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DNA-The Molecule of Heredity

1) DNA contains the genetic instructions that determine traits by encoding proteins through RNA and protein synthesis. 2) Griffith and Avery discovered DNA as the genetic material through transformation experiments, while Hershey and Chase showed that DNA, not protein, enters bacteria during viral infection. 3) Watson and Crick discovered the double helix structure of DNA in 1953, consisting of two strands linked by complementary base pairs that allow for replication and expression of genetic information.

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Larr Sumalpong
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48 views51 pages

DNA-The Molecule of Heredity

1) DNA contains the genetic instructions that determine traits by encoding proteins through RNA and protein synthesis. 2) Griffith and Avery discovered DNA as the genetic material through transformation experiments, while Hershey and Chase showed that DNA, not protein, enters bacteria during viral infection. 3) Watson and Crick discovered the double helix structure of DNA in 1953, consisting of two strands linked by complementary base pairs that allow for replication and expression of genetic information.

Uploaded by

Larr Sumalpong
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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DNA- The Molecule

of Heredity
• DNA determines the structure of
proteins
–All living things contain proteins
–Provide complete instructions for
making proteins
–Made up of nucleotides
History of DNA
Griffith (1928)
• Tried to figure out how bacteria causes
pneumonia
• Experiment:
– 1st: injected mice with disease-causing bacteria
(all died) and again with harmless bacteria (no
sickness)
• He heated the disease-causing bacteria to kill
them and injected it into mice (mice lived)
– 2nd: mixed heat-killed bacteria with live,
harmless bacteria and injected into mice (all
died)
• Conclusion: transformation  1 strain
changed into another
– Genes control changes to organisms
History of DNA
Avery (1944)
• Repeated Griffith’s work
– Experiment: Made an extract from heat-killed
bacteria and treated it with enzymes (destroyed
organic compounds)
• Transformation still occurred
• Repeated using enzymes to break down DNA
– Transformation did not occur

• Conclusion: DNA stores and transmits


genetic info
Hershey and Chase (1952)
– Did experiments using radioactive viruses to infect
bacteria (bacteriophages)
• Used radioactive markers to determine what actually entered a
bacterial cell
– Conclusion: Discovered DNA was the genetic material of
all living things
Franklin and Wilkins (1950’s)
– Experiment: Used X-ray diffraction on DNA
– Conclusion: strands in DNA are twisted around
each other (helix)
Watson and Crick (1953)
– No experiment
– Conclusion: Discovered the structure of DNA
• Made up of 2 chains of nucleotides held together by
nitrogen bases
• Double helix (twisted ladder)
DNA in Cells
• Located in the nucleus
of cells as
chromosomes
• Packed tightly
• Consists of more than
30 million base pairs
• Complimentary DNA
strands
– Can use 1 strand to make
a copy of the other strand
using base pairing
Nucleotides
• Make up DNA
• 3 parts to a
nucleotide:
– A simple sugar
called Deoxyribose
– A phosphate group
– A nitrogen base
Nitrogen Bases
• 4 possible
nitrogen bases:
–Adenine (A)
–Guanine (G)
–Cytosine (C)
–Thymine (T)
Adenine (A) and Guanine (G)

• Double-ringed nitrogen bases


• Called purines
Thymine (T) and Cytosine (C)
• Single-ringed nitrogen bases
• Called pyrimidines
Chargaff
• % of Guanine and Cytosine are equal
• % of Adenine and Thymine are equal
• Nucleotides join together to form long
chains of complimentary base pairs
– Adenine always pairs with Thymine (A-T
or T-A)
– Guanine always pairs with Cytosine (G-C
or C-G)
Structure of DNA
• Nitrogen bases of
the nucleotides
hold 2 strands of
DNA together with
weak hydrogen
bonds
• Twisted DNA 
double helix
Sides of the ladder:
• alternating phosphate
groups and sugar
molecules

Rungs of the ladder:


• pairs of nitrogen bases
• joined by weak
hydrogen bonds
DNA Replication
• Making a copy of DNA
• DNA is copied before cell division
– Takes 6 hours in humans
– During the S phase of interphase
• DNA will separate into 2 strands
– Carried out by the enzyme DNA
polymerase
• Unzips DNA by breaking
hydrogen bonds to unwind the
double helix
– Each strand acts as a template or
model to make new DNA strands
• Makes new complimentary
strands through base-pairing
• Example:
– TACGTT – Old DNA
strand
ATGCAA – New DNA
strand
• After DNA is replicated, DNA
will have 1 old strand and 1
new strand
The Genetic Code
• DNA controls protein synthesis
• Proteins have chains of amino acids
• A code is needed to convert messenger RNA
(mRNA) into a protein
• 20 amino acids
– Codon: a group of 3 Nitrogen bases that code
for a specific amino acid
• 64 possible combinations of codons
• Some code for amino acids
• Some code for making proteins
• More than 1 codon can code for the same
amino acid
• There is 1 start codon (amino acid
methionine)
– DNA  TAC
– RNA  AUG
• There are 3 stop codons
– Code for no amino acids
The genetic code
• The sequence of nucleotides (N-bases)
is the code for what controls the
production of all proteins
Transcription
• Occurs in the nucleus
• Making an RNA copy of a part of DNA
• Makes messenger RNA (mRNA)
• Requires RNA polymerase
– Binds to and separates DNA
– Strands of DNA used as a template
– Binds to DNA regions called promoters
• 4 Steps:
– RNA polymerase unzips the DNA
– Free RNA nucleotides floating in the
cytoplasm base pair with nucleotides on
DNA strand (makes mRNA)
– mRNA strand breaks away and DNA
strands go back together
– mRNA leaves nucleus and goes out to the
cytoplasm
• Result of transcription: formation of 1 single-
stranded RNA molecule
Example: DNA mRNA
A
G
C
T
G
A
C
T
G
Example: DNA mRNA
A U
G C
C G
T A
G C
A U
C G
T A
G C
Two Types of Nucleic
Acids: RNA and DNA
DNA RNA
(3 types)
Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose

Bases G, C, A, T G, C, A, U
(uracil)
Structure Double- Single-stranded
stranded
Location in a Only in the In nucleus and
Cell nucleus cytoplasm
Base Pairing C-G and A-T C-G and A-U
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
• Brings instructions from DNA out of
the nucleus and into the cytoplasm
• Moves toward the ribosomes
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
• Makes up
ribosomes
• Binds to
messenger RNA
• Uses the
instructions from
DNA to put
amino acids in
the correct order
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
• Delivers the
amino acids to
the ribosomes to
be made into a
protein
DNA Controls Protein Synthesis
• What are proteins?
– Long chains of amino
acids (polypeptides)
– Key structures and
regulators of cell
functions
• Help with structural
parts
• Enzymes  chemical
reactions
• Help in transport
through cell
membrane
Making Proteins
• Protein production is similar to
building car
–DNA provides workers with
instructions for making proteins
–Workers build proteins (RNA)
–Other workers bring parts (amino
acids) to the assembly line
Translation
• Process of building proteins from mRNA
• Takes place in the ribosomes
• Transfer RNA (tRNA) brings amino acids to the
ribosomes
– Attaches to only 1 type of amino acid
– Amino acid will become bonded to 1 side of the tRNA
– The other side of the tRNA has 3 nitrogen bases called
an anticodon
• Pairs up with mRNA codon
• Amino acids are joined by
peptide bonds
• Anticodon bind to the codon
of mRNA through base
pairing
– Example: Codon: CGA
Anticodon: GCU
• A chain of amino acids form
until a stop codon is reached
– Translation will end
– Amino acid strand is
released from the
ribosome to become
proteins
Mutations
• Any change in the sequence of
DNA
• Can be caused by errors in:
–DNA replication
–Transcription
–Cell division
–External agents
Mutations in Reproductive
Cells: Birth Defects
• Within the egg or sperm cells
• Can produce new traits
• Can result in proteins that do
not work (can kill organism)
• Could have positive effects
– Faster
– Stronger
– Important in the evolution
of a species
Mutations in Body
Cells
• Not passed on to
offspring
• May impair cell
function
• Can affect genes
that control cell
division (cancer)
Point Mutation (substitution)
• Change in 1 N-base in
DNA
• Example: CGATTACGC
(normal DNA)
CGATTTCGC
(mutated DNA)
• Albinism
– Inability to produce
pigments
– Lethal to plants
Frameshift Mutation
• 1 N-base is added or deleted
• Changes all codons from that
point on
• Example: CGATTACGC
CGAATTACGC (N-base added)
• Example: CGATTACGC
CGTTACGC (N-base deleted)
• May cause no problems or can be
severe
• More dangerous than point
mutations
Chromosomal Mutations

• Involve many genes


• Usually very bad
– Can change location of genes or number of copies
• Involve changes in number or structure of chromosomes
• 4 types:
– Deletions  taking away
– Insertions  adding
– Inversions  switching parts
(ex: ab ba)
– Translocations  breaking
off
• Many occur from improper
separation during meiosis
Causes of Mutations
• Spontaneous or random
mutations
• Mutagens (things that
cause mutations)
– Radiation, X-Rays, UV
light, chemicals
– Carcinogens
• Source of genetic
variation

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