country Petroleum Pipelines Pipeline Design

Topographical Surveys for pumping stations, tapoff terminal lands etc.:

Topographic surveys determine the location and elevations of selected ground
points in order to plot the features (buildings, trees, fence-lines, etc.) as well as
show the differences in elevations of the ground surface. Features are drawn on
these 'topo' maps as if seen from above (plan view) along with lines of equal
elevation, known as contour lines, to show the changes in elevation.

A topographic survey requires both horizontal and vertical control to reference the
measurements of the selected features and ground elevations that will be used to
create the topographic map. Topographic surveys use horizontal and vertical
plane surveys and may be carried out using a variety of techniques including:

Theodolite/Total Station Surveys,

Aerial photogram metrical methods,
GPS

Soil Resistivity Surveys: Soil resistivity surveys measure the varying ability of
soils to conduct an electrical current which is passed through them. This is called
the electrical resistance of the soil or object. Different materials have different
resistances which are linked to moisture content, and therefore porosity. Hard,
dense features such as rock will offer a relatively high resistance to flow of
electric current while features such as a ditch, which retain moisture, offer a
relatively low resistance.

Soil Resistivity surveys are used to measure soil resistivity, chemical analysis of
soil/water and collection of other cathodic protection related data along Right of
Use (ROU) of the pipeline.

Detailed Feasibility Report (DFR)

Detailed Feasibility Study gives the detailed project costing information. Basic
engineering carried out during Detailed Feasibility forms the back bone of future
detailed engineering.

DFR consists of following sequential activities:

i) Year wise pipeline thruput projection and identification of phase wise

pipeline capacity
ii) Process Design Basis, Operating & Control Philosophy
iii) System optimization
iv) Basic Engineering starting with process design for optimum choice chosen,
v) Identification of suitable plots for major stations and preparation of station
layout plans
vi) Detailed cost estimation

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RAPID ENVIRONMENT IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA) STUDY & RISK

ANALYSIS

As per the provisions of the EIA Notification, for projects costing more than Rs. 100
crores, Environmental Clearance from Ministry of Environment & Forests (MOEF) is
required for Product Pipeline & Terminals project. Though, the Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) Report for pipeline projects is not required under this notification,
rapid EIA study (for one season) is carried out to formulate the Environmental
Management Plan (EMP). EIA report & Environmental Management Plan (EMP) are
mandatory for the terminals which are separate installations for storage & handling of
hazardous petroleum products.

The major objective of EIA study is to establish present environmental conditions in the
project area through available data/information supported by field studies wherever
necessary; to predict the impacts on relevant environmental attributes due to the
construction and operation of the proposed pipeline, pumping stations and associated
terminals, to suggest appropriate & adequate mitigation measures to minimize/reduce
adverse impacts on the environment and to prepare a EIA report including Environmental
Management Plan (EMP) for timely implementation and scheduling of the mitigation
measures.

Risk Analysis (RA) is carried out for identification of potential hazards associated with
the petroleum pipelines and terminals. Based on various product release (leak) scenarios,
release rate calculations and consequence analysis are carried out by applying standard
models/ software programs and likelihood for the failure for each scenario is predicted.
Based on the release rate calculations and consequence analysis, risk reduction measures
are formulated and terminal layouts are finalised.

BASIC DESIGN & DETAILED ENGINEERING

Pipeline is designed basis ASME B 31.4 & OISD 141 codes. In the Basic Design stage,
the pipeline system is designed for optimum line pipe diameter, flow & pressure
parameters, pipe thickness & pipe grade. No. & locations of intermediate pumping
stations, CP (Cathodic Protection) & SV (Sectionalizing Valve) stations are worked out.
For a multiproduct pipeline, batch sequencing and batch cycles are worked out. Based on
the batch cycle, tankage requirement is calculated for the pipeline system. The type line
pipe, coatings, valves etc. and configuration of pumps, telecom, instrumentation,
SCADA, Leak Detection system etc. are finalized. Process Design Basis and Operating &
Control Philosophy are finalized. The project schedule is drawn based on the completion
target.

During Detailed Engineering, the exact anticipated quantities of materials like line pipes,
coating, pumps, valves, bends etc. for pipeline system and steel plates, piping, valves etc.
for terminals are worked out. Specifications for various components of the pipeline

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system and terminals are finalized. P&IDs (Piping & Instrumentation Diagrams) are
finalized. Tendering philosophy and methodology is firmed up. Tenders are floated and
Purchase Orders are placed on contractors / vendors for various activities of a pipeline
project.

A brief description of basic pipeline design parameters is given below:

OPTIMUM LINE PIPE DIAMETER

The choice of diameter of a pipeline will have appreciable impact on investment on the
Project and subsequent operational period Line fill - Inventory Carrying Cost & Pumping
cost. With increase in diameter the initial investment and inventory carrying costs
increase but pumping costs reduce. The importance of pumping energy cost can be
assessed from the fact that typically 40-70 % of annual pipeline operating costs (i.e. with
out depreciation and Loan/Interest repayments) go for paying energy bills. Thus the
optimization is for arriving at the pipe diameter option with least overall cost of these 3
variable cost items.

Pipeline sections having same thruput will have same optimum diameter. However when
the elevation difference is substantial this may require high operating pressures or/and
may require pump stations at closer intervals within the section. Location and number of
pump stations may not influence the overall operating cost for a given diameter in a
section with uniform thruput requirement. Maximum operating pressures etc. are
considered for calculatin the optimum diameter.

Similarly , for given a set of parameters, we may find an optimum average velocity of
product across wide range of capacities, which may be used to calculate the optimum
diameter, straight from the required annual thruput.

FLOW / PRESSURE PARAMETERS

Flow / Pressure parameters depend on Pipeline length and Elevation at end points and the
maximum elevation at any point within the section. The sections are initially determined
by Originating/ End receiving locations and the intermediate Tap off points where
product deliveries are required. The chosen alignment after careful consideration of
geological and environmental features in the drawings can give maximum elevation at
intermediate points.

The maximum flow rate required in different sections can be calculated based on the
optimum diameters.

The total head for each section will have static elevation head difference of end locations
and the dynamic head in pipe friction losses. The total head can be determined from the
following formula:

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 Cross Country Petroleum Pipelines Pipeline Design

f x ( L / d) * (V2 / 2g).

The total head thus derived need to be added with required margins for other losses in
intermediate stations, bends etc.. This gives the Maximum allowable operating pressure
(MAOP) at the originating point of the section. Additional 10% margin is given over
MAOP for arriving at Maximum Design pressures.

The Design Pressure/MAOP requirements guide the choice of line pipe grade and
thickness and the no. of intermediate pump stations to be provided etc.

The grade of the pipe determines the permissible hoop stress besides various other
parameters. As per ASME B 31.4, a factor of 0.72 is applied over the Specified Minimum
Yield Strength (SMYS) which shall be equal to or greater than the hoop stress developed
at Maximum Design Pressure / MAOP. The hoop stress is calculated based on following
formula

(P.d / 2.t).

Thus the thickness of pipe depends on the pipe grade, Maximum Design Pressure/MAOP
& Optimum Diameter.

In case of different capacity requirements in different phases, line pipe grade to be chosen
out of the respective maxima requirements. The phase - II capacity of higher thruput is
met by providing additional pump station or by providing series pumps in existing pump
station or by destaging existing pumps for phase -I capacity.

BATCH SEQUENCING

Multiple products are normally transported thru cross country pipelines in batches one
after another. Gas / LPG/ Crude etc. are few exceptions where a single product is
transported.

In case of pipelines of small length like port receipt lines etc. for lighter & middle
distillate liquid products like MS , SKO, HSD etc. the respective batches may be received
and line fill evacuated by batch pig pushed with Nitrogen. In case of heavier ends like
lube base oils etc. where the vapor pressure or product interface with air is not a potential
problem, the respective pigs may be operated with compressed air. Suitable tankages
need to be available for accommodating the line fill.

In case of long distance pipelines the above technique may not be operational considering
the distance and the line fill quantity. In case of white oils, the batches of MS, HSD, ATF
etc. are flanked by SKO batches on either side. The industry practice in India is to take
the limited interface of SKO with main products MS, HSD in the latter such that the
interface SKO content does not exceed 1%, 2% of respective main product batch
quantities. Required quality margins like Octane no., Final boiling point, Sulfur, Density

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 Cross Country Petroleum Pipelines Pipeline Design

etc. in MS, Flash point, Density, SKO etc. in HSD need to be ensured for accommodating
the SKO contaminated interface. SKO is taken as a pure cut. ATF-SKO intermix is
normally taken into SKO batches. In case of Black oil pipeline, the LDO/FO interfaces
are normally downgraded into FO.

An appropriate sequencing of products to meet the estimated demands of Tap-off/

Receiving locations over a period of time is called Batch Sequencing. This Batch
sequence is expected to repeat for similar periods of time there after. This period of time
is called Batch Cycle time.

Formula for Length of the Interface generated in a Pipeline is

C = 11.75 x D 0.5 x L 0.5 x Re - 0.1

Here the D & L are diameter and length of the pipeline and Re is the dimensionless
Reynolds no. of the interface. The Reynolds no. is calculated from the formula

Re = V x D / µ,

Where V is the velocity of the product and µ is the kinematic viscosity of the interface
product.

From the above we note that interface increases with increase in Length and Diameter but
as a square root function. Similarly with increase in product velocity the interface length
decreases marginally. The variable factor remains to be diameter ‘D’ as length for a given
alignment remains same. If different diameters of pipeline sections are used in the
pipeline say of dia D1,D2,D3…. capable of producing interface lengths of C1,C2,C3…..
etc., the overall interface ‘C’ generated upon reaching the end location with out tapping
of any interface at intermediate location will be

C = (C12 + C22+ C32 +…….) 0.5

The cycle time calculated for each product based on its minimum size and average daily
demand will be varying from product to product. The largest cycle time thus calculated
will become the basis for batch cycle time. In most of the cases MS will become the basis
for Batch cycle time as the minimum batch size is larger with lower 1% SKO interface
absorption limit and the average daily demand will be relatively less compared to HSD.

Once batch cycle time is arrived at based on the critical product, Batch sequence with no.
of batches required for other products with in the Batch cycle time may be arrive at
based on their respective demands during the batch cycle time and their minimum batch
requirement. The positioning of SKO on either side of different products like MS, HSD,
ATF etc. also need to be kept in view for determining the no. of SKO batches with in the
Batch sequence. The optimum Batch sequence and with batch sizes of each of the
product at the originating location and the Delivery plan for each of the Tap off /
Receiving location for all product batches in the sequence will form the basis for

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 Cross Country Petroleum Pipelines Pipeline Design

calculation of tankage requirements at originating locations, tap off and receiving

locations.

TERMINAL STORAGE AND LOADING REQUIREMENTS

The maximum batch size or batch delivery for each product out of the batch sequence
reviewed along with various other factors will form the basis for Storage requirement at
Originating location and all Tap off/ Receipt locations. Some of these factors are –

Contingency for delay in formation/ starting or arrival of a batch. The normal practice
is to provide 5 day off take to be considered additionally over the maximum batch
size. This is typically termed as (1B + 5D).

The time between successive batches of same product to be reviewed with evacuation
and availability of requisite tankage for receipt of 2nd batch. If required 2 or more
batches will form the basis for tankage requirement. This is termed as 2B
requirement.

The minimum size of parcel to be received at originating location especially in case

of coastal inputs is one more guiding factor.

During receipt and testing of product batches operations need to be maintained from a
separate tank. Similarly for any unforeseen maintenance or for periodic 5 year
maintenance suitable flexibility need to be maintained in no. of tanks in the form of
alternate product piping connections, additional tank for each product or one single
tank to act as swing tank for all or group of products. Thus minimum 3 tanks for each
product may come out as requirement at most of the locations.

Irregular supply or demand patterns if any also need to be considered.

Suitable dead stock / roof space volumes need to be considered in arriving at Gross
tankage requirements which form the basis for cost estimation.

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