An Introduction To Physical Geography and The Environment PDF
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Uploaded by
CrystalAn Introduction to
Physical Geography and the Environment
Fourth edition
Physical Geography and the Environment
An Introduction to
This highly respected and best-selling textbook provides an accessible, engaging and
comprehensive introduction to the major topics within physical geography. It focuses
on understanding the inter-linkages between processes, places and environments and is
comprehensively illustrated to demonstrate how the physical environment works.
Now in its fourth edition, the book has been thoroughly updated throughout to contain the
latest research. Between them, the contributors have researched in detail every environment
on the planet, providing an unrivalled source of rich information from around the world for
both undergraduate and postgraduate study in the field of physical geography.
Main features:
• Each chapter is written by a leading specialist in the field to provide informative, expert
and practical coverage.
• A range of in-text features aid independent study including case studies, reflective
questions, highlighted glossary terms and annotated further reading.
• Boxed features, including ‘Fundamental principles’, ‘Techniques’, ‘Hazards’ and ‘New An Introduction to
Physical Geography
directions’, help apply knowledge to the real world.
• An impressively wide range of examples from around the world illustrates the physical
environment with truly global scope.
• An Introduction to Physical Geography and the Environment is accompanied by a rich
and the Environment
and extensive range of electronic support resources including updated weblinks and
an extended annotated further reading list for each chapter, multiple-choice questions,
fieldwork exercises and interactive models.
Fourth
edition
Joseph Holden is Professor of Physical Geography at the School of Geography, and also the Dean
of Research for the Faculty of Environment, University of Leeds.
Fourth edition
Joseph Holden
Edited by
Cover image: Yuji Sakai/Getty Images www.pearson-books.com
Edited by
Cover photograph: © Momatiuk – Eastcott/Corbis. Summer evening, Holtedahl Bay, Antarctica.
Joseph Holden
CVR_HOLDEN_04_39920.indd 1 25/05/2017 09:02
An Introduction to
Physical Geography
and the Environment
F01 An Introduction to Physical Ge 83575 Contents.indd 1 24/05/2017 13:34
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F01 An Introduction to Physical Ge 83575 Contents.indd 2 24/05/2017 13:34
An Introduction to
Physical Geography
and the Environment
Fourth edition
Edited by
Joseph Holden
School of Geography, University of Leeds
Harlow, England • London • New York • Boston • San Francisco • Toronto • Sydney • Dubai • Singapore • Hong Kong
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Brief contents
Preface to the fourth edition xv 12 Freshwater ecosystems 298
Contributors xvii
13 Vegetation and environmental change 323
Editor’s acknowledgements xviii
Acknowledgements xix
Part V: Geomorphology and hydrology 345
Part I: The role of physical geography 1 14 Weathering 347
1 Approaching physical geography 3 15 Slope processes and landform evolution 377
16 Sediments and sedimentation 407
17 Soils 429
Part II: Continents and oceans 27
18 Catchment hydrology 465
2 Earth geology and tectonics 29
19 Fluvial geomorphology and river management 493
3 Oceans 53
20 Solutes and water quality 525
21 Drylands 557
Part III: Past, present and future climate and
22 Coasts 584
weather 77
23 Glaciers and ice sheets 625
4 The Pleistocene 79
24 Permafrost and periglaciation 656
5 The Holocene 108
6 Atmospheric processes 137
7 Contemporary climate change 175 Part VI: Monitoring and management 675
8 Global climate and weather 195 25 Monitoring environmental change 677
9 Regional and local climates 229 26 Dealing with hazards and environmental
change 719
Part IV: Biogeography and ecology 251
Glossary 736
10 The biosphere 253 Bibliography 763
11 Ecosystem processes 277 Index 795
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Contents
Preface to the fourth edition xv 2.3.2 Sedimentary rock 31
Contributors xvii 2.3.3 Metamorphic rock 33
Editor’s acknowledgements xviii 2.3.4 The rock cycle 33
Acknowledgements xix 2.4 History of plate tectonics 33
2.4.1 Early ideas of global tectonics 33
Part I: The role of physical geography 1 2.4.2 Evidence that led directly to plate tectonic
theory 34
1 Approaching physical geography 3
2.5 The theory of plate tectonics 37
1.1 Introduction 3
2.5.1 Lithospheric plates 37
1.2 Historical development of physical geography 5
2.5.2 Rates of plate movement 38
1.2.1 Physical geography before 1800 5
2.6 Structural features related directly to motion of the
1.2.2 Physical geography between 1800 and 1950 6
plates 39
1.2.3 Physical geography since 1950 8
2.6.1 Divergent plate boundaries 39
1.3 Scientific methods 10
2.6.2 Transform faults 41
1.3.1 The positivist method 10
2.6.3 Convergent plate boundaries 42
1.3.2 Critique of the positivist method 11
2.6.4 Hot spots 50
1.3.3 Realism as an alternative positivist approach 12
2.7 The history of the continents 51
1.3.4 Benefits of multiple scientific methods in physical
2.8 Summary 52
geography 13
Further reading 52
1.4 The field, the laboratory and the model 14
1.4.1 Approaching data collection from the 3 Oceans 53
environment 14 3.1 Introduction 53
1.4.2 Approaching laboratory work 16 3.2 The ocean basins 54
1.4.3 Approaching numerical modelling 16 3.2.1 The scale of the oceans 54
1.5 Using physical geography for managing the 3.2.2 Geological structure of the ocean basins 54
environment 20 3.2.3 The depth and shape of the ocean basins 55
1.6 Summary 25 3.3 Physical properties of the ocean 55
Further reading 26 3.3.1 Salinity 55
3.3.2 Temperature structure of the oceans 59
3.4 Ocean circulation 60
Part II: Continents and oceans 27 3.4.1 Surface currents 60
2 Earth geology and tectonics 29 3.4.2 The deep currents of the oceans 62
2.1 Introduction 29 3.4.3 The weather of the ocean 64
2.2 The Earth’s structure 30 3.5 Sediments in the ocean 65
2.2.1 The interior of the Earth 30 3.6 Biological productivity 67
2.2.2 The outer layers of the Earth 30 3.6.1 Photosynthesis in the ocean 67
2.3 Rock type and formation 31 3.6.2 Importance of nutrient supply to primary
2.3.1 Igneous rock 31 productivity 68
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3.6.3 Animals of the sea 69 5.4.4 Island ecosystems 124
3.6.4 Pollution 73 5.5 The rise of civilizations 125
3.7 Effect of global climate change on the oceans 74 5.5.1 Humans at the end of the last glacial 125
3.8 Summary 75 5.5.2 The beginnings of agriculture 126
Further reading 76 5.5.3 Social and environmental consequences of
agriculture 127
5.6 Human interaction with physical geography 128
Part III: Past, present and future climate and 5.6.1 Out of Eden? 128
weather 77 5.6.2 Deforestation 128
5.6.3 Soil erosion and impoverishment 132
4 The Pleistocene 79
5.6.4 Irrigation and drainage 133
4.1 Introduction 79
5.7 Summary 135
4.2 Long-term cycles, astronomical forcing and feedback
Further reading 136
mechanisms 81
4.2.1 Orbital forcing theory 81 6 Atmospheric processes 137
4.2.2 Evidence that orbital forcing causes climate 6.1 Introduction 137
change 82 6.2 The basics of climate 139
4.2.3 Problems with orbital forcing theory 85 6.3 The global atmospheric circulation 141
4.2.4 Internal feedback mechanisms 85 6.4 Radiative and energy systems 142
4.3 Short-term cycles 89 6.4.1 The nature of energy 142
4.3.1 Glacial instability 89 6.4.2 Distinguishing between temperature and
4.3.2 The Younger Dryas 90 heat 144
4.4 Further evidence for environmental change 91 6.4.3 Radiation 144
4.4.1 Landforms 92 6.4.4 Thermal inertia 149
4.4.2 Plants 97 6.4.5 The atmospheric energy balance 150
4.4.3 Insects 98 6.5 Moisture circulation systems 150
4.4.4 Other animal remains 99 6.5.1 Moisture in the atmosphere and the hydrological
4.5 Dating methods 100 cycle 150
4.5.1 Age estimation techniques 100 6.5.2 Global distribution of precipitation and
4.5.2 Age equivalent labels 101 evaporation 151
4.5.3 Relative chronology 101 6.5.3 The influence of vegetation on evaporation 153
4.6 Pleistocene stratigraphy and correlation 101 6.5.4 Drought 153
4.7 Palaeoclimate modelling 105 6.6 Motion in the atmosphere 154
4.8 Summary 106 6.6.1 Convective overturning 154
Further reading 107 6.6.2 The Earth’s rotation and the winds 155
5 The Holocene 108 6.6.3 Long waves, Planetary Waves and Rossby
5.1 Introduction 108 Waves 156
5.2 Holocene climatic change 109 6.6.4 Jet streams 159
5.2.1 How the Holocene began 109 6.7 The influence of oceans and ice on atmospheric
5.2.2 Drivers of climate change during the processes 161
Holocene 110 6.8 The Walker circulation 163
5.2.3 The Little Ice Age 116 6.8.1 El Niño Southern Oscillation 164
5.3 Holocene geomorphological change 117 6.8.2 North Atlantic Oscillation 166
5.3.1 Retreating ice sheets 117 6.9 Interactions between radiation, atmospheric trace
5.3.2 Rising seas 118 gases and clouds 167
5.4 Holocene ecosystem change 120 6.9.1 The greenhouse effect 167
5.4.1 Responses of ecosystems to the end of the last 6.9.2 A simple climate model of the enhanced
glacial 120 greenhouse effect 167
5.4.2 Tropical Africa and the Sahara 122 6.9.3 Radiative interactions with clouds and sulfate
5.4.3 European ecosystems 123 aerosols 170
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6.10 Geoengineering 173 9.5 Summary 248
6.11 Summary 174 Further reading 249
Further reading 174
7 Contemporary climate change 175
7.1 Introduction 175
Part IV: Biogeography and ecology 251
7.2 Climate change 176 10 The biosphere 253
7.2.1 Long-term change 176 10.1 Introduction 253
7.2.2 Recent climate change and its causes 177 10.2 Biological concepts 254
7.2.3 Predictions from global climate models (GCMs) 180 10.2.1 What is a species? 254
7.2.4 Critical evaluation of the state-of-the-art in 10.2.2 The naming of species 254
GCMs 182 10.2.3 Levels of organization 255
7.3 The carbon cycle: interaction with the climate 10.2.4 Biodiversity 255
system 184 10.3 Patterns of distribution 258
7.4 Mitigation 186 10.3.1 Potential species distributions 258
7.5 Destruction of the ozone layer by chlorofluorocarbons 10.3.2 Actual species distributions 259
(CFCs) 187 10.3.3 Spatial patterns in biodiversity 260
7.6 The future 189 10.4 Terrestrial biomes 261
7.7 Summary 193 10.4.1 Equatorial and tropical forests 262
Further reading 194 10.4.2 Savanna 265
10.4.3 Hot Desert 266
8 Global climate and weather 195
10.4.4 Mediterranean-type biome 266
8.1 Introduction 195
10.4.5 Temperate grassland 268
8.2 General controls of global climates 196
10.4.6 Temperate broadleaf forest 268
8.3 The tropics and subtropics 201
10.4.7 Taiga 269
8.3.1 Equatorial regions 201
10.4.8 Tundra 270
8.3.2 The Sahel and desert margins 209
10.5 Aquatic biomes 272
8.3.3 Subtropical deserts 210
10.5.1 Marine regions 272
8.3.4 Humid subtropics 211
10.5.2 Freshwater regions 274
8.4 Mid and high-latitude climates 215
10.6 Summary 275
8.4.1 Depressions, fronts and anticyclones 215
Further reading 276
8.4.2 Mid-latitude western continental margins 219
8.4.3 Mid-latitude east continental margins and 11 Ecosystem processes 277
continental interiors 220 11.1 Introduction 277
8.5 Polar climates 221 11.2 The flow of energy and resources 278
8.6 A global overview 222 11.2.1 Energy entering an ecosystem 278
8.7 Summary 228 11.2.2 Ecological thermodynamics 278
Further reading 228 11.2.3 Trophic levels and food webs 279
11.2.4 Biogeochemical cycles 280
9 Regional and local climates 229
11.3 Biotic interactions 281
9.1 Introduction 229
11.3.1 Mutualism 282
9.2 Altitude and topography 230
11.3.2 Herbivory, predation and parasitism 282
9.2.1 Pressure 233
11.3.3 Commensalism 283
9.2.2 Temperature 233
11.3.4 Amensalism 284
9.2.3 Wind 234
11.3.5 Competition 284
9.2.4 Precipitation 235
11.4 Temporal change in ecosystems 285
9.2.5 Frost hollows 240
11.4.1 Short-term changes 285
9.3 Influence of water bodies 240
11.4.2 Disturbance and resilience 286
9.4 Human influences 242
11.4.3 Succession 286
9.4.1 Shelter belts 242
11.5 Human impact 289
9.4.2 Urban climates 243
11.5.1 Degrading ecosystems 289
9.4.3 Atmospheric pollution and haze 246
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11.5.2 Urban ecology 294 14.3 Weathering and the role of water 350
11.5.3 Conservation 294 14.4 Chemical weathering 352
11.6 Summary 297 14.4.1 Hydrolysis 352
Further reading 297 14.4.2 Carbonation 352
14.4.3 Solution 353
12 Freshwater ecosystems 298
14.4.4 Oxidation and reduction 353
12.1 Introduction 298
14.4.5 Biologically related chemical weathering 353
12.2 Running waters: rivers and streams 300
14.4.6 Products of chemical weathering 354
12.2.1 River ecosystem geomorphological units 300
14.5 Physical weathering 356
12.2.2 Spatial variability of river ecosystems 302
14.5.1 Dilatation – pressure release 356
12.2.3 Temporal variability of river ecosystems 308
14.5.2 Thermoclasty 358
12.2.4 Human alterations to river ecosystems 308
14.5.3 Freeze–thaw (frost weathering) 359
12.3 Still waters: lakes and ponds 312
14.5.4 Salt weathering 359
12.3.1 Classification of lake ecosystems 312
14.5.5 Biologically related physical weathering 363
12.3.2 Spatial variability of lake ecosystems 315
14.6 Climatic controls on weathering 364
12.3.3 Human influences on lake ecosystems 319
14.7 Geological controls on weathering 367
12.4 Summary 321
14.8 Urban stone decay and lessons for rock
Further reading 322
weathering 371
13 Vegetation and environmental change 323 14.8.1 Stone decay is multifactorial 373
13.1 Introduction 323 14.8.2 Rates of stone decay are unpredictable 373
13.2 Fundamentals of how plants respond to climatic 14.8.3 Decay is spatially variable 374
variations 324 14.8.4 Stress history is important 375
13.2.1 Light 324 14.9 Summary 375
13.2.2 Water 326 Further reading 376
13.2.3 Temperature 326
15 Slope processes and landform evolution 377
13.2.4 Carbon dioxide concentration 327
15.1 Introduction 377
13.2.5 Other climatic variables 327
15.2 Slope profiles 378
13.3 Observational studies: how we know for sure that
15.2.1 Slope length 378
vegetation responds to a changing climate 327
15.2.2 Slope steepness 378
13.3.1 The forest/savanna boundary in southern
15.2.3 Slope convexity 380
Amazonia 327
15.3 Hillslope transport processes 380
13.3.2 The northern tree line 329
15.3.1 Chemical transport processes (solution) 381
13.3.3 Upward march of vegetation in mountains 329
15.3.2 Physical transport processes 382
13.3.4 Changes in the timing of flowering 330
15.3.3 Biological mixing 390
13.4 Models for prediction 332
15.3.4 Particle movements 390
13.5 The complex interaction between human activities and
15.3.5 The balance between erosion processes 396
climate change 336
15.4 Evolution of hillslope profiles 398
13.5.1 Does atmospheric pollution sometimes benefit
15.4.1 Concepts 398
plants? 336
15.4.2 Models 401
13.5.2 How does fire interact with climate change? 336
15.4.3 Interpreting landscape form 405
13.6 Loss of biodiversity 340
15.5 Summary 406
13.7 Agriculture and food security 341
Further reading 406
13.8 Summary 343
Further reading 343 16 Sediments and sedimentation 407
16.1 Introduction 407
16.2 Clastic sediments 408
Part V: Geomorphology and hydrology 345 16.2.1 Classification of clastic sediments 408
16.2.2 Clastic sediment grain shape and texture 409
14 Weathering 347
16.2.3 Sediment transport and sedimentation 409
14.1 Introduction 347
16.2.4 Products of sedimentation – bedforms 412
14.2 Environmental and material controls on weathering 348
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16.3 Biological sediments 415 18.2.3 Evapotranspiration 472
16.4 Chemical sediments 417 18.2.4 Soil water 473
16.5 Sedimentation in Earth surface environments 418 18.2.5 Groundwater 475
16.5.1 Continental environments 418 18.3 Flow paths to water bodies 476
16.5.2 Coastal and marine environments 420 18.3.1 Infiltration 476
16.6 Response of sedimentation to environmental 18.3.2 Infiltration-excess overland flow 476
change 422 18.3.3 Saturation-excess overland flow 477
16.6.1 Dams and reservoirs 424 18.3.4 Throughflow 478
16.6.2 Mining 424 18.4 River discharge 483
16.6.3 Urbanization 425 18.4.1 Stormflow 483
16.6.4 Sediment management 426 18.4.2 Flow frequency 485
16.7 Summary 427 18.4.3 River regime 488
Further reading 428 18.5 Flooding 489
18.6 Summary 491
17 Soils 429
Further reading 491
17.1 Introduction 429
17.2 The components of soil 430 19 Fluvial geomorphology and river
17.2.1 Mineral particles 430 management 493
17.2.2 Soil organic matter 430 19.1 Introduction 493
17.2.3 Soil water 431 19.2 Catchment processes: energy and materials for
17.2.4 Soil air 432 rivers 494
17.3 Soil profile 433 19.2.1 Runoff, river regimes and floods 494
17.4 Soil formation processes 434 19.2.2 Sediment sources and delivery 495
17.4.1 Pedogenesis 434 19.3 River channel morphology: measuring rivers 496
17.4.2 Factors affecting soil formation 437 19.3.1 Channel networks and slope 496
17.5 Physical properties of soil 441 19.3.2 Channel cross-section: width, depth 497
17.5.1 Soil colour 441 19.3.3 Channel planform 497
17.5.2 Soil texture 441 19.3.4 Channel boundary materials 498
17.5.3 Soil structure 444 19.4 River channel processes: understanding water and
17.6 Chemical properties of soil 445 sediment movement 499
17.6.1 Clay minerals and cation exchange 445 19.4.1 Water flow and flow hydraulics 499
17.6.2 Soil acidity 447 19.4.2 Sediment movement 500
17.7 Soil biology 449 19.5 River channels: linking channel processes and
17.7.1 The soil biota 449 morphology 502
17.7.2 Factors influencing soil biodiversity 451 19.5.1 Long profile 504
17.8 Impact of human activities on soils and soil 19.5.2 River channel cross-sections 505
processes 452 19.5.3 Channel planform 505
17.8.1 Soil erosion 452 19.5.4 Channel bed morphology 507
17.8.2 Soil acidification 453 19.6 River channel changes: rates and types of channel
17.8.3 Soil pollution 454 adjustment 509
17.8.4 Soil organic matter and carbon 456 19.6.1 Cross-sectional change 511
17.8.5 Other threats 458 19.6.2 Planform change 511
17.8.6 Policy and legislation 462 19.6.3 Human-induced change 513
17.9 Summary 463 19.7 Fluvial geomorphology and environmentally sound river
Further reading 464 management: living and working with nature 515
19.7.1 River management and the engineering
18 Catchment hydrology 465
tradition 515
18.1 Introduction 465
19.7.2 Living with rivers 516
18.2 Measuring the main components of catchment
19.7.3 River maintenance 517
hydrology 466
19.7.4 Building new river channels 519
18.2.1 Precipitation 466
19.7.5 River restoration 520
18.2.2 River flow 468
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19.8 Summary 523 21.5 Environmental change in drylands 578
Further reading 524 21.6 Summary 582
Further reading 583
20 Solutes and water quality 525
20.1 Introduction 525 22 Coasts 584
20.2 Solutes: some key controls 526 22.1 Introduction 584
20.2.1 Solute form 526 22.2 Coastal morphodynamics 588
20.2.2 pH and redox potential 526 22.3 Coastal processes: waves 590
20.2.3 Temperature and pressure 528 22.3.1 Linear wave theory 591
20.2.4 The role of particulates 529 22.3.2 Wave processes in intermediate water 592
20.2.5 Solute fluxes 529 22.3.3 Wave processes in shallow water 593
20.3 Solutes within the catchment hydrological system 530 22.3.4 Nearshore currents 595
20.3.1 Precipitation 530 22.4 Coastal processes: storm surge, tides and tsunami 597
20.3.2 Evapotranspiration and evaporation 532 22.4.1 Storm surge 597
20.3.3 Interception 533 22.4.2 Tides 598
20.3.4 Soil 533 22.4.3 Tsunami 600
20.3.5 Groundwater 535 22.5 Coastal classification 600
20.3.6 Rivers 536 22.6 Wave-dominated coastal environments 601
20.3.7 Lakes and reservoirs 536 22.6.1 Barriers 601
20.4 The role of hydrological pathways in solute 22.6.2 Beaches 602
processes 538 22.6.3 Coastal dunes 605
20.5 Temporal patterns of solutes 540 22.7 Tide-dominated coastal environments 608
20.5.1 Patterns of solutes in storm events: short-term 22.7.1 Wave- and tide-dominated estuaries 608
changes 541 22.7.2 Estuarine mixing 611
20.5.2 Annual patterns of solute concentrations 542 22.7.3 Ebb- and flood-dominance 613
20.5.3 Long-term patterns of solute 22.7.4 Salt marsh and mangroves 613
concentrations 544 22.8 Fluvial-dominated coastal environments 614
20.6 Spatial patterns of solutes 548 22.9 Erosive coasts 617
20.6.1 Global patterns of solutes 549 22.9.1 Rocky coast processes 617
20.6.2 Regional patterns of solutes 549 22.9.2 Coastal cliffs 619
20.7 Modelling solutes and water quality 553 22.9.3 Shore platforms 619
20.7.1 Modelling solutes in catchments 553 22.10 Coastal zone management 620
20.7.2 Modelling solutes in watercourses 553 22.11 Summary 623
20.8 Summary 555 Further reading 624
Further reading 556
23 Glaciers and ice sheets 625
21 Drylands 557 23.1 Introduction 625
21.1 Introduction 557 23.2 Glaciology 626
21.2 Aridity 560 23.2.1 Types of ice mass 626
21.2.1 Drylands 560 23.2.2 Where do glaciers occur? 627
21.2.2 Causes of aridity 561 23.2.3 Glacier mass balance 628
21.3 Dryland soil and vegetation systems 563 23.2.4 Transformation of snow into ice 631
21.3.1 Dryland soils 563 23.2.5 Glacier thermal regime 631
21.3.2 Dryland vegetation 563 23.2.6 Glacier water systems 632
21.4 Geomorphological processes in drylands 566 23.2.7 Glacier dynamics 636
21.4.1 Dryland landscapes 566 23.3 Glacial geological processes and
21.4.2 Rock weathering in drylands 567 glacial sediments 644
21.4.3 Hillslope and channel processes 568 23.3.1 Processes of glacial erosion 644
21.4.4 Aeolian processes and forms 571 23.3.2 Entrainment and transport 645
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23.3.3 Deposition 647 25.5.2 Spot 698
23.4 The record of glacial change 650 25.5.3 NASA’s Earth Observing System
23.4.1 Ice sheet reconstruction 650 Program 699
23.5 Summary 654 25.5.4 High-resolution sensors 701
Further reading 655 25.6 Microwave and ranging sensors 701
25.6.1 Microwave sensors 701
24 Permafrost and periglaciation 656
25.6.2 Ranging sensors 705
24.1 Introduction 656
25.7 Digital image processing 710
24.2 Permafrost processes 657
25.7.1 Digital images 710
24.2.1 The distribution of permafrost 657
25.7.2 Image rectification 711
24.2.2 Ground temperatures and permafrost
25.7.3 Image enhancement 712
thickness 659
25.8 Summary 718
24.2.3 Reconstructing climate change from permafrost
Further reading 718
temperatures 659
24.2.4 Gas hydrates 661 26 Dealing with hazards and environmental
24.2.5 Hydrology in permafrost regions 663 change 719
24.3 Geomorphology of permafrost and periglacial 26.1 Introduction 719
environments 665 26.2 Types of environmental hazard 720
24.3.1 Ground ice features 665 26.3 Characteristics of environmental change 722
24.3.2 Slope processes 670 26.3.1 The nature of change 722
24.3.3 Loess and aeolian activity 673 26.3.2 Rate of change 724
24.4 Summary 673 26.3.3 Environmental tolerance 725
Further reading 674 26.4 Prediction 725
26.4.1 Monitoring 725
26.4.2 Modelling 726
Part VI: Monitoring and management 675 26.4.3 Uncertainty 727
25 Monitoring environmental change 677 26.5 Risk and vulnerability 727
25.1 Introduction 677 26.6 Management tools 727
25.2 In situ data 678 26.6.1 Mitigation 729
25.2.1 Satellite positioning systems 678 26.6.2 Adaptation 729
25.2.2 Telemetry 679 26.6.3 Impact assessment 729
25.2.3 Environmental sensor networks 679 26.6.4 Life costing 730
25.3 Remote sensing date 680 26.6.5 Ecosystem services 732
25.3.1 Platforms 682 26.6.6 Engagement 732
25.3.2 Electromagnetic radiation 682 26.7 Summary 734
25.3.3 Image data 684 Further reading 735
25.4 Camera sensors 689
25.4.1 Photogrammetry 691 Glossary 736
25.5 Multispectral, thermal and hyperspectral sensors 693 Bibliography 763
25.5.1 Landsat 695 Index 795
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fourth edition
Preface to the
It is exciting being a physical geographer because you learn about The book provides a baseline of understanding and additionally it
environments around the world, how they function, and why they directs the reader to resources that encourage them to develop their
are shaped the way they are. Through this understanding we can see studies further and has materials that should be of value throughout
how humans have impacted the Earth and how human activities are a university degree.
influenced by environmental processes. Our understanding of the
world is rapidly changing and I am continually amazed at the new Tools used in the book
discoveries that are made about how the world works.
This new edition provides chapters from 21 contributors who are In addition to providing a rich source of information, the book uses a
all international experts in their field. Each of the chapters covers a number of educational tools to aid understanding:
wide range of material including core principles of the subject as well
• The book is split into six parts, each with a part opener that
as new findings from ongoing research.The chapters are fully illus- describes the main themes of that part of the book and the links
trated using diagrams and photographs from environments around between the chapters within that part.
the world. Between them, the contributors have researched in detail
every environment on the planet. The chapters provide an unrivalled
• Learning objectives clearly outline the purpose and aims of a
particular chapter to help locate the reader within the book.
source of rich information from around the world for all budding
physical geographers.
• Boxed features explore and illustrate topics and concepts
through real-world examples. Scattered throughout every
The book seeks to help you understand geographical processes
chapter, these insightful applications are differentiated into the
and tackles the interlinkages between processes, places and environ-
following types:
ments. I hope that the book engages and inspires you and makes you
ask new questions about the physical environment. I encourage you
• case studies;
to use your geographical skills to seek answers to those questions • fundamental principles;
and to share your discoveries with others. • techniques;
• hazards;
Scope of the book • new directions.
• Reflective questions invite the reader to think about, and
Physical geography is of wide interest and immense importance. It further explore, what they have just read. Useful for consoli-
deals with the processes associated with climate, landforms, oceans dating learning, these questions are found at the end of each
and ecosystems of the world. The Earth has always been subject to major section of every chapter.
changes in these systems and studying physical geography allows us to
understand how Earth systems have come to operate as they do today.
• A summary draws together the key ideas of the chapter,
reflecting the learning objectives for that chapter.
It also provides us with insights into how they may operate in the
future. The impacts that humans have made on the Earth’s environ-
• An annotated list of five further readings aims to inspire and
enable deeper exploration into a topic. The reading lists include
ments are ever increasing as the world’s population approaches eight
important papers as well as textbooks. Longer lists of further
billion. Thus the Earth’s systems will change in the future both naturally
reading for each chapter are found on the companion website.
and in a forced way through human action. However, it will be crucial
to understand, manage and cope with such change and this can be
• The comprehensive glossary serves as an additional resource
to help clarify concepts discussed within the book. Key words
achieved only by understanding the processes of physical geography.
defined in the glossary are highlighted in the text the first time
This text is aimed at those embarking on a university course and pro-
they appear in each chapter.
vides an introduction to the major subjects of physical geography.
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Preface to the fourth edition
Companion website • Further reading: an annotated list of further reading material for
The book also has a dedicated website at www.pearsoned.co.uk/ each chapter.
holden on which there is a suite of other educational resources for • Annotated weblinks: several hundred annotated additional
both students and lecturers alike. websites for students to further explore a topic. There are
weblinks listed for each chapter.
Lecturer resources • Interactive models for practical learning: these models give
students the opportunity to explore and understand environ-
These contain: mental processes and the principles of modelling.
• PowerPoint slides: a set of slides for every chapter comprising
I hope that you are able to use the rich interactive resources that this
bulleted outlines of core topics and the key figures and images
book provides to further your learning and exploration of the subject
from the main text.
of physical geography and the environment.
• Field exercise ideas: suggestions for activities that can be done
in the field.
Joseph Holden
Student resources January 2017
These contain:
• Multiple-choice questions: a set of interactive questions for
every chapter that allow students to test and consolidate their
understanding.
xvi
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Contributors
Dr Lee E. Brown, University of Leeds Dr Ian Lawson, University of St Andrews
Professor Pippa J. Chapman, University of Leeds Dr John G. Lockwood, formerly of University of Leeds
Professor David J. Gilvear, University of Plymouth Professor Gerd Masselink, University of Plymouth
Professor John Grace, University of Edinburgh Professor John McClatchey, late of University of the Highlands and
Islands
Professor Kate V. Heal, University of Edinburgh
Professor Adrian T, McDonald, University of Leeds
Professor Joseph Holden, University of Leeds
Professor Tavi Murray, Swansea University
Dr Timothy D. James, Swansea University and Queen’s University,
Canada Dr Julie Peacock, University of Leeds
Dr Richard Jeffries, Environment Agency Professor Uri Schattner, University of Haifa
Professor Mike Kirkby, University of Leeds Professor Bernie Smith, late of Queen’s University Belfast
Professor Michael D. Krom, University of Haifa and University of Professor Kevin G. Taylor, Manchester Metropolitan University
Leeds Professor David S.G. Thomas, University of Oxford
xvii
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acknowledgements
Editor’s
I am extremely grateful to the contributors for their efforts and out- significant support in the development phase of this fourth edition.
standing expertise in producing this fourth edition. In particular I would My thanks also go to Kathryn McKendrick-Smith for help with work
like to extend my sincere gratitude to Professors John McClatchey, on some of the supplementary materials.
Hilary Thomas and Bernie Smith, all current or former contributors who I thank the University of Leeds for providing sabbatical time
are recently deceased, and so never saw the fourth edition make it to which allowed me to work on this edition and I thank my many col-
print. It has been an extremely sad time to lose three wonderful ambas- leagues at the University of Leeds for intellectual stimulation.
sadors for the subject. They were superb researchers and educators. I am indebted to many family members for help of various sorts.
I would also like to thank all the reviewers who read and com- These include Patricia, Henry, Vincent and Clare Holden and a num-
mented in detail upon the chapters and suggested revisions that ber of people who provided photographs and are acknowledged in
could be incorporated within this edition. My kind appreciation also the figure captions.
goes to the whole editorial and production team at Pearson Educa- Finally I thank Eve and our beautiful daughters Justina, Mary,
tion including Lina Aboujieb, Carole Drummond, Karen Mclaren and Stephanie and Alice for joining me in exploring the physical geogra-
Sandra Hilsdon with particular thanks to Rufus Curnow who provided phy of the Earth.
xviii
F01 An Introduction to Physical Ge 83575 Contents.indd 18 24/05/2017 13:34
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce and orientation in the Australian continental dunefield”, Australian
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R. Hyde 1988), Taylor & Francis Ltd; Figure 4.21 after “Quaternary ref-
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(P. Taberlet and R. Cheddadi 2002), Copyright (c) 2002 AAAS, Readers
Figure 1.15 after “Magnitude and frequency of forces in geomorphic may view, browse, and/or download material for temporary copying
processes”, Journal of Geology, Vol 68, pp.54-74 (M.G. Wolman and J.P. purposes only, provided these uses are for noncommercial personal
Miller 1960), Figure 1.; Figure 2.5 from courtesy of Martin Jakobsen purposes. Except as provided by law, this material may not be further
who created the image using data from GEBCO; www.ngdc.noaa.ngg/ reproduced, distributed, transmitted, modified, adapted, performed,
gebco/gebco.html; Figure 2.11 from Ophiolites, Scientific American, displayed, published, or sold in whole or in part, without prior written
Vol 247, pp.108–117 (I.G. Bass 1982); Figure 2.12 from John Hall; permission from the publisher.; Figure 5.3 from “An Antarctic view of
Image Science and Analysis Laboratory, NASA-Johnson Space Center. Beryllium-10 and solar activity for the past millennium”, Climate
‘The Gateway to Astronaut Photography of Earth,’ http://eol.jsc.nasa. Dynamics, Vol 36 (11-12), pp.2201-2218 (G. Delaygue and E. Bard
gov/sseop/EFS/printinfo.pl?PHOTO=NM23-755-505, accessed 2011), Springer; Figure 5.18 from How fast was wild wheat domesti-
14 March 2008). NASA; Figure 2.25 from D.W. Peterson and U.S. cated? Science, 311, p. 1886 (Tanno, K.-I. and Willcox, G. 2006), Read-
Geological Survey. USGS, https://www.usgs.gov, courtesy of the U.S. ers may view, browse, and/or download material for temporary
Geological Survey; Figure 3.3 adapted from The Oceans, Pearson copying purposes only, provided these uses are for noncommercial
Education Inc. (H.U. Sverdrup, Ricarhd H. Fleming and Martin personal purposes. Except as provided by law, this material may not
W. Johnson) copyright © 1942. Adapted by permission of Pearson be further reproduced, distributed, transmitted, modified, adapted,
Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ; Figures 3.5, 23.15 from U.S. performed, displayed, published, or sold in whole or in part, without
Geological Survey, https://www.usgs.gov, courtesy of the U.S. Geo- prior written permission from the publisher.; Figure 6.1 from Climate
logical Survey; Figure 3.8 after Introduction to the World’s Oceans, 7th change 2001: The scientific basis. Contribution of Working Group 1 to
edition, McGraw-Hill (K.A. Sverdrup et al 2003) Fig 7.2a/p.158, ISBN the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Cli-
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tesy of the U.S. Geological Survey; Figure 4.6e from Geoff Hargreaves, ciples of Environmental Physics, 2nd ed., Edward Arnold (Monteith, J.L.
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entific in the format Republish in a book via Copyright Clearance Arnold (Lockwood, J.G. 1979); Figure 6.11a after Introduction to
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pheric Environment, Vol 40, pp.3219–3220 (M. Korbetis, D.S. Reay purposes. Except as provided by law, this material may not be further
and J. Grace 2006); Figure 7.11 from NASA Ozone Watch, https:// reproduced, distributed, transmitted, modified, adapted, performed,
www.nasa.gov/ozone/; Figure 8.4 adapted from General Climatology, displayed, published, or sold in whole or in part, without prior written
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ogy, 2 ed., Routledge (Robinson, P.J. and Henderson-Sellers, A. 1999) warming pattern”, Global Change Biology, Vol 12 pp.1969–1976 (A.
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adapted from Winter 2010 mean temperature anomaly from the mission of Blackwell Scientific in the format Republish in a book via
1971–2000 average (2011). Source: Met Office; Figure 8.33 adapted Copyright Clearance Center.; Figures 13.9, 13.10 from “Global
from Winter 2010 rainfall amount (% of 1971–2000 average). Source: response of terrestrial ecosystem structure and function to CO2 and
Met Office; Figures 9.5, 9.21 after Boundary layer climates, Routledge climate change: results from six dynamic global vegetation models”
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(Lauscher, F. 1976); Figure 9.15 after Contemporary Climatology, 2 well Scientific in the format Republish in a book via Copyright Clear-
ed., Routledge (Robinson, P.J. and Henderson-Sellers, A. 1999) Fig ance Center.; Figure 13.11 from “Climate-carbon cycle feedback
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islands, Atmosphere, 14, pp. 268–277 (Oke, T.R. 1976); Figure 9.24 al. 2006), American Meteorological Society; Figure 13.12 from “The
after Improving street climate through urban design, Planning Advi- human footprint in the carbon cycle of temperate and boreal forests”,
sory Service, No. 376. American Planning Association (Thurow, C. Nature, Vol 447, pp.848–850 (F. Magnani, M. Mencuccini, M.
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(Schultz, J. 1995), Verlag Eugen Ulmer; Figure 10.7 after Communities Jarvis, P. Kolari, A.S. Kowalski, H. Lankreijer, B.E. Law, A. Lindroth, D.
and ecosystems, Macmillan (Whittaker, R.H. 1975); Figure 10.18 from Loustau, G. Manca, J.B. Moncrieff, M. Rayment, V. Tedeschi, R. Valentini
Marne Biological Association, https://www.mba.ac.uk/learningzone/ and J. Grace 2007), Reprinted by permission of Macmillan Publishers
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F01 An Introduction to Physical Ge 83575 Contents.indd 20 24/05/2017 13:34
Acknowledgements
Ltd; Figure 13.14 after Nitrogen fixation: anthropogenic enhance- Sturdy 1984), copyright © Cranfield University 1984. No part of this
ment and environmental response, Global biogeochemical cycles, 9, publication may be reproduced without the express permission of
pp. 235–252 (Galloway, J.N., Schlesinger, W.H., Levy, H. et al. 1995); Cranfield University; Figures 17.6e, 17.6f adapted from Practical pedol-
Figure 13.15 from “Positive feedbacks among forest fragmentation, ogy: Studying soils in the field, Ellis Horwood (S.G. McRae 1988),
drought and climate change in the Amazon”, Conservation Biology, Reproduced with permission of Blackwell Scientific in the format
Vol 15, pp.1529-1535 (W.F. Laurence and B. Williamson 2001), Republish in a book via Copyright Clearance Center; Figure 17.11 after
Reproduced with permission of Blackwell Scientific in the format Soils and geomorphology, 3rd ed., Oxford University Press (Birkeland,
Republish in a book via Copyright Clearance Center.; Figure 13.16a P.W. 1999); Figure 17.12 from National Soil Resources Institute Bulle-
from “Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities”, Nature, Vol tin 10, ‘Soils and their use in Northern England’, Soil Survey of Eng-
403, pp.853–858 (N. Myers, R.A. Mittermeier, C.G. Mittermeier, G.A.B. land and Wales, Rothamsted Experimental Stations, Harpenden, Herts,
da Fonseca and J. Kent 2000), Reprinted by permission of Macmillan Fig 16, p.52 (M.G. Jarvis, R.H. Allen, S.J. Fordham, J. Hazelden, A.J. Mof-
Publishers Ltd; Figure 13.16b from Climate Change 2007: The physical fat and R.G. Sturdy 1984), copyright © Cranfield University 1984. No
science basis. Contribution of Working Group 1 to the Fourth Assess- part of this publication may be reproduced without the express per-
ment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC mission of Cranfield University; Figure 17.18 adapted from Fundamen-
(ed. S. Solomon et al 2007) Source: IPCC, Cambridge University Press; tals of the physical environment, 3rd edition, Routledge (P. Smithson,
Figure 14.3 after Humid landforms, MIT Press (Douglas, I. 1979); Fig- D. Briggs, K. Addison and K. Atkinson 2002); Figure 17.24 after
ure 14.5 after Rock weathering in engineering time, Quarterly journal Revised estimates of the carbon mitigation potential of UK agricul-
of engineering geology, 21, pp. 33–37 (Fookes, P.G., Gourley, C.S. and tural land, Soil use and management, 16, pp. 293–295 (Smith, P., Mile,
Ohikere, C. 1988), The Geological Society of London; Figure 14.12 R., Powlson, D.S. et al. 2000), Reproduced with permission of Black-
from “Salt weathering in deserts”, Nature, Vol 220, pp.1226-1227 well Scientific in the format Republish in a book via Copyright Clear-
(R.U. Cooke and I.J. Smalley 1968); Figure 14.18 after The genesis and ance Center.; Figure 17.25 after “Soil biota enhance agricultural
morphology of the alumina-rich laterite clays. In: American Institute sustainability by improving crop yield, nutrient uptake and reducing
of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, New York, Problems of clay nitrogen leaching losses”, Journal of Applied Ecology, Vol 52 (1),
and laterite genesis: Symposium at Annual Meeting, St. Louis, Mis- pp.228-239, Fig 5 (S.F. Bender and M.G. Heijden 2015), Reproduced
souri, February 19–22, 1951 (Sherman, G.D. 1952); Figure 14.30 after with permission of Blackwell Scientific in the format Republish in a
Background controls on urban stone decay: lessons from natural rock book via Copyright Clearance Center.; Figure 17.26 from “The role of
weathering. In: Brimblecombe, P. (ed.), The effects of air pollution on arbuscular mycorrhizas in reducing soil nutrient loss”, Trends in plant
the built environment, Air Pollution Reviews, Vol. 2, pp. 31–61 (Smith, science, Vol 20, pp.283-290 (T.R. Cavagnaro et al 2015), Reproduced
B.J. 2003), Imperial College Press; Figure 16.2 after Sand and sand- with permission of Blackwell Scientific in the format Republish in a
stone, Springer-Verlag (Pettijohn, F.J., Potter, P.E. and Siever, R. 1987); book via Copyright Clearance Center.; Figure 18.29 after National
Figures 16.8, 16.19 after Sedimentary petrology: An introduction, River Flow Archive, CEH Wallingford, and the Environment Agency,
Blackwell Scientific (Tucker, M.E. 1981), Reproduced with permission South Wessex area; Figure 18.30 after Principle of Hydrology, 4th edi-
of Blackwell Scientific in the format Republish in a book via Copyright tion, McGraw-Hill (R.C. Ward and M. Robinson 2000) Fig 7.14, Repro-
Clearance Center.; Figure 16.9 after Sedimentology: Processes and duced with permission of the McGraw-Hill Publishing Company;
Analysis and The Depositionary Environment, Pearson Education, Ltd Figure 19.25 after River channelisation, traditional engineering meth-
(King, C. 1991); Figure 16.9 after Sedimentology and stratigraphy, ods, physical consequences and alternative practices, Progress in
2nd ed., Blackwell Science (Nichols, G. 2009), Reproduced with per- physical geography, 9, pp. 44–73 (Brookes, A. 1985); Figure 20.1 after
mission of Blackwell Scientific in the format Republish in a book via The role of multivalent metal oxides in limnological transformations,
Copyright Clearance Center.; Figures 16.10, 16.11, 16.13, 16.18 after as exemplified by iron and manganese, Advances in water pollution
Sedimentology and stratigraphy, Blackwell Science (Nichols, G. 1999), research, proceedings of the second international conference on
Reproduced with permission of Blackwell Scientific in the format water pollution research, 1, pp. 103–118 (Morgan, J.J. and Stumm, W.
Republish in a book via Copyright Clearance Center.; Figure 16.20 1965), Pergamon Press; Figure 20.4 after Solutes in river systems. In:
after The role of alluvial fans in arid zone fluvial systems. In: Thomas, Trudgill, S.T. (ed.), Solute processes, pp. 251–327 (Walling, D.E. and
D.S.G. (ed.), Arid zone geomorphology: Processes, forms and change in Webb, B.W. 1986), John Wiley & Sons, Reproduced with permission of
drylands, pp. 231–259 (Harvey, A.M. 1997), John Wiley & Sons, Blackwell Scientific in the format Republish in a book via Copyright
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Republish in a book via Copyright Clearance Center.; Figure 16.25 Soulsby in Contemporary Hydrology, John Wiley & Sons (ed. R. L.
after The behaviour of bomb-derived caesium-137 fallout in catch- Wilby 1997) pp.59-106, “CREATIVE COMMONS: Attribution 4.0 Inter-
ment soils, Journal of environmental radioactivity, 32, pp. 169–191 national (CC BY 4.0) Fair Use. CC-BY 4.0: Creative Commons license,
(Owens, P.N., Walling, D.E. and He, Q. 1996); Figures 17.6a 17.6b, 17,6c, Commercial Use Allowed, Attribution required.; Figure 20.12 after
17.6d from National Soil Resources Institute Bulletin 10, ‘Soils and Runoff processes and solutional denudation rates on humid temper-
their use in Northern England’, Soil Survey of England and Wales, ate hillslopes. In: Trudgill, S.T. (ed.), Solute processes, pp. 193–249
Rothamsted Experimental Stations, Harpenden, Herts, Fig 14, p.47 (Burt, T.P. 1986), John Wiley & Sons, Reproduced with permission of
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Clearance Center.; Figure 20.22 after “Water quality of Loch Leven: and Thom, B.G. 1994), Cambridge University Press; Figure 22.28 from
responses to enrichment, restoration and climate change”, Hydrobio- ’The surf zone’ by T. Aagaard and G. Masselink, in Handbook of Beach
logia, Vol 681, pp.35-47, Fig 1 (L. Carvalho, C. Miller, B.M. Spears, and shore Morphodynamic, John Wiley & Sons Ltd (ed. A.D. Short
I.D.M. Gunn, I, H. Bennion, A. Kirika and L. May 2012); Figure 21.7 after 1999), Reproduced with permission of Blackwell Scientific in the for-
World Atlas of Desertification, UNEP (Middleton, N.J. and Thomas, mat Republish in a book via Copyright Clearance Center.; Figure 22.31
D.S.G. 1992) map 6, p. 4; Figure 21.15 after Hot desert ecosystems: an adapted from Coastal Geomorphology: An Introduction, John Wiley &
integrated view. In: Evenari, M., Noy-Meir, I. and Goodall, D.W. (eds), Sons (E. Bird 2000), Reproduced with permission of Blackwell Scien-
Ecosystems of the world, Vol. 12B: Hot deserts and arid shrublands, pp. tific in the format Republish in a book via Copyright Clearance Center.;
378–388 (Shimda, A., Evenari, M. and Noy-Meir, I. 1986); Figure 21.17 Figures 22.35, 22.36 after Estuarine facies models: conceptual basis
after Yield of sediment in relation to mean annual precipitation, and stratigraphic implications, Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 62,
Transactions of the American geophysical union, 39, pp. 1076–1084 pp. 1130-1146 (Dalrymple, R.W., Zaitlin, B.A. and Boyd, R. 1992); Fig-
(Langbein, W.B. and Schumm, S.A. 1958); Figure 21.21 after Atlas of ure 22.37 after An Introduction to Coastal Geomorphology, Rout-
world physical features, John Wiley & Sons (Snead, R.E. 1972); Fig- ledge (Pethick, J. 1984) Fig 9.8 p.180, Fig 9.7, p.179, Fig 9.9 p.181,
ure 21.22 after Dune and dunefield development on Padre Island, ISBN-13: 978-0713163919, used by permission;
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dres.geoscienceworld.org/content/62/4/622; Figure 22.1 from Cli- 2nd edition, Routledge (D. Briggs, P. Smithson, K. Addison and K.
mate Change 2013: The physical science basis. Contribution of Atkinson 1997); Figure 22.42 adapted from A Celebration of the
Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovern- World’s Barrier Islands, Colombia University Press (O.H. Pilkey 2003);
mental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC (ed. T.F. Stocker et al 2013) Figure 22.44 after Geomorphology of rocky coasts, John Wiley & Sons
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ure 22.2 from Climate Change 2013: The physical science basis. Con- tific in the format Republish in a book via Copyright Clearance Center.;
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al 2013) Fig 13.10, p.1180, Source: IPCC, Cambridge University Press; coast of England”, Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, Vol 41,
Figure 22.4 after Introduction to Coastal Processes and Geomorphol- pp.378-391 (G. Masselink, T. Scott, T. Poate, P. Russell, M. Davidson
ogy, Routledge (Masselink, G. and Hughes, M.G.) Fig 1.1/p. 1, and D. Conley 2016), John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Creative Commons
9781444122404, used by permission; Figure 22.7 adapted from Licence, Attribution 4.0 International, “CREATIVE COMMONS:
Coastal Evolution : Late Quaternary shoreline morphodynamics Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) Fair Use. CC-BY 4.0: Creative
Cambridge University Press (ed. R.W.G. Carter, C.D. Woodroffe 1994); Commons license, Commercial Use Allowed, Attribution required.;
Figure 22.8 after Introduction to Coastal Processes and Geomorphol- Figure 22.46 from “The extreme 2013/14 winter storms: hydrody-
ogy, Routledge (Masselink, G. and Hughes, M.G.) Fig 3.18/p. 68, namic forcing and coastal response along the south-west coast of
9781444122404, used by permission; Figure 22.16 after Introduction England”, Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, Vol 41, pp.378-391
to Coastal Processes and Geomorphology, Routledge (Masselink, G. (G. Masselink, T. Scott, T. Poate, P. Russell, M. Davidson and D. Conley
and Hughes, M.G.) Fig 8.7/p. 222, 9781444122404, used by permis- 2016), John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Creative Commons Licence, Attribution
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5 December 2013: Water levels, waves and coastal impacts”, Earth- in the format Republish in a book via Copyright Clearance Center.; Fig-
Science Reviews, Vol 146, pp.120-145, Fig 5 (T. Spencer, S.M. Brooks, ure 22.47 from Masselink et al., 2016; http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/
B.R. Evans, J.A. Tempest and I. Möller 2005), Elsevier. Creative Com- doi/10.1002/esp.3836/full, under creative commons licence https://
mons Licence Attribution 4.0 International; Figure 22.20 after An creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/legalcode), “CREATIVE COM-
Introduction to Coastal Geomorphology, Routledge (Pethick, J. 1984) MONS: Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) Fair Use. CC-BY 4.0:
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after Classification of clastic coastal depositional environments, Sedi- of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC (ed T.F.
mentary geology, 80, pp. 139–150 (Boyd, R., Dalrymple, R. and Zaitlin, Stocker et al. 2013) Fig 4.18, Source: IPCC, Cambridge University
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entific in the format Republish in a book via Copyright Clearance de Wal and J. Wahr 2015) http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/reportcard;
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The Ice Age in Britain, Taylor & Francis (Routledge) (Sparks, B.W. and by J.R. Ehleringer and T.E. Cerling in Global biogeochemical cycles in
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C.W. and Gregory, E.C. 1988), Tapir Publishers; Figure 25.2 after Figure 26.5 from Soil erosion map for Europe showing estimated
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sensing and image interpretation, John Wiley & Sons (Lillesand, T.M. Table 2.1 from U.S. Geological Survey, www.earthquake.usgs.gov,
and Kiefer, R.W. 2000), Reproduced with permission of Blackwell Sci- courtesy of the U.S. Geological Survey; Table 4.1 from Quaternary
entific in the format Republish in a book via Copyright Clearance Environments, Routledge (M.A.J. Williams, D. Dunkerley and P. de
Center.; Figure 25.7 after An introduction to remote sensing for envi- Deckker et al 1998) Table 1.1, p.8, 978-0340691519, used by permis-
ronmental monitoring, Report No. 1, University of Wisconsin Madison sion; Tables 7.1, 13.1 from “Global climate and the distribution of
(Scherz, J.P. and Stevens, A.R. 1970); Figure 25.15 after Elements of plant biomes”, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Vol
Photogrammetry with Applications in GIS, 3rd edition, McGraw Hill 359, pp.1465-1476 (F. I. Woodward, M. R. Lomas and C. K. Kelly 2004);
(P.R. Wolf and B.A Dewitt 2000) Fig 6.1, Reproduced with permission Table 12.4 after Limnology: Lake and river ecosystems, Academic
of the McGraw-Hill Companies; Figure 25.16 from SfM analysis on the Press (R.G. Wetzel 2001) pp.41-42, 978-0127447605; Table 17.6
ablation zone of Kårsaglaciären. Reprinted courtesy of Mark Smith; adapted from The nature and properties of soil, 12th edition, Pearson
Figure 25.23 after A global dataset of atmospheric aerosol optical Education Inc. (Nyle C, Brady and Ray R. Weil) copyright © 1999.
depth and surface reflectance from AATSR, Remote Sensing of Adapted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River,
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Acknowledgements
NJ; Table 17.8 from World Map of the Status of Human Induced Soil Waller 666t, 670; Aart Kroon Associate Professor: 621bl; Mel Bick-
Degradation. Volume 2: Global assessment of soil depredation, ISRIC erton: 316, 318; Mike Church: 133b; Mike Crabtree: 633b; NASA:
(L.R. Oldeman, R.T.A. Wakkeling and W.G. 667, Adam Voiland (NASA Earth Observatory) And Jeff Schmaltz
Sombroek 1991); Table 20.2 adapted from Global Environment: (Lance Modis Rapid Response) 247, Blue Marble: Land, Surface,
Water, Air and Geochemical Cycles, Pearson Education Inc. (Berner, Shallow Water, and Shaded Topography, Http://visibleearth.nasa.
R.A.) copyright © 1996. Adapted by permission of Pearson Education, gov/view_rec.php?id=2433 572, Geology.com, using Landsat Geo
Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ; Table 21.5 adapted from Arid Zone Geo- cover data provided by NASA 386t, Hal Pierce (SSAI / NASA GSFC)
morphology: Process, Form and Change in Drylands, John Wiley & 468bl, Jacques Descloitres, MODIS Rapid Response Team, NASA /
Sons (D.S.G. Thomas 1997) Table 1.5, p.9, Reproduced with permission GSFC 571, Jacques Desloitres, MODIS Land Rapid Response Team,
of Blackwell Scientific in the format Republish in a book via Copyright NASA / GSFC 66, Jeff Schmaltz, LANCE / EOSDIS Rapid Response
Clearance Center.; Table 22.1 from Climate Change 2013The physical 205, Jeff Schmaltz, MODIS Rapid Response Team 74, Jeff Schmaltz,
science basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Modis Rapid Response Team, Nasa / Gsfc 68, Jesse Allen and Robert
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC (ed. Simmon, USGS / NASA 675, Jesse Allen, using data provided courtesy
T.F. Stocker et al 2013) Table 13.1, p.1151, Source: IPCC, Cambridge of NASA / GSFC / METI / ERSDAC / JAROS, and U.S. / Japan ASTER
University Press; Table 23.2 from Physics of Glaciers, 4th edition, Aca- Science Team 615tr, Jesse Allen, using Landsat data provided by
demic Press (K.M. Cuffey and W.S.B. Paterson 2010) Elsevier; the United States Geological Survey. 559b, NASA / GSFC / METI /
Table 24.1 after The Frozen Earth, Fundamentals of Geocryology, ERSDAC / JAROS, and U.S. / Japan ASTER Science Team 425, NASA
Cambridge University Press (P.J. Williams and M.W. Smith 1989); / GSFC / MITI / ERSDAC / JAROS, and US / Japan ASTER Science
Table 25.8 from ASTER sub-instruments and their spectral band, Team, 2002 576tl, NASA / GSFC / MITS / ERSDAC / JAROS, and US
http://asterweb.jpl.nasa.gov/characteristics.asp, Source: NASA; / Japan ASTER Science Team 694, NASA / JPL-Caltech / GSFC 474,
Table 26.3 from “Participation in European water policy”, Physics and NASA Earth Observatory maps by Jesse Allen. Natural-color image
chemistry of the earth, Vol 28 (12-13), pp.555-562 (J.A. van Ast and by Jesse Allen, using Landsat data from the U.S. Geological Survey
S.P. Boot 2003), Elsevier 387, NASA images created by Jesse Allen, Earth Observatory, using
data provided courtesy of the NASA / GSFC / MITI / ERSDAC / JAROS,
Text and U.S. / Japan ASTER Science Team 577b, NASA-Goddard Space
Flight Center, data from NOAA GOES 201, NASA’s Goddard Space
Extracts on pages 180 and 182 from Climate Change 2014: Synthesis
Flight Center 631, NASA’s MODIS Rapid Response Team 721, Robert
Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to Fifth Assessment
Simmon and Jesse Allen, using Landsat data provided by the United
Report of the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC
States Geological Survey 579, SeaWiFS Project, NASA / Goddard
(Pachauri R.K., Meyer, L. A. 2014)
Space Flight Centre and ORBIMAGE 412, University of Texas Center
for Space Research / NASA 630; NERC 2017: Permit Number CP17
Photographs
/ 015 British Geological Survey © NERC 2017. All rights reserved
123RF.com: Borojoint 429, Tom Grundy 504r, Richard Whit- 668br; Nick Berry: Despina Psarra 264t; Norwegian Polar Institute:
combe 263t; A Gow: 639; Alamy Stock Photo: All Canada Photos 641tl, 641tr; Phil Haygarth: 436b; Philip N Owens: 427; PhotoDisc:
602r, Arctic Images 86, Auscape International Pty Ltd 609l, Mark Alan & Sandy Carey 393; Planetary Visions Limited: 54; Plymouth
Boulton 546, David Chapman 604br, FEMA 214, FOR ALAN 669tl, University: Professor David Gilvear, Professor of River Science 504l,
imageBROKER 550, Ian Kennedy 137, Frans Lemmens 607l, 621br, 507, 520t, 520b, 521tl, 521tr, 521b; Plymouth University: Gerd
Gareth McCormack 108, Henk Meijer 602l, Melba Photo Agency Masselink 595, 604bl, 617tr, 617bl, 617br, 621tl, 621tr; Professor
596, National Geographic Creative 363t, Nature and Science 668tr, Roland Gehrels : 608, 613; Professor Alexander Milner: 301 (e);
Oleksiy Maksymenko Photography 53, Purestock 271, Radius Images Professor Chris D Clark: 94tl; R Shakesby: 672t, 672b; Katherine
253, SIBSA Digital Pvt. Ltd 23, Ron Steiner 323, Stocktrek Images, Inc. Helen Roucoux: 133t; Royal Agricultural University, Limited: Dr
677, Nunnicha Supagrit 421, Dougie Taylor 82, Ariadne Van Zand- John Conway 436t; Science Photo Library Ltd: British Antarctic
bergen 270, Zoonar GmbH 94tr; Associate Professor Rob Brander: Survey 87, Dr. Marli Miller, VISUALS UNLIMITED 357b, Bernhard
594t; Cathy Delaney: 423; Chris Evans: 435br; Chris Perry: 416tl, Edmaier 609r, NASA 653, Planet Observer 615tl, 615b, G. R. Roberts
416tr; Danish Lithospheric Centre: 641bl, 641br; Dr Adam Booth: 493; Shutterstock.com: Alsamua 584, Anneka 269t, Artush 265,
633tl, 633tr; Dr Jonathan Carrivick, University of Leeds: 302 (a); Asian Images 372t, AuntSpray 79, Lester Balajadia 195, Bikerider-
Dr Chris Fogwill: 671; Dr Julian Murton/University of Sussex: london 40tl, Aleksander Bolbot 123t, BORTEL Pavel - Pavelmidi 357c,
666b; Dr Mark Ledger: 299 (d); Dr Martin Austin: 597l, 597r; Ian Bracegirdle 77, Scott S. Brown 210, Captblack76 330, Stefano
Environment Agency: 687, 690; Tom Foster: 111; Getty Images: Cavoretto 355, cdrw 733, Sam Chadwick 660, Anat Chant 317r,
Roland Birke 298, Claver Carroll 483, G. R. ’Dick’ Roberts / NSIL 96, CHEN MIN CHUN 246, Robert Cicchetti 378b, Civdis 625, Cjansuebsri
Homebrew Films Company 607r, Roger Hutchings 525, Claus Meyer / 326, Corlaffra 40tr, Paul Cowan 418, Cpaulfell 47tr, 238, Jack Dagley
Minden Pictures 389t, by Wildestanimal 29; International Institute Photography 237, Pichugin Dmitry 122, 557, Dr Morley Read 498,
for Sustainable Development: 320; JISC: 715, 716; John Corr: 121; Marat Dupri 589, Johnathan Esper 124, Oscar Espinosa 347, Feygin-
John Shaw: 654; Jon Copley: 70; Keele University: Dr. Richard I. Foto 729, Fotoam 450b, Marzia Franceschini 576tr, Matt Gibson 33,
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Acknowledgements
Goodluz 1, Gyn9037 728, Jorg Hackemann 577t, Alison Hancock 485, 668tl, 669tr; University of Leeds: Dr Antony Blundell 391t, Dr Sarah
Jubal Harshaw 299 (h), Sean Heatley 95, Robert Hoetink 58c, Inavan- Batterman 287 (a), 287 (b), 287 (c), 287 (d), Gerd Masselink 593,
hateren 243, Incredible Arctic 656, Gail Johnson 651, JPL Designs 594b, 604tl, 604tr, 617tl, Lee E. Brown 299, 301, 302 (b), 314, Mike
233, Kodda 175, Yuri Kravchenko 453, Lafoto 213, Denis Lamsh- Kirby 380, 389b, 392, Mike Kirkby 399, Prof Joseph Holden 15, 92b,
chikov 363b, Radoslaw Lecyk 488, Alexander Mazurkevich 283, 102, 118, 134b, 361c, 371, 395t, 395b, 561, Dr Mark Smith 693, Tavi
Mehdi Photos 411, MyImages - Micha 359, Felix Nendzig 531, Chak- Murray 628, 635, 638, 646bl, 646br, 649t, 649b, 665t, 665b; Univer-
krachai Nicharat 450tr, Luigi Nifosi 27, Brian Nolan 207, Nordroden sity of Leeds: Robert Finch 32, Michael Krom 41tr, Prof Michael
657b, Kotenko Oleksandr 345, Tom Olson 569, Mikhail Olykainen Krom 47cl, 47b, 50tr, 57; University of Manchester: Prof Kevin Taylor
321, Sean Pavone 370b, Duncan Payne 92t, Catalin Petolea 269b, 422, 424; University of Maryland: 697; University of Oxford, 2017:
PHOTO FUN 277, Photowind 450tl, Marina Poushkina 3, Svetoslav Professor David S.G. Thomas | Professor of Geography 564c, 568,
Radkov 317l, Armin Rose 629, Jason Patrick Ross 229, Scottchan 480, 575bl, 575br; University of St Andrews: Dr Ian Lawson 116, 123b,
Servickuz 58t, Ralf Siemieniec 370t, Roberto Sorin 719, Calin Stan 134t; USGS: 58bl, 58br, 469br, 471, 637, Lindsay Burt 470, Coyier
251, Topseller 356b, Treasure Dragon 263b, Ljubomir Trigubishyn G.A. Collection Mount St. Helens msh198004. U.S. Geological Survey
377, Barry Tuck 407, Suzanne Tucker 465, Tumsuk 73, Siete_Vidas 46tr, D. Trombotto; from Romanovsky, Gruber, and others, 2007
267, Rudmer Zwerver 420br; Steve Carver: 420bl; Swansea Univer- 673, Thomas M. Gibson 83, Mark Reid 386b, D.W. Peterson 50bl,
sity: Dr Susan Bevan 642, Professor Tavi Murray 627, Professor Tavi Rick Hoblitt, U.S. Geological Survey Cascades Volcano Observatory
Murray and Professor Adrian Luckman 703; Swansea University, 46tl, U.S. Geological Survey. May D. Colleciton Mount St. Helens
College of Science: Dr. Kilian Scharrer 682bl, 682br, Timothy James, msh198006 47cr, U.S. Geological Survey. Rosenbaum J.G. Collection
Swansea University 678; The Queen’s University of Belfast: Prof. Mount St. Helens msh198006 47tl
Bernard J. Smith 349 (a), 349 (b), 354, 356t, 357t, 361b, 362, 366,
Cover images: Front: Getty Images: DigitalVision / Yuji Sakai
373, 374; The University of Edinburgh : K.V. Heal 527, M.R. Heal 533t,
537, 541, 544; Ty Parker: 131; University Centre, Svalbard: 657t, All other images © Pearson Education
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F01 An Introduction to Physical Ge 83575 Contents.indd 26 24/05/2017 13:34
PA RT I
The role of physical geography
Figure PI.1 Physical geographers often collect samples and take Part contents
easurements from instruments. However, there has to be a
m
justification for taking such measurements and so one should start ➤ Chapter 1: Approaching physical geography
with a question or hypothesis that data collection in the field, laboratory
or numerical model then tries to answer or test.
M01 An Introduction to Physical Ge 83575.indd 1 24/05/2017 13:54
Part I The role of physical geography
Scope patterns that characterize the living portion of the Earth. Physical
geography involves the application of technology to study these
Scientific disciplines are constantly evolving, adopting new
components and changes within them. For example, remote sens-
approaches and techniques and moving into previously unthought-of
ing from space provides an aid to monitoring the world’s constantly
areas. Part I contains a chapter which deals with the development of
changing natural and human landscapes, the oceans, atmosphere
physical geography as a subject and the sorts of general approaches
and biosphere.
adopted by physical geographers to understand how the world works.
Geographers often say that they study the ‘why of where’. By this
The chapter provides context that explains why we approach the
they mean that they seek to explain the underlying processes that
subject in particular ways today. It describes the basic frameworks
result in the patterns of natural phenomena and the ways in which
for studying science and explains the roles of data collection from
humans interact with, and alter, these processes and patterns. In
the natural environment, laboratory work and modelling. It describes
addition to a spatial context, change over time is also a central theme
the advantages and disadvantages of a range of approaches that we
to physical geography.
should be aware of when studying physical geography. It therefore
It is important to be aware of the ways in which physical geog-
sets the scene for the rest of the book by providing the reader with
raphers study physical geography. Some kind of theoretical basis of
an appropriate grounding in the nature of the subject.
enquiry is essential in order to allow fair comparisons of results and
interpretation of conclusions between different research areas. The
scientific methods discussed in Chapter 1 help to form this philo-
What do we mean by physical geography?
sophical foundation. The underlying method does not necessarily
Physical geography is about understanding interactions of processes mean that all research is done using the same techniques; indeed
involving the Earth’s climate system, oceans, landforms, animals, physical geography utilizes a variety of tools to help understand,
plants and people. This understanding requires linking the p hysical measure, observe and predict environmental processes. However,
systems together and relating human actions to the physical by maintaining a philosophical basis, it reminds us to question the
environment. Of interest to physical geographers are the mechanisms approach we take. In recent years, emphasis has shifted from a
that maintain flows of energy and matter across the Earth. There are position where science represents the ultimate authority informing
components of study which include processes associated with plate society, to a realization that science is itself influenced by society, and
tectonics, geomorphology, climatology, glaciology and hydrology that many other sources of knowledge must be equally considered.
that shape the surface of the Earth; the collection of climatic and Consideration of the advantages and limitations of a given approach
atmospheric processes acting as one of the ultimate controls on the is therefore vital so that we can assess the reliability and usefulness
landscape and biosphere; and the ecological and biogeographical of the conclusions attained.
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C H A PTER 1
Approaching physical geography
Joseph Holden
School of Geography, University of Leeds
Learning objectives with a wide range of processes that affect the landscape
of the Earth. For example, plate tectonic processes are
After reading this chapter you should be able to: responsible for mountain building, the movement of the
continents, ocean floor spreading, ecological isolation and
➤ describe the historical development of physical geography as a changing climate. In addition, the landscape is worn down
subject by weathering and erosion processes, many of which
are driven by gravity and water (in solid, liquid and gas
➤ understand basic scientific methods
form). Water also transports nutrients from soils to plants
➤ evaluate methods for different types of research in physical and from rocks and soils to rivers and into the oceans. It
geography transports nutrients and energy around the globe through
➤ appreciate the advantages and limitations of different the oceans and the atmosphere. It moves sediments across
approaches to physical geography hillslopes, catchments and seas. Understanding the variety
of processes that link the components shown in Figure 1.1
(atmosphere, oceans, landforms and biosphere) at global
1.1 Introduction and small scales enables improved prediction of future
change of the Earth’s environmental systems.
The physical environment affects most aspects of our daily A range of tools are available to physical geographers
lives. It is fundamental to human existence. For example, in order to help us understand, measure, observe and
it determines water availability and water quality, weather predict environmental processes. These include tried
and climate, soil systems, potential for agriculture, the and tested methods along with new technologies such as
risk of landslides or other hazards, and if and how we advanced probes and laboratory methods or geophysi-
can travel from one place to the next. Physical g eography cal and remote sensing tools that allow us to measure
involves the study of the interconnected features of the Earth’s features and processes remotely. For example,
the Earth (Figure 1.1). It deals with the Earth’s climate after spending a few minutes taking a series of photo-
system, which results from a combination of atmospheric, graphs from slightly different locations around a feature
oceanic, land, ice and ecological processes. It also deals such as a gully, a gravel river bank, a tree or a building it
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Chapter 1 Approaching physical geography
Figure 1.1 Components of the changing
environment. The atmosphere, oceans,
biosphere and landforms all interact with
each other. Important links within the system
Atmosphere
include H2O in its different forms, tectonics,
ecological processes and humans.
Gravity
Tectonics
Solar energy
Humans
H2O (ice – water– water vapour)
Landforms Biosphere
Climate
Ecological processes
Oceans
is possible to use freely available Structure from Motion evaluate the implications of any given research finding in
software to produce a 3D image on a computer of the physical geography.
feature and from this image it is possible to measure The approaches that physical geographers have used
the dimensions of the feature in high resolution (e.g. to the have varied through time as the subject has developed.
nearest millimetre) (see Chapter 25). This sort of approach
can save a lot of time undertaking painstaking field
survey measurements, and has an almost infinite range
of applications. Another example might be the growing
use of ‘flux towers’ (Figure 1.2), which are ground-based
instruments that can measure the net release or uptake of
carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, water vapour or energy
across a sampling area such as a large field or a section of
forest. These devices may take measurements every second
and can be used to tell us whether the landscape is acting
as a net sink or a net source of carbon to the atmosphere
and also how this varies over days, months and years.
Field study, remote sensing, laboratory work and
numerical modelling are all important components of
the method of physical geography today. However, each
particular approach and method has its limitations. No
matter what type of measurement device or approach is
used, it is often how it is used and why it is being used in
those ways which are important. In other words, s cientific
approaches have a philosophical underpinning which
can be evaluated. There are a range of approaches to
science and physical geography and each approach has
advantages and disadvantages. It is therefore necessary to
understand these methods and their limitations so that we
Figure 1.2 A flux tower on a peatland which can be left to run
can: (i) evaluate which are the most appropriate methods a utomatically. The instruments on the tower are used for measuring the
to use for a given environmental investigation and (ii) fully uptake and release by the landscape of CO2, energy and water vapour.
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1.2 Historical development of physical geography
In order to understand contemporary practice in in China with advanced triangulation techniques allowing
physical geography it is therefore necessary to know exceptionally good quality maps of the region to be pro-
something about the history and development of the duced from the first century AD onwards. For the last
subject. This chapter will briefly describe the way 2000 years many official Chinese historical texts have
physical g eography has developed. It will then move on contained a geographical section, which was often an
to discuss how the scientific method has been applied enormous compilation of changes in placenames and local
by physical geographers to studies of the e nvironment. administrative divisions controlled by the ruling dynasty,
The remaining parts of the chapter will look at the descriptions of mountain ranges, river systems, taxable
principles of and approaches to (i) data collection from products and so on.
the e nvironment, (ii) laboratory research and (iii) numeri- While science was slow to progress in Europe
cal modelling, all of which are important methods of before the sixteenth century, with the Renaissance
physical geography. (∼140091600 AD) came a renewed interest in the geo-
graphical knowledge of the ancients (which the Arab and
Chinese scientists had already advanced significantly)
and a willingness to test and refine their theories. The
1.2 Historical development of
European explorations of the fifteenth and sixteenth
physical geography
centuries were part of a major period of invention and
discovery. Improvements in measuring devices such as
1.2.1 Physical geography before 1800
timekeepers and in mapping and printing techniques
The ancient Greeks were interested in the shape and were combined with a new geographical knowledge
topography of the Earth. Aristotle (∼3849322 BC) about the world. Indeed many of these new technolo-
logically demonstrated using evidence from lunar eclipses gies had roots in the pursuit of geographical knowledge.
(when the Earth’s shadow blocks the Sun’s light from For example, methods for accurately keeping time were
reaching the Moon) that the Earth was probably spherical. developed when stable navigation systems that could
Eratosthenes (∼2769195 BC), known as the ‘Father of determine the longitude (east–west position) of a ship
Geography’, developed models of the Earth using paral- were invented. As the Earth is constantly rotating, know-
lels and meridians and using surveying techniques to ing the time while making an altitude measurement to
determine the circumference of the Earth with amazing a known star or the Sun provided data to accurately
accuracy compared to today’s satellite measurements. This calculate longitude. The experiences of the explorers
Greek learning was also passed to Roman geographers, had begun to overturn traditional views of those thought
who produced maps and topographic descriptions of to be authority figures (such as leaders of the Christian
places and their history, supporting military expansion, Church and the theories of the ancient Greeks). For
and they also had a philosophical interest in the relations example, new continents were being discovered and the
between humans and the environment. layout of land masses across the Earth was being deter-
Between the time of the Roman Empire and the mined. A fundamental importance (as recognized much
sixteenth century, European science progressed very slowly. earlier by Al Muqaddasi) was beginning to be placed
Often scholars rejected anything that seemed to go against on the role of real-world experience. This meant that
the teachings of the Christian Church. In the Middle East, determining whether or not there was a Southern Ocean
however, Arab geographers such as Al Muqaddasi (who land mass could only be established through experi-
lived between AD 945 and 988) were pioneering fieldwork ence and not by just reading the works of Aristotle. The
whereby observations were given precedence. Indeed importance of experience over authority was a central
Al Muqaddasi stated that he would not present anything theme of the development of science during this period.
unless he had seen it with his own eyes. Such Arab geog- However, it was because geography was inextricably
raphers maintained the Greek and Roman techniques and linked to exploration, patriotism and colonization that
developed new ones. Arab traders travelled throughout it was considered an important subject by the society of
Asia, Africa and the Indian Ocean and added a great deal the time. Geographers were making the key advances in
of geographical knowledge to update the classical sources. discovering new lands, mapping them, changing people’s
Any European geographical work was trivial in compari- perception of the shape and size of features of the Earth
son with the huge amount published by Islamic writers of and bringing potential ‘wealth’ to nations that conquered
the Middle Ages. Exploration and learning also flourished and colonized others.
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Chapter 1 Approaching physical geography
1.2.2 Physical geography between of the Earth became more reliable. Radioactive elements
1800 and 1950 such as uranium and strontium are unstable and decay at
a steady rate. Uranium-238, for example, decays into lead-
1.2.2.1 Uniformitarianism 206. Comparing the ratio of these two elements allows us
to determine how much time has passed since the uranium
Prior to the early nineteenth century the prevailing belief sample was pure when the rock solidified. Radioactive
of the western world had been that the Earth was created decay also gives off heat and we can determine the rate of
in 4004 BC. The landscapes of the Earth were thought Earth cooling to determine a time when it formed. The
to be a result of catastrophic events. For example, it was Earth is in fact around 4.6 billion years old. The oldest
thought that river valleys were scoured out during the bib- rocks that have been found on the Earth date to about
lical flood and that peatlands were remnants of the slime 3.9 billion years ago.
left behind after the flood receded. However, the increas-
ing scientific knowledge acquired between the sixteenth
1.2.2.2 Darwin, Davis and Gilbert
and the end of the nineteenth centuries began to lead to
different views developing. One new idea that emerged, Charles Darwin was a brilliant scientist who collected and
for example, was that the Earth’s landscapes gradually organized specimens. He read some of the writings on
changed over time rather than simply being affected by uniformitarianism and extended these ideas to b iology.
one or two sudden catastrophic events. Turner (1757), for The theory of evolution suggests that the diversity of
example, showed that if you dug a small hole in a peat- species occurs due to continuous, slow modifications to
land, new peat would form in the hole after a few years genetic traits over very long periods of time. Darwin’s
thereby showing that peat was not the detritus left behind The Origin of Species published in 1859 was hugely
from a major flood. One of the most persistent and influ- influential in the field of science and in society in general.
ential themes to affect physical geography and especially Indeed it has often been referred to as the ‘book that
geomorphology was the Theory of the Earth published by shook the world’. The book outlined how there could
James Hutton in 1795 and clarified by Playfair (1802) in his be a r elatively gradual change in the characteristics of
Illustrations of the Huttonian theory of the Earth. Hut- successive generations of a species and that higher plants
ton and Playfair were scientists who examined the Earth’s and animals evolved slowly over time from lower beings.
landscapes and tried to understand their formation. Hut- This evolution occurred as a result of competition within
ton’s theory rejected catastrophic forces as the explanation local interacting communities (see Chapters 10–12).
for environmental features and gave rise to a school of Darwin’s book helped throw the idea that there was a
thought known as uniformitarianism (Gregory, 1985). The complete difference between humans and the animal world
central component of this concept is that present-day pro- into turmoil as he reinforced the suggestion that humans
cesses that we can observe should be used to inform our evolved from lower beings. With the idea that humans
understanding of past processes that we cannot observe. could have evolved from lower beings came the undermin-
In other words, many of the processes we can see today are ing of traditional religious opinions. However, although
probably the same as those that occurred in the past and so some religious leaders did embrace Darwinism at the
we can infer what went on in the past from understanding time, the theories were very different from those that had
contemporary environmental processes. Uniformitarian- come before. These ideas radically shook a society where,
ism propagated the idea that ‘the present is the key to the because of the increasing availability of printed books and
past’. Although this idea was very satisfactory in terms of papers, intellectual knowledge was being transferred in
the processes for understanding the past, of course it can- greater quantity than ever before.
not be assumed that the rates at which processes operate Darwin’s ideas influenced most areas of science at the
today (e.g. weathering of rock) are the same as those that time. The idea of ‘change through time’ was reflected in
occurred in the past. N evertheless it was still recognized evolutionary attitudes to the study of landforms follow-
that given enough time a stream could carve a valley, ice ing Darwin’s own 1842 study of the evolution of coral
could erode rock, and sediment could accumulate and islands which was particularly influential in relation to the
form new landforms. Hutton speculated that millions of ‘cycle of erosion’ idea promoted by W.M. Davis (Gregory,
years would have been required to shape the Earth into its 1985). The approach recommended by Davis, who was
contemporary form. It was not until the early 1900s and a very revered geomorphologist, dominated approaches
the discovery of radioactivity that estimates of the age to physical geography from the late nineteenth century
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1.2 Historical development of physical geography
through until the 1950s. Davis suggested in 1889 that the Davisian ideas were applied by many to help interpret
the normal cycle of erosion could be used to classify any landscapes across the globe (e.g. Cotton, 1922, applied
landscape according to the stage that it had reached in the the ideas to parts of New Zealand and Wooldridge and
erosion cycle. He termed this the ‘cycle of life’, which was Linton, 1939, produced a Davisian interpretation of
a rather biological metaphor for landform development. south-east England). In plant geography and ecology a
Figure 1.3 shows the Davisian cycles of erosion. A youthful similar influence was being expressed by Clements (1916,
uplifted landscape begins to be dissected by rivers. As the 1928) in his concept of succession (see Section 11.4.3 in
landscape matures these valleys become wider and more Chapter 11). It is notable, however, that two themes of
gently sloping until eventually all that remains is a flat, old Darwin’s work ((i) struggle and selection; (ii) r andomness
landscape (a peneplain). The great success of the Davisian and chance) did not have an immediate impact on
approach, dominating popular physical geography for physical geography (Stoddard, 1966). Indeed the unique
60 years, was due to the fact that it was simple and could contribution of Darwin’s theory, which was ‘random
easily be applied by people to a wide range of landscapes. variation’ whereby random change could occur to species
As a result of these ideas people then tried to determine from one generation to the next, did not really appear in
the history of an area by establishing which stage of the work by physical geographers until the 1960s (Gregory,
Davisian cycle it was in. This approach was also known as 1985). Nevertheless the theme of evolution provided an
denudation chronology. While Davis had based his ideas on historical perspective to physical geography which still
the case study of the Appalachians in the United States, dominates geomorphology, studies of soils, biogeography
and climatology.
An alternative approach that was advocated at the same
time as the Davisian approach was that of G.K. Gilbert.
(a) Young
Gilbert, an explorer of the American West, wanted to
understand why particular landforms developed rather
than just classify them as being youthful or mature. In
order to understand landform development he recognized
the importance of describing physical processes and
deriving systems of laws that determined how a landform
Recently uplifted with new incision
could change. He attempted to apply quantitative methods
to geological investigations. His ideas, however, were not
taken on board during an era dominated by the descriptive
techniques offered by Davis. It was not until the 1950s
(b) Mature
that physical geography came to revisit his approach and
that Gilbert’s ideas finally won favour. Until the 1950s,
therefore, physical geography was largely descriptive
and was concerned with regions. It was concerned with
the evolution of environments and their classification.
Deep and widespread valley incision There were virtually no measurements of environmental
processes involved and if you look at geography books
from that period you will see that they are structured by
regions and simply describe regional climates, landscapes,
(c) Old
resources and trade (e.g. L. Dudley Stamp’s 1949 book
The world: A general geography).
1.2.2.3 Divisions of physical geography
Almost flat, featureless peneplane, with the landscape eroded away The early twentieth century saw a number of advances
which resulted in identifiable branches in physical
Figure 1.3 The Davisian cycles of erosion: (a) young uplifted stage with
geography being developed. Davis and Gilbert helped
very limited incision; (b) a mature stage with deep valley incision and
complex topography; (c) an old eroded landscape with few topographic form the field of geomorphology, while Russian scientists
features. (Source: after Davis, 1889) such as Dokuchaev formed the study of soils (pedology)
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Chapter 1 Approaching physical geography
showing how soil types could be related to climate, under- physical real-world measurements. It was also at this
lying materials and shape of the landscape. The branches time that Hack (1960), a physical geographer, went into
of climatology and meteorology were beginning to be the A
ppalachians (coincidentally the very heart of the
established, accelerated with the development of the Davisian theory) and realized that landscapes were more
aeroplane and emergent war needs. Researchers such as delicately adjusted and that there was some form of equi-
Clements helped establish biogeographical concepts such librium between r ivers and landscapes. Box 1.1 describes
as succession which enabled ecology–human interaction these equilibrium approaches and their limitations.
studies to expand. Broadly, the above fields are still those It was also during this time that the work of
studied today within the discipline, although the subject G.K. Gilbert was revisited and his approach eventually
of physical geography is ever evolving and there are many embraced. This was largely due to the pioneering studies
interactions between these areas. Some physical geogra- of the hydrologist Robert Horton and the development
phy departments, for example, will form groups around of his ideas by Strahler and his graduate students, who
‘biogeoscience’ dealing with biological and chemical included Stanley Schumm, Marie Morisawa, Mark Melton
processes and transfers in the water, land, atmosphere and and Richard Chorley. The 1950s are often referred to as the
biosphere system. time of a quantitative revolution in geography due to the
move away from description and towards measurement.
Work began to concentrate on smaller spatial scales where
1.2.3 Physical geography since 1950 processes could be measured during short-term studies.
1.2.3.1 The quantitative revolution 1.2.3.2 Functional physical geography
In the 1950s, European and North American geography However, although quantitative techniques were being
was forced to change. It was realized that describing employed these were not necessarily those that Gilbert had
places and putting boundaries around them, where in proposed. The measurements that were being performed
fact real boundaries did not actually exist, was no longer in the 1950s and 1960s often did not allow us to evaluate
a useful approach. The 1950s were a time of increasing or understand physical processes properly. They tended to
globalization when more people began to travel by air to be quantitative descriptions rather than the measurement
far-flung destinations and when television began to show of processes. For example, in 1953, Leopold and Mad-
programmes made around the world, thereby opening up dock, physical geographers who studied rivers, published
people’s experience and views of the world. Global trade results of a survey of streams and rivers in the central and
was increasing and mass-produced items such as refrig- south-west United States. They found that stream width,
erators, cars and plastic became much-wanted goods. It depth and velocity increased in proportion to the discharge
became more common for people to own goods that were to the power of a given number (e.g. width is proportional
made in other countries (e.g. Europeans buying Ford cars to discharge to the power of 0.5; see Chapter 19). As the
made in the United States). It therefore became evident discharge increased downstream the equations suggested
that there were increasing human and physical interlink- that channel width, mean depth and mean velocity should
ages between regions. It was also a period of modernity all increase. These equations could be used to make
in which there was a societal commitment to order and predictions about the discharge or hydraulic geometry of
rationality, and to science as the driving force for future rivers across the world (see Chapter 19).
developments and improvements in infrastructure and There are two problems with this approach. The first
lifestyles. Physical geography needed to maintain its aca- is that the relationships determined are purely s tatistical
demic status and it could no longer do so within a society relationships (or functional relationships). In other
that now had a ‘professional’ science (see below). The words, they are just a result of the average value of the
Davisian cycles of erosion could not be verified from a width, depth, velocity and discharge of all the rivers that
scientific perspective and furthermore they did not explain were measured, but this does not explain why channel
observations. It was too difficult to measure such slow dimensions vary in such a way with discharge. These
processes over such large spatial scales. Arthur Strahler, sorts of statistical relationship do not explain the physical
a geomorphologist particularly interested in r ivers and processes. The second problem is that such functional
landform change, proposed that a new dynamic basis approaches are often not applicable to areas other than
for physical geography should be developed based on the area for which they were determined. This is because
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1.2 Historical development of physical geography
Equilibrium Concepts in timescales (Schumm and Lichty, 1965). determined from those that are actually
Physical Geography Note that over short timescales it may be occurring in the long term.
possible to identify a static equilibrium (a)
When Hack (1960) completed a field visit (no change over time) or a steady-state
to the Appalachian Mountains he realized equilibrium (short-term fluctuations t1
that rather than there being one long about a longer-term mean value) while
Form
Davisian erosion process whereby rivers over longer time periods the equilibrium
wore away mountains over time, there is in might be dynamic (shorter-term fluctua- t2
fact a more dynamic set of processes oper- tions with a longer-term mean value that
ating. He rejuvenated Gilbert’s concept of is changing). Time
‘dynamic equilibrium’. He suggested that (b)
However, the concept of equilibrium
every slope and every channel in an ero- has always been somewhat confusing
sional system are adjusted to each other because different people have chosen t1
Form
and that relief and form can be explained to identify different types of equilibrium
t2
in spatial terms rather than historic ones. and because the precise meaning is time
This work suggested that river profiles dependent. Indeed, equilibrium may
were never exactly concave. Instead, when be just as generalized and untestable Time
sediment from a hillslope builds up in a as the Davisian cycle of erosion it was
Figure 1.5 The timescale for human meas-
river it has to steepen itself in order to meant to replace. Often it depends on urement makes it very difficult to identify
move that sediment. Once removed, the where and when you measure something long-term trends and the nature of equilib-
river may become less steep in profile. In as to whether it will show equilibrium. rium. Here the measurements are taken at
other words, the rivers and slopes would Figure 1.5 illustrates this very simply two times (t1 and t2) for each case. However,
adjust to each other in an attempt to be in for two systems that in the long term because of the timing of the measurements
equilibrium. we have incorrectly identified the nature
are behaving differently. Because the
Of course, the nature of equilibrium of the long-term change in each case. In
measurements were done at the times
(a) we have established a downward trend
investigated depends on the time- shown in Figure 1.5, it was not possible to where there is no long-term trend and in
scale under investigation. Figure 1.4 identify the nature of the long-term trend (b) we have identified no change while the
shows forms of equilibrium over three and in fact different trends have been long-term trend is upward.
(a) (b) (c)
Form
Form
Form
Cyclic time (104 years) Graded time (102 years) Steady time (10–1 years)
Figure 1.4 Equilibrium over three timescales: (a) dynamic equilibrium; (b) steady-state equilibrium; (c) static equilibrium.
Box 1.1
local factors can influence the development of a landform rather than the average. It was for these reasons that Yatsu
(such as geology or tree roots on a river bank holding the (1992), a Japanese physical geographer with expertise
bank together and preventing it from eroding) so that it in rock weathering, accused Strahler himself of ‘crying
does not conform to the statistical average. Indeed, some- wine and selling vinegar’. This means that he thought
times it is the unusual cases that we are more interested in Strahler had advocated a new physical geography founded
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Chapter 1 Approaching physical geography
in physically based process measurement (the ‘wine’) but 1.3.1 The positivist method
that Strahler was actually not measuring the physical pro-
Modern science is grounded in observation. It places spe-
cesses. Hence Strahler was actually advocating a poorer
cial emphasis on empirical (derived from experiment and
type of physical geography (he was selling only ‘vinegar’).
observation) measurements over theoretical statements
Strahler and others around him made measurements but
(human ideas about how a system might work). Standard
these were measurements of the wrong type. They were
scientific method involves the formulation of hypoth-
not physically based process measurements. It was Yatsu
eses (e.g. ‘the Earth’s climate has warmed over the past
in 1966 who stated: ‘[Physical geographers] have often
100 years’) and the collection of information to test these
asked the what, where and when of things and they have
hypotheses (e.g. comparing temperature measurements).
seldom asked how . . . and they have never asked why. It
This helps us explain why physical geographers (and scien-
is a great mystery why they have never asked why.’ It was
tists in general) are preoccupied with experimentation and
not until the mid-1970s that physical geography more fully
measurement.
adopted the idea of measuring processes in order to under-
One of the key elements of scientific method is that of
stand and explain the world. It was during this period that
causal inference. This is the idea that every event has some
physical geography managed to embrace ‘basic scientific
sort of cause and so causal inference is the process by
methods’ (see below). Nowadays the emphasis is very
which we link observations under this assumption. How-
much on understanding processes (e.g. how vegetation
ever, it is rare for causal inference not to be affected by
interacts with soils and soil development – Chapters 11, 13
what we know and think already. Therefore there must be
and 17; how vegetation and climate interact – Chapter 13;
some theoretical basis for research ideas. At the same time,
or how glaciers erode their beds and move over the land
however, the theories are tested so that observations still
surface – Chapter 23). However, as the following sections
have greater status than theories.
will demonstrate, although a basic scientific method may
One of the key approaches for linking theory and
be adopted, there are actually many types of scientific
observation is known as positivism. Positivism is a tradi-
method proposed and used, and each method can be
tional philosophy of science which has its origins with
criticized: this should be borne in mind when reading
the philosopher Auguste Comte in the 1820s. Its idea was
through the rest of this textbook and during your studies
simply to stick to what we can observe and measure and
in general.
ensure that science was separated from religious explana-
tions for phenomena. It uses repeatable research methods
so that the same tests can be performed again as a quality
Reflective questions control. There are different forms of positivist approach.
Two important ones are logical positivism (or logical empiri-
➤ How did Darwin’s Origin of Species impact physical
cism) and critical rationalism.
geography?
In logical positivism, scientists use inductive reasoning
➤ What were the main differences between physical whereby jumbled knowledge is defined, measured and
geography before 1950 and that since 1950? classified into ordered knowledge. Once it is ordered, then
regularities may be discovered and these might suggest the
➤ Can you explain what is meant by ‘functional physical
existence of a natural law. Logical positivism uses experi-
geography’?
ments to acquire knowledge. For example, we might meas-
ure water-table depth and find that it seems to control the
release of CO2 from peat. If we find that in peatland areas
1.3 Scientific methods with deep water tables, CO2 release is high compared
with areas where the water table is shallow, then we may
Science uses a number of techniques and has adopted develop a theory that water-table depth controls the rate
several philosophical approaches. It is important for physi- of CO2 release from the peat.
cal geographers to be aware of such methods so that we The logical positivism approach was criticized, how-
can evaluate the advantages and limitations of the way in ever, by the philosopher Karl Popper, who suggested that
which we are approaching a research topic. The following you could not derive a law based on this technique. This
section provides information on the key principles of is because the failure to do infinite experiments means
scientific method. that there could always be a case that does not fit the law.
10
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1.3 Scientific methods
It may just be that you have not yet found the case that just that other factors may have restricted the tree heights
does not obey the law (e.g. the peatland for which the CO2 of all living trees today (e.g. disease, storms). However, if
release is greater when water tables are shallow). Instead, you find a tree that is taller than 130 metres you have falsi-
Popper argued that critical rationalist approaches should fied the hypothesis and now you must refine the hypothesis
be adopted whereby you start with a theory that leads to and test a new theory. The data collection, analysis and
the formation of a hypothesis. Then you test the hypoth- hypothesis testing strategy can involve field measure-
esis to the limit in an attempt to falsify the hypothesis. In ments, remote sensing, laboratory tests or even numerical
other words, you try to disprove the hypothesis (rather modelling.
than try to prove it). This is based on deductive reasoning.
Figure 1.6 provides a conceptual diagram of this approach.
If a theory survives falsification after testing it can still
1.3.2 Critique of the positivist method
not be proved. You can only say that it has not been dis- There are a number of criticisms of the use of traditional
proved. This is the basis for most scientific approaches science within environmental subjects. These include the
today. For instance, one theory may be that trees cannot following:
grow taller than 130 metres (Koch et al., 2004). You test
1. It may not be impossible to do completely objec-
this by measuring tree heights. If you find no trees taller
tive science: there is always a human who is doing the
than 130 metres then you can say that the evidence cor-
experiment and that person will always apply some sort
roborates the theory and probably trees cannot grow taller
of meaning to the research. In other words, there is an
than 130 metres. Many statistical analyses of data result
interaction between the enquirer and the research they
in a calculation of the probability that a theory is correct
are carrying out. Indeed, sometimes a scientist might be
and has not just occurred by random chance. You can-
motivated by a range of external forces when doing their
not be certain, however, that your theory is 100% correct
experiments. Some scientists are funded by a specific
and it is impossible to verify the hypothesis, even if you
organization with a vested interest in showing that results
measured every tall tree on the planet. It may still be pos-
indicate a particular thing. This may remove independence
sible (in the future or past) for a tree to grow taller, it is
and objectivity from research (perhaps even only sub-
consciously) and is why scientists are asked, ethically, to
Derivation of declare their funding source when they publish results.
hypotheses
2. ‘Context stripping’: this means that although experi-
ments might be well controlled and repeatable, because
Design of data
collection strategy
they involve simplification (e.g. manipulation of water
to test these table by using ditch networks or pumping water onto a site
hypotheses
causing a change in CO2 release) the fact that there may
be more complex interactions is often ignored (e.g. the
Data collection
and analysis
types of plants that grow when the water table is changed
might be different in the long-term, to those present when
the experiment was conducted). In this way positivism is
Use data to try Several
to falsify (reject) hypotheses reductionist because it assumes one can ‘close’ a system
hypotheses remain tenable and look at the relationship between two variables in that
system while holding all others constant. For example, if
Remaining we think about the peatland CO2 example discussed above
hypothesis then water tables may themselves be partly controlled by
the vegetation as the vegetation may influence how much
Prediction water is lost to the atmosphere via evapotranspiration. The
vegetation in turn also affects carbon capture and release
from the peatland ecosystem and the types of microbes
Conclusions present within the peat which may also control decomposi-
tion and hence CO2 release. Thus, simple positivist experi-
Figure 1.6 Schematic diagram of the typical experimental approach used ments may lack the environmental context required for
by critical rationalists. understanding the processes that are operating.
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Chapter 1 Approaching physical geography
3. Positivist approaches tend to separate out grand predict exists, but they may not be directly measureable.
theories from local contexts: positivist approaches often For example, no-one has observed a black hole and yet
produce statistical generalizations that are statistically scientific theory suggests that black holes should exist.
meaningful but that are inapplicable to individual places In one version of realism that is often cited in the physi-
(e.g. a general equation based on data from 100 sites that cal geography literature (Inkpen and Wilson, 2013) there
links slope and the frequency of meanders on a river, but are three levels into which any phenomenon can be struc-
which does not seem to work for a particular site being tured (Figure 1.8): (i) mechanisms (underlying processes
studied). that cause things to happen); (ii) events that they produce
4. By actually measuring something we may be chang- depending on circumstances; and (iii) the empirical obser-
ing it: for example, if we wanted to measure the erosion on vations of those events made by humans. This approach
a hillslope (see Chapter 9) we might dig a pit to collect the accepts that in complex open environmental systems,
sediment. However, by digging that pit we may be chang- interacting mechanisms may not always produce an event
ing the processes in the vicinity of the pit and the rate of (or something that can be observed or measured). Events
erosion on the slope. Similarly, if we wanted to measure occur only when the mechanisms interact at the right place
river velocity we might place a flow meter into the water at the right time.
to measure it (Figure 1.7). However, by placing that device Figure 1.8 shows how events are associated with the
into the water we may be changing the velocity of the coming together of mechanisms, which are themselves
water around it compared with when the flow meter is not influenced by other events. An event may be the shattering
there. of a piece of rock. The underlying mechanisms to produce
5. Not all things are necessarily measurable, yet they that event will include fluctuating temperatures above and
may still be important. below freezing, the presence of water in rock and expan-
sion and contraction of water within the rock upon freez-
ing and thawing. However, the rock shattering will occur
1.3.3 Realism as an alternative positivist
only if the rock contains water and if the rock has been
approach weakened sufficiently by previous weathering. Therefore,
Realism is an alternative positivist approach which seeks while there may be fluctuating temperatures that cause
to avoid some of the critiques discussed above. Realism freezing and thawing of water within a rock, it will only
attempts to reintroduce philosophy into method and shatter (the event) when the right combination of processes
accepts that there may be phenomenon that theory may (mechanisms) occurs at the right place and right time.
Realism
The real The actual The empirical
mechanisms events observations
Figure 1.7 A flow meter being used in a stream to measure water veloc-
ity. By inserting the device this may change the water velocity in the river Figure 1.8 Components of realism. Different combinations of mecha-
and so taking the measurement results in a change in the feature being nisms result in different events, some of which can then be observed
measured. or measured.
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1.3 Scientific methods
Different combinations of mechanisms result in dif- geography is that it is examined by using a wide variety
ferent events. For example, a meander bend may form at of techniques and approaches which makes for a rich sub-
a given point only if: (i) there is a river flowing past the ject and a diversity of findings. If everyone had the same
point; (ii) the right turbulent flows, sediment erosion and method and approach to physical geography then this
transport mechanisms are operating; (iii) the soil material might actually hinder scientific progress, discovery and
is readily erodible to allow a meander bend to form; and innovation. However, Brown (2004) argued that all physi-
(iv) local vegetation material or geology does not restrict cal geographers must assess and present the uncertainty
the meander bend formation. In this case, the exact size, of any data or findings in a common format (see also
shape and location of the meander bend will be a result of Chapter 26 for a discussion of uncertainty).
general meander-bend-producing processes and local fac- A good example of the benefits of taking multiple
tors. In addition, this also suggests that the existing land- approaches is provided by Chapters 4 and 5 which discuss
form itself changes the way processes interact and thereby the environmental changes during the past 2.6 million
influence how the landform will develop in the future. years. In order to investigate such changes it has been
This approach brings together the idea of general laws necessary to develop a wide range of techniques includ-
and local events. It helps us understand how local factors ing climate, ocean circulation and ecosystem modelling,
influence the mechanisms to produce an individual exam- sediment dating techniques, analysis of different types of
ple. In this way, it is different from traditional positivist evidence (e.g. pollen records, fossils, gas bubbles trapped
approaches which are just interested in generalizations and deep inside ice sheets and the contents of ocean floor
iron out any irregular or unusual cases. In realism, the case sediments) and landform interpretation. Indeed much of
study itself becomes of interest in helping us to under- physical geography is based on ‘historical science’. Histori-
stand the world around us. This is because what causes cal science in this sense means taking measurements that
change is the interaction of mechanisms with particular involve historical inference and developing an explanation
places. This is particularly useful for geography, which has of phenomena where it is not possible to measure directly
a tradition of examining case studies (see below). In addi- the processes involved. An example would be determining
tion, the realist approach allows us to evaluate different the location of an ice sheet 23 000 years ago. To do this
results at different scales. Often great scientific progress would require ‘proxy measures’ (physical measurements
can be made when rules that emerge at one scale of investi- that are based on present evidence of past conditions). The
gation are used to question and critique those that emerge approach is often to build up as much evidence as possible
at other scales (Lane, 2001). from many different types of sources (e.g. landform shape,
radiocarbon dating and fossil plants) so that the hypoth-
esis becomes more acceptable as the multiple lines of evi-
1.3.4 Benefits of multiple scientific
dence are compiled.
methods in physical geography
There have also been many recent examples of envi-
There have been moves by physical geographers to state ronmental research using the knowledge of local people
that while it matters what approach they decide to take, in tandem with science knowledge to progress forward
it should not matter that their approach is different from with a study. Sometimes these studies do not assume that
another person’s approach. Lane (2001) and Williams the science knowledge is superior to local knowledge held
(2016) have noted that one of the ways science moves for- by stakeholders and information from both can be incor-
ward is when there is a controversy, by trying to solve disa- porated into new conceptual or numerical models of the
greements between one set of findings and another set of system. See Box 1.4 below for an example.
findings that have been produced by a different method. It It is often the mixture of backgrounds that physical
tries to make sense of disagreements. Darwin, for example, geographers have, and the mixture of ideas about what
had a theory in the mid 1800s that the parallel lines on the they want to study, how much they want to achieve, and
slopes of Glen Roy in the Scottish Highlands were former who they have been collaborating with, that defines how
marine beaches from periods before tectonic uplift raised they will approach a new problem given to them. What
the landscape. However, Agassiz suggested they were much is important is that you are aware of the advantages and
more likely to be formed by lake shore processes when the limitations of the various approaches to physical geog-
system was dammed by huge glaciers. After many years raphy so that you can be ready to incorporate them into
of debate and evidence, Darwin eventually realized he the way you and others interpret the research findings of
was incorrect. One of the important elements of physical investigations in physical geography. The following section
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Chapter 1 Approaching physical geography
describes some of the advantages and disadvantages of might involve using data collected from space to measure
data collection from the environment, laboratory experi- Earth processes. With the latter the overall scientific pur-
ments and modelling approaches. poses of the data collection tend to be of the same form as
those involving a physical presence in the areas being stud-
ied, but the experience for the researcher may be somewhat
different and the scale of investigation may be different.
Reflective questions
Scientifically speaking, we might ‘sample’ the environ-
➤ What is a positivist approach to science? What are its ment to: test hypotheses, explore processes, inductively
benefits and weaknesses? find the form of a new law, consider an unusual occurrence
(an ‘outlier’ situation), or to develop new theory (e.g.
➤ What are the differences between logical positivism and
prove something exists, find the hidden mechanism behind
critical rationalism?
a known effect). We might also undertake fieldwork or
➤ Why is realist theory attractive to physical geographers? perform data collection using satellites in order to test out
What are its problems? new techniques and instruments.
Interestingly, although there is an impression that
➤ What are the advantages and disadvantages of having
fieldwork is a key area of environmental sciences, in some
different people use different scientific approaches
branches of the physical geography discipline there has
within physical geography?
been a decline in fieldwork in favour of modelling (see
below). For example, in hydrology, Burt and McDonnell
(2015) noted a reduction since the 1930s in the propor-
1.4 The field, the laboratory tion of field-related publications and a reduction in actual
and the model numbers of publications focused on field data on stream-
flow. They suggest that field studies are required in order
Fieldwork, laboratory investigation and numerical model- to challenge commonly held assumptions and to stimulate
ling are not necessarily independent of each other. Labo- the inventiveness of scientists so that they come up with
ratory investigations often require fieldwork to gather ‘outrageous’ hypotheses that are tested in the field, rather
samples for experiments, and numerical models typically than making the same assumptions over and over again
require laboratory or field data for validation. Throughout in modelling studies. They also call for fieldwork that
this textbook the findings that are discussed and the pro- involves pulling data together from many sites to under-
cesses that are explained will have been investigated using stand how environmental change drives changes in water
a mixture of environmental data collection, laboratory flow processes through and across the landscape, rather
experiments and numerical modelling approaches. The fol- than single site paired catchment studies that compare
lowing sections identify some of the main types of issues what happens if you change one catchment’s land cover
involved with choosing a particular method. compared to the other catchment where you might not
change the land cover. This latter point could be consid-
ered to be an example of comparing intensive research and
1.4.1 Approaching data collection from the
extensive research approaches. Below we describe what is
environment
meant by these terms.
In physical geography, fieldwork or using remote sensing
measurements are fundamental components of research.
1.4.1.1 Extensive research
There are a broad range of environmental data collection
techniques. Some may involve physically measuring and Extensive research consists of a large number of samples
observing the environment while being present, others may over many places with empirical observations as the basis
involve setting up instruments in the field (which might for theoretical development. Extensive research methods
also include the atmosphere or under water) which then involve measuring a large number of samples so that we
take measurements automatically without anyone being can make statements about the entire population. For
present. These data might then be transmitted to research- example, we might measure 1 000 000 of the sand grains
ers via phone or satellite links or be stored on devices at on 1000 beaches. From this we then attempt to make a
the study sites and require ‘downloading’ every so often statement about all the sand grains on beaches across the
when researchers visit the field sites. Other approaches world. In other words, we infer things from the sample
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1.4 The field, the laboratory and the model
for the entire population. It is just like asking 1000 people change the vegetation cover) and measure how this affects
which party they would vote for in an election and then other factors (e.g. water infiltration). In many ways the
assuming that those 1000 people were representative of approach adopted in a field experiment could be the same
the entire country. However, we qualify our statements by as in a laboratory (see below) but the environmental con-
saying what the probability is of a statement being correct. text would be different as you have less control over the
For example, we may state that we are 95% certain that other factors that operate, but at the same time the situa-
the results have not occurred purely by chance. It is not tion is likely to be more representative of the environment
possible to be 100% certain unless the entire population you are studying (Figure 1.9).
has been measured, which in physical geography is gener- There are a number of problems with using case stud-
ally not easy! There is a great deal of literature on exten- ies. First, if you spend a lot of time in just one place it must
sive sampling methods (e.g. Burt et al., 2006). be asked whether the findings are relevant to other places.
Note that scientists often talk about ‘significant dif- In most cases they will not be. Therefore, we have to ask
ference’, or ‘significant effect’. Often they pick a 95% what is actually the point of doing intensive research at just
probability value as a cut-off point. For example, if they one place (e.g. on one glacier in New Zealand)? Case stud-
are more than 95% certain that there is a difference that ies provide us with a better way of looking at how things
has not simply occurred by random chance in the samples are related. In extensive studies it is often hard to establish
collected they will state that it is significant. However, this whether particular variables are really related to each other
95% cut-off point is actually quite arbitrary and some sci- or whether other factors have affected them. In small-scale
entists may want to be more certain before they claim its case studies, however, we may be able to see how one vari-
significance and others accept lower levels. In fact, there is able affects another. A case study fits into the realist per-
not really a valid reason why we should chose 95% rather spective outlined above which states that we are interested
than say 92% or 97.3% before we claim a difference or in how general relationships occur in particular places.
relationship is statistically significant. That is why in many Therefore case studies are used to focus on individual
research papers you will see ‘p-values’ being reported so events in order to identify how the processes are coming
that each scientist can interpret the findings for them- together to create that event (Richards, 1996). This helps
selves. The p-values state the probability that the differ- us identify the causes of an event (e.g. a landslide). In other
ence or relationship has occurred by chance just due to the words, by using a case study in the field we can establish
samples collected only being a small subset of the entire how processes operate and how they come together at a
environment. So a p-value of 0.03 would be equivalent to
having a probability of 97% that the relationship would
still be found if we sampled everything rather than just a
subset of everything (or a 3% probability that it would not
still be valid if we sampled everything).
1.4.1.2 Intensive research and case studies
Intensive research may be restricted to one or two places
in which theoretical developments are used as the con-
text for empirical observations and whereby process and
mechanisms can be investigated. Case studies are intensive
field research methods and are used widely in physical
geography. They can involve sets of measurements taken of
natural conditions, or indeed of conditions that humans
have disturbed (e.g. an agricultural field compared with
a natural hillside). Unusual cases can be investigated to
test whether they disprove an existing hypothesis or to
understand what previously hidden mechanisms have
Figure 1.9 A field experiment to test whether distance from a pool in a
come together to create this unusual circumstance. It is
peat bog influences gas release from the peat. The work could have been
very common for researchers to do field experiments at conducted in the laboratory, but the field environment may provide more
case study sites whereby you manipulate a factor (e.g. you realistic conditions, albeit with more complications.
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Chapter 1 Approaching physical geography
particular place and time to produce an event. It allows us (three sulfate solutions * three soil types). We would
to break down what appears to be something quite simple also need replicates of each of the treatments in order to
into its various underlying components, to reveal some pre- establish how much variation there was. So if we said we
viously hidden processes. wanted eight replicates per treatment this would result in
9 * 8 samples being required, a total of 72 (Figure 1.10).
Thus, the number of samples can increase dramatically if
1.4.2 Approaching laboratory work
you want to include more variables (e.g. another soil type,
Physical geographers use the laboratory for two reasons: test the effect of water pH on dissolved organic carbon
(i) analysis of something sampled in the field in order release and so on). Therefore in order to avoid a lot of
to derive its properties (e.g. concentration of CO2 in an wasted resources it is very important to make sure that the
air sample); and (ii) experimentation in order to see how research design is carefully considered.
something behaves under controlled conditions. Of course A range of critiques of laboratory work have been put
with laboratory work care is needed in order to ensure forward, including the difficulty in scaling up results from
that samples are not contaminated and that they are stored the laboratory to the field and, like models (see below), the
correctly so that they are not affected by laboratory con- simplicity of the experiments ignores complex feedback
ditions (e.g. storing ice cores in a freezer at the correct processes and interlinkages that occur in the real world.
temperature). Laboratory work also requires very careful
research design so that we can be sure that a ‘fair test’ has
1.4.3 Approaching numerical modelling
been carried out.
A good example comes from determining whether Models can be used to help us understand whole systems,
sulfate deposited in rainwater controls the release of dis- tell us which parts of the system are most important, help
solved organic carbon from soils. Sulfate has historically us make predictions and simulate what might happen if
been released in many parts of the world where industri- we varied something in the landscape or climate (e.g. the
alization has occurred due to the burning of fossil fuels effect of changing land management on catchment run-
(Chapters 10 and 23). This led to rainwater with high con- off and water quality). Modelling cannot be used to find
centrations of sulfate resulting in more acidic rain (‘acid the form of a law inductively because laws are needed
rain’). More recently, however, in western Europe and before we can construct the model. However, models can
North America the concentrations of sulfate in rainwater be used to simulate something that would be impossible
have been falling. At the same time the concentration of (or unacceptable) to do in the real world (e.g. simulate
dissolved organic carbon in river waters has been increas- what happens to the world’s climate if we remove all the
ing (Worrall and Burt, 2004). Dissolved organic carbon is a trees), or to guide real world activity before it goes ahead
hazard because it leads to the water becoming discoloured (e.g. determine by testing many possible combinations in
(brown) and also makes it difficult to treat to make it a model the best place in the catchment to build storage
safe for drinking. In order to test whether the decrease in features to reduce flood risk). However, models are ways
sulfate deposition is a causative factor in dissolved organic of simplifying reality and so it has to be accepted that the
carbon release, a laboratory experiment can be set up. This
can be done for three soil types as some soils might behave
differently from others. Peat Podzol Brown earth
In the laboratory this requires a number of samples . . . . . . . . . . . .
of each of the soil types in order that we have enough Distilled (control)
. . . . . . . . . . . .
replicates to be sure that one result was not just an unu-
Low-concentration . . . . . . . . . . . .
sual result compared with others. It also requires that
sulfate solution
we establish whether sulfate in rainwater has any effect . . . . . . . . . . . .
at all. Therefore we would need to put some of the soils High-concentration . . . . . . . . . . . .
into distilled water and some into rainwater with a sulfate sulfate solution
. . . . . . . . . . . .
solution. The distilled water tests act as a control with
zero sulfate. We could then measure how much dissolved Figure 1.10 Treatments and replicates for a laboratory soil test. Note that
there are eight replicates for each treatment. Treatments include distilled
organic carbon is released from the soil samples. A weak
water, low-sulfate-concentration water and high-concentration water
sulfate solution and a strong sulfate solution could also each on three soil types. There are therefore 72 separate tests for this
be tested. In this case, there would be nine treatments simple experiment.
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1.4 The field, the laboratory and the model
real-world outcomes might not be exactly the same as the important to ensure that the concepts are correct before
model predicted. There are distinctions between different embarking on a numerical model.
types of model: Statistical models are used where data have been col-
lected that allow relationships to be statistically estab-
• conceptual;
lished and then predictions to be made. For example, by
• statistical;
measuring the diameter of 100 trees in each of 20 plots
• probabilistic;
of a tropical rainforest it may be possible to predict how
• deterministic.
altitude or aspect influences tree growth. It may therefore
Conceptual models (e.g. a map, a flow chart) express be possible to make predictions about tree size in other
the ideas about how processes in a system work. This is areas of the rainforest just by determining the aspect or
the starting point for any modelling, as without an idea altitude. Note that this is a classic example of functional
about how things work you cannot do anything else. It is research.
Modelling Landscape different places and measure streamflow (or making the landscape bare) would
Solutions to Flooding to see what effects different patterns of have an effect on flow peaks in the river
vegetation change had. Furthermore, as and whether this effect was different if
Gao et al. (2016) wanted to work out how every catchment is shaped differently it there were lots of small patches versus
different spatial patterns of vegetation would be difficult to draw robust conclu- lots of larger patches which added up to
cover change might impact the down- sions. Therefore a modelling experiment is this 10% area. However, they found that
stream flood peak. They had earlier (Gao a good way of conducting such research. patch size did not make a difference, just
et al., 2015) modified an existing hillslope Gao et al. (2016) conducted many that the change in vegetation was impor-
flow model called TOPMODEL by (i) mak- different modelling experiments using tant. They tested many other patterns as
ing it ‘spatially distributed’ – which means the spatially distributed TOPMODEL, test- well, including seeing what happens to
it calculated water flows for any location ing spatial patterns of change using the the flood peak if the whole catchment is
in the catchment at the same time and topography of several different catch- bare versus if the whole catchment was
moved water from one location to the next ments within the model. For example, covered with a dense moss layer, finding
downslope and (ii) developing a surface they tested whether having 10% of the that there could be very large differences
roughness module that would slow down catchment change to a dense moss cover in flood peaks (e.g. Figure 1.11).
flow across the land surface depending
on how rough the vegetation cover was. 2.4
This overland flow module was developed 2.1
specifically for peatland vegetation cover 1.8
and the model was applied to upland areas
Runoff (mm)
1.5
with peat soils. Many peatlands have been
1.2
degraded with bare areas and there is
0.9
concern that this may cause water to move
0.6
more quickly into streams and thereby
0.3
increase flood risks.
0.0
The purpose of the research was to 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
determine whether there are more sensi- Time (hours)
tive parts of catchments which, if the Rainfall Bare peat Eriophorum Sphagnum
vegetation cover changes, would cause the
Figure 1.11 River flow in response to a 1-hour 20 mm rainfall event predicted by the spatially
biggest increase or decrease in flood risk.
distributed TOPMODEL assuming all of the catchment area shown in Figure 1.13 is either
Clearly, to address this issue it is not fea- covered with Eriophorum sedge, Sphagnum moss or is bare. We can see very dramatic
sible to go into dozens of different catch- differences in river flow between the three conditions with the highest flow peaks predicted
ments and really change the land cover in for the bare peat condition.
Box 1.2 ➤
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Chapter 1 Approaching physical geography
➤
One effective measure was found to is dense); (2) testing of different spatial against possible outcomes. Future work
be having the areas adjacent to streams management options to see which could can, of course, involve fieldwork to meas-
densely vegetated. Having such ‘buffer be prioritised (e.g. buffer strips) and which ure the real outcomes of some of the
zones’ was found to reduce flood peaks are not worth worrying about (e.g. patch implemented strategies, but it is unrealistic
by a substantial amount even when only size); and (3) prediction of the impacts of to expect to be given hundreds of catch-
10% of the catchment was changed from specific design features in the landscape ments to try out different spatial patterns.
either bare peat or a sedge covered peat (e.g. re-vegetating all of the existing bare Therefore using modelling to test different
to a moss covered peat (Figure 1.12). areas) so that investment can be balanced scenarios can be a very valuable tool.
The modelling was also used to test what
might happen if the real area of bare peat
within study catchments was re-vegetated
(e.g. Figure 1.13) demonstrating what a)
impacts might be felt on flood peaks
if land managers spend resources on
re-vegetating those areas.
Hence, this sort of modelling approach
can deliver several things: (1) the envelope
of possible change that could be caused
by a particular management strategy can
be determined (i.e. from the worst case
condition of the catchment to the best
case) so that expectations can be managed
(i.e. the river will still have flow peaks and
sometimes it will flood even if land cover
b) 2.00
Rainfall (mm)
2.00 0
1.75
1.75
1.50
1.50 4
Run off (mm)
1.25
Runoff (mm)
1.25
1.00
1.00
0.75
0.75
0.50 0.50
0.25 0.25
0.00 0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0
Time (hours) Time (hours)
Rainfall
Rainfall Sphagnum buffer strip Current conditions
Normal Bare buffer strip If bare areas covered by Eriophorum sedges
If bare areas covered by Sphagnum moss.
Figure 1.12 Impact on the river discharge of changing the vegeta-
tion in a narrow zone alongside all of the small tributaries and main Figure 1.13 Model testing for the real world scenario of re-vegetating
river channels in the Trout Beck catchment. The total area of the the bare areas shown in red in (a) with an example flow graph shown
catchment affected by change is 10%. The river corridors were found in (b) where there is a 20 mm pulse of rainfall for 1 hour. The scale of
to be very sensitive zones as the effects are large and so practition- the flood peak reduction can be seen and so practitioners can weigh
ers should focus on re-vegetating any bare areas close to streams up whether it is worth investing in the strategy if flood peak reduction
and ensuring a dense moss cover is present on the peat. is their goal.
Box 1.2
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1.4 The field, the laboratory and the model
Probabilistic models assume that there is some sort of power being required. Therefore we have to make decisions
random behaviour that is part of the system and assign a like- about which processes to include and what spatial and
lihood to events or data (e.g. 95% probability that this is the temporal scales to adopt. We must always remember when
correct output). This is often expressed by a ranked numerical analysing numerical model predictions that the model
value or an estimate of best case, worst case or most likely. itself is just a simplification of reality and that often many
Deterministic models assume a cause and effect link via real-world processes have been removed.
a process mechanism. The models assume there is only one It is also often difficult to apply models developed at
possible result (which is known) for each alternative course one scale to situations at a very different scale (e.g. apply-
or action. The model contains no random components and ing a valley glacier model to the whole of the Antarctic).
hence each component and input are determined exactly. There are often problems in dealing with the net effect of
Both deterministic and probabilistic models are based very small-scale processes (e.g. how does a catchment run-
on physical laws and obey rules of storage and energy off model deal with rapid water movement through soil
transfer. There are a number of stages in developing these cracks? See Chapters 18 and 20). Other problems include
numerical models and these can be summarized as follows: the fact that models can become so tweaked that they no
longer reflect the processes they were originally intended
1. Start with a conceptual model based on theory and
to represent (Beven, 1989). One of the most frequent prob-
what is relevant.
lems with numerical modelling is in not having enough
2. Convert the theory into mathematical equations and rules.
real-world data (or good enough quality data) to test the
3. Incorporate the equations into a simulation model (by
model and thus the need for field and laboratory work in
connecting the equations together and giving them
order to help provide this (e.g. Siebert and Beven, 2009). At
some sort of numbers as input data).
the same time models can also help determine new areas
4. Apply the model to a real-world situation.
for research. They often show which areas are the most
5. Compare the model predictions with real-world
important or which we know least about. This may be
observations.
shown, for example, by changing the numbers in different
6. The model may now need some fine tuning by tweak-
parts of the model and investigating what effect that has
ing it so that it gives the best results for the majority of
on the overall model output. The part of the model that
cases – note that this does not mean that it will work
produces the biggest change in output overall can be called
perfectly for all cases. It may even mean that while at
the most sensitive and therefore this part may be the most
first the model might work really well for one or two
important to get right. Other parts of the model may have
cases, the final model might not work as well for those
very little impact when they are changed and therefore
cases. On average, however, it will work better overall
are less important. Models may also be used to help us to
when all cases are taken into account.
predict or explain something that is actually impossible to
7. Now use the model to simulate and predict (as long as
measure (e.g. Box 1.2). In some cases it is not possible to
we know the limits of its predictive capability).
compare the model predictions to real-world observations.
Of course numerical modelling is subject to a range Nevertheless, these sorts of models still provide us with
of problems, including those associated with simplifying useful information and understanding about the working
spatial and temporal scales in order to keep the model of physical systems that may have not been possible to
simple enough for a computer to run it. For example, if envisage without the numerical model.
you wanted to run an atmospheric model that predicted
how the air moved across the Earth’s surface in response
to pressure gradients, the surface topography and other Reflective questions
forces (see Chapter 5), some topographic data would
➤ What are the advantages and disadvantages of setting up an
be needed. A decision would also have to be taken on
experiment in field conditions rather than in the laboratory?
how often predictions should be made. However, once
topographic and air mass detail becomes very fine such ➤ In what ways have the various field, laboratory and model-
as around 2 m * 2 m * 2 m resolution then it becomes ling approaches discussed above been typical of logical
computationally difficult to do all of the calculations that positivist, critical rationalist or realist philosophies?
move air from one 8 m3 cell to the next and also to do it
➤ Why is numerical modelling a useful tool to physical
for every cell at the same time. Furthermore, repeating this
geographers?
every minute will lead to enormous amounts of computer
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Chapter 1 Approaching physical geography
1.5 Using physical geography for at a time in environmental management, we ought to be
managing the environment seeking to look at the full range of p ossible effects.
Furthermore, because of the history of physical geogra-
Many of the world’s environmental problems lie in phy, geographers have had experience of bringing together
unsound human management of the environment. Humans large-scale approaches with small-scale approaches, link-
have the potential to recognize and respond to opportuni- ing case studies with general context. In this way physi-
ties and to threats that are natural or caused by humans, cal geographers can readily adapt to the relevant scale of
and to perhaps avoid them (see Chapters 7 and 26). Physical enquiry required by policy-makers. They can also link
geography provides a long-term understanding of envi- together scales of approach through process understand-
ronmental change within which to place contemporary ing. This is important because sometimes cause and effect
environmental change. Physical geographers study past are not clear and the alternative framework for thinking
and present climates (Chapters 4–9), tectonics (Chapter about environmental change is one in which form–process
2), oceans (Chapter 3), glaciology (Chapter 23), landform feedback interactions are considered. For example, C lifford
development (Chapters 14–24) and ecological and biogeo- (1993) suggested that water could undulate over an indi-
graphical processes (Chapters 10–13). They also study the vidual pebble in a river. This undulation in flow causes
interacting nature of these global and local processes. Phys- small-scale erosion upstream of the pebble and deposi-
ical geographers are involved with measuring environmen- tion downstream thereby changes the shape of the river
tal change. This can be done using a wide range of tools, bed around the pebble leading to an exaggeration of the
many of which are discussed throughout this textbook but undulating flow, which in turn makes a bigger feature on
especially in Chapter 25. In addition to monitoring environ- the river bed, eventually leading to a large pool and riffle
mental change we are able to test and refine theories about (Figure 1.14). In turn, this larger-scale feature will interact
how processes actually operate. This allows us to under- with the flow of water, which in turn influences meander
stand more readily whether changes we see today are part development and the way sediment is eroded, transported
of normal dynamic Earth processes or whether they are the and deposited. Thus, there are feedbacks between pro-
result of human interaction with the environment. cesses and landforms at lots of different spatial scales. On
Through field study, laboratory investigation and a temporal scale, too, there have been approaches to physi-
numerical modelling, geographers are able to understand cal geography that illustrated how the individual location,
a wide variety of environmental processes and how these the history of that location, and therefore the exact timing
processes interact. This improved understanding helps of an event can be important in determining how a land-
us to predict the likely effects of future environmental scape will respond. Box 1.3 p rovides an example of this.
changes. This is because our predictive models rely on The fact that geographers have such a variety of
us first having a good conceptual model of how the sys- approaches can be of enormous benefit to policy-makers. For
tem operates. Geographers are able to contribute to the example, while evaluating a river reach subject to erosion near
debates surrounding global climate change and can help houses, some geographers might examine the river sediment
provide policy-makers with some answers as to how best distribution to establish sediment transport processes and
to deal with certain problems. Rather than just inves- hence design some coarse stone block protection for the river
tigating whether the increased flooding in a particular banks. Other physical geographers might take a longer-term
catchment is due to climatic change or land manage- view of the river system and start to look for evidence of how
ment, physical geographers are able to take a more holis- the river has behaved over time (e.g. Lane, 2001). This might
tic approach (looking at how the whole system responds suggest a different management strategy. For example, if the
rather than just one bit of it). A traditional approach geographers find evidence that the river has been subject to
would simply explore a problem (e.g. flooding) in rela- historically frequent avulsions (where the channel suddenly
tion to possible causes (e.g. land management, climatic changes its position), then perhaps progressive abandonment
change). This approach fails to address the linkages of the area by those who live there would be a better strategy
between problems that emerge within particular catch- since no matter how much river bank engineering there is, that
ments and where any one solution to a problem (e.g. particular river may be prone to major channel change and
blocking land drains) may have positive (enhanced biodi- homes would never be safe from the threat of flooding and
versity) and negative (release of dissolved organic carbon erosion. Therefore, by using different skills and different scales
into rivers) impacts upon other parts of the environment. of approach (long term and short term) geographers can aid
In other words, rather than thinking about just one thing environmental management decision-making and planning.
20
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1.5 Using physical geography for managing the environment
(a) Figure 1.14 Flow around an obstacle on the river bed causes erosion and
Pebble
deposition around the obstacle (a). This in turn affects the flow at a larger
scale which in turn affects the turbulent flow structure of the water, the
Flow
erosion and the deposition processes, causing pool and riffle develop-
ment and meander bend development (b) and (c). The whole process
Bed then becomes self-maintaining.
Change in turbulence
causes erosion here
(b)
Eventually pebble will be removed
as erosion/deposition continues
and the pools/riffles migrate
Riffle Pool
Side views
(c)
Flow wants
to bend
around riffles
Riffles
Bank erosion
and meander
development
Plan view
Magnitude–Frequency sediment transport. However, in the long Maximum
Concepts in Physical term it is the twice yearly events that have
(c) Product of frequency and rate
carried the most sediment downstream.
Geography
(b) Frequency of occurrences
Equally the response of a particular (c)
In the environment, there will be events site to a flood event may vary depending
(a) Rate of movement
that occur either very rarely or very fre- on how long it has been since the last (a)
quently and those that occur somewhere big flood event. This means that there
in between. Typically small-magnitude and may be a flood of a particular magnitude
very large-magnitude events are very rare in a river but it may not carry as much
(b)
and so intermediate-sized events are most sediment as an earlier flood of the same
frequent. Wolman and Miller (1960) sug- magnitude. This may be because the Applied stress
gested that it is these intermediate-sized first flood flushed out all of the available
events that, in the long term, will do the sediment that had been building from the Figure 1.15 The magnitude–frequency
most work (Figure 1.15). So for a river hillslopes and so the second flood did not c oncept. In the long term, the intermediate-
carrying sediment it might be the river dis- have much sediment available to carry. In sized events that occur perhaps only once
charge event that occurs twice a year that or twice a year will do the most work.
Figure 1.16, there is a plentiful supply of
(Source: after Wolman, M.G. and Miller, J.P.,
performs most of the sediment transport in-channel sediment so that the next flood
1960, Magnitude and frequency of forces in
rather than the 1 in 100 year flood. At the will be able to transport large amounts geomorphic processes, Journal of Geology,
time of the big 100 year flood it might of sediment down the valley. Therefore 68, pp. 54–74, Fig. 1. Reprinted by permission
seem as if there has been a great deal of the timing of an event in relation to other of the University of Chicago Press)
Box 1.3 ➤
21
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Chapter 1 Approaching physical geography
➤
events matters. Furthermore, different disturbance can cause the population of see Chapter 11). Some environments are
environments take different amounts of species to decline. If there are a number also more sensitive to change than others.
time to recover from a major event (such of disturbances then the population will Hence the environmental response to a
as a landslide or a flood). This is known as only recover to original levels if there particular process or event depends on
the r elaxation time. In ecology, relaxa- is sufficient time between the distur- where you are and at what time the event
tion time is an important concept where bances for the recovery to take place (e.g. occurs in relation to other events.
Figure 1.16 A river channel with lots of sediment available to be mobilized during the next high-flow event.
How a landscape will respond to an event may depend on how long it has been since the last big event and
how quickly a landscape recovers from events.
Box 1.3
As a society we are just starting to learn about the world. Box 1.4 describes an example of where this has
problems with scientific research (as discussed above) recently occurred.
and how it is approached. We are therefore moving
away from a society that simply accepts science as a
dominant source of knowledge to a position where
society is just one of many different sources usefully
contributing knowledge. Successful environmental
Reflective question
management requires an enhanced engagement with ➤ Why is it beneficial to use a range of approaches and look
the relationship between science and society and in at problems at different scales when considering environ-
human–environment interactions. This is where physi- mental management?
cal geographers should really be making headway in the
22
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1.5 Using physical geography for managing the environment
Stakeholders at the centre of their environment, as well as the regional These solutions included, for example:
science – developing land-use policy makers and planners. This is pre-
cisely what the DESIRE project sought to
• Various types of tillage systems which
and conservation strategies reduce the amount that soil is dis-
do in 18 important locations in southern
in semi-arid regions turbed and retains ground cover so
Europe, South America, North Africa,
that erosion is reduced.
There is an urgent need to work with those China and Australia. The project was all
living, farming and operating in sensitive about working in direct partnership where • The use of green manures, i.e. the
semi-arid regions to reduce degradation science knowledge was seen as just one planting of fast-growing plants that
from erosion or salinization (when the soils form of knowledge within a much broader cover the soil to smother weeds and
become too salty) and build resilience to set of local knowledge about the envi- which are then dug into the soil to
water shortages so that livelihoods can be ronmental and socio-economic system enhance soil structure and fertility.
maintained. The issues are complex requir- (Figure 1.17). This meant that solutions • Using liquid manure to generate biogas
ing an in-depth understanding of human- could be taken up and accepted by local for fuel, and using the by-products as
environment interactions. If problems are people (rather than it being the case that fertiliser.
to be overcome it is necessary for many scientists come up with a solution which • Replacing livestock production
different types of scientists and social sci- is then treated with suspicion by local with game ranching to help restore
entists to work together on an equal basis people, or not accepted for other reasons degraded landscapes while continuing
with people who have local knowledge of such as the local culture). to generate income.
Figure 1.17 Farmers and scientists discussing land management ideas. The discussions do not assume that
science knowledge is superior to local farmer knowledge and there is mutual feedback and ideas thrown into
the discussions.
(Source: SIBSA Digital Pvt. Ltd / Alamy Stock Photo)
Box 1.4 ➤
23
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Chapter 1 Approaching physical geography
• Rainwater harvesting techniques is specifically considering how countries the environment and the economy at
( capturing and storing rainwater in around the world can upscale novel ideas larger scales).
many different ways). from farmers and researchers at the scale 8. Finalise selection of indicators in collab-
of fields and communities to national and
• Structures to spread seasonal flood- international scales.
oration with users to represent relevant
waters across wider areas to benefit components of the system for ongoing
Reed et al. (2011) described a monitoring by land managers.
dryland agriculture.
methodological framework for undertaking
• Dam construction on farms to store work jointly with local stakeholders in frag-
9. Disseminate the sustainable land man-
water for dry season irrigation. agement strategies and indicators for
ile semi-arid regions, which was developed
extension and national and interna-
The above ideas came from a variety of in the DESIRE project to produce sustain-
tional policy.
sources. Some came from the farming able land management practices in each
region. They suggest an 11-stage cycle: 10. Apply sustainable land management
community themselves, including historical
strategies, monitor degradation and
methods no longer in use, which they made 1. Identify system boundaries, stakehold- progress to goals, upscaling to regional
relevant to present-day conditions. Some ers and their goals. and national levels.
came from the researchers, and were typi-
2. Describe socio-cultural, economic, 11. Adjust strategies to ensure goals are
cally adapted by local communities before
technological, political and environ- met. At this point new sustainable
being trialled on their land, to ensure
mental context and drivers of change. land management strategies might be
they would deliver the kind of results they
wanted to see. Although not all of these 3. Determine the current land degradation identified and prioritised in response
ideas are completely new, many were new status, future land degradation risk and to changing contexts or because exist-
to the communities that tried them, and existing sustainable land management ing strategies are no longer needed
because of the way in which they were using indicators. or working. In this case, we would go
co-developed and tested in collaboration 4. Identify, evaluate and document exist- round to point 4 in the cycle and follow
with researchers, the majority of these ing options for land management. the steps back to 11 again.
techniques were viewed favourably by local 5. Prioritise sustainable land management Using the above approach means that the
communities. options with stakeholders. very best science can be done, but that it is
The most favourable ideas were then also fully participatory with stakeholders so
6. Trial and monitor sustainable land
tested at regional and national scales, using that the outcomes are highly likely to make
management options in the field (this
models to assess how likely they were to an impact and sustainable practices will be
includes scientific and stakeholder
work across different conditions at these built upon the very best local stakeholder
monitoring).
scales. This led the UN Convention to Com- knowledge and the best local and interna-
bat Desertification to look at new ways of 7. Upscale and aggregate environmental
tional science knowledge.
integrating knowledge from local commu- and economic effects of the sustain-
able land management practices being Acknowledgement: Thanks to Professor Mark Reed,
nities into national and international policy University of Newcastle, for providing some of the
development. Building on the work of this considered from field to region to information in this case study.
project, the Convention is now producing further prioritise options (this includes
the first Global Land Outlook, in which it using modelling to predict outcomes for
Box 1.4
24
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1.6 Summary
1.6 Summary
This chapter has described the historical development of physi- type of study. At the same time each approach has a number of
cal geography showing that some of the early roots belonged to problems and it is these that make science fallible. Behind every
the time of exploration and colonization. Since then a number result presented and every graph plotted there was a human
of key figures have influenced how physical geography was idea and a human reason for obtaining that result. Thus physical
done, and these include Darwin and Davis. Until the 1950s, geography (and all science) has an element of subjectivity about
geography was predominately a subject of inventory and clas- it. A numerical model may produce huge amounts of data but
sification. It was rather descriptive in nature. However, during that model can only be roughly as good as the original concep-
the 1950s, this position could no longer be upheld and physical tual idea that was developed and can only produce results that
geography began to embrace positivist science. Many positivist are of equivalent or worse standard than the real-world input
studies of the 1950s and 1960s lacked a focus on processes data it was given. Of course models can be used to simulate
and instead were interested in statistical relationships and events that would otherwise be very difficult to measure and
regularities. The aim was to generate generalizable equations observe and they can be used to make predictions and guide
and laws that could be used across the world. However, by the future research directions and activities by planners and policy
1970s it was realized that this did not help us understand the makers.
world. Only by understanding processes could we explain the This chapter has provided a somewhat different introduc-
cases that did not fit the normal statistical relationships. Thus, tory chapter from those you will see in many other physical
experimental methods were adopted that tried to determine geography textbooks. Rather than saying this is how we do
cause–effect relationships. Inductive methods were replaced things in physical geography it has tried to explain why we
by deductive methods following the Popperian ideal of falsi- do certain things in the way that we do them. The aim of this
fication. In the 1990s, realism was one of the philosophical chapter was to encourage readers to think critically about
approaches that physical geographers adopted in order to the subject of physical geography and the approaches to it.
get around the problems with earlier forms of positivism. This In some ways, therefore, I am encouraging you to read the
allowed geographers to recognize that all places are unique, yet remaining chapters in this textbook with a critical eye. While
there are underlying physical mechanisms that come together the contributors have put together a comprehensive set of
to produce an event. It is the place itself and the way the pro- material on physical geography to provide you with a baseline
cesses come together (and have come together at the place in knowledge and understanding of the physical environment, it
the past) that matter. It is through case studies that we more is also evident that there is still much we do not understand
adequately understand the operation of environmental pro- about the natural environment and human interactions with
cesses. A framework that allows both intensive and extensive it. In particular, the environment is always changing and is
study and that appreciates that there are a range of feedbacks dynamic in nature. Sometimes we can predict fairly well how
between a landform or an event and processes seems to be a system will respond to change, but in most cases we can-
appropriate. However, there is also recognition that different not – particularly those systems that are global in nature and
physical geographers may use different approaches and that consist of a complex set of process interactions all operat-
this should not be seen as a problem and instead accepted as a ing on different spatial and temporal scales. I hope that this
useful way in which science can advance. Looking at issues with book will be the first step towards inspiring you to be one of
different perspectives can be a good thing, even if there is disa- those that helps us to understand the way in which the world
greement among scientists. works. Because there are so many new questions, so many
Data collection from the environment (e.g. field studies, processes we do not understand and so many hypotheses that
remote sensing), laboratory work and numerical modelling are are constantly being revised, there is a huge opportunity out
all important components of physical geography and many stud- there for you to make an impact on our understanding of the
ies will adopt all three approaches. Each approach needs to be world. Will you take this opportunity and engage with physical
carefully designed and there are clear reasons for requiring each geography?
25
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Chapter 1 Approaching physical geography
Further reading This is a very good short introduction to the history of physi-
cal geography over the past 150 years; particularly focus on
Chapters 2 and 3.
Beven, K. (2007) Towards integrated environmental models of Inkpen, R. and Wilson, G. (2013) Science, philosophy and
everywhere: uncertainty, data and modelling as a learning pro- physical geography , 2nd edition. Routledge, London.
cess. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences , 22, 460–467. This book describes science–philosophy interactions and how
This journal paper is freely available online and presents there is not one simple single scientific method. Some complex
relevant arguments around the use and limits of models. material is described in a very accessible way by the authors.
Clifford, N.J., Holloway, S., Rice, S.P. and Valentine, G. (eds) Wolman, M.G. and Miller, J.P. (1960) Magnitude and fre-
(2008) Key concepts in geography . Sage Publications, London. quency of forces in geomorphic processes. Journal of Geology,
There is a lot of relevant material in this book which further 68, 54–74.
develops the material covered in the chapter and also covers The paper which has been highly influential in understanding
integrating concepts with human geography. the relationship between the size of events and their reoccur-
rence as described in Box 1.3.
Gregory, K.J. (2000) The changing nature of physical geogra-
phy . Arnold, London.
26
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PA RT I I
Continents and oceans
Figure PII Stromboli – a volcanic island off the coast of Italy. Stromboli has Part contents
been actively erupting for much of the past 2000 years. Short explosive
eruptions occur every few hours. Every few years there can also be a lava ➤ Chapter 2: Earth geology and tectonics
flow. Stromboli has grown to more than 2700 m from the sea floor
➤ Chapter 3: Oceans
(currently 906 m above sea level). The largest mountains on Earth are
those that have formed on the ocean floor with Mauna Kea being the larg-
est at 10 203 m tall.
M02 An Introduction to Physical Ge 83575.indd 27 24/05/2017 12:46
Part II Continents and oceans
Scope Throughout history, the oceans have often been perceived
as a powerful and sometimes spontaneous natural force; only
The distribution of the land surface and the shape and nature of the
experienced fishermen had a sense of the behaviour of the sea.
oceans, which themselves cover 71% of the Earth’s surface, are ulti-
Although many of the secrets of the oceans remain guarded, our
mately controlled by plate tectonics. The realization in the 1960s that
inquisitiveness as scientists has led to some spectacular discov-
large-scale crustal plate movements were occurring over the Earth
eries. These include the pinnacle role played by the oceans in
revolutionized geological and biogeographical studies; it became
controlling the Earth’s global and local climate system and the
possible to understand why hazards such as volcanoes and major
discovery of teeming life around volcanic vents in the ocean floor
earthquakes are confined to particular areas and to explain the spa-
where there is no sunlight. The oceans are the major driving
tial distribution of mountain belts and flat plains. It is now possible
mechanism by which energy is circulated around the planet and
to explain the three main types of rock we see on the Earth’s surface,
their nature and importance are described in Chapter 3. However,
the topography of the ocean floor and the reasons behind geographi-
the oceans are being affected by pollution, exploitation and cli-
cal patterns of evolution. The development of plate tectonic theory
mate change and the impacts need to be understood and dealt
and the concepts involved are approached in Chapter 2.
with by humans.
28
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C H A PTER 2
Earth geology and tectonics
Michael D. Krom
Charney School of Marine Sciences, University of Haifa and School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds
Uri Schattner
Charney School of Marine Sciences, University of Haifa.
Learning objectives revolutionized. It is now possible to understand and explain
such apparently widely divergent subjects as the location
After reading this chapter you should be able to: of volcanoes, where and why earthquakes occur and why
mountain belts are located only in certain confined areas.
➤ understand the structure of the Earth and the nature of the three We now understand the structure of the ocean including
main types of rock found on Earth why the deepest part of the ocean is near the continents
and not, as was once thought, in the centre of the ocean
➤ describe how the theory of plate tectonics developed from ocean
and why the crust under the ocean is much younger than
basin research
most of the rocks on the continents and are made almost
➤ explain what happens at the boundaries of plates when they move exclusively of basalt. Many of the patterns seen in the evo-
apart or together in different ways lution of fossils can now be explained and it has even been
➤ describe how the theory of plate tectonics has enabled earth possible to explain why the mammals of Australasia are
scientists to understand the processes of continental drift and dominated by marsupials; the Americas have a few marsu-
the many geological features preserved on continents and under- pials and Africa and Asia have none at all.
neath the oceans The purpose of this chapter is to explain our present
knowledge of the structure of the Earth, including both
its interior and its outer layers, which we now know are
2.1 Introduction divided into plates. The history of the development of
global plate tectonic theory will be explained and the
Until the mid-1960s, although geologists had assembled chapter concludes with a section explaining the location
much detailed information on geological processes both and development of many of the major features of the
on continents and in the ocean, there was no compre- continents as we see them today. An understanding of
hensive theory to explain the interrelationship between plate tectonics is fundamental to understanding a wide
these processes. It is no exaggeration to say that with the range of other subjects in physical geography including
development of plate tectonics, the subject of geology was biogeography, oceans and global landform development.
M02 An Introduction to Physical Ge 83575.indd 29 24/05/2017 12:46
Chapter 2 Earth geology and tectonics
2.2 The Earth’s structure
7
The Earth is roughly spherical, as even some of the ancient
Greeks realized. It is now known that it is an oblate sphe-
ASIA
roid, somewhat flattened at the poles with a radius of
6357 km at the poles and 6378 km at the equator. The flat-
tening of the Earth is very small but the shape of the Earth
is very close to that expected of a fluid rotating with the
same velocity that the Earth travels through space. This
1 2 3 4 5 6 10
suggests that, over a long timespan, the Earth behaves in
some ways like a fluid.
AUSTRALIA
2.2.1 The interior of the Earth
If the Earth was cut in half and the interior structure
exposed, the layers would appear as in Figure 2.1. At the
9
centre of the planet is a core that has a radius of 3470 km.
The inner core is solid and very dense (∼13 g cm3) with 8
a thickness of 1390 km. It is magnetized, and has a tem-
perature probably in the region of 3000°C. The solid inner
1 Inner core, solid, 1390 km radius
core is surrounded by a transition zone about 700 km 2 Transition zone, 700 km thick
thick, which in turn is surrounded by a 1380 km thick layer 3 Outer core, liquid, 1380 km thick
4 Lower mantle, semi-rigid, ~1200 km thick
of liquid material that together form the outer core. It is 5 Transition zone, 350–700 km thick
somewhat less hot than the inner core and also less dense 6 Asthenosphere, rigid, 180 km thick
(∼11.5 g cm3). The core is thought to be made up of iron 7 Continental crust, rigid, 35–70 km thick
8 Oceanic crust, rigid, 6–10 km thick
and nickel with a small amount of lighter elements such as 9 Hydrosphere, ~4 km deep
silicon. The pressure at the core of the Earth is up to 3 mil- 10 Atmosphere, ~30 km+
lion times the Earth’s atmospheric pressure. The next layer Figure 2.1 The internal structure of the Earth showing the major lay-
is called the mantle, and contains the largest mass of any ers and their known thicknesses. The core consists of an inner solid
of the layers of the Earth, approximately 70% of the total centre, a transition zone and an outer liquid zone. The mantle con-
mass. The outer part (180 km) of the mantle along with tains approximately 70% of the mass. The upper mantle consists of
the asthenosphere and a transition zone. Above the asthenosphere
the overlying crust is called the lithosphere and is rigid;
lies the lithosphere, which is made up of the continental and ocean
this floats on the more mobile asthenosphere. Beneath the crust above which there is the hydrosphere and atmosphere.
asthenosphere is a transition zone (350–700 km deep) to
the lower mantle, which is located from 700 km to 2900
km below the surface. The mantle is composed princi- contrast, the rocks underlying the oceans are mainly basalt,
pally of magnesium–iron silicates and has a density of which are lower in silica and higher in iron and magnesium.
3.35 g cm - 3. When the rocks in the mantle are subjected The principal minerals in basalt are olivine, pyroxenes and
to differential pressure and heat, they flow slowly, rather feldspars rich in calcium. The oceanic crust is much thinner
like ice flows in a glacier (see Chapter 23). than the continental crust, being only 6–10 km thick, but
has a higher density (∼3 g cm - 3).
The boundary between the crust and the mantle is
2.2.2 The outer layers of the Earth called the Mohorovičić discontinuity, named after its Czech
The Earth’s outermost layer is the cold, rigid, yet thin layer discoverer, and usually called simply the Moho. At one
that we are directly familiar with, known as the crust. The time it was thought that the Moho was the layer where
large continental land masses are formed primarily of the Earth’s rigid crust moved relative to the mantle.
granite-type rocks, which have a high content of aluminium However, it is now thought that the crust and the upper
and silica. Quartz and sodium-rich feldspar are the two mantle together form the rigid upper layer known as the
principal minerals present. The crust is comparatively thick lithosphere (60–100 km thick) which floats on the astheno-
(∼35970 km) and has a density of 2.892.9 g cm - 3. By sphere and moves as the Earth’s plates.
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2.3 Rock type and formation
Mountains 2.3 Rock type and formation
High plateau
Sea level The rocks that are found at or near the Earth’s surface can
be broadly divided into three types: igneous rocks, sedimen-
tary rocks and metamorphic rocks. There are many varieties
35–70 km
Continental
of each of these three main types of rock and the exact
6–10 km
crust
(2.8–2.9 g cm–3) type of rock that is formed can depend on factors such as
temperature, pressure and the minerals present at the time
Ocean crust
(~3 g cm–3) of formation.
Mantle
2.3.1 Igneous rock
Figure 2.2 Diagrammatic cross-section of crust and upper mantle Igneous rocks are formed from molten rock (rock that has
showing the principle of isostasy. This shows the less dense conti- melted) which cools and hardens. If the molten rock is
nental crust ‘floating’ on the upper mantle in a similar way to the
erupted at a volcano, then the subsequent cooled and hard-
manner in which an iceberg floats in seawater.
ened rock is very fine grained with crystals that can only
The difference between the average elevation of the be seen under a microscope. There are a number of fine-
continents and the oceans is determined principally by grained rocks erupted in this way including basalt, andesite
differences in the thickness and density of continental and and rhyolite (depending on the amount of silica in the
oceanic crust (Figure 2.2). This is the principle of isostasy. magma) and volcanic glasses which are so fine grained they
A common analogy used to describe isostasy is that of an look and behave like glass. This type of rock generally cools
iceberg. The top of an iceberg is above sea level and is sup- quickly because it is exposed to the cooling air or water at
ported by the buoyancy of the displaced water below the the Earth’s surface upon eruption. Basalt covers the ocean
surface. The deeper an iceberg extends below the surface, floor (which covers over two-thirds of the Earth’s surface).
the higher the same iceberg reaches above the surface. Isos- If the rock cools more slowly then there is time for crys-
tasy is, however, a dynamic situation. For example, when tals to grow within the molten rock, and a coarse-grained
the major ice sheets, which until 10 000 years ago covered rock is formed. Granites or gabbros are igneous rocks of
Europe and North America, melted (see Chapter 4) a sig- this type containing large crystals (Figure 2.3a). The Sierra
nificant weight was removed from the continents. These Nevada mountains, New Mexico, and Dartmoor, UK, are
continents are still rebounding upwards as a result of slow made up primarily of granite. In addition to grain size,
flow processes in the upper mantle. An extreme example igneous rocks are often divided into acid rocks (often light
of this is in areas of west–central Sweden that are still coloured) which are rocks formed from the melting of con-
moving upwards at a rate of 2 cm yr-1. Areas can remain tinental rocks and basic rocks (often dark coloured) formed
elevated where tectonic plates are colliding, as the crust most commonly by the melting of oceanic rocks.
thickens where two continental plates come together. This
has occurred in the Tibetan Plateau, for example. It can 2.3.2 Sedimentary rock
also occur in areas of volcanic activity such as Yellowstone
National Park, USA. Sedimentary rocks are formed from the products of the
chemical and/or physical weathering of rocks exposed at
the Earth’s surface. The sediment produced from such
Reflective questions weathering can accumulate over time and eventually build
up a deposit which, over time, can harden to form rock.
➤ Can you describe the internal structure of the Earth? Many sedimentary rocks are formed after the weather-
➤ Imagine that the Earth was the size of a large (spherical)
ing products such as sand, silts or clays are transported by
orange or apple. Based on the relative thicknesses of the
rivers and deposited downstream in coastal regions (see
different Earth layers discussed above, calculate what the
Chapter 16). Sediments are cemented together, and com-
thickness of the continental and oceanic crust would be for
pacted and hardened over time by the weight and pressure
that apple. How does that compare with the average thick-
of the sediments above them and by the precipitation of
ness of an orange skin (0.2 cm) or an apple skin (0.2 mm)?
chemical cements such as calcium carbonate or silica. These
processes result in rocks such as sandstones, siltstones or
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Chapter 2 Earth geology and tectonics
(a) Granite
(b) Sandstone
(c) Mica schist
Figure 2.3 Photographs and thin sections of three different rocks. (a) Granite is an igneous rock. Note the large crystals of pink and white feldspar
(which can be seen in both the thin section and the hand specimen) which form as the molten rock cools slowly within the Earth’s crust. (b) Sand-
stone is a sedimentary rock. The hand specimen shows layering formed when the sand was laid down under the sea. In the thin section it is possible
to see the individual sand grains which show up as black or white grains under cross-polarized light. (c) Mica schist is a metamorphic rock. Note the
fine layering seen in both the thin section and the hand specimen brought about by the recrystallization of the original minerals under conditions of
high temperature and pressure. (Source: photos courtesy of Bob Finch, School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds)
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2.4 History of plate tectonics
mudstones (Figure 2.3b). Sedimentary rocks often contain 2.3.4 The rock cycle
structures that represent a record of the physical conditions
Over time all rock types can convert into other forms and
present when the rocks were deposited. In addition, there
this has often been termed the rock cycle. Igneous and
are sedimentary rocks formed by the accumulation of the
sedimentary rocks can become metamorphic rocks under
remains of either the skeletons or the organic remains of
pressure and heat. All rock types can erode to form the
microscopic animals. These can be as fossils within other
layers of sediment that can eventually become sedimen-
rocks or can represent most of the rock itself such as chalks,
tary rocks, and all rocks can be completely melted. When
which are almost entirely the remains of coccoliths (dead
molten rock eventually cools and hardens at or near the
microscopic plants called algae). It is amazing to think that
Earth’s surface it will form igneous rock.
in some areas such as the south-east of England there are
thick layers of the Earth’s surface that are made up almost
entirely from the skeletons (tests) of coccoliths (Figure 2.4).
Other sedimentary rocks are formed when the concentra- Reflective questions
tion of a dissolved mineral in water is so great that mineral ➤ How are igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks
precipitates are formed. This can often happen when the formed?
water evaporates to leave behind the solid minerals. Halite
or gypsum are formed, for example, when seawater is evap- ➤ In what type of rock are you most likely to find fossils?
orated towards dryness.
2.4 History of plate tectonics
2.3.3 Metamorphic rock
Metamorphic rocks form as a result of partial melting 2.4.1 Early ideas of global tectonics
and recrystallization of existing sedimentary or igneous As maps of the world became more complete, a number
rocks. These changes usually take place where there is also of individuals began to examine in detail the shapes of the
high pressure such as under hundreds of metres of bed- continents and their apparent relationships to one another.
rock or where rock is crushed at the junction of tectonic In a paper published in 1801, the German explorer Alexan-
plates (see below). As a result, many metamorphic rocks der von Humboldt noted that the bulge of South America
have a layered structure caused by this external pressure seemed to fit into the bight of Africa (Figure 2.5). Francis
(Figure 2.3c). Metamorphic rocks tend to be harder than Bacon, a British philosopher of the late sixteenth and early
sedimentary rocks and are more resistant to weathering seventeenth centuries, is often erroneously credited with
and erosion. For example, limestone and mudstone change first noticing this fit. In fact he commented on the similar
to marble and slate when metamorphosed. shape of the west coasts of Africa and South America in
his Novum Organum written in 1620. Antonio Snider-
Pelligrini in 1858 created a map that showed for the first
time the positions of the American and European–African
continents before they broke up. It was not, however, until
the early twentieth century that Alfred Wegener and Frank
Taylor independently proposed that this fit was not coinci-
dental and that the continents were in fact slowly drifting
about the Earth’s surface (Wegener, 1915, 1966 postho-
mous). Taylor soon lost interest, but Wegener continued to
develop and expand on his theory until his death in 1930. He
suggested that starting in the Carboniferous period (250 mil-
lion years ago), a large single continent, which he called
Pangaea, slowly broke up and drifted apart creating the con-
tinents as we know them today (see Figure 2.27 below).
A wide range of evidence, apart from the fit of con-
tinents across the Atlantic, was advanced to support the
Figure 2.4 Chalk cliffs on the south coast of England. theory of continental drift. Rare, identical fossils, such as
(Source: Shutterstock: Matt Gibson)
the Cambrian sponge-like organism Archaeocyatha, were
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Chapter 2 Earth geology and tectonics
Figure 2.5 Bathymetric map of the Atlantic Ocean showing how Africa and Europe have drifted apart from the Americas. Transform faults can be seen
crossing the mid-ocean ridge. (Source: courtesy of Martin Jakobsen who created the image using data from GEBCO; www.ngdc.noaa.ngg/gebco/
gebco.html)
found in rocks on different continents, now separated by 2.4.2 Evidence that led directly to plate
thousands of kilometres of ocean. Glaciations that were tectonic theory
known to have occurred in Carboniferous times appeared
The situation changed after the Second World War as a
to have affected contiguous areas but only if the conti-
result of the major increase in our understanding of the
nents were fitted back together. Likewise, mountain belts
bathymetry of the deep ocean and the rocks that under-
of similar age, rock types and tectonic history such as the
lie these basins (see Box 2.1 for the reason behind this
mountains of Scandinavia, the Highlands of Scotland and
increased knowledge of the deep ocean). For the first time
the Appalachians of North America could all be fitted
scientists were able to construct detailed bathymetric maps
together within a reconstructed supercontinent.
of the sea floor beneath the oceans. It was found that
Wegener’s theory provoked considerable debate in the
there was a large and continuous mountain range run-
1920s and for a time was quite widely accepted. However,
ning through the centre of many of the world’s oceans.
most geologists simply could not believe it was possible to
Detailed bathymetric surveys found that there was a val-
move the continents through the rigid crust of the ocean
ley in the centre of these mid-ocean mountain ranges that
basins. Since there was no mechanism to drive this conti-
had the same shape as valleys caused by rifting on land.
nental drift, the theory was not treated very seriously. It
This was interpreted as evidence for the pulling apart of
became a footnote in geology textbooks and was seldom
the ocean basins at their centre and thus provided some
taught seriously to students of the earth sciences.
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2.4 History of plate tectonics
How the Evidence for enable US submarines to navigate their echo-sounding equipment that was also
the Theory of Plate way safely in the oceans. It was also used to find submarines underwater. The
necessary to know the most likely routes detailed maps of the oceans that show
Tectonics Developed
of passage for Soviet submarines and the presence of the mid-ocean ridges
from the Cold War
where they might hide. These surveys and deep trenches were made during this
Between the Soviet were carried out using the new, improved, period.
Union and the United
States
It is a sad reflection on N
human civilization that many
of the major advances in
technology and knowledge
have come about as a result
of waging, or planning for,
war. One dramatic example
of this is evidence for the 405N
theory of plate tectonics.
At the end of the Second Mendocino
World War, the wartime alli- Fault
ance between the (capitalist) San Andreas Fault
United States and Britain Pioneer Fault
and the (communist) Soviet
Union (USSR) came to an San Francisco
abrupt end. The US Govern-
ment became worried about
the threat posed by the
growing fleet of Soviet sub-
marines, particularly because
only a few years previously
attacks on allied shipping by
U-boats in the Atlantic had so
355N
nearly won the war for Ger-
many. So the United States
developed new sophisticated
instruments and technology
Murray Fault
to study various aspects of
the deep-ocean basins. It also
set up new oceanographic
institutions and paid for
the education and research
100 km
expenses of a whole genera- Seamount
tion of oceanographers and
marine scientists. 1305W 1255W 1205W
Detailed surveys were Figure 2.6 Magnetic anomalies of total magnetic field for the area off the western coast of California. Posi-
carried out of the bathym- tive anomalies are shown in orange and negative anomalies in white. This was the first such map produced.
etry of the deep oceans to (Source: after Mason and Raff, 1961)
BOX 2.1 ➤
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Chapter 2 Earth geology and tectonics
➤
During this explosion of oceanographic (1963) interpreted such stripes as crucial this campaign that a treaty banning the
information, it was found that there was evidence for the formation of new oceanic atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons
a depth zone in the ocean that had sound crust at the mid-ocean ridges (Figure 2.6). was passed in 1963. From then on, during
properties that allowed submarines to Furthermore, during the 1950s the the remainder of the Cold War, all nuclear
‘hide’ from ships using echo sounders. United States and the Soviet Union tested weapons testing was carried out under-
Thus, at the same time, other technologies their nuclear weapons in explosions at ground. Naturally the US Government was
not based on sound waves were developed ground level, resulting in large amounts keen to gain as much information as possi-
to search for submarines. One of these was of radioactivity being released into the ble about the underground nuclear testing
underwater towed magnetometers. These atmosphere. This radioactive fallout spread being carried out by the Soviet Union and
very sensitive instruments were used to over the entire Earth and was found to be later by China and other countries. So it set
try to detect the distortion of the Earth’s contaminating everything, including such up a global network of seismic stations to
magnetic field caused by steel (magnetic) sensitive substances as food. In particular, monitor these tests. These seismic stations
submarines. These magnetometers, how- it was found that the milk fed to children were able to locate and measure not only
ever, were then used by marine geologists was contaminated with strontium-90. A nuclear tests but also natural earthquakes.
to examine the magnetic properties of the campaign was launched by the Mothers’ It is the data from these seismic stations
rocks underlying the ocean. These surveys Union of North America and other groups that were crucial in defining the detailed
found magnetic stripes across the ocean to stop this atmospheric testing of nuclear geometry of the plate boundaries and the
floor (Figure 2.6). Vine and Matthews weapons. It is a tribute to the success of movement of the plates (Figure 2.7).
BOX 2.1
of the first direct evidence in support of continental drift The second piece of evidence to explain these sub-
(Figure 2.5). It was also found that the deepest parts of oceanic features came from the study of palaeomagnetism.
the world’s oceans were not, as had been expected, in the Most igneous rocks contain some particles of magnetite
middle of the ocean but instead were located very close to (an iron oxide, Fe3O4), which is strongly magnetic. Vol-
the edge of the ocean, particularly within the Pacific. Pre- canic lavas such as the basalt which erupts at the mid-ocean
vailing theories had not predicted these major features and ridges are high in magnetite and erupt at temperatures in
were unable to explain them. excess of 1000°C. As the lava cools below 600°C, the Curie
Then in the 1960s, Harry Hess proposed that, deep point, the particles of magnetite become oriented in the
within the Earth’s mantle, there are currents of low- direction of the Earth’s magnetic field, recording that field
density molten material that are heated by the Earth’s permanently relative to the rocks’ location at the time they
natural radioactivity (Hess, 1962). These form convection were erupted. If the Earth’s magnetic field changes subse-
cells within the mantle. When the upward-moving arms quent to the formation of the igneous rock, the alignment
of these convection currents reach the rigid lithosphere, of these particles will not be affected. When geologists
they move along it, cooling as they go until eventually they began to study this palaeomagnetism, they discovered to
sink back into the Earth’s interior. In the regions where the their surprise that the direction of the Earth’s magnetic
upward-moving limb of mantle material breaks through field reversed itself periodically. A compass needle that
the crust of the sea floor, underwater volcanoes would points towards the North Pole today would point south
appear, developing a mountain range supported by the during a period of reversal. It is still not known why these
hotter mantle material below. Lava from these volcanoes reversals take place but they have occurred once or twice
erupted and then hardened to form new crust along the every million years for at least the past 75 million years. In
underwater mountain chain. As the limbs of the convec- fact, there is evidence of magnetic reversals into the Pre-
tion cell moved apart, they dragged the overlying ocean Cambrian (i.e. more than 600 million years ago). A mag-
crust with them. Since the size of the Earth has remained netic reversal is not sudden but is very quick in geological
constant, it is necessary to remove old crust at the same time, taking about 20 000 years for completion.
rate as it is being produced at the mid-ocean ridges. The In 1960, magnetometers were towed over the sea floor
great deep trenches around the Pacific were proposed as off the western coast of North America, by scientists
areas where the old crust dips down and disappears back from Scripps Oceanographic Institute. A clear pattern of
into the Earth’s mantle. stripes appeared, caused by changes in the polarity of the
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2.5 The theory of plate tectonics
Earth’s magnetic field locked into the crust of the sea floor the ocean were sediments found that were over 200 million
(Figure 2.6). However, at that time, the bathymetric maps years old. Thus the ocean floor is young compared with
of that region of the Pacific Ocean were considered classi- the continents.
fied information by the US Government (see Box 2.1), and
the scientists involved were not able to relate the magnetic
patterns to the mid-ocean ridge, which was subsequently Reflective question
found to run through the area. It was not until Vine and
Matthews (1963) proposed that these stripes represented ➤ What are the key pieces of evidence that were used to
a recording of polar magnetic reversals frozen into the develop the theory of plate tectonics?
sea floor that we had the evidence needed to demonstrate
ocean floor spreading. As the molten basalt flowed out at
the mid-ocean ridge, it solidified and retained the magnetic 2.5 The theory of plate tectonics
field existing at the time of formation. Sea floor spreading
then moved this material away from the ridge on both sides 2.5.1 Lithospheric plates
to be replaced by more molten material (see Figure 2.8
The theory of plate tectonics states that the Earth’s litho-
below). Each time the Earth’s magnetic field reversed it
sphere is divided into a series of rigid plates which are
was preserved in the new basaltic lava crust. Vine and Mat-
outlined by the major earthquake belts of the world
thews (1963) suggested that in such a case, there would be
(Figure 2.7). The boundaries of the plates coincide with
a symmetrical pattern of magnetic polarity stripes centred
mid-ocean ridges, transform faults, trenches and actively
on the ridges and which would become progressively older
growing mountain belts. At present, seven major lith-
as you travelled away from the ridge.
ospheric plates have been identified: the Pacific, Eurasian,
The third piece of evidence that appeared to create
African, Australian, North American, South American and
the new theory of plate tectonics came from the study of
Antarctic – as well as numerous smaller plates off South
earthquakes. The global seismic network set up to monitor
and Central America, in the Mediterranean area and along
underground nuclear testing (see Box 2.1) gave geophysi-
the north-west United States (Figure 2.7).
cists much detailed information on the epicentres of earth-
The geological features found at a given plate boundary
quakes and the direction of their movement. When maps
depend on the relative motion of the two plates that are in
were constructed of the worldwide distribution of earth-
contact. Plate boundaries that are moving apart are called
quakes, it was found that there were narrow bands which
divergent plate boundaries. This is the place where new
were subject to frequent (and often destructive) earth-
oceanic lithosphere is being created, the mid-ocean ridges.
quakes and relatively large areas of stable lithospheric
Plates slide past each other along major strike–slip faults
crust in between. Isacks et al. (1968) looked not only at the
called transform faults, such as the San Andreas Fault in
precise epicentre of earthquakes (position and depth), but
California. When two plates move towards one another, at
also at the direction of movement of the two layers of rock
a convergent plate boundary, different features are formed.
that caused these earthquakes. As a result of this work, it
If one of the plates slides underneath the other, a subduc-
became obvious that there were a series of relatively rigid
tion zone (the location where one plate is forced below
plates which were moving about on the Earth’s surface
another) is formed. Alternatively a mountain belt such as
colliding with one another. The continents, far from being
the Alps or Himalayas can be formed. Transform faults
crucial to this, appeared to be merely passengers being car-
and convergent plate boundaries are the sites of major
ried about on these moving plates. McKenzie and Parker
destructive earthquakes (e.g. Box 2.2 below).
(1967) put all this information together on a stringent geo-
It is now known that the driving forces that cause the
metrical basis and thus the theory of plate tectonics was
motion of the plates are convection cells within the man-
born.
tle. These convection cells transfer heat (and thus energy)
The final piece of evidence that confirmed plate tec-
from the very hot Earth’s core towards the Earth’s surface.
tonics, came from the ocean drilling programme (ODP).
The exact size and location of these cells are still matters
Cores were drilled in a variety of locations in the ocean
of scientific debate. The maximum size of each cell should
basins. It was found that the thickness of sediment
correspond to the size of the plates, although there may
increased from the mid-ocean ridges towards the edge of
also be smaller cells. The upward-moving limbs of convec-
the basin. The thickest (and oldest) sedimentary cover was
tion cells are called plumes or hot spots (see Section 2.6.4).
found nearest to the continents. However, at no place in
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Chapter 2 Earth geology and tectonics
North American
Plate
Eurasian
Plate
Caribbean
Plate
African Arabian
Pacific Plate Plate
Plate Cocos
Plate
Nazca
Plate South
Australian American
Plate Plate
Antarctic Plate
Figure 2.7 Major lithospheric plates of the world. The plates are delineated by the distribution of earthquakes
over a period of nine years. The names of the plates and their relative motion are shown in the figure.
(Source: based on data from NOAA)
Although these plumes ultimately cause the motion of the beams fired from orbiting satellites (see Chapter 25). It has
plates, the geometric relationship between the hot spots therefore been possible to confirm these estimated rates
and the plates is not as simple as Hess first suggested. of plate motion by direct measurement of their present
While there are examples where plumes are directly under rates of movement determined by satellites. The direction
spreading centres (e.g. Iceland), there are also hot spots of plate motion can be expressed only as a motion of one
that are far from present-day active divergent boundaries, plate relative to the adjacent plate since all the plates on
such as Hawaii and Yellowstone. The motion of these the Earth are moving and there is no fixed reference point
convection cells moves the plates by viscous forces drag- that can be used.
ging the base of the lithosphere. In addition, the upwelling While rates of 1910 cm yr-1 may appear to be slow,
magma at the mid-ocean ridges forces the plates apart as over geological timescales they are most definitely not.
new crust is formed, while the plates are further dragged Consider, for example, the opening of the North Atlantic
apart by the weight of the older, dense and cold part of Ocean which, on the basis of geological evidence, started
plates which are furthest from the mid-ocean ridge and 200 million years ago. The present rate of movement of
which also have a thick load of sediment as they sink back the North American Plate away from the Eurasian Plate is
into the mantle. approximately 2.5 cm yr -1. That corresponds to 1 km of
movement in 40 000 years, resulting in a 5000 km separa-
tion over 200 million years. This distance corresponds
2.5.2 Rates of plate movement
quite closely to the present separation of these two plates.
Vine and Matthews (1963) were the first to calculate both Plates, however, do not necessary move at a constant rate
the rate and direction of plate motion over the past several or indeed in a constant direction. If, for example, one plate
million years. Knowing the age of the magnetic reversals with continental crust at its leading edge bumps up against
and the position of the stripes relative to the mid-ocean a similar plate boundary on the adjacent plate, mountains
ridges, it was possible to determine the rate of sea floor are formed and the plates eventually stop moving rela-
spreading. Using this method, it has been calculated that tive to one another. This cessation of movement not only
the sea floor moves away from the ridge system at a rate of affects the two plates involved in the collision, but also has
1910 cm yr-1. More recently, we have been able to locate consequences on the motion of plates over a considerable
positions on the Earth with extreme accuracy using laser fraction of the world.
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2.6 Structural features related directly to motion of the plates
Mid-ocean ridges are where most of the Earth’s volcan-
Reflective questions ism occurs, producing about 20 km3 of magma per year
that solidifies to produce new ocean floor. The eruption
➤ What types of plate boundaries are there? of this magma occurs mostly underwater. The average
➤ Is the distance between London and New York increasing, depth of the mid-oceanic ridges is 2.5 km. This makes it
decreasing or not changing? difficult to study such eruptions directly. As a result, much
of the detailed knowledge we have of the processes that
occur at the mid-ocean ridges has been obtained from
2.6 Structural features related studies of Iceland, the one location where there is a com-
paratively large island straddling the mid-ocean ridge. The
directly to motion of the plates
rock that is erupted at these divergent plate boundaries
is called mid-ocean ridge basalt. When mid-ocean ridge
2.6.1 Divergent plate boundaries
basalt erupts it is generally hot (1000°C) and very runny.
2.6.1.1 Mid-ocean ridges Large volumes of basalt lava are formed at such volcanoes
and the ease with which the lava flows when erupted on
Mid-ocean ridges are the spreading centres where the land (Figure 2.9) leads to the formation of shield volcanoes.
lithosphere is created (Figure 2.8). The faster the spreading These are volcanoes with such gentle slopes that some-
rate, the broader is the mountain range associated with times they are barely discernible as mountains at all. Erup-
that spreading. The best example of this is the East Pacific tions from these volcanoes are rarely explosive because
Rise, which is the mid-ocean ridge located between the any gas that is in the magma can easily escape through the
Pacific Plate and the Nasca Plate where spreading rates runny liquid. Sometimes larger bubbles of gas do burst out
are as high as 16.5 cm yr -1. By contrast, the Mid-Atlantic of the magma and can produce spectacular fountains of
Ridge, with a spreading rate of 293 cm yr-1, has steeper fire. Eruptions can occur out of circular vents or quite fre-
slopes characteristic of a slow spreading centre. quently as walls of molten lava issuing from a linear crack
The axis of the mid-ocean ridge consists of a central in the Earth. When lava erupts underwater it cools rapidly,
valley or graben. Lava flows out onto the sea floor via long forming rounded structures called pillow lavas. Under such
fissures that are orientated parallel to the ridge axis rather conditions the lava does not flow far from the vent where it
than from the more circular volcanic craters we see associ- was erupted (Figure 2.10).
ated with other types of volcanism. As the oceanic crust The lava for these volcanoes comes from the partial
is carried away from the active (and hot) central ridge, it melting of the upper mantle. When mantle rocks, which
gradually cools and sinks. Eventually, over the millions of are themselves solid and move by elastic creep, move up
years that the oceanic crust takes to be carried across the towards the surface as the plates separate, pressure is
ocean basin, it becomes covered with deep-ocean sedi- released. This release of pressure causes the outer edges
ments and the original primary volcanic and tectonic fea- of the minerals to melt, forming a microscopic network
tures are blanketed over. of interconnected tubes and veins. The resulting fluid is
Continental Continental
margin Ocean basin margin
Mid-ocean ridges
Rift
Oceanic crust
Continental Location of active Continental
crust volcanism and sea-floor spreading crust
Figure 2.8 Diagrammatic cross-section of a mid-ocean ridge showing the location of the active volcanism and sea floor spreading at
the ridge crest
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Chapter 2 Earth geology and tectonics
Figure 2.9 Runny lava flowing from Eyjafjallajökull volcano, Iceland. Figure 2.10 Pillow lava, which has this characteristic lumpy shape, is
(Source: bikeriderlondon, Shutterstock) formed when basaltic magma is erupted underwater. The photo shows
pillow lava from Sierra Madres, Cuba. (Source: Corlaffra/Shutterstock)
so runny and the pressure so great that the lava is rapidly
squeezed out and passes upwards into the lava chambers
Seawater sinks,
found below the mid-oceanic volcanoes and eventually out heats up, and rises
onto the surface in eruptions. The composition of this liq- Ocean sediments as hot springs
Axis of
uid is derived from, but not identical to, the mantle from mid-ocean ridge
Ocean
which it was ultimately formed.
Spreading Spreading
Our knowledge of these layers is derived to a large
extent from study of those areas on land where oceanic Pillow
crust has become exposed. These layers are called ophi- lavas km
0
olites and they are found in a number of locations. One of Ocean Sheeted dykes 1
2
the best preserved sections of ophiolites is on the island of crust Gabbros Magma chamber 3
Moho 4
Cyprus. The Troodos Mountains contain a well-preserved Peridotites 5
6
geological section (Figure 2.11). On top are oceanic sedi- Mantle 7
ments (mainly chalk). Below this are pillow lavas and other 8
9
volcanic rocks underlain by extensive areas of sheeted 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
dykes which represent evidence for the cracks through km
which the lava flowed. The deepest rocks are gabbros and Figure 2.11 The characteristic layers of ocean crust shown here are found
other rocks, which represent the lowest ocean crust and on land preserved within ophiolite suites such as in the Troodos Mountains
upper-mantle rocks. in Cyprus. Most of the seawater enters at cracks on the ridge and circulates
parallel to the ridge axis. (Source: From Scientific American, Aug. 1982,
Apart from this volcanic activity, the mid-ocean ridges p. 122 (Bass))
are also the site of widespread hydrothermal activity.
Seawater which seeps into the cracks and fissures in the
basaltic lavas becomes superheated. As a result, it rapidly black smokers. For a discussion of the unique biological
rises and forms a series of hot vents along the rift valley communities associated with these hot vents and the fate
of the ridge. During the passage of seawater through this of the chemicals released in black smokers see Chapter 3.
subsurface plumbing system, the hot water interacts with
the surrounding basaltic rock, causing chemical changes
2.6.1.2 Rift zones on land
to occur. Sulfate ions, which are present in large quanti-
ties in seawater, are chemically reduced by Fe(II) in the Rift zones are not limited to the ocean. They also occur
rock to sulfide. At the same time trace metals including on land and have in the past been responsible for the
manganese and iron are dissolved. The result of all these break-up of land masses. For such a feature to form on
chemical changes is that the water re-emerges as a jet of land, however, it is necessary for there to be consider-
hot water and carries with it a black precipitate of metal able thinning of the continental crust first. The best
sulfides, which gives these features their popular name of example of this today is the Syrian–African Rift Valley
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2.6 Structural features related directly to motion of the plates
Figure 2.13 Photograph of ropey lava also known as pahoehoe.
was erupted at the surface covering much of the Golan
Heights. The magma in turn forced the crack to widen.
As the rift continued to deepen, it eventually sank below
sea level, as in the Sea of Galilee, which is the lowest large
freshwater lake in the world at - 210 m and the Dead
Sea, which is the lowest point on earth at - 425 m. In this
example, the rift to the south opened to the ocean, and
seawater entered. This formed the present-day Red Sea.
The floor of the Red Sea has both oceanic basalt and
subsided blocks of continental-type crust on its floor. If
this process continues, the crust will continue to thin and
eventually magma will well up into the centre of the rift,
forming a new mid-ocean ridge spreading centre.
The lava that is extruded from this type of volcano
results in ‘rivers and lakes’ of lava which solidify into
ropey lava also known by its Hawaiian name of pahoehoe
(Figure 2.13) and a granular lumpy lava known technically
as a-aa. The lava from such eruptions can flow for con-
Figure 2.12 The rift valley of the Jordan River can be seen in this siderable distances and tends to infill existing landscapes.
image. The country of Israel is to the left of the river valley and the Once it begins to weather it can form very fertile soil.
country of Jordan is to the right of the river valley. The Jordan River
is 322 km long and originates in the Anti-Lebanon Mountains. The
river flows southwards through the drained Hula Valley Basin into 2.6.2 Transform faults
the freshwater Lake Tiberias (Sea of Galilee) which is the northern-
most depression in this figure. The Dead Sea, which is in the centre Transform faults are found at the plate boundary where
of this image, is 70 km long and presently is 425 m below sea level. two plates slide along next to one another (Figure 2.14).
The Jordan River Rift Valley is a small part of the 6500 km long
Dead Sea Fault. (Source: John Hall; Image Science and Analysis
Here the lithosphere is being neither created nor destroyed.
Laboratory, NASA-Johnson Space Center. ‘The Gateway to Astro- The faults can exist as long boundaries between plates
naut Photography of Earth’, http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/sseop/EFS/ such as the Northern Anatolian Fault in Turkey and Iran
printinfo.pl?PHOTO=NM23-755-505, accessed 14 March 2008) the Dead Sea Fault and the Altyn Tagh Fault in China.
These boundaries are characterized by frequent major and
destructive earthquakes (see Table 2.1). The movement can
(Figure 2.12). Initially localized faulting produced a be from a few centimetres in a comparatively small earth-
sunken rift zone or graben. As the fault continued to quake to 1–2 m in a large one.
pull apart there was a further thinning of the crust and Transform faults can also occur in small sections in
deepening of the rift valley until eventually magma the ocean between spreading centres. The boundary of
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Chapter 2 Earth geology and tectonics
Zone of frequent the Juan de Fuca Rift off the coast of Oregon and Wash-
earthquakes ington states.
Scarp
Transform
2.6.3 Convergent plate boundaries
Ridge rift
2.6.3.1 Subduction and volcanism
e
Lithospher
When two plates consisting of oceanic lithosphere at their
leading edge converge, one of the plates is driven under
the other one. This subduction causes a deepening of the
Figure 2.14 Diagrammatic cross-section of an oceanic transform fault
ocean at the boundary and a deep-ocean trench generally
showing the region of the fault with the most active seismicity. Where forms. The only occasion when a trench is not formed at a
such transform faults occur on land they are the sites of the destructive subduction zone is when it is very close to the mid-ocean
earthquakes. spreading centre. This is because the lithosphere will still
be relatively warm and therefore less dense and more buoy-
the divergent plate is not necessarily linear. For mechani- ant than the surrounding lithosphere. Hence there will be
cal reasons the central graben and spreading centre are no propensity for a deep trench to form. At most subduc-
almost straight. Thus, in order to accommodate curves tion zones, however, the lithosphere is cool and dense and
in the plate boundary, the central graben is displaced by will readily subduct.
transform faults. The opposite sides of a transform fault The Wadati–Benioff zone is a band of rock, 20 km
are two different plates moving in opposite directions, and thick, which dips from the trench region under the overly-
the movement results in frequent shallow and often severe ing plate. It contains the location of all the earthquake
earthquakes. Where this fault zone extends beyond the foci associated with the descending lithospheric plate.
active spreading centre, it is now within the boundary of a Initially the angle of dip is 45°, becoming steeper as the
single plate and thus the two sides of the fault are moving plate descends to greater depths. Deep-focus earthquakes
in the same direction. The earthquakes that occur on this associated with the descending plate have been observed
extended section of the fault are much smaller in magni- to depths of 400 km in slowly moving plates and up to
tude and less destructive. The best-known example of an 700 km in faster plates. The major destructive earth-
active and dangerous transform fault is the San Andreas quake and resulting tsunami that struck Indonesia and the
Fault. It extends from where the actively spreading East eastern shore of the Indian Ocean on Boxing day, 2004
Pacific Rise intersects the west coast of Mexico, through (Box 2.2) and the Honshu, Japanese earthquake in 2011
southern California and the San Francisco Bay region, to both occurred at a subduction zone.
Earthquake in the Indian It was the longest-duration earthquake involved a rupture about 400 km long,
Ocean on 26 December 2004 ever recorded (500–600 seconds) and 100 km wide at a depth of 30 km below
was large enough to cause the entire the seabed. This is the longest rupture ever
On 26 December 2004 at 8 a.m. local time, surface layers of the planet to vibrate by known to have been caused by a single
the section of the plate boundary between over a centimetre of vertical displace- earthquake. This first rupture, which was
the Indian and Burmese plates situated ment. In total 1200 km of the fault moved. centred off Aceh, propagated at a speed
off the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia The slip did not happen instantaneously of about 2.8 km s -1 or 10000 km h-1 and
(Aceh province), gave way catastrophically. but took place over a period of several lasted about 100 seconds. After a pause
This resulted in one of the largest earth- minutes. Seismograph and acoustic data of about 100 seconds, a second major
quakes ever felt, with a magnitude of 9.3. (Figure 2.15) indicate that the first phase rupture occurred, continuing northwards
BOX 2.2 ➤
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2.6 Structural features related directly to motion of the plates
➤
for another 5 min to the point where the The reason for such a large loss of life
01:25 subduction boundary intersects with a in this earthquake was not the earthquake
01:20 transform fault. In addition there were sev- itself but the tsunami generated by the
01:15 eral other sub-events, the largest of which earthquake. Tsunami is a Japanese word for
would normally have been ranked as major harbour wave. Japan is adjacent to a similar
01:10
earthquakes in their own right, with mag- subduction zone as Indonesia and is thus
01:05
nitudes of over 7.5. Subsequently when sci- liable to similar earthquake-generated phe-
01:00
entists examined the area of the fault line nomena such as the Honshu earthquake
Time since the earthquake
00:55 using high-resolution side scan sonar, they in 2011. As with all tsunamis, this one
00:50 found major disruption including several behaved differently in deep water com-
00:45 large landslides. In total, there was 10 m pared with shallow water. In deep water,
00:40 of lateral movement and 4–5 m of vertical the maximum wave height 2 h after the
00:35 movement along the fault line. It has been earthquake was a very modest 60 cm. The
00:30 estimated that the plate movements during wave moved, however, at very high speed
00:25
the earthquake displaced ∼30 km3 of sea- (50091000 km h-1). In shallow water, near
water radiating outwards along the entire coastlines, the wave slows down but in
00:20
1200 km length of the rupture. The volume doing so forms large destructive waves.
00:15
of sea floor upthrust raised global sea level In this case, a wave 24 m high struck the
00:10
by 0.1 mm. The total energy generated in Indonesian coast, destroying towns and
00:05 this earthquake was 3.35 * 1018 joules villages in its path. In total, 130 700 people
00:00 (equivalent to 0.8 gigatonnes of TNT). were killed in Indonesia. The wave also
Figure 2.15 Seismograph of the mag-
The largest earthquakes, such as the propagated across the Indian Ocean and
nitude 9.3 earthquake recorded on 26 Sumatra–Andaman event, are almost always killed people in Sri Lanka (35 300), India
December 2004. The horizontal axis is associated with major thrust events at sub- (12 400), Thailand (5400) and many other
the relative ground motion. (Source: duction zones. This earthquake was the third countries. The tsunami even killed 8 people
Modified from Rapid Earthquake View) largest in the past 100 years but because of in Africa some 5000 miles to the west.
the location compared with other events, it Could anything have been done to
had by far the largest loss of life. To put this prevent such a large loss of life? Scientists
towards the Andaman Islands. This rupture into perspective, in Table 2.1 you can see at an international geophysics meeting a
occurred more slowly than that in the the magnitude of several major famous and few months prior to the earthquake had
south (2.1 km s -1) and continued north destructive earthquakes. forecast a major earthquake on this section
Table 2.1 A list of some of the largest earthquakes during the past 100 years, the estimated number of fatalities and whether a major
tsunami was produced. Note that although the largest earthquakes are all associated with subduction zones and produce major
tsunamis, the number of fatalities is most closely associated with the population density in the area affected.
Earthquake location Magnitude and date Tsunami Number of fatalities
Sumatra–Andaman+ 9.1–9.3, 2004 Yes 283 000
+
Prince William Sound, Alaska 9.2, 1964 Yes 125
East coast of Honshu, Japan 9: 2011 Yes 21 000
San Francisco+ 7.8, 1906 No ∼3000
Haiti 7, 2010 Yes 316 000
Kashmir+ 7.6, 2005 No 80 000
Alikah, W. Turkey 7.6, 1999 No 17 200
*Government estimates. Aid agencies estimated the casualties as much higher.
+
Data from www.earthquake.usgs.gov
BOX 2.2 ➤
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Chapter 2 Earth geology and tectonics
➤
of the fault but, like all such forecasts, it of people by teachers and others in the to get a warning to local residents.
was impossible to say when it would occur area. In fact, one of the few coastal areas On 26 December 2004, the Tsunami Warn-
or indeed how severe such an earthquake to evacuate before the tsunami arrived was ing Center did realize very quickly that a
would be, although it was expected to be a on the Indonesian island of Simuelue. Here, major tsunami was being generated in the
‘big’ one. island folklore recounted an earthquake Indian Ocean. However, the problem was
Very little could have been done for and tsunami in 1907. As a result of the that it simply did not have any mechanism
the people of Aceh province. They had very 1907 story being well known by the island- to warn the people on the coasts of the
little time between the earthquake being ers, they fled inland immediately after the Indian Ocean around Thailand, India and Sri
felt and the tsunami striking. In areas with initial shaking, knowing that a tsunami Lanka of the danger that they faced.
a subduction fault situated off the coast, it might be on its way. The Pacific northwest So one is left with stories such as the
is necessary for the local population simply coast of the USA has a series of roads and one where Tilly Smith, a 10-year-old Brit-
to know that if there is a major earthquake tracks clearly marked as ‘Earthquake evacu- ish girl, was on Maikhao beach in northern
felt, then they must make rapidly for high ation routes’. Phuket, Thailand. She was on the beach
ground because the tsunami may be much Further away from the epicentre, it with her parents and saw the sea retreat-
more destructive than the earthquake would have been possible to generate ing dramatically from the beach. She had
that caused it. However, such major earth- a tsunami warning. Such a system is in learned about tsunamis in geography les-
quakes happen in the same region very place around the Pacific Ocean (see Fig- sons in school and recognized the warning
infrequently, possibly once every several ure 2.7 for earthquake locations around signs of the retreating sea and frothing
hundred or even thousand years, so infor- the Pacific). If there is a major earthquake bubbles. As a result she and her parents
mation about such events cannot generally around the Pacific, the Tsunami Warning warned others on the beach and they were
be handed down by word of mouth. There Center in Hawaii contacts regional authori- able to run away to safety.
is therefore a requirement for education ties across the Pacific, who then have BOX 2.2
Sediment
As the oceanic lithosphere is carried down into the scraped off
mantle, it is heated. Water and other volatiles which were Peru – Chile descending
trench plate
carried down with the plate are freed, producing a low-
density mixture that rises to the surface on the overriding
plate side of the trench. If the overriding plate is oceanic, Active
then basaltic volcanoes are produced, which form into Andesite
Continental
volcanoes
island arcs. The islands are generally situated about crust
100 km behind the oceanic trench.
East Pacific South
When an oceanic plate collides with a plate that has Plate American
continental crust at its leading edge, the oceanic plate is Plate
always the one that subducts beneath the continental one.
The oceanic plate carries with it oceanic sediments, which Figure 2.16 Diagrammatic cross-section of a convergent plate boundary
showing the subduction of the oceanic plate at the continental margin
are oldest and thickest at the plate boundary. Some of
producing a deep-sea trench and a volcanic belt close to the continental
these sediments are scraped off the oceanic plate and are margin.
added directly to the continental plate (Figure 2.16). The
remaining sediment gets carried down with the descending to the point where it continues to rise. As the ascending
plate. The oceanic crust contains water that was trapped magma approaches the Earth’s surface, the pressure is
within it during its formation and from the pore waters reduced. The water and other gases trapped in the magma
of oceanic sediments. As the plate descends into the man- begin to expand but cannot escape. As a result, a consider-
tle, the water causes the basaltic rock to melt. The rising able overpressure builds up, which cannot escape because
magma is also hot enough to start to melt the continental the volcanic vent is blocked with a plug formed from the
crust of the overlying plate. The magma that results from cooling of the lava from a previous eruption. Eventually,
this process is very sticky and would not flow at all were the rising lava reaches the point where it breaks through
it not for the water it contains, which reduces its viscosity this lava plug and erupts at the surface. The gases have
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2.6 Structural features related directly to motion of the plates
expanded to such a degree that the lava is not so much a widespread effects on climate. After the Mount Tambora
liquid, as you find in a mid-ocean ridge eruption, but in eruption in Indonesia in 1815, the world’s temperature
effect an incandescent mixture of foam and ash. The result was lowered for over a year and the following year was
can be a great and destructive explosion that can destroy known as the year without a summer because dust in the
large areas and kill many people. atmosphere reduced the amount of sunlight that reached
Examples of these volcanoes that have resulted in great the Earth. Once the initial destructive phase has passed,
destructive eruptions include Santorini (1628 BC, Greece), the sticky lava flows out of the mountain and builds its
Krakatoa (1883, Indonesia) and Mount St Helens (1980, shape up into the characteristic steep-sided volcanoes such
USA; Box 2.3). The lava can flow down the hillside as a as Mount Fuji (Japan) and Mount Vesuvius (Italy). Once
boiling mud flow or as a stream of incandescent foam the lava ceases to flow, it cools in the volcanic vent. This
(called a nuée ardente). It can form pillars of gas and ash volcanic plug allows a considerable overpressure to build
that can ascend as much as 40 km into the stratosphere. up within the volcano, repeating the cycle until the next
The dust and gases put into the atmosphere can have catastrophic eruption occurs.
British
The Destructive Power Silverthrone Caldera Columbia
of Mount St. Helens Franklin Glacier Volcano
Mount Meager
The eruption of Mt St Helens on 18 May
Mount Cayley
1980 was the deadliest and economically Mount Garibaldi
most destructive volcanic event in the his-
tory of the United States. Mount St. Helens
Mount Baker
is one of a series of active volcanoes situ-
Glacier
ated adjacent to the Pacific coast of the
Peak
USA and Canada (Figure 2.17) stretching Washington
from Lassen Peak and Mount Shasta in
Mount Mount Rainier
California, though Crater Lake, Mount Jeffer- St. Helens
son and Mount Hood in Oregon, to Mount Mount Adams
Adams, Mount Rainier and Mount Baker in
Mount Hood
Washington. Across the border in Canada
Mount
there are a further five volcanoes in British Jefferson
Columbia. All these volcanoes are located Three
Sisters Newberry
inland of the descending plate boundary
Volcano
and are part of the Pacific Ring of Fire.
Crater Lake
They are all dormant at present but could
erupt at any time. Oregon
Early in 1980, there was evidence that
Mount
the previously dormant Mount St. Helens Shasta Medicine
(Figure 2.18a) was beginning to erupt. Lake Volcano
Lassen Peak
On 20 March, there was a magnitude 4.2
earthquake followed one week later by California
steam starting to vent from the cone at
the top of the mountain. By the end of
April, the north side of the mountain had Figure 2.17 The location of active but dormant volcanoes in the Pacific NW of United States and Canada
and the location of the subducting plates offshore. Mt St Helens is near the centre of the figure.
started to bulge (Figure 2.18b). During this
BOX 2.3 ➤
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Chapter 2 Earth geology and tectonics
➤
(a) (b)
Figure 2.18 Mount St. Helens: (a) September 1979, eight months before the eruption; (b) 13 April 1980, a large bulge on the mountainside which
was growing at a rate of 1.5 m per day (Source: (a) US Geological Survey, photo by Rick Hoblitt; (b) US Geological Survey, photo by G.A. Coyier)
time there were a number of small erup- cloud to get out. Every time you took a 27 km south into the Columbia River by
tions of ash from the top of the mountain. breath it would stick to your throat or get these mudflows. The mudflows blocked
It was now clear that a major eruption was stuck in your nose. At that point I started nearby streams and eventually resulted in
going to happen, though nobody knew pre- to go into shock, we accepted the fact we the formation of two new lakes, Coldwater
cisely when or how destructive it would be. were going to die’. He drove very slowly Lake (Figure 2.20) and Castle Lake.
The area around the mountain became a through the ash cloud for about an hour. For more than nine hours, a vigorous
restricted zone and people were evacuated. Finally the ash began to thin and visibility plume of ash erupted (Figure 2.21), eventu-
Nonetheless there were still a number slowly returned. He was one of those ally reaching 15 to 20 km above sea level.
of geologists and others present in the close to the mountain that survived. The plume moved eastward at an average
area north of the mountain on the morn- The magma erupted from Mount St. speed of 100 km per hour with ash reach-
ing of Sunday, 18 May when, at Helens as a pyroclastic flow, a flow of ing the adjacent state of Idaho by noon. By
8:32 a.m., an earthquake of magnitude 5.1 hot ash and gas which devastated trees about 5:30 p.m. that evening, the vertical
triggered a massive landslide/collapse of and other vegetation over an area of ash column began to decrease though sev-
the bulge on the north side of the moun- 600 km2. Within the blast zone, which was eral less severe outbursts of ash continued
tain. This triggered the largest known mainly covered with coniferous forest, through the night and for the next several
debris avalanche in recorded history. A all the trees were stripped of leaves and days. The eruption of Mount St. Helens
video describing the dramatic eruption branches and left lying like matchsticks released 24 megatons of thermal energy
can be viewed here: www.youtube.com/ blown over in the wind (Figure 2.19a). and more than 2.8 km3 of volcanic mate-
watch?v=xP2dreOI8gI. Vern Hodgson, a Oddly enough the trees were not burnt or rial, mainly ash, was erupted. Immediately
general contractor living in Lynnwood, even charred because with the volcanic after the eruption, the height of Mount
was on a camping trip with a friend about plume there was no oxygen to allow car- St. Helens was reduced by about 400 m.
11 miles northeast of Mount St. Helens. bon to burn (Figure 2.19b). The eruption killed 57 people, nearly 7000
‘I had just set my camera up (on a tripod) At the time of the eruption the north- large animals (deer, elk and bear) and an
and there it went’, he recalls. He began ern slope of Mount St. Helens was covered estimated 12 million fish. It destroyed or
snapping the shutter furiously, ending up with ice and snow. This was instantly extensively damaged over 200 homes,
with 16 images in about 45 seconds. ‘It melted by the hot ash and lava from the 298 km of highway and 24 km of railways.
was pretty frightening to see the entire eruption and mixed together to form Since the major eruption in 1980, vol-
horizon disappear in a cloud of smoke in lahars (volcanic mudflows). These lahars canic activity has continued as the moun-
a matter of minutes’, he said. Hodgson flowed many miles down the adjacent tain starts to rebuild itself. By 1986, a new
and his friend saw that the ash cloud was Toutle and Cowlitz valleys, destroying lava dome had formed in the crater. There
coming their way. ‘We realized it was time bridges and lumber camps. A total of have been various temporary features such
to leave. We had to drive into the ash 3 000 000 m3 of material was transported as a whaleback-shaped section of solidified
BOX 2.3 ➤
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2.6 Structural features related directly to motion of the plates
➤
(a)
Figure 2.20 Coldwater Lake, formed after the 1980 eruption of
(b) Mount St. Helens.
Figure 2.21 The Mount St. Helens ash cloud on 18 May 1980.
(Source: US Geological Survey)
Figure 2.19 Tree damage from the 1980 eruption of Mount St.
Helens: (a) trees felled like matchsticks by the pyroclastic flow; (b)
remains of an uncharred tree stump which shows no sign of being
burnt despite the very high temperature during the eruption. This
was because there was no oxygen available for the tree to burn.
(Source: (a) US Geological Survey, photo by J.G. Rosenbaum)
lava, which subsequently broke down. Glaciers began to
form and flow from near the top of the mountain into
the open crater. This process is expected to continue
over the coming centuries until eventually Mount St.
Helens will regain the shape characteristic of stratoform
volcanoes and the cycle will repeat itself. For the present
the mountain looks nothing less than the description
of Mordor from the Tolkein novel, Lord of the Rings
(Figure 2.22).
Figure 2.22 The present day Mount St. Helens.
BOX 2.3
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Chapter 2 Earth geology and tectonics
The composition of the lava that erupts behind an oce- TIBETAN
HIMALAYAS PLATEAU
anic trench depends on the precise nature of the continen-
tal rocks that are partially melted during their formation
together with partially melted mantle material. One wide-
spread form of this lava is called andesite, which is named
after the Andes Mountains. It is intermediate in composition
between basalt and granite. This process, over many cycles, is Indian–Australian Plate
the ultimate origin of the rocks that make up the continents. Eurasian Plate
Figure 2.23 Diagrammatic cross-section showing the type of plate
2.6.3.2 Mountain building boundary that is formed when two continental plates collide. Typically this
results in multiple thrusting and folding of the rocks, double thickening
Although plate tectonics is very good at describing the of the continental crust, and high mountains and plateaux such as those
principal features of the sea floor, and the changing dis- found in the Himalayas and Tibet today.
tribution of the continents through geological time, it
is not very good at describing the details of what hap- deformed, crumpled and faulted and most dramatically
pens when two continental plates collide (Figure 2.23). uplifted to form great mountain belts. The thick crust that
Indeed it might be argued that this is the reason why it is a result of such plate collisions sticks up like an ice-
took until the 1960s before plate tectonic theory was berg with high mountains and an even deeper root below
properly developed. There is no subduction when two floating on the dense mantle. As the high mountains are
plates carrying continental lithosphere at their leading eroded, the root at the bottom moves up and exposes rocks
edge collide. Examples of such boundaries today are in and minerals that have been metamorphosed by the high
southern Europe where Italy has moved north to collide temperatures and pressures which are found in the core of
with Europe to form the Alps and in Asia where India has the mountain belts.
collided to form the Himalayas. In these regions there is In addition to the high mountains that form at the
no obvious plate boundary which can be defined either by boundary of the two plates, a number of other features are
earthquake epicentres or indeed geologically. seen when two continents collide. These can include major
When two continents collide, both being buoyant, horizontal faults. Faults of this type do not make moun-
neither can sink under the other. The crust is thickened tains. They allow blocks to rotate or to move sideways
because it has been shortened and compressed as if out of the principal collision zone. There can be complex
squeezed in a vice. As a result the rocks are folded and responses to plate collision as shown in Box 2.4.
Eratosthenes seamount and the overriding continental plate of south- as long as relative motion continues
three possible scenarios for ern Asia. At the frontal tip of the subduct- between the plates. This type of collision
ing plate, the slab sank into the Earth’s is characterized by frequent, often very
future plate movement
mantle (Figure 2.23). Gravity pulled it destructive earthquakes (see Table 2.1).
Although the basic theory of plate tecton- down, and as a result drew the entire plate When motion ends the two plates
ics is remarkably simple, the reality can be behind. This simple subduction continued will accrete together to form a craton, a
somewhat more complex. Consider, for until the continental land mass on the continent of stable continental rocks (e.g.
example, what happens when two plates Indian plate reached the subduction zone Highlands of Scotland). However, the reality
converge, such as when the plate carrying and because it is made from relatively of the collision of two converging plates is
what is now India separated from Gond- light continental rock, it ‘hard docked’ with often rather more complicated. For exam-
wanaland and moved north towards Asia. the overriding plate. This collision eventu- ple, the subducting plate often contains
First the oceanic crust in the front of the ally led to the formation of the Himalayan ‘bumps’, which may divert or even interrupt
approaching Indian plate subsided under mountain chain. The collision will continue
BOX 2.4 ➤
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2.6 Structural features related directly to motion of the plates
➤
the entire process. Such bumps are com- motion will end between them as they continental rocks which are too light to
mon on many oceanic plates. They are called fuse together. be carried down into the mantle by sub-
oceanic plateaus or seamounts, for example 2. The lower part of the seamount will duction it will stop moving. Since Africa
the Manhiki and Hikurangi Plateaus in the subduct underneath the present island and Eurasia will continue to converge, a
Pacific Ocean, and New England Seamount of Cyprus, while its upper part will new subduction zone will probably form
chain in the Atlantic. Such seamounts can accrete onto the Island probably form- south of the seamount. This is called
be formed through processes like volcanic ing a mountain belt. subduction jump. There are examples
hot spots (see Section 2.6.4) or fragments of elsewhere of all these three scenarios
3. The entire seamount will begin to sub-
continental crust which become detached as plates carrying ‘bumps’ collide.
duct. However, because it consists of
and embedded in the ocean plate.
An example of this modified collision of
two plates is the case of the Eratosthenes
seamount situated in the eastern Mediter-
ranean, south of the island of Cyprus
(Figure 2.24). The eastern Mediterranean is
the remains of the older Tethys Ocean, which
gradually closed as Africa moved north and
collided with the ‘underbelly’ of the Eurasian
plate. For the last several tens of millions of
years, the oceanic crust attached to the Afri-
can plate gradually subducted under Greece
and Turkey as a typical descending plate,
similar to the early stages of India–Asia con-
vergence mentioned above. However, about
two million years ago the Eratosthenes
seamount began to approach the subduc-
tion zone, and caused large changes in the
plate movements. The seamount was large
and buoyant enough to stop the process of
simple subduction (Schattner, 2010). For a
short while (in geological terms of course)
of several hundreds of thousands of years
the entire eastern Mediterranean region
went through major structural and tectonic
changes. Regions along the surrounding
landmasses were folded and faulted. At the
same time there were a series of submarine
landslides, which flowed across the Medi-
terranean seafloor. All these events were
probably accompanied by major destructive
earthquakes. These various geological fea-
tures coincided with the arrival of the sea-
mount at the subduction zone. They mark
the transition from subduction to collision
that is occurring at the present time.
What will happen next? Scientists sug-
Figure 2.24 Bathymetry of the Eastern Levantine basin of the Eastern Mediterranean, showing the
gest three possible scenarios for the future
Eratosthenes Seamount as a ‘bump’ on the African-Sinai plate which is descending below Cyprus.
convergence in the eastern Mediterranean:
The black lines mark the location of main geological faults that have been active during the past
1. Eratosthenes will continue to approach 5 million years. The colours represent depth contours of the region close to the seamount.
(Source: map derived based on bathymetry data provided by Medimap Group et al., 2005).
Cyprus; the plate carrying the seamount
will collide with the island until finally BOX 2.4
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Chapter 2 Earth geology and tectonics
2.6.4 Hot spots
In addition to the comparatively simple pattern of
volcanism associated with plate boundaries, there are
areas where there are volcanoes which are not associ-
ated directly with plate boundaries. These features are
called hot spots. They represent the surface expression
of mantle plumes and are related to convective processes
which originate at the core–mantle boundary deep in the
Earth. There are thought to be over 60 hot spots. Some
are associated with ocean spreading centres and the large
amount of lava that they provide has created islands such
as Iceland. Hot spots can also form in mid-plate locations.
In cases where there is a volcano situated immediately Figure 2.26 Bubbling mudpots and billowing steam from hot vents in Yel-
above the hot spot, then, as the plate moves over the hot lowstone National Park.
spot, a series of volcanic islands or seamounts are formed. (Source: photo courtesy of Steve Carver)
The best example of such a system is the Hawaiian island
chain. The Big island of Hawaii is furthest to the east
volcano, with the volcanoes getting progressively older as
and is the site of the most active volcano on Earth at
you travel west. Further the west islands are so old and
present (Figure 2.25). There are a series of islands, Maui,
eroded that they disappear below the ocean water surface
Molokai, Oahu and Kauai, in a line stretching more than
to become seamounts. This also happens because, as the
500 km to the west. Each island is made up of an extinct
plate moves west, it cools and the ocean floor becomes
deeper towards the ocean trench. During July and August
(a) 1996, there were a series of volcanic eruptions and earth-
100 km
quakes on the sea floor 30 km to the south-east of the big
Kauai
Oahu island of Hawaii called Loihi, which seems to be associ-
Molokai New
Maui volcano ated with a new island forming.
N
Plate Hot spots are also found in the middle of continental
motion
plates. One such hot spot is beneath Yellowstone National
Hawaii
Park, and is responsible for the spectacular series of
Pacific Ocean Hot spot
geysers, mudpots and other hydrothermal and volcanic
features seen there (Figure 2.26).
(b)
Reflective questions
➤ What are the similarities and differences you would
expect to see between the volcanic activity of a mid-
ocean ridge when it is exposed on land (such as in Ice-
land) and the same feature at the bottom of the ocean?
➤ A majority of the most destructive earthquakes occur on
transform faults. List the locations of all the earthquakes
you have ever heard of and then look at Figure 2.7 to see
what type of plate boundary they are associated with.
➤ What landforms would you associate with divergent and
Figure 2.25 (a) The islands of Hawaii are located above an oceanic hot convergent plate boundaries and transform faults?
spot. The island chain is caused by the interaction of that hot spot with
the Pacific Plate, which is moving to the north-east. (b) Night-time 50 ➤ What features might cause complex responses to colliding
metre high burst of lava on Mauna Ulu, Kilauea volcano in Hawaii. plates?
(Source: D.W. Peterson and US Geological Survey)
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2.7 The history of the continents
2.7 The history of the continents One additional consequence of the break-up of Gond-
wana is that a series of passive continental margins were
Plate tectonics provides a theory to explain the nature and created. Passive margins are coastlines that are not directly
location of tectonic features on the present Earth. It also related to present plate boundaries. Such coastlines, while
enables geologists to reconstruct how the present arrange- not involved in earthquake or other tectonic activities, are
ment of continents came about. Using the magnetic record important as being the base levels for continental denuda-
found within the oceanic crust and other direct evidence, tion. They represent the locations where sediments eroded
it has been possible to reconstruct accurately the history from the various continents that were part of Gondwana
of continental drift over the past 200 million years. When (e.g. Africa, India, South America, Australia and Antarc-
this reconstruction was carried out it was found that all tica) are deposited and build up.
the present continents were once bound together in a sin- The Earth is 4.6 billion years old (Eicher, 1976). It is
gle land mass called Pangaea (Figure 2.27). This land mass thus a reasonable question to ask whether plate tecton-
was formed by the northern continent of Laurasia (which ics and continental drift were processes active earlier than
consisted of present-day North America and Eurasia) 200 million years ago and, if so, how far back in time have
combined with the southern continents of South America, these processes operated? There is no reason to believe
Africa, India, Australia and Antarctica (Gondwanaland) that these processes were not active well before 200 million
across the ancient Tethys Sea. This is the supercontinent years ago. However, the evidence we have available to us
proposed by Wegener (1966). The land masses appear to becomes rapidly more fragmentary the earlier we go back
join most effectively if they are joined not at the present in time. There is no oceanic crust on the current sea floor
seashore but at the boundary of the continental slope at older than 200 million years and thus all evidence has to
about 2000 m water depth. be obtained from continental rocks. The evidence of ocean
When the continents moved together in this way, many spreading or subduction prior to 200 million years ago is
hitherto inexplicable geological features become under- obtained by examining tectonic structures including old
standable. For example, it is possible to use the magnetism fragments of oceanic crust now found with continental
that is locked in rocks when they are formed to calculate crust on land. Transform faults have to be identified from
how the position of the North Pole changed with time. geological and geophysical evidence. The most direct evi-
These so-called polar wandering curves could be simply dence is obtained by the study of ancient mountain belts,
explained as the record of the tracks of the continents over which are the result of only one type of particular plate
the globe of the Earth. This movement of the continents boundary. Nevertheless geologists are confident that they
resulted in their being found not only in different geomet- can identify pre-Pangaea plate movements which began
rical orientations but also at different latitudes. As a result, about 600 million years ago.
geological features such as evaporites, sandy desert features
and coral reefs, which are common in the geological record
of western Europe and North America in the Palaeozoic Reflective question
and Mesozoic (see Chapter 22), make sense since they were
➤ What are the key features of continental plate movements
deposited when those continents were at lower latitudes
over the past 250 million years?
than they are today.
LAURASIA
PANGAEA TETHYS SEA
GONDWANALAND
(a) Pangaea ~250 million years ago (b) Gondwanaland (southern hemisphere) and (c) Continents break up into recognizable
Laurasia (northern hemisphere) form known today
~180 million years ago ~100 million years ago
Figure 2.27 The proposed break-up of a supercontinent called Pangaea into smaller continents which began around 200 million years ago.
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Chapter 2 Earth geology and tectonics
2.8 Summary In the theory of plate tectonics, the Earth is made up of
seven major lithospheric plates and a number of smaller ones
The Earth is made from a series of layers of different rock types which float on an asthenosphere. These plates move around
and physical properties. These comprise the inner and outer core, the Earth. When these plates move apart, new ocean crust is
which is very dense and magnetized, the mantle, which makes formed. This occurs mainly at the mid-ocean ridges. When the
up 70% of the Earth’s mass, and the crust and which is 35–70 km plates collide with one another, one plate can descend beneath
thick for the continents and 6–10 km thick for oceanic crust. The the other, in a subduction zone. These boundaries are char-
rock types we find within the crust can be divided into igneous acterized by a deep oceanic trench and by a series of highly
rocks derived from molten rock and associated with volcanoes, explosive volcanoes. Alternatively, when two plates which have
sedimentary rocks which are deposited after erosion and trans- continental crust at their leading edge collide, then a mountain
port on the Earth’s surface and metamorphic rocks, which are belt is formed such as the Alps or Himalayas. When two plates
rocks which have been changed by pressure and temperature. slide past each other, destructive earthquakes result. Because
The theory of plate tectonics totally revolutionized the way the only direct unequivocal imprint of plate tectonics is found
that environmental scientists looked at processes on the surface in oceanic rocks and the oldest of those are only 200 million
of the Earth and the geological record. The theory developed from years old, it is not clear how long plate tectonics in its present
data collected during the 1950s and early 1960s principally from form has operated on Earth. Geologists are confident, how-
oceanography and marine geology. As a result of collecting data on ever, that they have found evidence of such movements back
the bathymetry of the ocean floor, the magnetism of oceanic rocks to 600 million years ago. They are now able to explain many
and the location of earthquakes and volcanoes, a pattern emerged of the geological features found at the Earth’s surface and
that developed into the unifying theory of plate tectonics. subsurface.
Further reading Hallam, A. (1973) A revolution in earth sciences. Clarendon
Press, Oxford.
This is a relatively short book which summarizes the history of
how plate tectonics developed.
Eicher, D.L. (1976) Geologic time. Prentice Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ. Skinner, B.J., Porter, S.C. and Park, J. (2003) The dynamic
This book gives a very readable account of how we understand Earth: An introduction to physical geology , 5th edition. John
geological time. Wiley & Sons, New York.
This 5th edition provides much detailed information on physi-
England, P. and Jackson, J. (2011) Uncharted seismic risk. cal geology and is a useful reference aid for those who want to
Nature Geoscience , 4, 348–349. learn about tectonics or other geological processes.
An article about seismic mapping and the March 2011 Japanese
earthquake and tsunami.
Grotzinger, J. and Jordan, T.H. (2010) Understanding Earth.
W.H. Freeman, New York.
The authors present an introductory geology textbook which
provides more detail on the general theory of plate tectonics.
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C H A PTER 3
Oceans
Michael D. Krom
Charney School of Marine Sciences, University of Haifa and School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds
Learning objectives on Earth. Furthermore, much of the oxygen we breathe is
produced by phytoplankton that live in the surface layers
After reading this chapter you should be able to: of the ocean. These interactions between the ocean and
the atmosphere play a large part in controlling both the
➤ describe the vast scale of the oceans and how the processes that climate and the weather at the Earth’s surface (see Chap-
control the shape of ocean basins are different from those that ters 4–9). The oceans transfer energy across the planet in
shape landscapes the form of ocean currents and waves. Much of the excess
carbon dioxide (CO2) resulting from human emissions is
➤ understand the processes that control and drive both the surface
taken up by oceanic processes either temporarily or per-
and deep-water flows in the oceans
manently. The study of oceanic processes is therefore cru-
➤ understand the processes that control the nature and amount of cial if we are to understand global climate change.
sediment deposited within the oceans We also use the oceans as a source of food. However,
➤ understand the factors that control primary productivity in the present fishing methods have become so efficient that we
surface layers of the ocean and the distribution of animals in the have dangerously depleted fish stocks over large parts of
sea including those that make up commercial fisheries the ocean. We are only just beginning to develop the tech-
➤ outline the impacts of humans on the oceans nology to grow marine organisms as an agriculture in the
same way as we farm the land. Indeed this is probably the
last major untapped food resource on the planet. At the
3.1 Introduction same time we use the oceans as a repository for our waste,
often assuming the oceans are so large that they have an
When astronauts first looked back on planet Earth from infinite capacity to absorb our pollutants. Yet, it is clear
space (Figure 3.1) they were struck by its colour. The Earth from the increased incidence of toxic plankton blooms
looks blue from space because most of its surface is cov- and other undesirable effects that this is not true. For all
ered by seawater. The oceans not only cover most of the these reasons it is important that we study the oceans and
area of the planet but also contain almost all of the water understand how they operate.
M03 An Introduction to Physical Ge 83575.indd 53 24/05/2017 13:08
Chapter 3 Oceans
almost 2700 m. That amount of water represents almost
93% of the total amount of water on the planet. Glacial
and land ice make up a further 1.6% and groundwater
5%. Freshwater, in the form of rivers and lakes, the water
that we as land animals require for our very existence,
represents only 0.04% of the total amount of water on
the planet. Even the largest lakes in the world (i.e. Lake
Superior and Lake Baikal) are very small in area and
particularly in volume compared with the world’s oceans
(Table 3.1). This freshwater is derived entirely from evap-
oration from the surface of the oceans.
3.2.2 Geological structure of the ocean basins
Geologists have suggested that oceans have been present
on Earth for much of its 4.6 billion year history. Yet it
came as a considerable surprise to discover in the 1960s
that although there are rocks on land that were formed
very early in the history of the Earth, the rocks that under-
Figure 3.1 A view of the cloudless Earth from space. This view is centred
lie the ocean are all comparatively recent. The oldest rocks
over the Pacific and highlights how much of the Earth’s surface is water
covered. (Source: Planetary Visions) in the ocean are only 200 million years old. Furthermore,
the oldest rocks in the ocean were not found in the cen-
tre, as might be expected, but at the ocean margins. The
explanation for this observation is plate tectonics (see
3.2 The ocean basins
Chapter 2). The ocean basins form when two plates spread
apart and new crust is formed at the mid-ocean ridge. As
3.2.1 The scale of the oceans
the plates continue to move apart, the ocean basin gets
There are a number of ways of expressing the total wider (and older). As the oceanic crust cools it sinks, so
amount of water in the oceans. Seawater covers 361 mil- the depth of water increases as one travels away from the
lion square kilometres (361 * 106 km2), which represents mid-ocean ridges. The edge of the ocean basin, and gen-
71% of the surface of the globe. The total volume of erally its deepest part, is the bottom of the continental
water is enormous: 1.37 thousand million cubic kilome- rise which is also where the oceanic lithospheric plate,
tres (1.37 * 109 km3). Most of this water is contained in composed mainly of basalt, is joined to the continental
the three great oceans of the world: the Pacific, Atlantic (granitic) plate. Eventually, as a result of the movement of
and Indian Oceans (Table 3.1). Such numbers are so large plates over the Earth’s surface, one or both of these pas-
that they are difficult to conceptualize. One way of look- sive margins becomes a subduction zone and the oceanic
ing at this number is to consider a sphere the size of the crust plunges back into the Earth’s mantle to be remelted
Earth completely covered with water. The ocean water and returned from where it came. Chapter 2 describes
would then cover such a sphere to a uniform depth of these tectonic features in more detail.
Table 3.1 The amount of water in each ocean and its depth with some large freshwater lakes
Atlantic Ocean Pacific Ocean Indian Ocean Lake Superior Lake Baikal
Area (km2) 106 * 106 180 * 106 75 * 106 82 * 103 32 * 103
Volume (km3) 346 * 106 724 * 106 292 * 106 12 * 103 23 * 103
Mean depth (m) 3332 4028 3795 150 740
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3.3 Physical properties of the ocean
3.2.3 The depth and shape of the ocean basins to a lesser extent the continental shelf, are often dissected by
large submarine canyons. These canyons, which may origi-
The deep ocean is nearly as rugged in its bathymetry as the
nally have been formed as erosional features on land during
terrain we see on land. There are high mountains, deep val-
the recent Ice Age when sea level was much lower (up to 130
leys and canyons as well as areas of flatter plains, with hills
m lower) than it is now, are often the locations for turbidity
of varying heights rising from the plains below. Indeed the
currents. These are flows of sediment-laden water, which
undersea mountains are in general longer, the valley floors
periodically move down the slope at speeds in excess of
wider and the canyons often deeper than the equivalent
20 km h -1 and can cause considerable erosion on their way.
features on land. The principal difference is that while the
Once these currents reach the continental rise, they form
dominant feature on land is erosion, with rain, wind and
deep-sea fans, which have many of the characteristics of
ice acting to erode the landscape and often to accentuate
deltaic fans found in shallow water (see Chapter 22).
features (see, for example, Chapters 14, 16 and 23), the net
The continental slope and, beyond it, the abyssal plain,
process underwater is sedimentation, which acts to fill in
where depths often exceed 4000 m, are entirely underlain by
the valleys and to cover these features. However, the rate
basaltic oceanic crust. It is, however, untrue to think of these
of sedimentation tends to be very slow so that topographic
regions as flat and featureless. Seamounts (such as guyots
features formed near the mid-ocean ridge remain largely
or abyssal hills), all of which are volcanic in origin, dot the
intact as the floor spreads away from the ridge.
deep-sea floor. For example, in the Pacific Ocean alone,
Extending from the shoreline is the continental shelf
there are more than 20 000 seamounts, a few of which are
(Figure 3.2). The width of the continental shelf can vary
tall enough to reach the surface as oceanic islands or atolls.
from a few tens of metres in areas such as parts of the
Mid-ocean ridges are a continuous set of mountain
western coast of North and South America to hundreds of
chains that extend for some 65 000 km. They are tectoni-
kilometres in the North Sea and off the northern coast of
cally active with frequent volcanic eruptions and earth-
Siberia. It is usually less than 150 m deep and is the area
quakes. They are the origin of the basaltic rocks which
of the seabed where most of the coarse-grained sediment
underlie all the ocean basins (see Chapter 2). In many
(sand and silt) derived from the physical erosion of the
areas of the mid-ocean ridges there are also submarine hot
land is deposited. Because it is shallow and close to land,
springs (see Box 3.4 below).
dissolved nutrients, which fertilize the sea and are needed
The deepest valleys on Earth are the narrow, steep-sided
by phytoplankton to grow, are relatively abundant (see
oceanic trenches which characterize particularly the edge
below). It is often an area of rich fisheries. Also, because it
of the Pacific Ocean. These are the locations where oce-
is underlain with continental rocks, it has been exploited
anic plates plunge down into the mantle of the Earth. The
for hydrocarbons and other minerals.
Challenger Deep, which is the deepest part of the Mari-
The continental slopes beyond the shelf break are simi-
anas Trench in the western Pacific, is 11 020 m deep. By
lar in relief to mountain ranges on continents. Their total
comparison Mount Everest is only 8848 m high.
height is generally 1–5 km above the abyssal plain below
(Sverdrup and Armbrust, 2009). The continental slope, and
Continent Continental Continental Guyot Oceanic
shelf slope island
Reflective questions
➤ What is a continental shelf?
➤ Where are the oldest rocks on the ocean floor and why
are they not very old in geological terms?
Sediment
3.3 Physical properties of the ocean
Continental Oceanic Abyssal hills 3.3.1 Salinity
crust crust
In 1872, HMS Challenger sailed from Portsmouth on a
Figure 3.2 An idealized cross-section of the floor of an ocean basin from
the coast of the continent. Abyssal hills and guyots are known to be vol- voyage lasting three and a half years. This was the first sys-
canic in origin. tematic scientific investigation of the world’s oceans and
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Chapter 3 Oceans
Table 3.2 The concentration of major elements present in seawater in a variety of chemical, geological and biological reactions
which ultimately remove them from seawater and deposit
Concentration in them in the sediments at the bottom of the ocean. So, for
Element seawater (mg L1)
example, calcium can be removed by marine organisms
such as oysters or coccoliths (see Chapter 16) to form their
Chloride 19 500 shells and skeletons. These are then deposited, sometimes in
Sodium 10 770 enormously thick and extensive deposits of calcium carbon-
Magnesium 1 290 ate, such as the chalk deposits of south-east England (see
Sulfur (as sulfates) 905 Figure 2.4 in Chapter 2). It is the balance between the pro-
cesses of supply of salts by the rivers and their removal into
Calcium 412
the sediments of the oceans that maintains the particular
Potassium 380
chemical composition of the oceans that we find today.
Although the ratio of most chemical elements in sea-
was as much of a voyage into the unknown as space probes water is constant over all the world’s oceans, the actual
to Mars and the outer planets are today. One of the most concentration varies depending on where you are (Pinet,
surprising things that the scientists on board discovered was 2016). Over large parts of the ocean, seawater salinity
that wherever you go in the world, the chemical composition is ∼35.5 g of solid matter per kilogram of water. The
of the ocean is approximately the same. The major salts concentration of salt in the ocean is generally expressed
that make up most of the salts in seawater are present in the as parts per thousand (ppt) or in salinity units. However,
same ratio to one another. Seawater is made up principally surface water in the ocean can be diluted by the addi-
of sodium chloride and magnesium sulfate with significant tion of freshwater from rain, river inflow or ice melting.
amounts of potassium, calcium and bicarbonate (Table 3.2). Surface waters can also be concentrated by evapora-
The chemicals that make up the salt in seawater were tion. The salinity of surface water in the climatic bands
originally derived from the chemical weathering of rocks on of the dry desert latitudes (20°N and S) is higher than
land. They flow as a dilute solution in river water into the in the wetter regions of the equator or the temperate
sea. Once these chemicals reach the sea, they are involved latitudes (Figure 3.3) because there is the greatest net
Arctic 33
circle
605N 32 34
33 35
33 36
34
305N
35 34 37
35 36 32
36
33 32 35 33
05
34
34
35
305S 36 37
35
36
35 35 34
34
605S 34
Antarctic
circle
1205E 1505E 1805 1505W 1205W 905W 605W 305W 05 305E 605E 905E 1205E
Figure 3.3 Surface salinity of the oceans across the Earth in parts per thousand. This is controlled by net precipitation (rainfall – evaporation) with a
maximum at the same latitude as the major deserts and minima at the equator and towards the higher latitudes. (Source: Sverdrup, H.U., Fleming, Rich-
ard H., Johnson, Martin W. Oceans, 1st edition, © 1942. Adapted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ)
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3.3 Physical properties of the ocean
Saving the dead sea: Table 3.3 Major element chemistry of (1) present-day Dead Sea water, (2) Red Sea water of
the type which will be carried in the proposed Red Sea–Dead Sea conduit and (3)
progress in building a Red
discharge brine from a reverse osmosis plant of the type which will be discharged
Sea–Dead Sea canal into the Dead Sea if the proposed project is built.
The Dead Sea is the lowest land spot on the
planet (-425 m and still sinking). It is a ter- Type of water Na K Ca Mg Cl SO4
minal lake sitting in the Syrian–African rift val-
ley between Jordan and Israel. It is the saltiest Present Dead Sea water 1.11 0.16 0.38 1.57 5.25 1.42
lake in the world with a salinity of ∼275 ppt
Red Sea water 0.53 0.012 0.012 0.06 0.64 0.26
compared with ∼35 ppt for normal seawater.
Discharge brine from a 1.03 0.023 0.023 0.011 1.24 0.54
It is 25% denser than ordinary seawater with
reverse osmosis plant
a density of 1250 kg m3 compared with
Source: Data from Tahal and GSI Dead Sea conveyance study mid-term report 2010,
1025 kg m3 for seawater. This density means
http://web.worldbank.org.
that it is difficult to swim in the Dead Sea but
you can simply float in it (Figure 3.4).
As a result of this extreme salinity, the found are photosynthetic bacteria and diluted by 10% or more. The Dead Sea has
Dead Sea is (almost) literally dead. There Achaea, and then only in significant a unique chemistry, being rich in mag-
are no plants or animals that can survive numbers after the occasional floods or nesium, calcium and crucially potassium,
in its waters. The only organisms that are rain events when the surface waters are which is extracted for use as fertilizer by
the Israeli and Jordanian Dead Sea Chemi-
cal works (Table 3.3). The chemistry of the
Dead Sea is affected by the unusual chem-
istry of the Jordan River. The concentration
of salt in the headwaters is low and the
Sea of Galilee to the north is the single
most important source of water for Israel
and Jordan. Several saline hot springs
flow into the Sea of Galilee, including
most notably the hot spring used by the
Romans at Tiberias, which is rich in potas-
sium. However, as water flows southwards
from the Sea of Galilee down the Jordan
River it reaches the extremely hot, arid
conditions in the Dead Sea region and the
small amount of salts in the freshwater
are drastically concentrated. They are so
concentrated that mineral crystals of gyp-
sum (CaSO4) and Halite (NaCl) form and
drop to the bottom of the Dead Sea.
The Dead Sea is interesting not only geo-
chemically but also culturally and historically.
There are many biblical locations at or close
to the Dead Sea including Jericho, the long-
Figure 3.4 The density of the Dead Sea is 25% greater than normal sea- est continually inhabited town in the world,
water, allowing people to float in it without the aid of inflatables. the oasis of Ein Gedi where David hid from
(Source: Anna Biron) King Saul and Qumran where the Dead Sea
BOX 3.1 ➤
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Chapter 3 Oceans
➤
Scrolls were found, which provide a unique that, at present rates, the level of the Dead
detailed record of life in the desert in the Sea will stabilize at a depth 150 m below the
period immediately before the birth of Christ. present lake level (i.e. ∼ -570 m). As a result
The fortress of Masada, which was the loca- of this shrinking, the tourist beaches are
tion of the last stand of the rebellious Jews now a significant walk from the hotels (Fig-
against the Roman Empire in AD 79, is also ure 3.6). In addition, a series of sinkholes
along the shores of the Dead Sea. have appeared which can even represent a
This area of the Middle East is desper- hazard to walkers in the area (Figure 3.7).
ately short of water. In 1963, Israel com- The entire southern basin of the Dead Sea
pleted the construction of the National has disappeared (Figure 3.5) and is now Figure 3.6 Coastal retreat along the shores of
Water Carrier, which is a canal and water entirely occupied by evaporation pans the Dead Sea revealing the former sea bed.
(Source: Shutterstock: servickux)
conduit from the northern end of that lake operated by the Israeli and Jordanian Dead
through to the southern part of Israel. The Sea Chemical works. They pump water from
water from the National Water Carrier is a the northern basin into a series of pools
vital part of the economy of modern-day in which first gypsum (CaSO4), then halite
Israel. Jordan also diverts the water from (NaCl) and finally salts of magnesium and
the Dead Sea catchment, the river Yarmuk potassium crystallize out and are purified
which flows into the river Jordan just south and used for fertilizers. The Dead Sea pro-
of the Sea of Galilee. If anything, the water vides ∼25% of the world’s supply of Potas-
needs of the Kingdom of Jordan are even sium, a crucial plant fertilizer.
more acute than those of Israel since Jordan
has significantly less rainfall and only a very
The proposed Red Sea– Figure 3.7 Sinkholes around the Dead Sea
small outlet to the sea to enable desalina- caused by lowered groundwater levels.
tion to take place. Jordan is at present ‘min-
Dead Sea Canal (Source: Shutterstock: Robert Hoetink)
ing’ groundwater thousands of years old In response to this problem the World Bank
from under the desert sands. commissioned a feasibility study to exam- problems. The original plan was to build
The Dead Sea is shrinking (Figure 3.5) ine whether it might be possible to build six parallel pipes to take water from the
at a rate of ∼1 m per year with the level a water conduit from the Red Sea, 150 eastern side of the Gulf of Aqaba, pump
dropping from -407 m (below sea level) km to the south, to the Dead Sea to solve it up 200 m to pass over the high point
in 1993 to -429 m in 2016. It is predicted or at least alleviate these environmental in the Syrian–African rift valley and then
allow it to flow down into the Dead Sea.
(a) (b)
A key part of this plan was to desalinate the
water close to the high point using reverse
osmosis technology. This would represent a
source of freshwater, which would be used
mainly within the Kingdom of Jordan. The
waste brine would then flow down to the
Dead Sea. The elevation drop of ∼600 m
would then drive a hydroelectric power
station close to the shores of the Dead Sea
before the water would be discharged into
the Dead Sea. This discharge would reverse
the current drawdown of the Dead Sea
level. In total this plan would cost ∼US$10
billion (2010 values) to construct. It is
estimated that a little more than half of the
cost would be recouped by the sale of the
Figure 3.5 Changes in the Dead Sea over time showing the retreat of the sea: (a) 1972 when freshwater produced and the hydroelec-
the waters of the northern and southern basin were directly connected; (b) 2010 when only the
tricity generated.
northern basin remains; the southern basin has become entirely industrial evaporation pans fed
by water pumped up from the northern basin. The development of industrial evaporation pans
BOX 3.1 ➤
can also be seen in the southern part of the Dead Sea. (Source: US Geological Survey)
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3.3 Physical properties of the ocean
➤
There could be major potential environ- and biology caused by this new water desalination plants being constructed
mental effects of this proposed conduit on addition. Based on these interim results on the Mediterranean coast using the
the Dead Sea. What is proposed is adding a US$900 million agreement was signed recently discovered gas finds from the
reject seawater brine to the Dead Sea in in February 2015 by Israel and Jordan to eastern Mediterranean, which now supply
place of the Jordan freshwater that used carry out a pilot project. This will involve most of Israel’s water needs. At present
to flow into the lake. These two waters building a reverse osmosis desalination it is planned that the waste brine will be
have very different chemistries. Detailed plant in Aqaba and sharing the freshwater piped from Aqaba to the Dead Sea and
experimental and theoretical modelling produced between Aqaba and Eilat. At the discharged via a hydroelectricity plant
studies have being carried out to deter- same time, Israel will supply freshwater into the Dead Sea, although whether this
mine the potential changes in the nature to Jordan from the Sea of Galilee. This phase of the project will ever be built, only
of the Dead Sea, its circulation, chemistry is possible because of the several new time will tell.
BOX 3.1
evaporation in those latitudes. It is perhaps not surpris- Atacama Desert and snowfall in Mexico City, but also
ing that the salinity of enclosed basins can vary by more over much of the world.
than that of the open ocean. The highest salinities in the For most areas of the ocean, there is a warm surface
ocean today are found in the Red Sea where the salinity layer. The thickness of this surface mixed layer varies with
reaches 41.5 ppt due to high evaporation (Box 3.1). By both season and location but is generally of the order
contrast, the waters of the upper Baltic Sea near Fin- of 30–300 m thick. This layer is underlain by waters of
land, which has large amounts of freshwater both rain- decreasing temperature (and often increasing salinity). The
ing upon it and flowing in from the adjacent land, can depth zone with rapidly changing temperature is called the
get as low as 5 ppt. thermocline (Figure 3.8). Below this deep thermocline, the
temperature is relatively uniform, often showing only a
3.3.2 Temperature structure of the oceans
Zone of 32 33 34 Salinity (ppt)
Oceans are very important in controlling the climate of large
0
05C 55C 105C Temperature
salinity
the Earth. The surface of the ocean gains heat by radia- change
Zone of large
tion from the Sun, particularly in lower latitudes, and by (halocline)
temperature
500
conduction and convection from warm air flowing over change
the waves. Heat is lost by evaporation, by reradiation to (thermocline)
space and by conduction to cold air above. Measurements 1000
made over the Earth’s surface show that more heat is
Depth (metres)
gained than lost at low latitudes, while more heat is lost 1500
than gained at high latitudes. Because water has a very
Salinity
high specific heat (see Chapter 6), it acts as a major store
2000
of the energy of the Sun. The movement of ocean cur-
rents from the low latitudes to the high latitudes is very
important in transferring energy to the colder regions and 2500
thus maintaining the Earth’s temperatures in the present
range, which is basically conducive to life as we know it. 3000
When ocean circulation changes occur, such as during El
Niño events, they can have a dramatic effect on the climate
3500
of the Earth. El Niño is the situation where unusually the
entire central Pacific from Australia to Peru is covered with Figure 3.8 Vertical temperature and salinity profile in the ocean based on
the north-east Pacific. There are large changes near the surface.
a relatively thin layer of warm water (see Chapter 6). As
(Source: after Sverdrup, K.A. et al., Introduction to the world’s oceans, 7th
a result of this change, weather patterns alter not only edition, 2003, McGraw-Hill, Fig. 6.11. Reproduced with permission of the
adjacent to the current, such as rainfall and floods in the McGraw-Hill companies)
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Chapter 3 Oceans
small further decrease to the ocean bottom. Figure 3.8 also 3.4 Ocean circulation
shows a halocline, which is the layer where salinity concen-
tration also rapidly changes. 3.4.1 Surface currents
Temperature and salinity together control the density
of seawater. If the density of seawater increases with Early information on surface water currents of the oceans
depth, then the water column is stable. If, however, there is was crucial for any voyages by ships driven by wind or
more dense water on top of less dense water, then the situ- oar power. The surface currents are driven by the prevail-
ation is unstable. Vertical mixing will take place until the ing winds. Except for the dramatic seasonal changes in
water column has a similar density over that depth inter- those parts of the northern hemisphere affected directly
val. This is the process that drives the three-dimensional by the monsoons (see Chapter 8), there is a nearly con-
circulation of the oceans (see below). stant pattern for the winds blowing over the ocean that
drives the large-scale surface currents. The trade winds
that blow out of the south-east in the southern hemi-
sphere and out of the north-east in the northern hemi-
Reflective questions sphere (see Chapters 6 and 8) drive the Northern and
Southern Equatorial Currents, which move in a westerly
➤ Why does ocean water contain salt?
direction parallel to the equator (Figure 3.9). These cur-
➤ What factors lead to differences in salinity across the rents are deflected by the continents when they reach the
oceans? coastal areas.
In addition to the continents deflecting the water, the
➤ Why would differences in water temperature or salinity
Coriolis effect (see Chapter 6) also causes water to deflect
encourage water movement?
to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in
C.
Arctic C.
d
Circle n lan
Labra
ree
C.
E.G
605N
hio C.
dor
as ska C.
ic
Ala
C.
t
Oy
l
an
At
fic C. N.
N. Paci Ca
C. li am
ry C .
hio tre
lf S
fo
ros North
rn
Gu
Cana
305N Ku
ia
North Pacific Gyre Alantic Gyre
C.
N. Equatorial C.
N. Equatorial C. Equatorial
Equatorial Countercurrent Countercurrent N. Equatorial C.
05 Equator
torial Counte
S. Equatorial C. Pe ua rcu
Be
Eq
r
ngu
ru
C. S. Equatorial C.
re
C
nt
ela
S. Equatorial C.
.
ian
305S Indian
South Pacific Gyre
C.
E.Austral
Ocean Gyre
.
sC
South
ul
ha
C.
Atlantic Gyre
Ag
zil
a
Br
Antarctic Circumpolar C.
605S
Antarctic Antarctic Circumpolar C.
Circle
1205E 1505E 1805 1505W 1205W 905W 605W 305W 05 305E 605E 905E 1205E
Figure 3.9 Map of the surface currents of the world’s oceans. Wind-driven gyres rotate clockwise in the northern hemisphere and anticlockwise in the
southern hemisphere. (Source: after Pinet, P.R. Invitation to oceanography, 1st edition, 1996)
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3.4 Ocean circulation
the southern hemisphere. This forms the warm western so called because their centres are located approximately
boundary currents along the eastern coasts of North and 30°N or S of the equator, in the subtropics. In all of the
South America, eastern Australia, eastern Asia and east- world’s oceans, there is a westerly current in the temperate
ern Africa. In the northern hemisphere in the Atlantic, latitudes and the gyre is completed by a cold current flow-
this warm western boundary current is better known as ing back towards the equator on the western side of the
the Gulf Stream. The Gulf Stream forms the western and continents. The centre of some of the gyres contains large
northern section of the North Atlantic subtropical gyres, amounts of debris such as plastic which has been carried
which is one of the most dominant surface features of the there by the surface ocean currents after being dumped
world’s oceans (Figure 3.9). These subtropical gyres are into the oceans by humans (Box 3.2).
Microplastics ocean (Eriksen et al., 2014). This is a very Apart from the large pieces of plastic
conservative estimate even of the float- in the form of bags, nets, bottles and
What would modern life be like without
ing plastic and there are likely to be large other recognisable debris, there is an
the use of plastics? They are almost every-
amounts washed up on beaches eventually increasingly insidious problem of micro-
where around us and are used in almost all
sinking and ending up in sediment. Rather plastics. When plastics start to degrade
walks of modern day life. They are cheap to
surprisingly, there are similar amounts they break up to form tiny particles called
make, light, they have excellent water and
of floating plastic in the Northern and microplastics, which are 65 mm in size.
oxygen barrier properties and are almost
Southern Hemispheres (Figure 3.10). Ulti- These particles make up 790% of the
indestructible. It is this last property that
mately this floating plastic tends to end up plastics in the ocean. Unfortunately these
means that they are an increasing problem
concentrated in the centre of ocean gyres. particles are far from harmless. They can
in the environment in general, and in the
It has been estimated that the amount of carry organic compounds adsorbed on
oceans in particular.
floating plastic in the North Pacific Gyre their surfaces, which are poisonous when
It has been estimated that there are
has increased by a factor of 100 in the last ingested. Some of these compounds are
five trillion pieces of plastic in the world’s
four decades. We are adding a further six endochrine disruptors that interfere with
oceans, with a total weight of 250 000
million tons of plastics carried via rivers to the normal reproduction of many organ-
tons, floating at or near the surface of the
the ocean each year. isms including humans. They are also the
1,000,000
100,000
10,000
0.33–1.00 mm 1.01–4.75 mm
1,000
100
10
4.76–200 mm 7200 mm
1
Figure 3.10 Estimated numbers of pieces of plastic per km2 for five plastic size classes.
(Source: from Eriksen et al., 2014) BOX 3.2 ➤
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Chapter 3 Oceans
➤
size of plankton and disrupt the base of microplastics than are found floating depths with faecal pellets. It is clear that
the food chain where, for example, they near the surface (Eriksen et al., 2014). there is much we do not yet know about
are ingested by zooplankton. It has been This missing plastic might be degraded the fate of plastics in the ocean.
suggested that there should be 90% more by UV light or transported into the ocean
BOX 3.2
The other major feature of the Earth’s surface circula- North Atlantic Ocean, relatively saline water from the
tion is the circumpolar currents which flow around Ant- Gulf Stream moves rapidly north into the Norwegian Sea.
arctica with a westerly current below 60°S and an easterly There, in winter, it cools to a temperature of 2–4°C and
drift above 60°S. Because most of the land on Earth at pre- has a salinity of 34.9 ppt. This water, being denser than
sent is in the northern hemisphere, there is no equivalent the surrounding water, then sinks away and forms the
circumpolar current in the northern hemisphere. North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW). This water flows south
and forms the major fraction of the deep water in the
whole of the Atlantic (Dickson et al., 1990). The other
3.4.2 The deep currents of the oceans
major source of deep cold water is formed along the edge
The large-scale deep circulation of the world’s oceans is of the Antarctic continent where a mass of even denser
not driven by wind but by density variations. The density water with a temperature of - 0.5 °C and a salinity of
of seawater is controlled by its salinity and temperature. 34.8 ppt is formed in winter. This Antarctic Bottom Water
The resulting circulation is called the thermohaline circu- (ABW), which is the densest water formed in the oceans at
lation. When a body of water becomes denser than the present, then flows north under the NADW. Eventually
water surrounding it, it sinks. In the world at present, the two water masses mix before flowing eastwards into
the two most important regions where deep-water cur- the Indian and Pacific Oceans where the mixture forms a
rents form are the North Atlantic–Arctic Ocean (see major fraction of their deep water. The major deep-water
Box 3.3) and the Antarctic oceans (Figure 3.11). In the masses in the oceans at present are formed in the Atlantic
EUROPE
AN
AFRICA
TAR
CTI
CA
0
Surface Water
1 Antarctic
Mediterranean
Outflow Water Intermediate Water
Depth (km)
2
North Atlantic
3 Deep Water
4 Antarctic
Bottom Water
5
805N 405N 05 405S 805S
Latitude
Figure 3.11 Vertical structure of water masses in the Atlantic Ocean. The Antarctic Bottom Water is densest and flows north from Antarctica. The North
Atlantic Bottom Water flows south from Greenland above the Antarctic Bottom Water. Above these are intermediate water masses that are formed
somewhat nearer to the equator. The surface layers extend to 300–500 m depth and are controlled by winds and other factors (see Figure 3.9).
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3.4 Ocean circulation
The Formation of North its equivalent in the western Pacific, the and by the discharge of nuclear waste at
Atlantic Deep Water and Kuroshio Current, are extremely important Windscale (Sellafield) in north-west Eng-
in the global transfer of heat from equato- land (137Cs) were measured in the water
The Ocean Conveyor Belt
rial regions towards higher latitudes. The column. Since it was known when these
Figure 3.12 shows the ocean conveyor belt. Gulf Stream flows around Iceland and into radioisotopes were first released into the
The Gulf Stream starts in the Caribbean the Norwegian and Greenland Seas. environment, it was possible to determine
and flows initially as a rather narrow, rap- Here in winter, this relatively saline from their distribution how far and fast
idly flowing stream of water off the coast (34.9 ppt) and warm water cools to the they had moved, and thus the rate and
of Florida and the southern states of the point where it becomes denser than sur- amount of the NADW produced (Schlosser
United States up to Cape Hatteras, North face waters and falls away into the depths. et al., 1999). Scientists were surprised to
Carolina. From Cape Hatteras it leaves the Initial studies of the rate of North Atlantic discover that water downwelled as fast as
coast and spreads out to form the North Deep Water (NADW) current formation an average of 0.1 to 1.5 m day -1. Direct
Atlantic Drift, which forms the northern were carried out in 1972–1973 during current measurements suggest that most
part of the North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre the Geochemical Ocean Section Study of the NADW passes rather close to the
(see also Figure 3.9). As it flows north, it (GEOSECS) programme. Radioactive pol- Greenland coast as a western boundary
gradually cools but the flow is still rapid lutants produced both in the atmosphere current and then into the deep North
enough to mean that the Gulf Stream and by nuclear bomb testing (3H and 14C) Atlantic (Dickson et al., 1990).
Pacific
Atlantic Ocean
Ocean
Indian
Ocean
Warm surface current
Cold deep current
Figure 3.12 A schematic diagram of the main features of the global thermohaline circulation, also known as the oceanic conveyor belt.
Box 3.3 ➤
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Chapter 3 Oceans
➤
It has been suggested that global belt, which is transferring heat from the (Broecker, 1998) as the northern hemi-
warming may cause sufficient freshwater equator, to cease. This would have a dra- sphere warmed up after the end of the
to be released from the melting of ice in matic cooling effect on the climate of last Glacial Maximum (see Chapter 4) as
the northern latitudes to slow or even to north-west Europe, making it resemble well as the global climate anomaly 8200
stop the formation of the NADW by reduc- that experienced at present in areas of years ago (Barber et al., 1999). Scientists
ing salinity to the level where it is insuf- north-east Canada such as Labrador. are currently testing whether there are
ficiently dense to sink. If this occurred it Such a scenario has been used to explain significant changes taking place in the
would stop the Gulf Stream flowing north the re-cooling that occurred during the northward flow of water in the North
and thus cause the oceanic conveyor Younger Dryas (11.5–12.8 kyears BP) Atlantic Drift.
Box 3.3
and/or the Southern Oceans. That is because there is no in the upwelling being interrupted by the covering of the
free access to the Arctic Ocean from either the Indian or warm surface waters from the west and the collapse of the
Pacific Ocean. fisheries.
Subsurface water can also be formed nearer to the
equator. Near the equator, the upper boundary of the
3.4.3 The weather of the ocean
NADW is formed by water produced at about 40°S.
This Antarctic Intermediate Water (AIW) is warmer From 1971 to 1973, an international expedition called
(5 °C) and less salty (34.4 ppt) than the NADW and hence the Mid-Ocean Dynamics Experiment (MODE) was
remains above it. The other source of intermediate water mounted to study intensively an area of ocean several
(water that sinks to a depth of over 1000 m in the Atlan- hundred kilometres across in the western Atlantic. To
tic) is Mediterranean Intermediate Water. This water is the surprise of the scientists involved in this experi-
formed in the eastern basin of the Mediterranean near ment, it was found that the pattern of currents was
the Turkish coast. It has a much higher salinity (37.3 ppt) much more complex than the comparatively simple
and temperature (13°C) than other water masses in the ocean currents described above. What we have described
Atlantic and therefore once it flows out into the Atlantic so far might be called the climate of the ocean. What
at Gibraltar it remains recognizable as a water mass as the MODE scientists found was that the ocean also has
far as Iceland and the West Indies. It is also of geological ‘weather’. They found that there are a series of eddies
importance, since it is believed that water formed in this and fronts in the ocean in much the same way as
manner (by evaporation and then cooling) was the source there are cyclones, anticyclones and warm and cold
of the deep waters of the world’s oceans when there were fronts in the atmosphere (see Chapters 4 and 5).
no ice caps present. These eddies are characteristically of the order of 100
Water that sinks away into the deep has to be bal- km in diameter. They can spin either clockwise or anti-
anced by water upwelling to the surface. This often occurs clockwise and can have either a warm or a cold core.
many thousands of kilometres from the regions where Some eddies are formed at the boundary between two
deep water is formed. There are regions in the world, major currents. Figure 3.13 shows eddies that form at
principally along the eastern margins of the major con- the boundary between the warm Gulf Stream and the
tinental masses, where the surface currents are driven adjacent cold Labrador Current. These rings, formed
directly offshore. In order that volume is preserved, this at this boundary, spin off and can survive for a few
water is replaced by upwelling water from below. These months to a couple of years before either dissipating
regions of upwelling are important because the upwelled or being incorporated back into the original current.
water contains an abundance of plant nutrients, nitrate Other eddies are caused by the interaction of a current
and phosphate, which, when they reach the surface lay- with a promontory of land, such as the Alboran Gyre
ers where there is sufficient light, result in a vast bloom at the entrance to the Mediterranean Sea (Figure 3.14),
of phytoplankton which in turn sustains major fisheries. or by a current flowing over a seamount (e.g. Cyprus
One example of such an upwelling region is off the coast Eddy). Other eddies have been observed in the middle
of Peru. This is the area affected by El Niño, which results of the ocean. The cause of these is simply unknown
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3.5 Sediments in the ocean
Figure 3.13 Colour satellite image of the western Atlantic showing eddy
formation. The colours indicate mixing of waters of different tempera-
tures with warmer waters in yellow-red and cooler waters in blue-green.
The mixing of these waters occurs in ‘swirls’ or giant eddies.
(Source: image courtesy of Liam Gurmley, MODIS Atmosphere Team, Uni-
versity of Wisconsin, Madison) Figure 3.14 Colour satellite image of the strait of Gibraltar with Portugal
and Spain to the north and Morocco to the south. The figure shows an
eddy being formed as incoming water from the Atlantic ‘relaxes’ after
at present. In practical terms, these eddies can be passing through the narrow strait.
important in transferring energy from one part of the
ocean to another as well as being sites for enhanced or
reduced biological productivity (Smith et al., 1996). Bramaputra–Ganges and the Amazon, where sediments
are being actively deposited at present (Goodbred and
Kuehl, 1999). These sediments can deposit such that they
become unstable and become sources for turbidity cur-
Reflective questions rents, which carry the sand and silt onto the continental
rise and beyond.
➤ How are the surface and deep-ocean currents different? There are four types of sediments that are found in
What drives these currents? the deep ocean. These are biogenous, the remains of the
➤ Where are the key locations where deep oceanic water skeletons of marine organisms; lithogenous, particles
rises to the surface?
derived from the physical and chemical breakdown of
rocks and minerals; hydrogenous, sediments derived
➤ How could climate change alter deep oceanic circulation? from geochemical processes involving organic matter,
and particularly iron and manganese oxides and sea-
water; and finally cosmogenous, particles derived from
outer space.
3.5 Sediments in the ocean The most abundant sediments on the ocean floor are
sediments derived from biological remains (Figure 3.15).
The continental shelves and other near-shore areas are Calcareous oozes are found over large parts of the oceans
usually underlain by sands and silts. Because we are liv- and particularly the Atlantic Ocean. They are made up
ing in a warm period with ice caps melting and sea level of the remains of minute organisms called plankton that
rising (see Chapter 22), much of the new sediment eroded live in the surface waters of the oceans. The most abun-
from the continents is being deposited in estuaries, while dant organisms found in calcareous oozes are coccoliths,
the shelf areas such as the North Sea are mainly underlain foraminifera and pteropods. These oozes, which are made
with relic sediments from the melting of glaciers and ice up principally of calcium carbonate, are found to a depth
caps after the last Glacial Maximum. However, there are of 3500 m in the Pacific Ocean and to a somewhat greater
regions, particularly opposite major rivers such as the depth (∼5500 m) in the Atlantic Ocean. Below that depth,
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Chapter 3 Oceans
(a)
05 305E 605E 905E 1205E 1505E 1805 1505W 1205W 905W 605W 305W
605N
305N
05
305S
605S
Calcareous oozes Red clay Glacial–marine sediments
Siliceous oozes Terrigenous sediments Continental shelf deposits
(b) (c)
Figure 3.15 (a) Map of sediment types on the ocean floor. Calcareous oozes are formed from plankton such as coccoliths. siliceous oozes are formed
mainly from diatoms (Southern Ocean) and radiolaria (Tropical Ocean). Red clays are the slowly depositing sediment far from land. The deposited mate-
rial is derived mainly from atmospheric inputs carried far out to sea by dust storms such as that shown in (b) over the Red Sea. Terrigeneous and con-
tinental shelf sediments are formed from land-derived material such as that seen entering the oceans from rivers such as the Yangtze in (c) which are
then redistributed by oceanic currents; and also glacial marine sediments mainly derived from melting icebergs. (Source: (a) adapted from Davies and
Garsline, 1976; (b) and (c) Jacques Desloitres, MODIS Land Rapid Response Team, NASA/GSFC)
which is called the calcite compensation depth (CCD), the In some parts of the ocean, particularly around the
increasing concentration of CO2 in the water and hydro- Antarctic and central Pacific, the principal planktonic
static pressure cause the water to become undersaturated organisms growing in the surface waters do not have
with respect to calcium carbonate, and the shells dissolve. calcareous skeletons. They are diatoms in the Antarctic
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3.6 Biological productivity
Ocean and radiolaria in the central Pacific. These organ- individuals. These can discolour the water and even, in the
isms have skeletons made of opaline silica. As a result, the case of coccolith blooms, be seen from orbiting satellites.
sediments below these regions are called siliceous oozes. The basic equation for phytoplankton photosynthesis is:
Over the remaining areas of the deep ocean, the
sediments are mainly lithogenous in origin. Red clays are 106CO2 + 16NH3 + H3PO4 + 106H2O
derived mainly from dust transported by the prevailing S (CH2O)106(NH3)16(H3PO4) + 106O2 (3.1)
winds and then deposited. As might be imagined, the rate
of deposit of such sediments is very slow, ∼1 mm per 1000 An additional requirement for this photosynthetic
years. In some of these areas of slow deposition, manganese reaction to take place is light energy. It is the chlorophyll
nodules form. We still know very little about exactly how within the plant that is used to convert light energy
these nodules form. We do know that they grow exceed- into chemical energy, into the organic matter plants
ingly slowly, at a rate of between 1 and 200 mm per million require for growth. The rather curious elemental ratio of
years. It is probable that at least part of the manganese and 106C : 16N : 1P (carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus) is used
iron which forms the nodules is supplied by black smokers at because it has been found that almost all marine organic
the mid-ocean ridges (see Box 3.4). The nodules are usually matter has this particular elemental ratio (Redfield et
concentric and in addition to manganese contain significant al., 1963). The reverse reaction, respiration, involves the
amounts of iron, cobalt, copper and zinc. See also Chap- breakdown of organic matter to release energy. This is the
ter 9 for further information on ocean sediments. energy all living organisms need for their life processes.
Plants both photosynthesize and respire. This provides
the food for animals. However, a healthy plant population
will produce more organic matter by photosynthesis than
Reflective questions
it will respire. All animals only respire using the organic
➤ What are the main types of sediments found in the deep matter that they consume as fuel.
ocean? Plants are restricted to the surface layers of the ocean
where there is sufficient light for them to photosynthe-
➤ What is the source of those sediments?
size. This layer is called the photic zone. As a rough guide,
plankton can still grow in light that is 1% of the light
intensity that reaches the sea surface. Some species of
3.6 Biological productivity ultraplankton can successfully photosynthesize at a tenth
of this light level. The penetration of sunlight in clear
3.6.1 Photosynthesis in the ocean and turbid seawater is compared in Figure 3.16. In clear
The basic building blocks of all life in the sea, as on land, oceanic water the photic zone stretches down to approxi-
are photosynthesizing plants. It may appear to the casual mately 100 m and in extreme cases such as the eastern
observer, whose main contact with the sea is a stroll along Mediterranean to 200 m. As the turbidity of the water
the beach, that the only plants in the sea are seaweeds, but increases, owing to the presence of sediment or other par-
that is far from true. By far, the largest biomass of plants ticles, the depth of the photic zone decreases.
in the sea are phytoplankton. Phytoplankton, the grasses The amount of light available for photosynthesis varies
of the sea, are mainly single-celled plants known as algae. with time of day and with the weather. Clouds reduce not
Although some plankton have the ability to move to some only the amount of light but also the depth to which that
degree, they make no purposeful motion against the ocean light will penetrate. Light also varies with season and with
currents and are carried from place to place suspended latitude. These variations in light affect the amount and
in the water. Phytoplankton, which are able to photosyn- timing of productivity in the ocean. In the North Atlantic
thesize, vary in size from ultraplankton, which are less all the other requirements for primary productivity are
than 5 mm (0.005 mm) in diameter, to net plankton, which present throughout the winter except for the fact that there
can be found in chains between 70 and 1000 mm (1 mm) is simply not enough light for the plankton to grow both
in length. Groups of organisms belonging to the phyto- because of the length of daylight and the angle of the sun.
plankton include diatoms, dinoflagellates and coccoliths. In addition, the upper layers of the ocean are continuously
Because they reproduce mainly by asexual division, which mixed and so the phytoplankton are only in the layer with
can occur every 12–24 h, under favourable conditions phy- enough light for growth, a fraction of their total time. In
toplankton can rapidly bloom to form vast numbers of March, the light flux increases sufficiently for the plankton
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Chapter 3 Oceans
Incident
light
Percentage of solar energy
0 20 40 60 80 100
0
Clear ocean water
Turbid coastal water
Bottom of photic zone (turbid water)
Depth (m)
100
Bottom of photic zone (clear water)
200
Figure 3.16 Depth of light penetration in clear and in turbid water. The
photic zone represents that part of the water body into which solar
radiation can penetrate allowing photosynthesis.
to start to grow and the mixing rate reduces. Once plank-
ton start to grow, they grow very fast, doubling their
Figure 3.17 Satellite image of a coccolith bloom off the Bay of Biscay,
numbers over a 24-hour period; this results in the annual western France. (Source: Jeff Schmaltz, MODIS Rapid Response Team,
plankton bloom (Figure 3.17). NASA/GSFC)
these nutrients are released back into the water. This can
3.6.2 Importance of nutrient supply to primary
occur at depth or they can be returned to the water in the
productivity
form of waste products of herbivores and carnivores.
The presence of light does not guarantee plant life. Phyto- Figure 3.18 illustrates a typical depth profile for nutrients
plankton also need dissolved nutrients. The most impor- in ocean water. Vertical mixing brings these nutrients back
tant nutrients for plants in the sea are nitrate (NO3-) and to the surface.
phosphate (PO43-). They are the fertilizers of the sea and The highest productivity in the oceans occurs in
are stripped from the surface layers of the ocean by the those areas where the supply of dissolved nutrients is
plankton, which incorporate them into their tissues. When greatest. The most productive areas of the ocean are
the plankton die, the organic matter is broken down and the areas of coastal upwelling which have abundant life.
Light Productivity Nutrients
0 50 100 0
Respiration
Decreases
Summer
Depth into photic zone
Winter
during
bloom
Incident light
available Photosynthesis
Top of nutricline
Compensation depth
(photosynthesis = respiration)
Figure 3.18 Typical nutrient and productivity profile for ocean water during spring plankton bloom.
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3.6 Biological productivity
Dissolved nutrients are supplied naturally from land Oxygen (ml l–1)
by chemical weathering and by the breakdown of land 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0
plants and animals. Hence estuaries are also areas of
high productivity. This natural process is often ampli-
fied by humans, resulting in eutrophication (areas of (b)
unnaturally high primary productivity induced by high 1000
nutrient loading). The high productivity on the shallow
coastal shelves is sustained not only by coastal runoff
but also by mixing and recycling from the shallow sea
Depth (m)
floor. By contrast, large areas of the world’s oceans (e.g. 2000
(a) (c)
the subtropical gyres) that do not have a direct supply
of dissolved nutrients are, for all practical purposes, a
biological desert. 3000
Plant populations are limited by the lack of any essen-
tial nutrient: if the concentration of such a nutrient falls
below the minimum required, the population growth
stops until the nutrient is supplied. Most of the world’s 4000
oceans have been found to be essentially limited equally Figure 3.19 The vertical distribution of dissolved oxygen in three ocean
by nitrate and by phosphate. Both need to be added in waters: (a) the Pacific south of California; (b) the eastern Mediterranean;
a ratio of 16 : 1 for natural growth to occur. There are and (c) the Gulf Stream. (Source: adapted from Open University, 1989)
some areas of the ocean, most notably the eastern Medi-
terranean, which are phosphorus limited. Apart from the
major nutrients, N and P, plants also need micronutrients
physiology is regulated by the temperature of the water
such as iron, copper, zinc and molybdenum. Recently it
and within limits metabolic processes occur more rapidly
has been shown that large areas of the eastern central
in warm water than in cold water. It is therefore perhaps
and northern Pacific and in the Southern Ocean are iron
surprising that some of the most productive areas of
limited. These are areas which are so far away from land
the world’s oceans are in the Antarctic Ocean and in the
and are neither affected by runoff from land nor by dust
northern Atlantic Ocean in early spring. The reason for
input from the atmosphere (Boyd et al., 2000).
this is that the other factors discussed above, availability of
Life in water requires CO2 and oxygen, as does life on
light, nutrients, are more important in controlling primary
land. Carbon dioxide is required by plants for photosyn-
productivity than is temperature.
thesis. It is contributed by respiration processes and also is
There is, however, one group of creatures that does not
absorbed by water from the atmosphere. Because seawater
rely on light energy for survival of their food chain in the
has the capacity to absorb large quantities of CO2, under
oceans. Instead they survive by chemical energy produced
natural conditions the amount of CO2 in water is never
by inorganic reactions at the mid-ocean ridge. This is also
limiting. Oxygen is also needed by all organisms that liber-
the only ecosystem on the planet that remains unaffected
ate energy for organic matter by normal aerobic respira-
by anthropogenic inputs and change. These systems are
tion. There are groups of bacteria that are able to liberate
described in Box 3.4.
energy from the breakdown of organic matter using other
compounds such as nitrate or sulfate as the oxidizing
agent. These bacteria respire anaerobically. Oxygen is sup- 3.6.3 Animals of the sea
plied to surface water by exchange with the atmosphere 3.6.3.1 Food chains
and also as a by-product of photosynthesis. There are,
however, no processes that supply oxygen to deep water, In all the waters of every ocean, one organism preys on
while processes of respiration consume oxygen. Thus, in another. At the base of this food chain (see Chapter 11 for
most deep areas of the ocean there are lower concentra- further explanation of food chains) are the phytoplankton,
tions of dissolved oxygen than at the surface, as shown in the primary producers, while at the top of the pyramid
Figure 3.19. are the carnivores: sharks, tuna and of course now also
Plants and marine animals other than birds and mam- humans. On the first rung of this ladder are the herbivores
mals do not control their body temperatures. Their which eat plant life directly (Figure 3.22). In the oceans by
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Hydrothermal vents
During the 1970s, geologists and geo-
chemists who studied the processes
occurring at the mid-ocean ridges hypoth-
esized that apart from the volcanic erup-
tions and earthquakes, which they knew
took place at these spreading centres, it
was likely that there should be hot springs
there as well. If such springs existed, they
were expected to have unusual chemis-
tries and possibly to have a significant
effect on the chemical composition of
the ocean as a whole. In March 1977,
an expedition of scientists from Woods
Figure 3.21 Communities of animals including tube worms around a
Hole Oceanographic Institute with the deep-sea hydrothermal vent. A large cluster of small white crabs can be
research submersible Alvin arrived over seen in the bottom centre of the photo. (Source: Jon Copley)
the Galapagos Ridge in the eastern Pacific
to locate and investigate the ridge area at
a depth of 2000 m looking for vents. What in the surrounding water. The warm water depths the pressure is so high that its
they found when they finally located a was seen to rise from the vent, produc- stops the water boiling at these extreme
hot spring, and dived down to investigate ing shimmering upward-flowing streams temperatures. At many of these areas,
it, surprised and delighted them. Subse- rich in silica, barium, lithium, manganese, mounds and chimney-shaped vents have
quently similar hydrothermal vents have hydrogen sulfide, methane, hydrogen and been found which are tens of metres
been found at all of the mid-ocean ridges, sulfur. Since that time studies have been high and which eject a continuous stream
at other spreading centres and at arc vol- carried out of many other vents that have of black particles. These black smokers
canoes (e.g. Pedersen et al., 2010). been found in the mid-ocean ridges in all contain mainly particles of manganese
They found water issuing from the of the world’s oceans. Temperatures as and iron together with small amounts
vents at temperatures of 17°C, which was high as 380°C have been recorded for the of copper, lead, cobalt, zinc, silver and
significantly warmer that the 2°C found water issuing from these vents. At these other metals, as well as sulfur and sulfide
(Figure 3.20). When such deposits are
uplifted on to land, they result in com-
0 75
mercially important massive sulfide
2.5 deposits such as in the Troodos moun-
1000
2
tains, Cyprus.
2000 However, probably most remarkable
1.5 and surprising of all the discoveries at the
3000
Ocean Data View / DIVA
vents was the presence of dense commu-
1
4000 nities of large animals (Figure 3.21). Many
0.5 of these animals looked very different from
5000
0
animals found elsewhere on Earth includ-
1405W 1205W 1005W 805W ing giant tube worms, 3 m in length, with
Figure 3.20 The distribution of dissolved iron that is vented from the mid-ocean ridge and red tips, clams with red blood and blind
transported in the deep water across the east central Pacific Ocean. The y-axis shows the shrimps.
depth in metres and the colours show the concentration of dissolved iron in nanomoles per It was immediately clear that these
litre. (Source: Resing et al., 2015). vent communities were unlike any other
Box 3.4 ➤
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3.6 Biological productivity
➤
biological community on Earth. They were symbiotic relationship with these bacte- By contrast, the young of organisms such
not dependent on organic matter derived ria, the shrimps have to live right next to as shrimps start life close to the ‘home’
from the surface layers of the ocean and the outpouring waters where the high- hot spring. They then swim off and live
hence on food that was ultimately derived est concentrations of hydrogen sulfide off organic debris in the deep sea until
from the Sun’s energy. The vent communi- are found. Although the shrimps are they find a new vent to colonize, or die in
ties derive their metabolic energy from blind, they do have a heat-sensing organ the attempt to find one. Once they find a
the chemical energy contained within on their backs which they use to avoid new vent, they lose their eyes, which are
the hot water in the springs. It has subse- becoming boiled. replaced by a heat-sensitive organ that
quently been shown that at the base of One intriguing question still to be enables them to live adjacent to the hot
this remarkable food chain are groups of answered is how the individuals in these water coming out of the vent.
bacteria that derive their metabolic energy communities manage to spread from one Recently, similar communities of
from the oxidation of the hydrogen sulfide, vent to the next. It is known that each animals which are dependent on chemi-
methane or hydrogen emitted with the individual vent has only a quite limited cal rather than solar energy for their
vent water. lifespan (∼100 years) before the waters energy source have also been found at
Detailed studies at the mid-ocean switch off and the vent ceases to flow. cold seeps. These cold seep communities
ridge in the centre of the equato- Since the next vent may be several kilome- are often found in much shallower water.
rial Atlantic have found that the most tres away, it is necessary for the organisms They depend generally on hydrocarbons
abundant animal found at these vents is to spread their offspring in such a way such as methane which is oxidised by
the blind vent shrimp, Rimicaris. These as to reach the new vent wherever it is. bacteria to form hydrogen sulfide. As with
shrimps live very close to the hottest Scientists have now shown that for many deep-sea vents, these organisms live in
(and most toxic) vents. They live both by vent organisms such as the tube worms, symbiotic relationship with bacteria which
grazing chemosynthetic bacteria and by the larvae are simply broadcast into the oxidize hydrogen sulfide for energy. For
growing these bacteria within their shells surrounding waters together with seed example, cold seeps have been found in
(rather like humans growing potatoes and bacteria. The few to survive and grow are the Gulf of Mexico and off the coast of
carrots on their backs). Because of this those that land by chance on a hot spring. California.
Box 3.4
Small fish
Zooplankton (e.g. herring, squid) Wild salmon
(100 kg) (10kg) (1 kg)
Farmed salmon
Anchovies
Phytoplankton
(1000kg)
(100kg)
(10kg)
Humans
Sardines
(100kg)
Figure 3.22 A simplified example of three oceanic food chains. Food chains are inefficient and lose around 90% of their energy between different food
levels (see Chapter 11). Therefore, 1000 kg of phytoplankton (photosynthetic cost) can produce 1 kg of wild salmon, 10 kg of farmed salmon and 100 kg
of sardines.
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Chapter 3 Oceans
far, the most numerous are the zooplankton. Within the effects on a number of organisms elsewhere in the food
zooplankton there are two types of organism: web. What is clear, however, is that with modern fishing
methods, large boats and nets, sonar and other efficient
1. Those animals that remain as floating animals through-
locating equipment, we are succeeding in severely deplet-
out their life cycle. This includes animals such as salps
ing many of the world’s fish stocks (e.g. at Grand Banks,
and krill, the tiny shrimps that form the major food
off Newfoundland, and the North Sea).
source for many animals, including the blue whale.
There is, however, hope. Most marine organisms have
2. The juvenile forms of many larger marine organisms
a very high fecundity. For example, each female gilthead
spend part of their life cycle in a planktonic form. This
seabream, a fish at the higher levels of the trophic pyra-
enables sessile or quasi-sessile organisms to spread their
mid in the Mediterranean, produces 1 million eggs per
offspring into new areas.
year. In nature only two of those offspring need to survive
There may be many or few links in the food chain from every several years to ensure the continuation of the spe-
the primary producers to the top carnivore (Figure 3.22). cies. In captivity, survival rates of 20% or more have been
Food chains in the ocean are rarely simple. They are most achieved from egg to adult fish, so that 200 000 offspring
likely to show complex branching and interactions. have survived. Thus it is possible, once overfishing has
As a result, such interactions are better described as a stopped, for marine stocks to rebound to previous natural
food web. levels much faster than it is possible to restore natural sys-
In general, as one moves upwards from the first trophic tems on land.
level (see Chapter 11), the size of the organism increases
and the number of organisms decreases. The larger
3.6.3.3 Mariculture
numbers of small organisms at the lower trophic levels
collectively have a much larger biomass than the smaller Mariculture, the culturing of marine organisms as in
numbers of large organisms at the upper levels. It is esti- agriculture, is probably the last major untapped food
mated that the overall efficiency of energy transfer up each resource on Earth. Freshwater aquaculture began in
layer of an open-ocean trophic pyramid is about 10%. China with the farming of carp some 4000 years ago. In
Thus in order to gain 1 kg of weight, a salmon must eat medieval times in Europe almost every monastery had its
10 kg of smaller fish, and the fish need to consume 100 kg own fishponds to provide the monks with fresh fish for
of carnivorous zooplankton which in turn require 1000 kg Fridays. Despite this, the farming of marine fish is a com-
of phytoplankton. Thus it takes 1000 kg of primary pro- paratively recent technology. There are three main types
ducers to produce 1 kg of the top carnivore. The 90% of mariculture. Sea ranching is where the marine organ-
energy loss at each level of the pyramid goes into the meta- ism is restrained in cages or in the case of shellfish grown
bolic needs of the organisms at that level, such as energy on ropes hung from rafts. No artificial food is provided
required for moving, breathing, feeding and reproduction. in this type of culture and thus the overall yield of the
system is constrained by the natural productivity of the
area. An example of this type of mariculture is shown in
3.6.3.2 Fisheries
Figure 3.23 which shows ropes seeded with mussels. The
At present we harvest marine organisms principally by shellfish grow over a period of several months and are
hunting them in boats using nets. The catch depends then harvested and sold.
on custom, culture, economics and availability. Possibly By far, the most widespread form of mariculture car-
more than with any other food, what one culture consid- ried out at present in western countries is the growth of
ers a great seafood delicacy, another will not eat either fish in pens or nets. Fish are put into a net slung beneath
because of taste or in some cases because of religious a set of floats when they are fingerlings. They are then fed
taboos. Many commercial fisheries catch from both the an artificial diet, which is made up mainly of herbivorous
higher trophic levels (e.g. cod, salmon, halibut and tuna) or other small fish that are not considered of major com-
and the lower levels (e.g. herring, shellfish, anchovies and mercial value as human food themselves. The fingerlings
sardines). Harvesting fish high in the trophic pyramid is are allowed to grow until they are large enough to be har-
energy inefficient. Because of the complex interactions vested. Sea-cages are now common in the sea lochs of Scot-
within the marine food web as well as our very poor land, where the principal species being cultured is salmon.
knowledge of the marine biological system, depleting Salmon is also grown in Scandinavia, the United States
the stocks of fish at one trophic level has unpredictable and Canada. In the Mediterranean, gilthead seabream is
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3.6 Biological productivity
limit the number of fish that can be grown and hence the
commercial success of the fish farms. They are also vulner-
able to natural disasters such as tsunamis (see Chapter 2)
and tropical storms (see Chapter 8).
3.6.4 Pollution
Until recently it was considered relatively normal practice
to discharge domestic and industrial wastes of various
types into the ocean. This was done because the oceans are
so vast that it was considered that the input would result in
no significant change in the concentrations already there.
This was the so-called dilution is the solution method of
Figure 3.23 Ropes seeded with oysters which are lowered into the water.
waste disposal. However, we now realize that even the
(Source: tumsuk, Shutterstock)
most remote parts of the world have been changed by our
the major species grown, while in Japan and South-East careless discharge of wastes. Plastic waste has been found
Asia, where most of the world’s mariculture is carried out, throughout the world’s oceans particularly in the centre of
a number of different species are cultured. In such systems mid-ocean gyres such as the middle of the North Pacific
the waste products of the culture, the 70–80% of the food (see Box 3.3). Pollution of ocean waters can occur via
that is not used for growth, is simply discharged into the direct discharge into the oceans of sewage and industrial
environment and washed away. This can cause local prob- effluent, from shipping (e.g. oil spills) and from chang-
lems of pollution including encouraging blooms of ‘red ing atmospheric inputs from rain and/or dry deposition.
tide’ toxic dinoflagellates (red microscopic algae). One of the most dramatic recent examples of pollution
The third type of fish culture system is fishponds. These is the blowout of the Deepwater Horizon oil rig in April
ponds, which are adjacent to the sea, are used to grow 2010 in the Gulf of Mexico (Box 3.5). Pollution can also
fish and shrimps, particularly in South-East Asia. Areas occur indirectly via runoff from rivers, from groundwater
of natural lagoons have also been netted off and used to discharge and from land (e.g. sewage, fertilizers and pesti-
grow fish. The principal problem with such systems is that cides, industrial effluent and sediment). This pollution can
the accumulated metabolic wastes, particularly ammonia, alter the nutrient balance in the water, add toxic chemicals
are toxic to the fish. The resulting water quality problems to the system and alter the turbidity.
Deepwater Horizon oil spill exist both on the shallow coastal shelf and gas spill, which leaked 610 million
and also out into deep waters. litres of hydrocarbons into the overlying
The Gulf of Mexico is an important coastal
On 20 April 2010, while drilling an waters of the Gulf for 84 days. This was
and marine resource bordered by a series
exploratory well to 6500 metres in 1500 the largest ever commercial oil spill in US
of productive coastal estuaries and wet-
metres of water in the Gulf of Mexico, 66 waters and one of the largest oil spills ever.
lands. It has 80% of all shrimp and 60% of
kilometres off the SE coast of Louisiana, Part of the oil floated rapidly to the sur-
all oysters harvested in the United States as
the Deepwater Horizon oil rig experienced face while part was dispersed elsewhere
well as being an important location for out-
a catastrophic blowout. A mixture of oil within the water column. Much of the oil,
door recreation (e.g. hunting, fishing and
and gas blew out from the drill hole. The which floated to the surface, flowed north
birding). It is also an important offshore oil
gas ignited the rig, which caused it to sink towards the US coastline (Figure 3.24).
field with 72500 oil rigs producing 17% of
with the eventual loss of 11 lives. There Major ecological damage was caused by
the total oil production in the United States
was then an essentially uncontrolled oil the oil, especially to the coastal areas of the
and 5% of the gas production. These rigs
BOX 3.5 ➤
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Chapter 3 Oceans
➤
Gulf of Mexico. It was estimated that 560– and 2–10 billion crabs. In addition to these were killed. The effect on adult fish was less
1160 km of shoreline was directly affected commercial species the oil slick is believed immediate because the fish were able to
by oil. There was a loss of wetland vegeta- to have caused mortalities amongst marine swim away from the highest concentrations
tion, which caused increased local erosion. mammals, sea turtles and birds. It has been of hydrocarbons. The longer-term impacts
The oil spill and response caused the death estimated that between 2 and 5 trillion on adult fish are not known.
of 1 billion oysters, 200–500 million shrimp larval fish and 37–68 trillion zooplankton This major oil spill also had important
negative social impacts. The damage to
the commercial fishery affected not just
fishermen but also the seafood supply
chain. Tourism is big business in the area.
Paid claims amounted to US$337 million to
hotels and US$1.02 billion to restaurants. In
addition, 30 000 people working in the oil
and gas industry were affected with layoffs
and reduced working hours.
Interestingly, in addition to oil there was
500 000 tons of natural gas released with
the oil. This moved up in the water column
to a depth of 1000 m and then spread out.
Initial studies showed that only very minor
amounts reached the surface and went
into the atmosphere to become additional
greenhouse gases. All of the remaining gas
was broken down in the water column by
natural bacterial processes.
(Much of the information for this case
study was provided by Dr Rodney Cluck,
Figure 3.24 Surface oil (appears white and shiny) in the Gulf of Mexico from the Deepwater Bureau of Ocean Energy Management,
Horizon spill. Image taken 25 June 2010, 2 months after the disaster. The Mississippi delta can
United States Department of the Interior)
be seen in the east. The red dot indicates the location of the Deepwater Horizon rig.
(Source: Jeff Schmaltz, MODIS Rapid Response Team, NASA)
BOX 3.5
3.7 Effect of global climate change on whole are changing. In general, organisms that are adapted
the oceans to large temperature variations are likely to cope better
with such changes in temperature than polar or tropical
The simplest and most widely known effect of the climate organisms, which are therefore at greater risk. In addition
change caused by increased CO2 in the atmosphere is the to direct effects, there are indirect effects. Higher tem-
increase in temperature over the Earth’s surface. However, peratures in surface waters result in a more stable water
the major temperature change is in the oceans not on column, especially in the subtropics. This in turn prevents
land: 93% of the additional heat since the 1970s has been nutrients from reaching the photic zone, resulting in less
absorbed by the oceans. This has resulted in a measurable primary productivity, less food for higher organisms and
increase in surface temperature in the world’s oceans of less uptake of anthropogenic CO2. This is part of the rea-
an average of almost 2°C. The effects are not uniform and son why the ability of the oceans to remove anthropogenic
the largest effects have been in the Arctic regions. Typi- CO2, which was very important in moderating the ‘green-
cally, this increase in temperature has resulted in a shift in house effect’ (see Chapter 6), is gradually reducing.
the range of many different biological species including The increase in CO2 in the atmosphere is also hav-
marine invertebrates, commercially important fish species ing a direct effect on the ocean. Carbon dioxide is a weak
and marine mammals. The changes affect different spe- acid, which is readily soluble in seawater. As the amount
cies at different rates and as a result the ecosystems as a of CO2 in the atmosphere has increased from 280 ppm
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3.8 Summary
(pre-industrial) to 400 ppm in 2015, some of this excess expanding both in area and in the degree of oxygen deple-
CO2 has dissolved in surface waters, making it more acidic. tion (Gattuso et al., 2015). All marine animals need oxygen
At present the average change in pH is ∼0.05 pH units, and so if large areas of the ocean become anoxic this will
which may not seem much, but remember that pH is a log result in mass mortalities of the organisms that live there.
scale so this represents a change of 12% in the hydrogen ion Additional effects of global climate change include
concentration (see Chapter 7, Section 7.6.2). A key effect of increased extremes of weather and sea-level rise. For
increased acid in the ocean is to make it more difficult for example, there are likely to be bigger and more destructive
those organisms that use CaCO3 to build their skeletons, hurricanes (IPCC, 2013). Apart from the well-known effect
to grow. Already it has been seen that the skeletons of some of hurricanes on land these also affect the ocean areas that
oceanic plankton (pteropods, which are free swimming they pass over. A coral reef in the path of a hurricane can
snails, and coccoliths, which are phytoplankton) have thin- be devastated and will take many years to recover.
ner shells than they used to have. It is predicted that by 2050
the growth rate of some coral species, which are impor-
tant parts of reefs across much of the world’s oceans, will Reflective Questions
decline leading to degradation and loss of associated biodi- ➤ A turbid river containing abundant plant nutrients dis-
versity. In addition, acidification and ocean warming affect charges into a coastal sea. The particles drop out of the
organisms together. At present, warm-water corals are water column in decreasing grain size until eventually
already affected as are mid-latitude seagrass, high-latitude only the finest particles remain in the water column. How
pteropods and krill, and mid-latitude bivalves and finfish. might such a system control the primary productivity dis-
As the temperature of the surface ocean increases, it also tribution on the coastal shelf?
decreases the amount of oxygen that can dissolve in the
water. Some parts of the ocean, called oxygen minimum ➤ Under what conditions might each of the terms in the
zones (OMZ), are already very close to running out of photosynthetic equation become limiting?
oxygen altogether. The largest OMZs are under the east ➤ What is mariculture and what types of mariculture are there?
central Pacific (200–2000 m) and at similar depths in the
northern Indian ocean. We can now see that these zones are ➤ How is climate change affecting the oceans?
3.8 Summary of the water, which in turn is controlled by its temperature and
salinity. The two most important deep-water masses in the world
Oceans cover 71% of the surface of the Earth and a high percent- are formed in the North Atlantic in winter (North Atlantic Deep
age of the habitable climate zones on the planet. The mean depth Water) and at the edge of the Antarctic (Antarctic Bottom Water).
of the oceans is approximately 3500 m. The bottom of the ocean is Most of the primary productivity in the world occurs in the
far from flat. Most of the basic structure is controlled by plate tec- surface waters of the oceans. The total amount is controlled by
tonic processes. At the centre of the oceans are mid-ocean ridges. the depth to which usable light penetrates, the photic zone, and
Away from the centre, the abyssal plains gradually deepen towards by the supply of dissolved nutrients (e.g. nitrogen and phospho-
the edge of the ocean basin where in some locations they plunge rus). All organisms in the ocean, except those living at oceanic
into the ocean trenches. The continental slopes and shelves are of hot springs, depend on these phytoplankton via a food chain. We
varying widths from hundreds of kilometres to less than a kilome- are just beginning to develop marine agricultures as a sustainable
tre. In most areas of the ocean, the hills and valleys are covered by alternative to our current over-exploitation of fish stocks. In addi-
a drape of sediments derived from the continent or from biologi- tion we are only beginning to realize and deal with the problems
cal or chemical processes in the ocean basins themselves. caused by humans in the ocean waters including those caused
While the surface currents of the world are driven by prevail- by plastics, oil spills, nutrients from land, over-fishing and climate
ing winds, the deeper circulation is controlled by the density change.
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Chapter 3 Oceans
Further reading Pedersen, R.B., Rapp, H.T., Thorseth, H.I. et al. (2010) Discov-
ery of a black smoker vent field and vent fauna at the Arctic
Mid-Ocean Ridge. Nature Communications, 1, 126.
Discoveries of hydrothermal vent systems are still being made.
Amir, N., Chopin, T., Troell, M. et al. (2004). Integrated aqua-
culture: rationale, evolution and state of the art emphasizing Pinet, P.R. (2016) Invitation to oceanography, 7th edition. Jones
seaweed biofiltration in modern mariculture. Aquaculture, 231, & Bartlett, Sudbury, MA.
361–391. This book contains good sections on geology, chemistry and
Detailed review of the issues around the development and use biology of oceans as well as current processes.
of non-polluting sustainable mariculture systems Sverdrup, K.A. and Armbrust, E.V. (2009) An introduction to
Gattuso, J.-P., Magnan, A., Bille, R. et al. (2015) Contrasting the world’s oceans, 10th edition. McGraw-Hill, London.
futures for ocean and society from different anthropogenic CO2 This book develops the themes discussed in this chapter in
emissions scenarios. Science, 349 DOI: 10.1126/science more depth. It is a very well-illustrated text containing lots of
.aac4722 weblinks and suggested further reading.
Detailed review of the effect of climate change including acidi-
fication on ocean systems now and projected into the future.
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P A R T I ii
Past, present and future climate
and weather
Figure PIII Humans have the ability to alter atmospheric processes both Part contents
locally, as in the cloud formations around power plants, and globally
through greenhouse gas emissions. The effects are such that carbon ➤ Chapter 4: The Pleistocene
dioxide concentrations are now at their highest level for any time
➤ Chapter 5: The Holocene
during the past 2.6 million years.
➤ Chapter 6: Atmospheric processes
➤ Chapter 7: Contemporary climate change
➤ Chapter 8: Global climate and weather
➤ Chapter 9: Regional and local climates
M04 An Introduction to Physical Ge 83575.indd 77 24/05/2017 12:47
Part III Past, present and future climate and weather
Scope the energy that circulates through the system and that results in
processes that transport energy and matter. It is possible to think of
The Earth’s climate and weather system forms the focus of Part III.
a system in terms of an energy or matter budget, with inputs, out-
The first two chapters tackle our understanding of global environ-
puts, stores and transfers. As an example the global climate system
mental change over the past 2.6 million years. This period is known
principally reacts to the input of energy from the Sun. This input is
as the Quaternary. The main part of this period is known as the
concentrated at the equator and the large-scale atmospheric and
Pleistocene epoch for which a range of evidence suggests that the
oceanic circulation of the Earth is the mechanism by which this
Earth’s climate has warmed and cooled several times resulting in
energy is transported away from the equator in an attempt to create
massive expansion and contraction of the world’s ice sheets and an
a global balance. The Sun’s energy is eventually released back out of
associated rise and fall of global sea level. These natural environ-
the atmosphere into space so that the Earth’s average temperature
mental changes are driven by a range of processes, some of which
remains relatively stable. The above illustrates how we can simplify
are related to external factors such as Earth’s changing distance
systems in order to help understand what drives the Earth system
from the Sun and others driven by internal factors associated with
processes we pursue and how the same concepts can be used for a
surface–ocean–atmosphere–biosphere interactions. Such natural
variety of subjects and over different scales of space and time.
changes have been observed over timescales of hundreds of thou-
Contemporary climate change is an important topic and while
sands of years down to decadal. The evidence from history suggests
some of the atmospheric processes involved in climate change are
that the Earth’s climate system can sometimes change very rapidly.
introduced in Chapter 6, more detail on contemporary changes is
Studying the past can provide us with greater foresight and lessons
provided in Chapter 7. Climate change is occurring at an unprec-
for the future. Important and complex feedback mechanisms have
edented rate with higher atmospheric CO2 concentrations than at
been observed involving interactions among oceans, ice sheets, the
any other time in the Quaternary. It describes how human popula-
biosphere and the atmosphere. The discovery of these interrelated
tions have changed the landscape and altered the concentration
adjustments helps explain more about present-day landforms, plant
of natural and human-made chemicals in the atmosphere, land and
and animal distributions, and the climate system and how it may
waters of the Earth. Much of the change has been a result of human
behave in the future. Chapter 4 therefore provides this context. The
requirements for food and for fuel. Approaching 8 billion humans
last 11 700 years of the Quaternary are known as the Holocene
now consume or dominate half of the land’s biological production.
epoch and this is dealt with in Chapter 5. Evidence of environmental
They have progressively attained the capacity to alter the Earth’s
change during the Holocene is widespread because it is the most
physical systems (such as the carbon and nitrogen cycles) in drastic
recent period in the Earth’s history and therefore deposits contain-
and potentially permanent ways. The chapter discusses predictions
ing evidence of change are easy to get to. Evidence from human
of global climate models and how we might mitigate against climate
archive material is also available. The Holocene is also the time in
change. The chapter also discusses the carbon cycle and the role of
history when humans suddenly had a major impact on the landscape
humans in altering the amounts of carbon stored in different parts of
initially through farming, but also through population growth and
the cycle.
later through the development of infrastructure. Some scientists
Chapter 8 outlines how connections between the atmosphere,
have proposed that humans have had such a major effect on the
land surface, oceans and ice sheets result in the nature of the cli-
Earth and its climate that we have entered a new epoch known as the
matic zones that cover the Earth and the weather that they experi-
Anthropocene and this topic is also discussed in Chapter 5.
ence. These broad global zones contain within them substantial
Chapter 6 offers an understanding of the science behind the
variation at the local and regional scale (e.g. associated with topogra-
processes occurring in the atmosphere, the most unstable and rap-
phy and nearby water bodies) and these smaller-scale processes form
idly responding element of the climate system. The complexity of the
the focus of Chapter 9. Humans adapt to local and regional features
Earth’s climate system sometimes feels overwhelming. The physical
of the Earth’s climate system as well as modify them. For example,
mechanisms interact at a variety of scales within an open system,
urban areas often have different local climates to the surrounding
exchanging energy and matter in ways that often seem hidden from
rural zones and humans have developed techniques for locally induc-
our grasp. However, it is possible to approach these mechanisms at
ing rainfall by seeding clouds, and for reducing wind speed or snow-
a variety of levels. At the most simple level, we can observe a basic
fall by building shelter belts.
driving force behind these systems. This is the need to dissipate
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C H A PTER 4
The Pleistocene
Joseph Holden1 and Ian Lawson2
1
School of Geography, University of Leeds
2
School of Geography and Sustainable Development, University of St Andrews
Learning objectives and cooling of the Earth’s atmosphere and the growth
and retreat of major ice sheets. Figure 4.1 provides the
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
subdivision of Earth history within which we can place
the Quaternary and Pleistocene with approximate dates
➤ describe the major climate changes of the Pleistocene
before present (BP). It should be noted that although
2.6 million years might seem a long time, in the con-
➤ understand the orbital forcing hypothesis and a range of feedback
text of Earth’s history the Quaternary period is very
mechanisms
short. Since we live in the Q uaternary, we are actually
➤ describe the main types of evidence for Pleistocene living in the ice ages. Before the Quaternary the world
environmental change was much warmer, although as Figure 4.1 shows, there
➤ list the main dating techniques and explain issues surrounding were probably four other major cold periods in earlier
correlation of different types of evidence from different locations Earth’s history. The most recent of these was around
➤ evaluate the role of modelling in palaeoclimatic reconstruction 280 million years ago.
The second epoch of the Quaternary is known as the
Holocene. The Holocene epoch is the past 11 700 years
4.1 Introduction during which the Earth’s climate has been relatively warm
and the major ice sheets that covered large parts of the land
The Pleistocene is the period of Earth’s history cover- surface retreated. The Holocene is called an interglacial
ing 2 588 000 years ago (Gibbard and Head, 2010) until interval as it follows a colder period with larger ice sheets
11 700 years ago. It forms the first epoch of the Quater- (a glacial interval). The Holocene is dealt with in Chapter 5.
nary (Figure 4.1). The onset of the Quaternary (and hence Here we concentrate on the Pleistocene.
the Pleistocene) is defined by a change in the Earth’s One of the major challenges that Pleistocene scientists
climate from a period of general stability (a very slow face is in putting together the evidence for past environ-
cooling over 50 million years with some minor fluctua- mental change. Many natural systems are affected by
tions) to a period of great instability. The Pleistocene climate and so evidence of these past systems might give
epoch is characterized by frequent fluctuations of warming us information on past climate. There are many types of
M04 An Introduction to Physical Ge 83575.indd 79 24/05/2017 12:47
Chapter 4 The Pleistocene
Era Period Epoch Glaciations Age
(million
Age Eo n Glaciations years)
(billion
years) Holocene
Quaternary Pleistocene glaciations
0. 0– Phanerozoic Pleistocene
0. 6 2.6
0. 6– Proterozoic Late Pliocene
Cenozoic
2. 5 Proterozoic
glaciations Miocene
Tertiary Oligocene
Warm Eocene
Palaeocene
Huttonian 66
glaciations Cretaceous
2. 5– Archaean
4. 0 Warm
144
Mesozoic
Warm Jurassic
206
4. 0– Hadean Triassic
4. 6
251
Permian
Upper Palaeozoic
Permo-Carboniferous
glaciations
286
Carboniferous
360
Devonian Warm
410
Silurian
440
Late Ordovician glaciations
Lower Palaeozoic
Ordovician
Warm 644
Cambrian
Figure 4.1 Earth’s geological timescale. The Quaternary is the most recent period.
evidence for Pleistocene environmental change including likely to behave in the future. Understanding Pleistocene
the constituents of gas bubbles trapped in ice cores, ocean environmental change allows us to place present-day cli-
floor sediments and their organic and inorganic constitu- mate changes into a much longer-term context so that we
ents, glacial deposits and erosional features, periglacial can judge their importance and potential implications. For
features, wind-blown deposits and features that indicate example, Pleistocene research has shown us that carbon
changes in sea level (see Chapters 16, 21, 23 and 24), dioxide (CO2) concentrations have fluctuated between
mineral deposits, pollen found in peat and lake deposits high and low in the past. We have also learnt that cur-
that have built up over time, and other plant and animal rent post-industrial CO2 concentrations are already much
remains. There are two main challenges with these types of greater than at any time during the past 2.6 million years
data: the first is in establishing how these types of evidence (see Chapter 6). By studying the past we can see how the
actually relate to a particular state of the environment; the Earth–ocean–atmosphere system behaved under naturally
second is in determining which period of time they relate high CO2 conditions and learn how the system might
to and how they fit into the global picture. This is particu- change if humans continue to increase atmospheric CO2
larly problematic because there are often no appropriate concentrations. As this chapter will show, there are impor-
absolute dating methods that can be employed. tant and complex feedback mechanisms that must be
It is useful to understand the environmental changes taken into account. While some climatic changes can take
that have taken place during the Pleistocene period so that thousands of years to take place, others can be sudden
we can explain more about present-day landforms and and occur over just decades. It is therefore crucial that we
plant and animal distributions. It also helps us to explain understand Pleistocene environmental change as there are
how the climate system is behaving today and how it is major implications for our present-day world.
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4.2 Long-term cycles, astronomical forcing and feedback mechanisms
4.2 Long-term cycles, astronomical
Orbital stretch (changes temperature of solstices)
forcing and feedback mechanisms
Minimum
Maximum
The gradual cooling during the Cenozoic (Figure 4.1)
may have been related to the movement of the Earth’s
Sun
plates which resulted in changing ocean and atmospheric
Earth
circulation patterns through continental drift and mountain
building. Plate tectonics (see Chapter 2) created the suitable
conditions for the beginning of the ice ages by positioning
Antarctica in a thermally isolated position over the South 100 000 year periodicity
Pole. The northern hemisphere continents were also hud- Axial tilt (changes sunshine intensity at poles)
dled around the Arctic Ocean. This then allowed other fac-
21.85 minimum
tors to become important in partly explaining the glacial
24.45 maximum
cycles that have occurred during the Pleistocene including
N
how the Sun’s energy is received at the Earth’s surface. This
is known as orbital forcing or the Milankovitch theory.
Plane of the
ecliptic
4.2.1 Orbital forcing theory (orbit around Sun)
Earth
The Earth’s orbit around the Sun is not circular, nor is
it steady over time. From 1912, Milutin Milankovitch, a
mathematician, followed up the nineteenth-century work S
of astronomers Joseph Adhemar and James Croll by 41 000 year periodicity
calculating the radiation received at the top of the Earth’s
atmosphere over time as the Earth’s orbit varied. The basis Wobble (changes seasonal direction of tilt)
of the Milankovitch theory is that the amount of energy N
reaching different parts of the Earth from the Sun varies
as the shape of Earth’s orbit around the Sun, the angle of
tilt of the Earth’s axis, and the direction that the axis of
Sun
rotation points change over time. These three parameters,
illustrated in Figure 4.2, vary in a regular and predictable Earth
way to determine the amount and distribution of solar
radiation at the Earth’s surface.
The eccentricity of orbit, is where gravitational forces S
cause the shape of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun to 19 000 and 23 000 year periodicity
change from almost circular to more elliptical and back
Figure 4.2 Milankovitch orbital forcing mechanisms.
again over a period of around 100 000 years. As the
eccentricity increases, the difference in the Earth’s distance
from the Sun at the orbit’s closest and furthest points also by the Sun and the Moon cause the Earth to wobble on
increases. This affects the severity of the seasons. If win- its axis like a spinning top, where the end of the axis
ter (in the northern hemisphere) occurs when the distance describes a circle in space and determines where in the
between the Earth and the Sun is at its maximum, the sea- orbit the seasons occur, and most importantly the season
son will be more severe. The greater the eccentricity of the when the Earth is closest to the Sun. This happens over
orbit (the more elliptical it is), the stronger this effect can be. two cycles of 19 000 and 23 000 years. This factor governs
The tilt of the Earth’s axis varies from approximately the interplay between the first two factors since precession
21.8° to 24.4° and back over a period of 41 000 years. The determines whether summer in a given hemisphere occurs
greater the tilt, the more intense the seasons in both hemi- at a near or distant point in the orbit around the Sun. For
spheres become; summers get hotter and winters colder. example, at the present time the Earth reaches its furthest
The axial ‘wobble’, causes a phenomenon called point from the Sun during the southern hemisphere winter.
precession of the-equinoxes. The gravitational pull exerted Therefore southern hemisphere winters are slightly colder
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Chapter 4 The Pleistocene
than northern hemisphere winters. Southern hemisphere of ocean sediment that had been deposited over time.
summers are also slightly warmer than summers in the The sediment on the ocean floor builds up slowly as the
northern hemisphere. remains of marine creatures sink to the bottom when
they die. The nature of the oxygen isotope ratios from the
skeletons of foraminifera taken from different layers of
4.2.2 Evidence that orbital forcing causes
the core can tell us how much of the world’s water was
climate change
locked up in glaciers. The expanding ice sheets result in
In the 1950s, the first continuous record of the Pleistocene a fall of global volumetric sea level (this type of sea-level
came from marine sediment cores, when Emiliani (1955) change is often called eustasy). The chemistry of the ocean
analyzed the isotopic composition of fossil calcium car- water changes depending on how much water is left in the
bonate skeletons of small, single-celled marine organisms oceans compared with that stored as ice. The mechanism
called foraminifera. This record consisted of a long core is explained in Box 4.1.
Evidence from ocean cores sediments are mainly sand, silt, clay and F igure 4.3 shows a freshly collected
dust, which reach the ocean via wind, ice sediment core from the ocean floor being
On the deep ocean floor, sediments have
rafting and fluvial inputs. The biogenic examined while Figure 4.4 provides some
been accumulating relatively undisturbed
sediment is composed of calcareous and examples of the remains of planktonic
for millions of years. These sediments are
siliceous skeletal remains of microor- foraminifera which are surface-dwelling
a mixture of land-derived material and
ganisms that lived in the ocean waters. organisms and are indicators of the
marine biogenic sediments. The terrestrial
Figure 4.3 Cores of ocean sediments. Deep core being sampled
on ship immediately after being extracted from the ocean floor;
(Source: Dougie Taylor / Alamy Stock Photo)
Box 4.1 ➤
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4.2 Long-term cycles, astronomical forcing and feedback mechanisms
➤
the ocean. The lighter isotope of oxygen
(16O) which is contained in water (H2O)
is evaporated more easily and more read-
ily reaches polar regions to be stored
as ice. The heavier isotope (18O) is also
precipitated out more easily before it
can reach polar regions. Therefore, dur-
ing glacial periods the proportion of 16O
to the heavier 18O isotope in the oceans
decreases. During interglacials when the
water is returned to the oceans the pro-
portion of 16O increases. Therefore, the
ratio of 18O to 16O in the ocean sediment
provides a long-term proxy for global ice
volume during the Pleistocene. This record
has been divided up into stages, each of
Figure 4.4 Fossil shells of foraminifera. Species assemblages can tell us about sea temperatures
which corresponds to either a glacial or
and productivity and the chemistry of their shells can tell us about the chemistry of the ocean
interglacial period (Figure 4.5; Figure 4.6e).
water when the microorganisms were alive. Note that the shells are typically only around a
tenth of a mm to perhaps a cm in size. (Source: Thomas M. Gibson/USGS) Odd numbers represent warm periods
and even numbers represent cold periods.
More minor climatic events (stadials and
prevalent sea surface temperature at the when they were formed. During glacial interstadials) are sometimes given a let-
time. Their shells are coiled left in temper- periods more of the world’s water is ter coding or decimal place (e.g. 5e = 5.5)
atures below 7°C and right in temperatures locked up in ice sheets and less is in after a number (Figure 4.5).
greater than 7°C. The different species
that make up foraminiferal assemblages Oxygen isotope curve
100 50 0
also indicate the temperature, salinity and
Colder
nutrient availability in the oceans. Thousand years BP
Building on the earlier work of
Last interglacial
Emiliani (1955), Shackleton and Opdyke
Glacial maximum
(1973) proposed the use of oxygen iso-
Present
tope stratigraphy as the formally recog-
Warmer
nized way of indicating different phases
of ice advance and retreat during the
Pleistocene. Oxygen isotope analysis can
Stages
5e
5d
5b
5a
5c
6
be performed on foraminifera, and is typi-
cally done on bottom-dwelling (benthic) Figure 4.5 The oxygen isotope curve for the last glacial and interglacial period. The curve
species. Their skeletons contain some of acts as a proxy for sea-level change and ice build-up. Note that the ice seems to build up
the chemical constituents of the seawater slowly and then very quickly melt causing a rapid sea level rise.
Box 4.1
The results from ocean core work showed that there the cumulative effect of the three forcing mechanisms
were many fluctuations in the Earth’s climate during on radiation received at 65°N in June. Figure 4.6e shows
the Pleistocene that caused the growth and retreat of ice the volume of the Earth’s ice sheets determined from
sheets. These results seemed partly to match the predic- foraminiferal oxygen isotope ratios in ocean sediments
tions provided by the Milankovitch model as shown in for the same period. Significantly, there is an approximate
Figure 4.6 (Broecker and Denton, 1990). Figure 4.6a, b match between F igure 4.6d and e. For example, there are
and c shows the pattern of eccentricity, tilt and preces- eight large glacial build-ups over the past 800 000 years
sion during the past 1.6 million years. Figure 4.6d shows on an approximately 100 000 year cycle, each coinciding
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(a) Figure 4.6 Orbital forcing and
6 global ice volume for the past 1.6
million years with calculated effect
5 of orbital forcing parameters on
solar radiation received at 65°N:
4
(a) eccentricity; (b) tilt; (c) prece-
sion; (d) cumulative effect of all
3
%
orbital forcing parameters at 65°N
2 during June; (e) the actual oxygen
isotope record of global ice volume.
1 (Source: (e) after Bridgland, 1994.
Compiled from data published in
0 Ruddiman et al., 1989)
0 500 1000 1500
(b)
25
24
Degrees
23
22
21
0 500 1000 1500
(c)
0.08
0.06
0.04
Precession index
0.02
−0.02
−0.04
−0.06
0 500 1 000 1 500
(d)
510
Solar radiation received (W m-2)
490
470
450
430
410
390
370
350
0 500 1 000 1 500
(e)
13 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63
2.5 2 4 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62
6
Ratio of 180 and 160
5e
5c
5a
5d
5b
5.0
0 500 1 000 1 500
Thousands of years BP
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4.2 Long-term cycles, astronomical forcing and feedback mechanisms
with minimum eccentricity. Smaller decreases or surges explain the large temperature changes required for the vast
in ice volume have come at intervals of approximately ice expansions and retreats recorded. In fact there appears
23 000 years and 41 000 years in keeping with the preces- to be a missing effect of around 4–6°C in global mean
sion and tilt frequencies. temperature which cannot be explained by orbital forcing
Other evidence for the length of the glacial cycles comes alone. Therefore, something other than orbital changes
from the record of sea-level change provided by coral reefs. must have also been acting to cause changes in Pleistocene
Since water is stored on the continents as ice during gla- environments.
cials, and is released during interglacials when ice sheets Third, the 100 000 year cycle, according to orbital
melt, sea levels rise and fall by over 100 metres during calculations, should have a much weaker effect on incom-
climatic cycles. During the last glacial period (the peak of ing solar radiation than the shorter cycles. However, as
which was reached only 19 000 years ago) it was possible Figure 4.6e shows, the 100 000 year cycle is dominant
to walk from present-day England to mainland Europe, as at least from about 900 000 years ago (see Maslin and
the North Sea and English Channel were dry land. Coral Brierley, 2015, for recent scientific thinking about this
growth is linked to sea level and different growth periods switch). Finally, the Milankovitch cycles should show a
for the coral can be dated up to about 160 000 years ago. smooth rise and fall as in Figure 4.6d whereas the ice curve
This dating can be done by determining the ratio of ura- in Figure 4.6e is sawtooth in pattern. Over tens of thou-
nium to thorium in the coral. Newly formed coral is rich sands of years ice sheets built up several kilometres thick
in uranium whereas old coral has less uranium and more and scoured and scarred the landscape as far south as cen-
thorium (see Section 4.5). Again the evidence seems to tral Europe and Midwestern United States. But each cycle
match that from the ocean sediments and the predictions appears to have ended abruptly with a sudden melt event
of the Milankovitch cycles as to the timing of glacial cycles seen as a sharp drop in the 18O to 16O ratio in Figure 4.6e.
(e.g. Chappell and Shackleton, 1986). High sea-level events Within a few thousand years the ice sheets melted back to
coincide with the interglacial intervals, and also with the present-day patterns.
predicted timing of these from Milankovitch calculations. So while orbital forcing mechanisms seem to be a good
‘pacemaker’ of Pleistocene environmental change (Imbrie
and Imbrie, 1979) it is necessary to look at other processes
4.2.3 Problems with orbital forcing theory
too. The next section details how internal feedback mecha-
While the above analysis suggests that orbital forcing nisms may help explain some of the patterns that orbital
theory is an excellent explanation for climate changes forcing theory alone cannot account for.
during the Pleistocene, there are, however, a range of
major problems with orbital forcing theory and the use of 4.2.4 Internal feedback mechanisms
marine oxygen isotope records. First, it has emerged that
benthic foraminifera oxygen isotope records (Box 4.1) do
4.2.4.1 Albedo and sea-level change
not strictly represent a pure sea-level record and hence a
record of ice advance and retreat (Skinner and Shackleton, Once ice sheets start to form, the albedo of the Earth’s sur-
2005, 2006; Shackleton, 2006). For example, the oxygen face increases because ice is highly reflective of the Sun’s
isotope record is also affected by changes in deep ocean energy. This increased albedo results in a further drop in
temperature and this signal can vary between oceans as the temperatures, allowing ice sheets to expand further. A
local hydrology of the oceans reacts differently to changes further positive feedback mechanism comes from the drop
in atmospheric temperature and ice growth or retreat. For in sea level induced by ice sheet growth. This would make
example, Skinner and Shackleton (2005) showed that the it easier for ice to flow out from the land further onto the
isotope record for the end of the last glacial appears to continental shelves. Therefore, the ice sheets can expand
be about 2200 years earlier than the likely change in ice even further, and albedo would be greater, allowing the
volume, which is further 1700 years earlier than the deep Earth to cool further. This might help explain some of the
Pacific isotope record. This offset in timing creates a prob- extra global cooling we have seen during the Pleistocene
lem because it is not possible to simply assume that all that could not be explained by the changes in insolation
sediments showing a change from cold to warm from dif- predicted by the Milankovitch theory alone. However,
ferent oceans are the same age. global climate models (GCMs) suggest that although
Second, the expected changes in temperature caused by albedo and sea-level change may be important they still
changes in insolation via orbital forcing are too small to would not account for the full magnitude of cooling
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Chapter 4 The Pleistocene
seen during the Pleistocene glacial periods (Broecker and ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica have been drilled
Denton, 1990). and analyzed. The ice cores contain bubbles of gas locked
There are two potentially more important internal feed- within them. These bubbles are representative of the air
back processes that have been the focus of research since contents when the ice originally fell as snow (Alley et al.,
the 1990s: these relate to the combined effect of (i) changes 1993). Because ice layers build up during each year’s snow
in the ocean circulation and atmospheric CO2 concentra- season it is possible to calculate how old the air within the
tions and (ii) the nature of ice sheet dynamics. ice bubbles is by counting layers. This allows us to gain
information about global air composition from thousands
of years ago. Further information on ice cores is provided
4.2.4.2 The missing CO2 link: oceans and ice sheet
in Box 4.2.
dynamics
Data from ice cores have shown that CO2 concentra-
The centres of some very large ice sheets do not melt even tions were very low (∼180 parts per million (ppm)) during
during interglacials (that is why we still have ice over the glacials and higher (∼280 ppm) during interglacials. Today
poles today). Long ice cores from the centre of very old fossil fuel burning and land-use change have brought
The search for the oldest ice
on earth
Ice builds up incrementally on the surface
of ice sheets. Typically the winter layers of
ice are light in colour while summer layers
are darker because the partial melting and
lower summer accumulation rate produce
higher concentrations of impurities. This
layering and other types of analysis such
as X-ray imaging allow each seasonal and
annual layer of ice to be identified. The
annual layering means that we can work
out the age of the ice extracted from
cores that are drilled out of ice sheets.
Each of the layers can be analyzed for Figure 4.7 A scientist holding a section of ice core from Langjokull
their chemical properties. Major ice drill- Ice Cap, Iceland. Ice cores are typically stored in 1 m long sections and
archived in huge freezers at - 36 °C. (Source: Arctic Images / Alamy Stock
ing programmes (Figure 4.7) have been
Photo)
carried out in G reenland, the Canadian
Arctic and the Antarctic as well at sites in
Peru and Tibet. The longest cores are over
3 km deep. The cores are typically stored
oxygen isotopes; (ii) gases from air bubbles controlled by the isotopic composition
for future research in 1 m lengths in large
trapped in the ice; and (iii) dissolved and of seawater. In addition, atmospheric
vaults such as those at the National Ice
particulate matter in the ice. temperature controls the isotopic ratio
Core Laboratory in Denver, Colorado.
in the precipitation and thus the rela-
Ice cores contain an abundance of highly • Isotopic analysis: this is partly based tive amount of the heavier 18O isotope
detailed climate information. There are three on the same approach as discussed
reveals the temperature at the site
main approaches to climatic reconstruction in Box 4.1 for ocean sediments. The
when the snow fell.
based on ice cores. These are analysis of: (i) isotopic composition of the ice is partly
Box 4.2 ➤
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4.2 Long-term cycles, astronomical forcing and feedback mechanisms
• Gas analysis: the mixing time for atmos-
pheric gases over Earth is around one
to two years, meaning that changes are
rapidly diffused throughout the lower
atmosphere. Bubbles trapped in the
ice (Figure 4.8) contain records of past
atmospheric composition. It is possible,
by analyzing the bubbles, to determine
how the past concentrations of CO2,
methane and other gases have varied
over time. The ice cores have revealed
dramatic increases in CO2, methane and
nitrous oxide during interglacial episodes
and decreases during glacial episodes.
There are also many shorter-term fluc-
tuations in gas concentrations over mil-
lennial and even centennial timescales
(e.g. Luthi et al., 2008). However, a funda- Figure 4.8 Trapped air bubbles can be seen in this slice from an ice core taken at 550 m depth
mental problem is that air in ice bubbles from ‘Dome C’ on Antarctica. (Source: British Antarctic Survey / Science Photo Library)
is always younger than the age of the
surrounding ice. As snow becomes buried
and transforms to firn and then ice, the The oldest ice core that scientists have gases within the core. Many old ice cores
air between the snow crystals remains sampled extends to 800 000 years ago, will therefore be needed from extreme
in contact with the atmosphere until the but models suggest that there should be ice depths to verify that the ice core
pores of air become fully sealed upon ice ice that is 1.5 million years old in parts record is valid. Working in the most unex-
formation. The sealed bubbles therefore of the East Antarctic ice sheet. Scien- plored place on the planet in extreme
contain air that is representative of the tists think they have identified the exact conditions to collect cores of ice from
conditions long after snow deposition. locations of the ice sheet where such 4.7 km depth brings large logistical dif-
This needs to be taken into account old ice might exist and where it should ficulties. Therefore, scientists have been
when producing high-resolution records. not be too disturbed by ice flow (Fischer collaborating through an organization
• Chemical content: the presence of dust et al., 2013; Van Liefferinge and Pattyn, called International Partnerships in Ice
and trace chemicals in the ice can be 2013). If we are able to drill down to Core Sciences (IPICS) to look at new
determined. Evidence for volcanic epi- old ice then this could yield excellent tools for rapidly drilling ice and also in
sodes or periods of increased aridity data on climate change over that period. locating the best potential places to
can be traced. The types of dust can However, we will have to hope that such find the oldest ice. The best candidate
also be analyzed to determine their old ice has not be disturbed by geother- sites will have low snow accumulation
sources and hence prevailing atmos- mal heat from below. This geothermal rates, low ice velocities and high ice
pheric circulation patterns. heat may alter the oxygen isotopes and thicknesses.
Box 4.2
CO2 concentrations above 400 ppm (see Chapter 7). CO2 in surface waters regulates the atmospheric c oncentration.
is an important greenhouse gas and therefore would be Changes in CO2 concentration in the ocean surface waters
expected partly to control the temperature of the Earth. may affect atmospheric concentrations, which may then
However, this poses an interesting problem: why should cause the Earth’s climate to warm or cool. Interestingly,
CO2 levels rise and fall during the Pleistocene? however, the CO2 concentration changes appear to lag
The oceans hold around 60 times as much CO2 as the behind the temperature changes.
atmosphere. The gas readily diffuses between the ocean While there are many ocean currents, often driven
surface and the atmosphere. Therefore, its concentration by surface trade winds (see Chapter 3), there is one very
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Chapter 4 The Pleistocene
important deep ocean current. This is known as the ther- when the thermohaline circulation system slows down the
mohaline circulation system. The current is driven by surface waters of the oceans have less CO2 (since less is
temperature gradients (thermo) and salt concentration pumped back to the surface by c urrents) and therefore less
gradients (haline). This ocean circulation is described in is returned from the water into the atmosphere. Hence,
detail in Chapter 3, which should be referred to in order atmospheric concentrations of CO2 fall as the ocean
to comprehend fully the remainder of this section. This plants continue photosynthesis. This results in global
strong deep current acts as a pump that can transfer CO2 cooling. Evidence for changes in ocean circulation has
and nutrients from the surface of the oceans to the deeper come from faunal and chemical studies of deep-sea sedi-
waters and return them to the surface again. Today there ments. These have indicated that the production of deep
are sensitive zones where such downwelling and upwelling water in the Atlantic, the driving force of present-day
occur (see Chapter 3). circulation systems (see Chapter 3), was reduced greatly
It is, however, living things in the oceans that partly during past glacials.
control the concentration of CO2 in the surface waters Changes in the strength of the ocean circulation system
(Broecker and Denton, 1990). Tiny green plants (plank- changed the energy transfers between the equator and
ton) in the upper sunlit layers of the ocean take up CO2 poles. In the North Atlantic, for example, a reduction
from the water as part of photosynthesis and this helps in the strength of the thermohaline system today would
to form the plant tissue itself. When the plants die, their cause western Europe to cool by several degrees, chang-
debris falls to the bottom of the ocean where bacteria ing local climates quite dramatically (Vellinga and Wood,
oxidize it back to CO2. Today the thermohaline circula- 2008). Figure 4.9 shows predicted changes in mean annual
tion system allows CO2 from the bottom of the oceans to temperature 30 years after a collapse of the thermohaline
be stirred up and taken back to the surface again. How- circulation.
ever, when the circulation slows, deep carbon stores are An explanation is needed for why the ocean circu-
not circulated back to the surface as quickly. Therefore, lation strength should change in the first place. One
when the plants in the ocean waters die and fall to the of the answers might lie in the formation of large ice
bottom of the ocean, taking their absorbed CO2 with sheets. Experiments with GCMs suggested that the
them, this CO2 is not returned to the surface in as great a topographical effects of ice sheets could explain a lot of
quantity as it is being sent down into the deep. Therefore the extra cooling not accounted for by the Milankovitch
905N
455N
455S
905S
1805 905W 05 905E 1805
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
Temperature (5C change)
Figure 4.9 Predicted change in annual temperature 30 years after a collapse of the thermohaline circulation.
(Source: from Cramer et al., 2001)
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4.3 Short-term cycles
mechanism alone. A small amount of cooling caused by
orbital forcing can cause the growth of some ice sheets. Reflective questions
These thick ice sheets (several kilometres) could change
local air currents that were deflected around the ice ➤ Can you explain Milankovitch orbital forcing theory?
domes which might contribute further to cooling and ice ➤ How do the predictions of the Milankovitch cycles dif-
sheet growth. Changing air currents may result in changes fer from the evidence for climate change during the
to ocean currents. For example, MacAyeal (1993) argued Pleistocene?
that the topography of the huge ice sheets altered the
North Atlantic trade winds. This, in combination with a ➤ What are the main positive and negative feedbacks if solar
cooler climate, reduced the evaporation in sensitive areas radiation decreases?
of deep-water formation in the North Atlantic, thereby
➤ What are the main positive and negative feedbacks if solar
reducing the strength of the thermohaline circulation
radiation increases?
system. This occurred because evaporation controls the
saltiness of the water left behind; increased evaporation
leads to increased salinity. Saltier water is denser and will
sink, allowing the circulation ‘pump’ to remain strong.
4.3 Short-term cycles
A reduction in evaporation would result in a slowing of
the thermohaline circulation as there would no longer
4.3.1 Glacial instability
be intense downwelling of dense salty water. Return of
CO2 to the atmosphere would slow, since the upwelling Ocean cores provide long continuous records of climate
amounts are reduced. Hence the northern hemisphere ice change but because sedimentation rates are so slow
sheets could cause changes to climate worldwide, allow- they are of lower temporal resolution than ice cores. Ice
ing southern hemisphere ice sheets to advance and global cores provide high-resolution data through annual layer-
cooling to be greater than if simply caused by orbital ing of snow accumulation. However, the ice records do
forcing alone. not extend back very far into the Pleistocene. The most
One problem with this theory is that extra ice for- important evidence to emerge from the ice records is that
mation at the poles and particularly in the Antarctic Pleistocene climate changes were often very rapid with
Ocean would cause more downwelling. This is because significant warm interstadial episodes and cool stadial epi-
as ice forms it excludes the salt, allowing the remaining sodes occurring just a few centuries apart. Glacials appear
ocean water to become denser and to sink as a strong to have been very unstable with several short warming and
downwelling pump. This would increase the strength of cooling episodes. Interglacials, however, were more stable
the circulation system and lead to a negative feedback with some millennial-scale variability but this was more
as a strong thermohaline circulation brings heat from subdued than during glacials.
the equator to high latitudes. Furthermore, a colder Some 20 interstadial events have been identified in the
ocean would mean lower biological productivity and Greenland ice cores during the period 80–20 000 years BP
thus more CO2 in the atmosphere. A colder climate during which temperatures fluctuated by 5–8°C. These
will also reduce the amount of precipitation available events are known as Dansgaard–Oeschger (D–O) events and
to supply glaciers. Again these are negative feedbacks last for no more than 500–2000 years. D–O events are
which suggest that there may be some self-regulation to characterized by abrupt changes in temperature (gradual
the Earth’s climate system. However, it seems that the cooling followed by abrupt warming), dust content, ice
North Atlantic is the crucial and most sensitive part of accumulation rate, methane concentrations and CO2
the entire system. concentrations (Broecker, 1994). The abruptness is of
The ocean–atmosphere circulation system is extremely the order of a few decades. Bond et al. (1993) grouped
important but very complex and as yet we do not fully these D–O events together into larger cycles which con-
understand all the processes involved. In addition to long- tain a long cooling trend followed by an abrupt warming
term Quaternary changes, the thermohaline circulation (Figure 4.10). Ocean sediments from the North Atlantic
system may play a role in short-term climate changes revealed that at the coldest part of these longer Bond cycles
including those that may occur in the very near future. vast discharges of icebergs floated southwards across the
These processes are discussed further below. North Atlantic from the North American and European
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Chapter 4 The Pleistocene
Bond cycle beneath could weaken and meltwater would be produced
Bed thaws and Bond cycle cooling in greater quantities at the ice base owing to the extra
Ice sheet size
ice sheet surges cold-based ice grows pressure. This ice loading and failure of the substrate may
then have caused parts of the ice sheet to flow much more
Greenland temperature change (5C)
0
quickly. This would result in the release of large quantities
Slows
of icebergs from the Canadian coast. The icebergs would
-5 carry with them sediment from the Canadian land mass
that had been plucked and scoured by the ice and then as
Starts
Stops
the iceberg melted the sediment would be deposited on the
Heinrich event
Off
-10
North Atlantic
ocean floor. Once the excess ice has been released, the ice
Deep Water sheet may stabilize again and start to grow once more; the
formation
-15
Dansgaard–Oeschger cycles ice rafting would cease. This mechanism is known as the
0 2 4 6 binge–purge model of ice sheet development.
Age (thousand years before datum)
Ice rafting events in the North Atlantic caused climatic
Figure 4.10 Schematic representation of the relationship between changes much further afield. MacAyeal (1993) proposed
Dansgaard–Oeschger events, Bond cycles and Heinrich events.
that the decrease in ice sheet volume changed the wind
action around the ice sheet. This change returned the wind
ice sheets. These releases of ice are known as Heinrich to its pre-glacial formation with enhanced sea surface
events. Heinrich events were immediately followed by evaporation. This would result in enhanced downwelling
abrupt warming. Evidence for Heinrich events comes and a return of the strong thermohaline circulation sys-
from the fact that some distinctive layers of sediments tem. This reinvigorated thermohaline system would then
taken from North Atlantic sediment cores contain coarse result in rapid global warming through return of CO2 to
angular sand grains that have been brought by icebergs surface waters from the deep and enhanced heat transport.
from Canada and Europe. They are named after Helmut
Heinrich who described and numbered them and explained
how the layers came to be there (Heinrich, 1988). 4.3.2 The Younger Dryas
Several scientists (e.g. MacAyeal, 1993; Hunt and The last short, major, cold event is known as the ‘Younger
Malin, 1998) have proposed that Heinrich events were Dryas’. It occurred during the transition from the last gla-
caused by inherent instabilities of large ice sheets. The cial into the present Holocene interglacial and lasted from
great Laurentide ice sheet (Figure 4.11) grew over North around 12 900 to 11 700 years ago. The Earth was warming
America so that it became very thick during glacials. This from about 19 000 years ago. This warming trend was inter-
meant that under the sheer mass of the ice the sediments rupted by several cold reversals, the most pronounced of
which was the Younger Dryas. A suggested explanation is
that the meltwater of retreating continental ice masses was
Greenland ice sheet
released into the sensitive parts of the North Atlantic (from
the melting North American ice sheet) where it substantially
reduced the density of the ocean surface water (Broecker
and Denton, 1990). As the ice sheets melted, a switching of
drainage of the Laurentide ice sheet from the Caribbean
Laurentide ice sheet towards the North Atlantic, via the Gulf of St Lawrence, led
Cordilleran
ice sheet to an input of fresh meltwater to surface ocean layers. Being
fresh (less dense than seawater) this meltwater input slowed
the downwelling of water in the North Atlantic and thereby
slowed down the deep-water formation. The result of this
was to slow down the thermohaline ocean circulation sys-
tem which had carried warm tropical waters to the north.
Without this source of heat Europe and North America
began to cool again (Figure 4.9) and the ice sheets started to
Figure 4.11 North American ice sheets such as the Laurentide ice sheet re-advance. Many of the glacial landscapes that we can see
grew to an enormous size and thickness over tens of thousands of years. in northern Europe today are those created by that sudden
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4.4 Further evidence for environmental change
cooling and re-advance of glaciers. This series of events 4.4 Further evidence for environmental
demonstrates that climatic feedback effects can be strongly change
non-linear; global warming led to a sudden cooling.
Evidence from deep-sea and ice core sediments has already
been discussed in this chapter but a range of other types
Reflective questions of evidence can be used to reconstruct Pleistocene environ-
ments. Table 4.1 summarizes the main evidence types used.
➤ Why might glacial periods be more unstable than intergla-
The value of using multiple lines of evidence lies in the
cial periods?
richness of the information that they bring. For example, if
➤ Why do results from Younger Dryas research have impli- data from one site are mapped with data from other loca-
cations for predictions of the future impacts of current tions then a regional synthesis can be produced, providing
global warming caused by humans?
Table 4.1 Main sources of data used to reconstruct Quaternary environments (Source: from Williams et al., 1998)
Proxy data source Variable measured Proxy data source Variable measured
Landscape geomorphology: Physical properties (e.g. ice fabric)
Relict soils Soil types Trace element and microparticle
concentrations
Closed-basin lakes Lake level
Landscape biology and biogeography:
Lake sediments Varve thickness
Tree rings Ring-width anomaly, density
Peat deposits Age, depth, composition
Isotopic composition
Aeolian deposits – loess, desert Composition, depth, layering
dust, dunes, sand plains Fossil pollen and spores Type, relative abundance and/or
absolute concentration
Lacustrine deposits and ero- Age
sional features Plant macrofossils Age, distribution
Evaporites, tufas Stable isotope composition Plant microfossils Age, distribution
Speleothems Composition, layering, dated layers Vertebrate fossils Age, distribution
Marine geomorphology: Invertebrate fossils: mollusca, Age, distribution
ostracods
Ocean sediments Ash and sand accumulation rates
Diatoms Type, assemblage abundance
Fossil plankton composition
Insects Refuges
Isotopic composition of plank-
tonic and benthic fossils Modern population Relict populations of plants and
distributions animals
Continental dust Mineralogical composition and
surface texture Marine biology and biogeography:
Biogenic dust: pollen, diatoms, Geochemistry Diatoms Age, distribution, geochemistry
phytoliths
Foraminifera Faunal and floral abundance
Marine shorelines Coastal features
Coral reefs Morphological variations
Fluviatile inputs Reef growth
Archaeology:
Glaciology:
Plant remains Age, distribution
Mountain glaciers, ice sheets Terminal positions
Animal remains, including Age, distribution
Glacial deposits and features of Composition, orientation, shape hominids
glacial erosion
Rock art Age, distribution, content
Periglacial features Composition
Hearths, dwellings (including Age, distribution, geochemistry
Glacio-eustatic features Shorelines caves), workshops
Layered ice cores Oxygen isotope concentration Artefacts: bone, stone, wood, Composition, age, distribution
shell, leather
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Chapter 4 The Pleistocene
greater insight into palaeoclimate and former circulation
patterns. Local environmental gradients and information
on precipitation and aridity, for example, can be recon-
structed. This information helps us understand more
about the processes involved in environmental change and
shows us which factors need to be manipulated in models
predicting future global environmental change. Multiproxy
studies provide a diversity of information, spatial coverage,
temporal coverage, a diversity of environments recorded
and a completeness of records. They enable us to obtain
information about a range of different environments and
within each environmental setting they enable us to obtain
a record of different aspects of that environment. A selec-
Figure 4.12 A characteristic U-shaped valley in Scotland, providing
tion of evidence types and their uses is discussed in the fol-
e vidence of the presence of a former glacier. (Source: Duncan Payne /
lowing sections and in Chapters 5, 7, 16, 21, 23 and 24. Shutterstock.com)
4.4.1 Landforms
loess) and sand deposits (termed coversands). Erosional
Over 20 major variations in climate are recognized in the
features such as U-shaped valleys (Figure 4.12) and rock
undisturbed records of the deep oceans, but the terrestrial
striations (Figure 4.13) can also be used to infer former
(land-based) record of climatic change preserves far fewer,
landscape processes.
because processes of erosion make the record much more
fragmentary. For example, the last glacial period allowed
ice sheets to expand across much of northern Europe, erod-
ing earlier sedimentary records of Pleistocene landscapes,
plant and animal life. Nevertheless there are still many
geomorphological features providing ample evidence for
climatic change. These include landforms of former glacial
erosion and deposition, former periglacial landforms, river
terraces, cave deposits and wind-blown sediments. Data
can be obtained from the sediments themselves by relat-
ing observations of present depositional environments to
features present in the stratigraphic record. Furthermore,
since many deposits contain fossils, inferences can be made
about the type of environment and climate experienced at
that point in the sedimentary sequence.
4.4.1.1 Glacial and periglacial landforms
Sedimentary evidence for cold climates includes glacial
tills, fluvioglacial sands and gravels, and glaciolacustrine
(from water bodies associated with glaciers) silts and clays.
Such proxy evidence can be augmented by other landform
evidence, including, for example, the location and orienta-
tion of moraines, eskers, kames, drumlin fields and meltwa-
ter channels and periglacial landforms (see Chapters 23
and 24). The unvegetated landscape of periglacial areas
is often subject to intense wind erosion and the abundant
supply of fine-grained sediment often leads to the deposi- Figure 4.13 Parallel grooves scoured into a rock indicating the former
tion of significant thicknesses of fine-grained silt (termed direction of ice flow. These grooves are known as striations.
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4.4 Further evidence for environmental change
Figure 4.14 Ice sheet reconstruction
on the basis of morphological map-
ping over Scandinavia during the last
glacial maximum. (Source: after Lowe
and Walker, 1997)
Tromsø–L yngen
Kalevala
Rugozero
Jyväskylä Central
Finland ice-margin
formation
Salpausselkä
Helsinki
Bergen Romerike Newa
Aker Palivere
Oslo
Ås-Ski
Stockholm Pandivere Sakala
Ra Middle Swedish
Gotenberg Luga Krestsy
Taberg
Berghem Riga
Halland North
Lithuanian
Mid- East-
Jutland Jutland
Mid-Lithuanian
Belt Copenhagen
South-
Lithuanian
Langeland Vepsovo
Rügen
Edrovo
Velgast
Bologoe
Bremen Rosenthal
Hamburg
Poznan Warsaw
Berlin Frankfurt
Lesno 300 km
Brandenberg
Mapping the spatial distribution of these sediments Technological advances now allow maps to be pro-
and landforms (by both remote sensing techniques and duced that can increase insights into past landscapes
ground mapping allows the reconstruction of glacial limits through improved visualization techniques. For example,
(e.g. Clarke et al., 2000). Figure 4.14 shows an example of a detailed glacial landform map of Britain can be down-
geomorphological mapping in northern Europe, allow- loaded from: www.shef.ac.uk/geography/staff/clark_chris/
ing ice sheets to be reconstructed through analysis of britice. The map is available with information in differ-
landforms. The direction of ice movements can also be ent layers and formats and has been produced in digital
determined through analysis of the shape and orientation format so that all of the information sources to the 20 000
of morphological features such as striations and moraines. features mapped can be traced back to the original inves-
This type of mapping work, however, requires understand- tigations or publications. The main limitation of the map
ing about the genesis of different landforms and the com- is a lack of consistency and reliability of some of the
plexity of such landscapes and is often subjective. Therefore features since the data sources span 150 years of scientific
different people may produce different reconstruction maps effort. Some moraines are shown for an area around York
depending on the way they view landscape features. in northern England in Figure 4.15 and have been mapped
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Chapter 4 The Pleistocene
Figure 4.16 River terraces of the River Chuya, Russia, Southern Siberia,
Figure 4.15 Some moraine features (brown) mapped over the landscape the Altai Mountains. The terraces are at different heights indicating how
topography near York in northern England. (Source: Chris Clark) the river has cut down over time. (Source: Zoonar GmbH / Alamy Stock
Photo)
showing the underlying topography. It is also possible
with terrace sequences throughout lowland England
to use modern computer technology to ‘fly through the
(Bridgland, 1994; Gibbard, 1994). This allows a compre-
landscape’ and view mapped glacial landforms from dif-
hensive picture of local environmental change to be built
ferent angles and this may help gain insights into land-
up involving changes in vegetation and animal communi-
form processes.
ties through time.
4.4.1.2 River terraces
4.4.1.3 Cave deposits
River valleys throughout the world contain evidence of past
Cave systems and rock shelters (shallow niches in the hill-
climates. River terraces often exist along valley sides or on the
side) can also yield useful information about palaeoclimates.
floodplain and sometimes exist in vertical steps such as on
Caves form excellent traps for sediment as they are pro-
the River Chuya (Figure 4.16). Terrace sequences reflect both
tected from surface weathering and erosion. Cave detritus
incision and lateral migration of a river channel. Often the
can often contain skeletal parts of animals and many caves
highest terrace is the oldest, and lower terraces are younger.
and rock shelters were occupied by humans resulting in
Sometimes the sequence is more complex than this where,
rich archaeological deposits. For example, the rock shelters
for example, older terraces have become buried by younger
of northern Greece have yielded evidence of human tools
alluvial deposits. T
erraces can develop through a range of
and debris dating back to 50 000 years ago. Interspersed
processes including: changes in sea level where a fall in sea
with these human artefacts are sediments of faunal, floral,
level causes a river to incise further; changes in precipitation
fluvial and mineralogical processes providing rich detail on
regimes and vegetation cover resulting in changes to water
local palaeoenvironments (Woodward and Goldberg, 2001).
and sediment supply; tectonic processes; and human activity
These cave systems can also contain s peleothems, which are
(e.g. forest clearance can result in increased runoff and ero-
mineral deposits formed in limestone regions by water drip-
sion and increased sedimentation in downstream areas).
ping from the ceiling or walls of a cave (Box 4.3).
River terraces are of great interest because they con-
tain sediments that are often rich in plant and animal
remains. Often the nature of the environment under 4.4.1.4 Wind-blown sediments
which the terraces evolved can be determined from the
deposits. The terraces of the River Thames in England Deposits in many arid parts of the world are dominated
are some of the most studied in the world and fos- by wind-blown sediment (see Chapters 16 and 21). Loess
sil assemblages have allowed glacial, interstadial and and coversands can accumulate to great thicknesses and
interglacial sequences to be determined and correlated they cover around 10% of the Earth’s land surface. For
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4.4 Further evidence for environmental change
Organic matter in
speleothems
Speleothems are found in caves and are
primarily composed of calcium carbonate
which is precipitated from groundwater
that has percolated through the adjacent
carbonate rock. Speleothems are often
in the form of stalactites (hanging from
cave ceilings) and stalagmites (formed
on cave floors) formed over long periods
by dripping water entering case systems
(Figure 4.17). Flowstones (mineral deposits
slowly formed under rapidly running films
of water inside caves) are also commonly Figure 4.17 Speleothems in Naracoorte Caves National Park, South Australia.
studied. Certain trace elements such as (Source: Sean Heatley / Shutterstock.com)
uranium can be used to determine the
ages of layers of speleothems. Cessation but recent research has shown that the same time separating the internal cave
of speleothem growth can be detected organic (previously living) deposits can microbial activity from the above-ground
where adjacent layers yield very different be found within speleothems which can environmental processes. Scientists have
ages. Such growth restriction is likely to offer increased potential for environmen- been working on techniques for extraction
be climatically driven. For example, cold tal reconstruction during the Pleistocene and analysis of the organic compounds
conditions could both prevent groundwa- (Blyth et al., 2016). The two main sources (e.g. identifying whether the material
ter percolation and reduce biotic activity of organic matter preserved in speleo- comes from cells of plants). They have
(resulting in less carbonate in solution). thems are, first, tiny organic compounds also been analysing drip water contents
Periods of maximum speleothem growth from soil and plant materials that have in caves to help understand what organic
in Britain and Tasmania correspond well dripped down into the cave system from matter is currently entering cave systems
with warm periods (interglacial and above landscapes and, second, microbial to help their interpretation of Pleistocene
interstadial episodes) in the ocean oxygen communities living within the cave. The deposits. From these datasets it may then
isotope record (Goede and Harmon, 1983; organic matter becomes locked into be possible to identify what was growing
Atkinson et al., 1986). In addition, oxygen the speleothems as part of the mineral above the cave system at different times
isotopes can be extracted from some spe- deposit. The challenge for scientists is two- during the Pleistocene – something that
leothems that are representative of local fold: (1) how to extract the organic matter may not be possible from analysis of the
surface temperatures, providing further in the speleothem samples and measure above-ground evidence alone because
evidence for local climatic conditions. it and (2) how to understand what the that evidence may have all been removed
Until recently, speleothems have been organic matter in the sample means in by successive advances and retreats of
studied mainly for their mineral chemistry, terms of the former environment, while at ice sheets.
Box 4.3
example, in North America they cover at least 1.6 million soil formed during warm periods, found between layers
km2, blanketing the underlying topography. The Loess of wind-blown sediments deposited during cold phases
Plateau in China covers around 640 000 km2. The deposits (Figure 4.18). Indeed, work by Guo et al. (2002) showed
often contain evidence of climate change such as layers of that the alternating layers in the Chinese loess seemed
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Chapter 4 The Pleistocene
to correspond well to Milankovitch cycle timelines. The
sediments also provide useful evidence of prevailing wind
direction, atmospheric circulation patterns and gradients
in the past. For example, there are fossil dune fields across
large parts of Pakistan (e.g. Las belas Valley), India (e.g.
Gujarat), southern Africa (e.g. Kalahari), west Africa, the
High Plains of the USA and large areas of Australia (see
also Section 21.5 of Chapter 21). The orientation of these
dunes can inform us about the former direction of the
prevailing winds. In Australia, they form a huge anti-clock-
wise rotation around the continent with dunes in the south
orientated to indicate westerly prevailing winds, and dunes
in the north indicating easterly prevailing winds during the
Figure 4.18 Layers of loess (yellowy) formed during cold dry periods
late Pleistocene (Figure 4.19).
alternating with layers of soil (brown) formed during warmer, wet periods.
(Source: G. R. ‘Dick’ Roberts/NSIL/Getty Images)
Main sand-dune
concentration
800 km
Distribution and orientation of sand dunes
Figure 4.19 Fossil dune fields of Australia illustrating palaeowind directions. (Source: Wasson et al., 1988, Large-scale patterns of dune type, spacing
and orientation in the Australian continental dunefield. Australian Geographer, 19, 89–104, Taylor & Francis Ltd and www.informaworld.com)
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4.4 Further evidence for environmental change
4.4.2 Plants migrated over time and Figure 4.21 presents informa-
tion for deciduous oak trees in Europe. During the last
Plant remains have provided a major source of informa-
Glacial Maximum at 18 000 years BP, the oaks survived
tion on Pleistocene environmental change. They have
only in isolated pockets in the south and were not present
allowed reconstructions of the spatial distribution of
elsewhere in Europe. During the post-glacial period, as
vegetation at different times in the past. For example,
the ice melted, the oaks spread northwards. However,
Figure 4.20 presents a map of vegetation of North and
the sudden onset of the Younger Dryas lasting about
Central America during the Last Glacial Maximum. Much
1000 years caused them to retreat southwards again
research uses the principle that the environment where
before further warming allowed full expansion. It seems
particular species or species assemblages survive today is
that the isolated pockets in southern Europe where the
similar to that in the past where such plant remains have
oak trees persisted during glacial periods allowed the
been found. Macrofossils of plant remains such as leaves,
species to survive and provided a reservoir of oak trees
tree stumps and seeds can be identified in sedimentary
which expanded again to cover northern Europe once
deposits. Microfossils of minute biological remains can
the climate warmed. These sites, known as refugia, are
also be identified using microscopes. These microfossil
crucial to the preservation of particular species through
remains include fungal spores, algae, seeds and pollen.
cold episodes. Indeed, Tzedakis (1993) showed for a
Pollen analysis, or p alynology, is the most widely adopted
430 000 year record at Ioannina, in north-west Greece,
method of reconstructing Pleistocene environmental
that this site has acted as a long-term refugium for the
change. Box 5.2 in Chapter 5 provides further information
oak trees throughout the Pleistocene. At such sites it
on palynology.
appears that moisture availability was the critical climatic
Using pollen analysis combined with other techniques
factor that allowed trees to survive with temperature hav-
it has been possible to map how individual species have
ing a supporting role. Tzedakis et al. (2002) showed that
some of these sites are refugia for several species. Thus,
refugia may be areas of special value for maintaining
long-term biodiversity.
Polar desert
Tropical areas remained ice free during the
Polar desert Pleistocene except at high altitudes. Therefore there is
Dry
Tundra the potential to undertake vegetation reconstructions
in these regions over longer time periods because land-
scapes remained intact away from the erosive forces of
ice sheets. Nevertheless there has still been much debate
Ice
over the vegetation history of many tropical areas. Some
scientists have suggested that the tropical forests of the
Amazon, for example, were very fragmented during
Dry tundra
Open Boreal glacial periods of the Pleistocene, focused on refugia
Temperate woodland
semi-desert Tundra regions, and that this contributed to the evolution of
endemic (only locally present) species (Garzón-Orduña
et al., 2015) thereby enhancing the biodiversity of the
'Mid taiga-like'
Temperate open Amazon. Others have suggested that the forest was
woodland largely intact but was reduced in size, not extending as
Semi-desert
Temperate far north and south as they do today (see Section 13.3.1
conifer/mixed of Chapter 13). It is thought that rainfall patterns and
Scrub Dry grassland/ aridity drove these changes which were spatially vari-
savanna able across the Amazon depending on local moisture
Tropical sources and prevailing weather patterns. For example,
18,000 radiocarbon years ago rainforest
it is thought that the Northern Amazon experienced
dry conditions from 35 000 to 25 000 years ago but it
Figure 4.20 Map showing the distribution of vegetation across North and
central America at the Last Glacial Maximum 21 000 years ago. was wet during the Last Glacial Maximum at 21 000
(Source: after Adams et al., 1997 courtesy of Oak Ridge National Labora- years ago.
tory, U.S. Department of Energy)
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Chapter 4 The Pleistocene
(a) (b)
70 Glacial 70 11 000
Maximum years ago
65 65
60 60
55 55
50 50
45 45
40 40
Degrees latitude
35 35
350 0 10 20 30 40 50 350 0 10 20 30 40 50
(c) (d)
70 70
10 500 6000
years ago years ago
65 65
60 60
55 55
50 50
45 45
40 40
35 35
350 0 10 20 30 40 50 350 0 10 20 30 40 50
Degrees longitude
Ice Refugia Isolated / unconcentrated oaks
Figure 4.21 Distribution of deciduous oaks during the past 18 000 years. The figure shows that oaks were
only found in isolated pockets in southern Europe during the last Glacial Maximum and then migrated
northwards during the warming period. The changes during the Younger Dryas can also be seen by comparing
(b) with (c). (Source: after Taberlet, P. and Cheddadi, R. 2002, Quaternary refugia and persistence of biodiversity.
Science, 297, pp. 2009–10. Copyright 2002 AAAS. Illustration: Katharine Sutcliff. Reprinted with permission from
AAAS)
4.4.3 Insects very slowly so that over the timescale of the P leistocene
their environmental tolerances have remained stable.
A range of insects have been found fossilized in Pleistocene
Therefore, it is possible to reconstruct with some preci-
deposits and as with vegetation these allow reconstruction
sion the past environmental settings for the Coleopteran
of local temperature and moisture regimes based on com- fossils found within sedimentary sequences. They offer
parison with contemporary habitats. Of all the insects it tremendous potential for palaeoclimatic research as they
is the remains of beetles that have proved the most useful provide information on short-term environmental fluctua-
in Pleistocene research. This is because their exoskeletons tions because they respond immediately to climatic change
are well preserved and allow good identification of species. (by migrating to remain in their favoured environmental
Beetles (Coleoptera) account for around 25% of all the spe- range). They can be used to reconstruct seasonal and mean
cies on Earth and they occupy almost every terrestrial and annual temperature maps for different periods. Indeed,
freshwater zone. Many species survive only within narrow they can also be used to tell us about likely vegetation
temperature ranges or very specific habitats. They evolve assemblages that they were associated with.
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4.4 Further evidence for environmental change
4.4.4 Other animal remains Among Pleistocene deposits there is evidence for large
animals in many places where they no longer occur and
A range of other fossil remains are used in reconstructing
many of which are now extinct. Examples of these are
Pleistocene environmental change, such as terrestrial and
described in Box 4.4.
marine molluscs, diatoms, non-biting midges (chirono-
mids), bivalved crustaceans (ostracods), foraminifera,
animal bones and teeth, coral polyps, fungal remains and
testate amoebae. The last, for example, are found in many
Reflective questions
peats and are controlled by hydrological variations that
affect peat formation. They can be used to reconstruct ➤ What are the main types of evidence available to recon-
past moisture regimes. Care should be taken when inter- struct Pleistocene environmental change?
preting animal and plant remains and inferring climate
➤ Why is understanding Pleistocene refugia important for
because some species may or may not be present owing
modern land management?
to ecological processes rather than climatological ones.
For example, species competition or migrational isola- ➤ Why is it normally necessary to use more than one type of
tion might mean that some species are not present when evidence when reconstructing Pleistocene environments?
at other times with a similar climate they were present.
Pleistocene megafauna
extinctions
During the Pleistocene many large mam-
mals, birds and reptiles became extinct.
In fact, 85% of large mammal species
disappeared. Most of these extinctions
occurred between 50 000 and 10 000
years ago. In North America, large animals
that disappeared include the American
lion, ground sloth, dire wolf, several species
of mammoth and the short-faced bear. In
Africa and Asia, several sabre-toothed cat
species disappeared along with giant tapir,
giant apes, giant hartebeest, pigmy hippos
Figure 4.22 The glyptodon lived in South America and was the size of a
and several types of elephant. In Australia,
car. It became extinct around 10 000 years ago. It is thought that humans
extinctions included giant kangaroos, once used their huge shells as shelters in bad weather.
snakes and several types of wombat. South
America lost the glyptodon (Figure 4.22)
and the three-toed litoptern. In Europe, It is not entirely clear why the rate of in changing habitats (e.g. through fire) by
woolly mammoths, woolly rhinoceros, cave extinction of megafauna was so great fragmenting megafaunal ranges. Human
lions and Neanderthals were among the during the late Pleistocene. However, the impact combined (i.e. not on its own)
casualties. The extinction of megafauna spread of humans for the first time to with the late Pleistocene climate changes
(large animals) during the late Pleistocene new areas may have played a role in hunt- appears to be the most plausible explana-
was the second largest of the last 55 mil- ing some species to extinction, introduc- tion for megafaunal extinction (Koch and
lion years. ing new species, introducing disease and Barnoski, 2006).
BOX 4.4
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Chapter 4 The Pleistocene
4.5 Dating methods over time to produce a more stable atomic form. Because
radioactive decay is time dependent and the rate of decay
Reliable dating is highly desired by Pleistocene scientists. over time is constant, the age of a sample can be deter-
There are three types of technique: age estimation, age mined. Some elements decay in a few seconds whereas
equivalence and relative dating methods (Lowe and Walker, others transform slowly over millions of years. Typical
1997). Some examples of these techniques are listed in methods include potassium–argon dating, uranium series
Figure 4.23. Often the techniques used are valid for only dating, carbon dating and in-situ-produced cosmogenic
limited parts of the Pleistocene. There are no perfect tech- isotope analysis.
niques and each has a range of problems which lead to Carbon dating is explained in Box 5.1 in Chapter 5.
difficulties when interpreting data. Potassium–argon and uranium series dating involve meas-
uring the products of radioactive decay. Potassium–argon
dating is used to date the age of volcanic rocks. Uranium
4.5.1 Age estimation techniques
dating is used to date rocks and carbonate deposits such as
There are two types of age estimation techniques. The first speleothems, corals, bone and molluscs. Care must be taken
comprise the incremental methods which involve measure- to ensure that samples are not contaminated by materials
ments of regular accumulations of sediment or biological from different ages (e.g. by detritus). Luminescence dating
matter through time. These include the use of tree rings allows the amount of time that sediment has been buried to
for dating (dendrochronology), seasonal bands in corals and be calculated. Materials exposed to radiation accumulate
long-lived molluscs (sclerochronology), annual layers of a thermoluminescent property over time. Sediments every-
ice on a glacier and analysis of varves (layered seasonal where contain low concentrations of uranium, thorium and
accumulations of sediment often found in glaciofluvial potassium which produce, over geological time periods,
settings). The layers can be counted back through time. a constant flux of ionizing radiation. The ionizing radia-
The second types of estimation techniques comprise the tion is absorbed and stored by surrounding sediments and,
r adiometric methods that are based on the natural radioac- with stimulation (heating), this stored dose can be released,
tive properties of particular isotopes. Some isotopes decay producing an emission of light (the thermoluminescence).
Quaternary
1 2
10 10 103 104 105 106 107
1. Methods providing age estimates Years BP
A RADIOMETRIC METHODS
Uranium–thorium
Proactinium
Lead-210
Potassium–argon
Fission track
Luminescence
Radiocarbon
Caesium-137
Tritium
Electron spin resonance
Cosmogenic isotopes
B INCREMENTAL METHODS
Dendrochronology
Varve chronology
Lichenometry
Annual ice layers
2. Age equivalent horizons (isochrons)
Palaeomagnetism
Tephrochronology
Orbitally tuned oxygen isotope stratigraphy
3. Chemical indications of relative chronology
Amino-acid diagenesis
Fluorine/uranium/nitrogen content
Obsidian hydration
Weathering/pedogenesis
Figure 4.23 Some Quaternary dating techniques and their time range. (Source: after Lowe and Walker, 1997)
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4.6 Pleistocene stratigraphy and correlation
The amount of luminescence emitted is proportional to (shown in Figure 4.6e), established in deep-ocean sediment
the accumulated dose. If the annual dose (how much ion- records, can be correlated with sediment sequences (both
izing radiation the sediment is exposed to per year) can be marine and terrestrial) throughout the world. The ages
estimated then an age for the sediments can be determined. of each stage are assigned by matching the stage with the
Sunlight removes the luminescence signal and so resets the predicted age for that stage as determined by Milankovitch
‘time clock’. However, the major problem lies in calculating orbital forcing mechanisms. This ‘tuning’ of course only
the annual dose, which means that errors are often greater provides a relative age and assumes the deep-sea record
than { 10% of the age of the material. of climate change should be perfectly tuned to the orbital
Cosmogenic isotope analysis produced in situ is now cycles. This is unlikely to be the case because of a large
becoming the standard technique for dating landforms number of lags and feedback mechanisms operating in the
and some types of terrestrial deposits (Cockburn and climate system (Ruddiman, 2006).
Summerfield, 2004). The Earth is under constant bombard-
ment by cosmic radiation. Some of this radiation comes 4.5.3 Relative chronology
from the Sun, some from other locations within our galaxy,
while the highest-energy particles originate from outside our Sediments and rocks are affected by chemical reactions that
galaxy. These high-energy particles, which consist mainly take time to occur. The amount of weathering or organic
of neutrons, interact with elements in a shallow surface decomposition may provide a basis for relative dating. Bones
layer when they reach the Earth’s surface. This interaction and shells contain proteins even hundreds of thousands of
produces extremely small quantities of cosmogenic nuclides. years after death. The protein undergoes transformations
Measurements of the amounts of these cosmogenic nuclides over time, which changes, for example, the ratios of certain
accumulated over time can provide valuable information on amino acids. Thus a relative chronology can be developed
the age and rate of change of the land surface. They are par- by examination of the types and amount of transformation
ticularly useful because the cosmogenic isotopes have very (diagenesis) that has taken place. Commonly this involves
long half-lives, ranging from thousands to millions of years. analysis of amino acids. The rate of the chemical reactions
concerned is directly related to temperature. Consequently,
amino acid diagenesis will proceed more slowly at cooler
4.5.2 Age equivalent labels sites than at warmer sites. Samples from some mid-latitude
Distinctive horizons can often be found in Pleistocene regions, for example, provide a resolution of 20 000–30 000
deposits which are found in more than one place. If the years with a useful range of only approximately 2 million
horizon can be dated at just one of the locations where it years since diagenesis proceeds rapidly; Arctic samples pro-
is found (e.g. by radiometric or incremental methods) then vide a resolution of 100 000 years with a useful range of 5 to
this allows dates to be extended to other places where 6 million years, because diagenesis is slower here (Bradley,
this distinctive horizon occurs. Distinctive horizons are 1999). Fossil bones can also be assessed for their content of
produced by layers of volcanic ash spread across a large elements absorbed into them from the surrounding sedi-
proportion of the planet after a major volcanic eruption. ments over time. For example, bones often absorb fluorine
They are also produced by reversals and strength changes and uranium from groundwater over time.
of the Earth’s magnetic field (see Chapter 2). Certain iron-
rich minerals in rocks and sediments preserve the signal
of the Earth’s magnetic field at times when the sediments Reflective question
were deposited. The Earth’s magnetic field has switched,
for unknown reasons, around four to five times per mil- ➤ Why do we need to develop and use several different
lion years over the past 10 million years with the magnetic dating techniques?
poles reversing from its normal phase (which we are in
now). There have also been phases of weakening rather
than full switching. Thus sediment ages can be linked 4.6 Pleistocene stratigraphy
around the world since this magnetic switching or weaken- and correlation
ing applies to the whole planet.
One commonly used age equivalence technique uses In order to assess environmental change through time it is
the marine oxygen isotope curve as the basis of a globally necessary to analyze sequences of sediments preserved in
applicable stratigraphic scheme. The oxygen isotope stages a range of contexts on land, in ice and beneath the ocean
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Chapter 4 The Pleistocene
floor. Two aspects of this work are ordering the record at of these stratotype sites provides the names for apparent
any one location into a time sequence (stratigraphy) and events in the Pleistocene record. However, because of the
determining how the evidence at one site relates to the spatial and temporal variation of Pleistocene environments
evidence at another (correlation). Since only a short period often the stratotypes are only locally important.
of time is recorded in the terrestrial deposits at any one Nevertheless, it is important to try to correlate evi-
site it is rare to find even one complete cycle of glacial and dence at one site with that of others so that the extent and
interglacial sediments on the land surface at mid to high spatial variability of environmental change can be deter-
latitudes. Therefore sequences from different sites must be mined and so that we can piece together a long continuous
pieced together to form a complete picture. Only in deep record. However, the repeated cooling and warming during
oceans, deep lake deposits and thick loess are long strati- the Pleistocene has meant that similar depositional fea-
graphic sequences preserved. At most places, where the tures may be preserved that are actually of very different
record is fragmentary, careful analysis is required before ages. This makes correlation difficult. Figure 4.25 presents
sequences can be ordered at one place and then related to how stratigraphic schemes established using evidence from
those at another. different regions have been related to each other on a large
Often stratigraphic methods are descriptive as it is scale. There is often a great deal of debate about whether
the visible features that allow formal subdivision of the a particular sequence really represents similar changes
sequence (Figure 4.24). Classification of subdivisions can recorded elsewhere. In some places there is no evidence in
be done in a number of ways. For example, sequences can the stratigraphic record for events that have been recorded
be classified on the basis of fossil evidence found within elsewhere. It is now common practice to try to relate ter-
them, with each biostratigraphic unit having a distinctive restrial stratigraphic units to the marine isotope stratigra-
fossil assemblage. Traditionally, pollen assemblages have phy (Box 4.5), but many of the marine stages have yet to
been used in the subdivision of interglacial stages of North be identified in the terrestrial record. This may be because
America and northern Europe. Other methods involve the the event did not have an impact on local processes at a
relative dating of landforms present or inferring changes in given site or region, but it is more likely to be because sedi-
climate from the sedimentary structure. Where a particu- mentary evidence of the event has not been preserved.
lar stratigraphic unit is very clear and well recorded, and Even at a small scale problems can arise in correlating
where its lower boundary can be well defined, this site may sedimentary sequences. This may happen because during
be designated a stratotype or typesite. This site becomes one glacial period the ice may extend over a particular
the reference point and the place where a particular strati- site. However, even if the next glacial period was just as
graphic subdivision is officially defined. Then other sites cold and ice volumes just as great, the same site may not
where the record of that equivalent unit is only partly pre- be subject to the same glacial action. It may, for exam-
sent or poorly preserved can be compared with the strato- ple, be part of a fluvioglacial outwash plain during the
type that is the standard reference site. Often the location next glacial period. There are also problems caused by
the erosion or reworking of old sediments which are then
redeposited on top of a younger layer of sediment. Thus,
fossils and other sediments may be incorrectly associated
with a younger period of time than they actually belong to
because of their erroneous stratigraphic position.
Deep-ocean records appear to be relatively undisturbed,
unlike many terrestrial sequences, and therefore represent
a good long-term global timeframe of events. In fact the
ocean record is now used as the standard of reference for
most other stratigraphic sequences. Producing a good cor-
relation between terrestrial and marine sequences is one of
the key areas of Pleistocene research (Box 4.5). However,
some terrestrial sequences preserve temporal detail that is
as good as the deep-ocean sedimentary records and reveal
Figure 4.24 Stratigraphic deposits made visible by cliff erosion on the similar patterns of change. These include undisturbed sed-
Norfolk coast, England, dating back 25 000 years. imentary basins or lakes (e.g. Funza, Colombian Andes;
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4.6 Pleistocene stratigraphy and correlation
Figure 4.25 Quaternary stratigraphy correlations from
n
different regions. (Source: Phil Gibbard)
ica
es
nd
er
an st
lai
ag
es ala
pe e
es m
es P
St
ro -W
ag A
ag an
ag Ze
ag h
Eu orth
St orth
St ritis
St ussi
St e w
Age
es
N
N
B
R
(Myr)
0
Weichselian Devensian Valdaian Wisconsinan
Eemian Ipswichian Mikulinian Sangamonian 0.1
Warthe ‘Tottenhill’ Moscovian
Illinoian Haweran
Drenthe Dnieper 0.2
Wolstonian
Saalian
Wacken
/Dömnitz pre–Illinoian A 0.3
Fuhne
Neopleistocene
Holsteinian Hoxnian Likhvinian 0.4
Elsterian Anglian Okian pre–Illinoian B
Interglacial IV 0.5
Glacial c
pre–Illinoian C
‘Cromerian complex’
Muchkapian
Interglacial III Cromerian 0.6
Glacial b Donian pre–Illinoian D
Interglacial II Ilynian 0.7
Glacial a
Pokrovian pre–Illinoian E
Interglacial I 0.8
Petropavlovian
Dorst pre–Illinoian F 0.9
Leerdam
Bavelian
Castlecliffian 1.0
Linge
Krinitisian
/Krinitsa
Bavel
1.1
Beestonian
pre–Illinoian G 1.2
Menapian
Eopleistocene
1.3
1.4
Tolucheevkian
Waalian 1.5
/Tolucheevka
1.6
Eburonian pre–Illinoian H 1 .7
pre–Illinoian I 1 .8
Pastonian
not named
1 .9
Pre–Pastonian pre–Illinoian J
Khaprovian
/Khapry
/Baventian
2.0
Nukumaruan
Bramertonian
/Antian 2.1
recent alternative chronostratigraphic correlation scheme
Tiglian
Late Pliocene
Thurnian
2.2
Khaprovian
2.3
Verkhodonian
/Verkhodon
Ludhamian 2.4
Praetiglian 2.5
pre–Illinoian K
Mangapanian
Pre–Ludhamian
2.6
Verkhod
Reuverian
Waltonian
2.7
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Chapter 4 The Pleistocene
Direct marine and Oppo, 2003). This also makes sedimentary continuous, high-resolution records
terrestrial stratigraphic sequences on land with similar pollen of m
illennial-scale climatic oscillations
distributions easy to correlate with the and work has been done on cores dat-
correlation
marine sequences. ing between 9000 and 65 000 years
In order to get around the problems of Kershaw et al. (2003), for example, BP (Roucoux et al., 2001) and between
making sure that a land sequence really analyzed pollen and charcoal records from 180 000 and 345 000 years BP (Roucoux
was deposited at the same time as an marine cores off the northern coast of et al., 2006). Pollen analysis of the same
apparently equivalent ocean record some Australia. The radio-carbon dates for the cores allows direct assessment of the
workers have used deep-ocean sediment charcoal and the oxygen isotopes from lags between the North Atlantic climate
cores obtained near land margins (e.g. the ocean sediment allowed the pollen system and the vegetation changes on
Heusser et al., 2006). This is because the records to be more rigorously correlated. the adjacent land mass. The pollen was
sediment deposited at these sites often Vegetation change not only reflected transported into the ocean by the Douro
contains pollen and dust from local ter- Milankovitch orbital forcing patterns but and Modego Rivers which flow into the
restrial sources. Marine pollen records of reflected a 30 000 year fluctuation change Atlantic. Work on the cores has shown that
the vegetation that grew on land can be in the intensity of El Niño induced fire variability in tree population size closely
correlated directly with proxy evidence frequency (which produced the charcoal tracked both millennial-scale climate vari-
of the marine environment and the washed into the ocean sediments). ability and Milankovitch-scale variability.
oxygen isotope stratigraphy preserved Analysis of deep-sea cores from the
in the same sediment (e.g. Heusser and western Portuguese margin provides
Box 4.5
Lake Biwa, Japan; Lake George, Australia; Carpathian core record are more difficult to identify in the terrestrial
Basin, Hungary) where sediments have been consist- sequences. This may be because vegetation and animal
ently accumulating for millions of years. For example, responses to such rapid climate changes are too slow and/
Hooghiemstra and Sarmiento (1991) showed that tree or because the resolution of terrestrial sequences is rarely
pollen at Funza in the Colombian Andes correlated well good enough to be able to pick out such short events
with the marine isotope record (Figure 4.26). (e.g. sedimentation rates are not fast enough). Further-
Shorter-term changes such as D–O events and even more, other effects such as changes in moisture regimes,
shorter decadal to century-scale events recorded in the ice atmospheric circulation and environmental gradients may
140
Ocean record
120
Arboreal pollen percentage
100 7 9
5 7 11
5 21 35
15 19 25
80 13 27
1 17 29 31
23 33
60
40
20
Lake pollen
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Age (kyr)
Figure 4.26 Correlation of the Funza pollen record with the marine oxygen isotope record over the past 1.2
million years. (Source: after Hooghiemstra and Sarmiento, 1991)
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4.7 Palaeoclimate modelling
not be identified in the record until the vegetation has had surface temperatures and this goes against some data from
time to respond and migrate or in situ decline can take ocean sediments.
place. However, the vegetation surrounding tree popula- Several types of models are used for palaeoclimatol-
tion refugia (e.g. in southern Europe) seems to respond ogy, including energy balance models, radiative convec-
rapidly and therefore registers the D–O cycles in its pollen tive models and GCMs. Energy balance models simply
records (Tzedakis et al., 2002). consider energy exchange between zones of the Earth and
can incorporate latitudinal, longitudinal and altitudinal
transfers. These simple models allow the effects of feed-
backs such as albedo, CO2 concentrations and solar input
Reflective questions to be investigated relatively quickly. Radiative convective
➤ What are the main problems and benefits of correlating models examine atmospheric radiation processes and have
evidence for Pleistocene environmental change? been used to examine the effects of aerosols and clouds on
temperature. Often these models have been used to look at
➤ Why is using deep-sea cores close to land margins a useful
changes in one parameter at a time (e.g. methane concen-
tool for Pleistocene research?
tration), manipulating them to see which factors are most
important and how individual factors might act as feed-
backs in the system.
4.7 Palaeoclimate modelling For GCMs the Earth’s surface and atmosphere are
divided into a grid of boxes. Equations involving conser-
The use of data from a number of sources and use of vation of energy, mass and momentum are then solved at
high-speed numerical simulation models has benefited each grid cell and for every time interval required. This
Pleistocene research enormously. At a simple level, wave requires large amounts of computer power and very large
modelling (or spectral analysis) has allowed the fluctua- datasets are generated by the models. Ocean circulation
tions of the ocean oxygen isotope record to be analyzed in models are often coupled to atmospheric circulation mod-
more detail to determine more exact matches and devia- els. Ice dynamic models are also added in to demonstrate
tions from the Milankovitch predictions (Elkibbi and Rial, the impacts on ocean circulation and atmospheric circula-
2001). However, it is concern over the consequences of tion of ice sheets growing and melting. Coupling these
human activity on atmospheric greenhouse gases that has models to biosphere and land surface models add complex-
driven the development of models of the climate system. ity but aids understanding of the whole system behaviour.
GCMs have been run with pre-industrial levels of CO2 GCMs can also be used to trace the pathways of materials
(as indicated by ice core evidence) and then with double within the climate system. For example, desert dust path-
CO2 levels, or with sequential changes in CO2, to exam- ways have been modelled and predictions tested against
ine projected climatic changes. Such models, which are observed changes in the dust content of ice cores in order
based on the present state of the Earth system, can be to determine the direction of prevailing circulation patterns
questioned for reliability in light of what we have learned (Mahowald et al., 1999). Sources of moisture supplying
about the Pleistocene and tested using Pleistocene datasets precipitation to ice sheets have also been modelled in order
(Bracannot et al., 2012). If models can reproduce past to help understand how source regions differed in the past,
climatic conditions that we know about from their proxy which helps with interpretation of ice core geochemistry.
environmental record we may be more confident in their Given the strong evidence in the climate record for sud-
ability to predict future climates. den and dramatic changes in the climate system indicating
This modelling approach, which is concerned thresholds in the system, it is important that such thresh-
with improving future predictions, has also benefited olds are incorporated into palaeoclimate models. How-
Pleistocene research. The models provide insight into ever, it is often difficult to work out what these thresholds
potential forcing mechanisms and the interactions between should be. For example, we do not really know how great a
different parts of the climate system (oceans, ice sheets, change in evaporation or meltwater input is required in the
atmosphere, biosphere and land surface). They can also North Atlantic to shut down the thermohaline circulation
indicate potentially unreliable data or areas where further system, or whether the amount required changes through
research is needed. For example, many models are unable time as other processes operate (e.g. changes in ocean
to produce glaciations with relatively warm tropical sea circulation due to plate tectonics affecting the shape of
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Chapter 4 The Pleistocene
the ocean basins). However, as model reliability improves
in other areas of the models, we can eventually test these Reflective questions
sorts of questions using the models themselves. Some mod-
els are able to simulate key features of the climate record ➤ What can we learn from palaeoclimate models and why
but uncertainties about the processes, the role of feedbacks should we bother developing them?
and boundary conditions still need to be resolved. Even the ➤ Why are palaeoclimate models useful for future climate
most complex models today are still too simple to repre- change modelling?
sent many of the climate feedbacks in detail.
4.8 Summary on ecological responses to climate, the physical extent of former
ice sheets, and former atmospheric and ocean circulation pat-
The Pleistocene is a dynamic period of Earth’s history which has terns, using proxy environmental and climatic data.
seen oscillation upon oscillation in climatic conditions. Huge ice The main dating techniques can be grouped into three main
sheets have expanded and retreated over tens of thousands of categories – age estimation techniques such as thermolumines-
years. Short-term, but dramatic, changes in global temperature cence dating, age equivalent labelling such as use of magnetic
superimposed on top of this have occurred on a timescale of just reversals in the Earth’s poles to relate sediments from one place
a few decades. to another, and relative chronology such as bone diagenesis.
The slowly changing shape of the Earth’s orbit around the There are several problems in correlating different types of evi-
Sun is thought to be a key driver of the major climate changes dence from different locations. One problem is that it is often dif-
during the Pleistocene. However, this orbital forcing theory ficult to date a piece of evidence for past environmental change
is insufficient on its own to explain many of the patterns and precisely. Other problems include the fragmentary nature of some
magnitude of changes that are thought to have occurred. Other records and the fact that in some places a climatic change may
feedback mechanisms related to ice sheet growth and advance, not have a local impact whereas in other places it does.
albedo changes, the way ice sheets melt and changes in ocean This chapter has shown that there are a range of factors exert-
circulation are thought to be very important modulators of global ing strong controls on Pleistocene climate. These factors include
climate in response to changes in solar radiation received by the external orbital forcing processes and a range of internal positive
Earth resulting from orbital motion. and negative feedback effects. The complex interactions between
Evidence for Pleistocene environmental change comes from a oceans, ice sheets, the biosphere and the atmosphere mean that
range of sources on land, on lake floors, in ice and on the ocean there are no simple cause–effect relationships. The Earth’s envi-
floor. The terrestrial evidence is detailed but fragmentary, the ronment appears to have certain thresholds which, when crossed,
ocean evidence is continuous but low resolution and the ice core can result in sudden changes to the climate system. Pleistocene
evidence is high resolution but relatively short in comparison with research is of use to those involved in predicting future climate
the ocean sedimentary record. The evidence for climatic change is change. It has suggested that slow changes of climate in one
always indirect evidence (a proxy, e.g. vegetation or animal assem- direction can result in sudden changes in a different direction.
blages). Therefore, even if proxy data are well dated they will be of Modelling of climate change allows us to make predictions of
little use for climatic reconstruction unless the climatic depend- future climates while modelling past climates serves to test the
ency of that proxy can be clearly established. There is room for models’ sensitivity. It also allows us to determine where we need
considerable improvement in this field because it is often not more detailed information in order to improve the quality of these
appropriate to use modern analogues. For example, species can predictions. It seems evident that a great deal more research is
adapt to new environments and environmental gradients can vary required before our predictions include the full complexity of real
over time. Nevertheless a rich amount of detail can be obtained environmental processes and the feedbacks between them.
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Further reading
Further reading Koch, P.L. and Barnosky, A.D. (2006) Late Quaternary
extinctions: state of the debate. Annual Review of Ecology,
Evolution, and Systematics, 37, 215–250.
An excellent review of the Pleistocene megafaunal extinctions.
Anderson, D.E., Goudie, A.S. and Parker, A.G. (2015) Global
environments through the Quaternary: exploring environmen- Lowe, J.J. and Walker, M.J.C. (2015) Reconstructing
tal change, 2nd edition. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Quaternary environments, 3rd edition. Routledge,
This book is full of useful information and review questions on Abingdon.
evidence types and environmental changes during the Quater- This is a very comprehensive overview of types of evidence and
nary using data and examples from all round the world. methods of their analysis. This book contains lots of useful
examples and explanations and is an excellent textbook.
Bridgland, D., Maddy, D. and Bates, M. (2004) River terrace
sequences: templates for Quaternary geochronology and Ruddiman, W.F. (2006) Orbital changes and climate.
marine-terrestrial correlation. Journal of Quaternary Science, Quaternary Science Reviews, 25, 3092–3112.
19, 203–218. A useful and very clearly written review paper on orbital
The issues of stratigraphic correlation are outlined here. forcing and feedback mechanisms.
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C H A PTER 5
The Holocene
Ian Lawson
School of Geography and Sustainable Development, University of St Andrews
Learning objectives (Chapter 4). Together, the Holocene and Pleistocene
epochs make up the Quaternary period.
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
Why does the Holocene deserve a whole epoch name –
and chapter of this book – to itself? After all, it represents
➤ describe how the Holocene began
just a tiny fraction of the vast 4.6 billion-year history of
planet Earth. In many ways, the Holocene is a quite unex-
➤ outline the main drivers of climate change during the Holocene
ceptional period of Earth history, a period of moderate
➤ explain the difference between local and global sea-level changes warmth and relatively stable climate. Nonetheless, it stands
during the Holocene out from the rest of the geological record for three reasons.
➤ describe the key changes in global ecosystems during the First, the Holocene is the most recent period of Earth
Holocene history. Studying the Holocene allows us to reconstruct
➤ show an awareness of the way human societies developed and the immediate history of the world around us. Studying
spread during the Holocene and their long-term impacts upon the more distant periods of time can be fascinating (ask any
landscape dinosaur-obsessed toddler!), but the Holocene has a special
relevance in offering explanations of why the physical envi-
ronment is the way it is. Landscape features as diverse as
5.1 Introduction soils, peatlands, salt marshes, raised beaches, river flood-
plains, lake basins and coral atolls are often geologically
The Holocene is a geological epoch which began recent phenomena whose history began since the last glaci-
11 700 years ago and continues to the present day ation. Furthermore, to properly explain these phenomena,
(Figure 5.1). The name derives from the Greek for ‘wholly we have to understand their history, and mostly that means
recent’. In the older literature the Holocene is sometimes their history during the Holocene. For example, in order to
called ‘the Recent’ (with a capital R), ‘the Postglacial’, explain why Irish ecosystems are less diverse than British
or by a local name (e.g. ‘Flandrian’ by British research- or mainland European ones, it is necessary to know that
ers). The Holocene epoch follows the Pleistocene epoch at the start of the Holocene most temperate animals and
which extends from 2.588 million to 11 700 years ago plants were still sheltering from the harsh climate of the
M05 An Introduction to Physical Ge 83575.indd 108 24/05/2017 13:09
5.2 Holocene climatic change
Pleistocene
Holocene
YD A/B
-31
-33
-35
-37
@18Oice
8200 BP event
-39
-41
-43
-45
0 5000 10 000 15 000 20 000 25 000
Age (years b2k)
Figure 5.1 A familiar portrayal of Late Glacial and Holocene climatic change: this is the upper part of an oxygen isotope record from a Greenland ice core
(NGRIP). It can be interpreted as a temperature curve (warm towards the top). The Holocene/Pleistocene boundary occurs at 11 700 years b2k (before
AD 2000). Two key events towards the end of the Pleistocene are YD – the Younger Dryas and A/B – the Allerød/Bølling interstadial. Many smaller events
have also been described (Walker et al., 1999). The 8200 years BP event appears as a relatively small cool spike in the Holocene record.
(Source: you can derive your own plots from publically available data at www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/icecore/greenland/ngrip/ngrip-data.html)
last glacial period in southern Europe. These animals and least 120 000 years old. For most of their history, hominins
plants made their way across the continent as the Holocene fitted into ecosystems rather like other large animals. They
progressed, and some did not make it in time before the were relatively rare and appear to have lived in quite small
land bridges connecting Britain and Ireland to the Euro- groups; they ate plants and, later, scavenged and hunted
pean continent were drowned as the ice sheets melted and animals. Gradually their use of technology became more
sea level rose. This is just one example of the way in which sophisticated: fire and tool-making gave them the ability
studying the past offers explanations about the present. to manipulate the environment in ways that other animals
The second reason why the Holocene is special is that it could not. But the beginning of the Holocene coincided
can be studied in a different way from most of the rest of with, arguably, the greatest step change in the relationship
Earth history. Holocene deposits are much more widespread between humans and the environment in the whole of our
than those of any previous period, because there has not history: the beginnings of agriculture. As we will see later
been time for erosion to remove them; a large proportion in this chapter, the ramifications of this change included
of the Earth’s surface is mantled by Holocene sediments a huge increase in human populations, the emergence of
and soils. As they tend to be at or near the surface, they complex civilizations, and an ever-greater ability to modify
are easy to access, and like most Quaternary deposits they the physical geography of the Earth. The extent of this
are usually soft enough to be sampled without recourse to change has been so great that many scientists have called
the traditional geologist’s hammer: a spade or trowel will for all or part of the Holocene to be designated as the
do instead. And because Holocene deposits have not usually ‘Anthropocene’, the age of mankind (Waters et al., 2016).
been buried very deeply or for very long, they often escape We will begin, however, by looking at the backdrop for
the squeezing, deformation and chemical alteration that this human story: the climatic history of the Holocene and
can make more ancient deposits difficult to interpret. The natural processes of ecosystem and landscape change.
Holocene is thus very often the easiest part of the geologi-
cal record to study, and its deposits are capable of yielding
5.2 Holocene climatic change
an unusually rich and well-resolved record of the past.
The third key characteristic of the Holocene is the
5.2.1 How the Holocene began
importance of people within it. Hominins, the group of
species including our own species Homo sapiens, have been The Holocene is formally defined as a geological epoch
evolving separately from chimpanzees and other primates whose onset coincides with the rapid transition from the
since 5–8 million years ago. Homo sapiens as a species is at Younger Dryas stadial (cold interval: see Chapter 4) to the
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Chapter 5 The Holocene
interglacial conditions of the Holocene, as recorded in the up from the tropics into the high latitudes of the North
well-dated NGRIP (North GReenland Ice-core Project) ice Atlantic, then all the heat in that warm water has to go
core in Greenland (Walker et al., 2009). somewhere else, and so much of the southern hemisphere
The peak of the last glacial, defined as the period when warms instead. Ice core records of abrupt climate events
global ice sheets were largest, is called the Last Glacial from Antarctica during the run-up to the Holocene are
Maximum; it ended around 19 000 years before present almost mirror images of those from Greenland, although
(BP) (Hughes et al., 2013). The transition from the Last the longer-term trend driven by orbital forcing (Milankovitch
Glacial Maximum to fully interglacial climatic conditions theory) of global climate (from cold to warm) is the same.
was complex (Figure 5.1). The transition took several The Holocene was not just warmer than the last glacial,
thousand years and saw a series of short-lived warmings it was also generally wetter. Water evaporates more read-
and coolings, often only lasting a few centuries. In north- ily from warm oceans into the atmosphere; more water in
ern Europe the main events are, in order from oldest to the atmosphere means more precipitation, so, as a general
youngest: the Oldest Dryas (cold), the Bølling (warm), the rule, the warmer periods of Earth history are also the wet-
Older Dryas (cold), the Allerød (warm) and the Younger ter ones.
Dryas (cold). Some highly resolved records, such as the
Greenland ice cores, show even more, smaller events nested
5.2.2 Drivers of climate change during the
within these. These abrupt climatic variations seem to
Holocene
have been caused indirectly by the melting of the great ice
sheets in Fennoscandia and North America as the Earth The Holocene itself has been relatively climatically stable,
slowly warmed: the influx of fresh meltwater from several at least compared with the extreme swings in climate dur-
directions into the North Atlantic disrupted the delicate ing glacial periods (Chapter 4). But that is not to say that
balance of ocean water salinity that mediates the thermoha- there has been no change whatsoever. Indeed, the subtle-
line circulation, causing the currents that bring warm water ties of Holocene climate change promise to teach us a lot
from the tropics into the North Atlantic to switch on or about the modern climate system and the possible shape
off (Broecker et al., 2010; see Chapter 4). The end of the of future climate change, although they are often very dif-
Younger Dryas marks a convenient place to define the lower ficult to detect using the palaeoenvironmental techniques
boundary (i.e. the start) of the Holocene, although more at our disposal today. Our knowledge is increasing but this
minor perturbations of the ocean currents by the melting remains a key research frontier. At present we know of sev-
ice sheets continued well into the Holocene, the last known eral different mechanisms by which Holocene climate has
event of this kind occurring about 8200 years ago. changed, each of which will be discussed in turn below.
Palaeoclimate researchers have tended to focus on
Europe and North America, but if research had begun
5.2.2.1 Meltwater-driven ocean circulation changes
on the other side of the planet we might have chosen a
different starting point for the Holocene. This is because The continental ice sheets that had built up in northern
the effect of ocean circulation disruptions originating in Europe and North America during the last glacial were
the North Atlantic varied around the world. The regions so large that, even once the global climate had warmed
around the North Atlantic were most strongly affected by to temperatures similar to those of today, their collapse
the temperature changes in the North Atlantic itself, which took several thousand years. Meltwater continued to upset
is why the Greenland record shows such a clear transition North Atlantic ocean circulation on several occasions. The
between the Younger Dryas and the Holocene. In much largest and best known of these meltwater release events
of the northern Pacific, which was less directly affected occurred approximately 8200 years BP (Alley et al., 1997).
by meltwater from ice sheets and where ocean circula- At that time the North American (or ‘Laurentide’) ice
tion was accordingly more stable, the changes were more sheet had reduced in size considerably and fragmented, but
muted. Most of the southern hemisphere, on the other still presented a barrier to northward-flowing runoff from
hand, experienced exactly the opposite sequence of abrupt the continent. Consequently a very large lake, named Lake
climatic changes during the glacial–interglacial transition: Agassiz by geologists, ponded up behind the ice sheet in an
whenever it was warm in the northern hemisphere it was area centred approximately on the Great Lakes (as it had
cold in the southern hemisphere, and vice versa. This so- done on several previous occasions during the deglacia-
called bipolar see-saw (Broecker, 1998) arises because if tion). The ice holding back this water gradually thinned,
the currents in the North Atlantic fail to draw warm water and eventually the water burst through catastrophically.
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5.2 Holocene climatic change
Figure 5.2 Giant current ripples formed by huge outburst floods during the end of the last glacial in the north-west USA. A similar flood event is widely
thought to have caused the 8200 years BP cold event. (Source: Tom Foster)
Enormous flood channels and boulder-sized sediments Holocene, although the ice sheets were slow to respond
left by the ensuing outburst flood have been identified in and only reached their present size around 7000 years BP.
eastern Canada (Figure 5.2). The sudden draining of Lake The early Holocene was, for the northern hemisphere, a
Agassiz into the North Atlantic and the consequent reor- period of warm summers and cold winters (the opposite
ganization of the river systems caused the thermohaline was true for the southern hemisphere); across much of
circulation (see Chapters 3 and 4) to slow markedly for Europe the summer temperature might have been a degree
the next two centuries: a strong cooling event is clearly or two higher than today on average. In the subtrop-
recorded in the Greenland ice, and is visible in many of the ics of the northern hemisphere this had the important
more sensitive palaeoclimatic records from North America effect of increasing the strength of the monsoon systems
and Europe. (Chapter 5), whereby intense heating of the land surface
in summer brings heavy rainfall. Thus for many parts of
the subtropics the early Holocene was much wetter than
5.2.2.2 Orbital forcing
today. Strikingly, much of the area now occupied by the
Milankovitch cycles, although slow, have continued to have Sahara Desert was wet enough to support savanna ecosys-
an important effect on Holocene climate. In Chapter 4, it tems; large game animals such as giraffe and antelope, and
was explained that variations in summer insolation in the the humans who hunted them, roamed across the eastern
northern hemisphere are thought to be the main driver Sahara until the mid-Holocene (see Section 5.4.2, below).
of the balance between ice accumulation and melt: the Since the early Holocene, northern hemisphere sum-
greater the summer insolation, the greater the extent to mer insolation has slowly declined, northern summers
which the winter snow is melted completely away. North- have become cooler, the monsoons have weakened, and
ern hemisphere summer insolation peaked during the early much of the Earth’s land area has become cooler and
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Chapter 5 The Holocene
drier. Until the theory of anthropogenic global warming (particles of light) generated by the Sun intercepts some of
became firmly established in the 1980s, many palaeocli- the cosmic radiation reaching the Earth from the rest
matologists thought that the insolation trend was lead- of the universe, and the stronger the stream of photons (in
ing us, slowly but inevitably, into the next glacial period. other words, the greater the Sun’s output), the smaller the
Climatologists now argue that we are likely to skip the flux of cosmic rays reaching the Earth. Cosmic rays (pro-
next 100 000 year glacial cycle altogether before the tons) collide with atoms in the Earth’s atmosphere and
Earth’s systems are able to absorb our fossil carbon emis- can cause nuclear reactions, sometimes producing unusual
sions (Ganopolski et al., 2016). and often unstable radioactive isotopes. The best known
of these is carbon-14 (14C or radiocarbon). Variations in
the past production of 14C can be measured and used to
5.2.2.3 Shorter-term climatic cycles: solar forcing
infer changes in solar output, although there are compli-
and internal oscillations
cating factors (see Box 5.1). Some other isotopes, notably
Milankovitch theory explains changes in climate over beryllium-10 (10Be), are less problematic, and the 10Be
thousands or tens of thousands of years as the result of record preserved in ice cores is regarded as a good proxy
changes in the shape of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun, for past solar output variations (Figure 5.3).
which affect the distribution of incoming solar radiation A combination of direct and proxy measurements
(or insolation) across the Earth’s surface in space and has established that there are at least three significant,
time. There is a growing appreciation, however, that the more or less periodic cycles in solar output: the relatively
amount of heat emitted by the Sun varies over time. The well-known 11-year ‘Schwabe’ sunspot cycle, the 78-year
reason for this is not well understood but probably reflects ‘Gleissberg’ cycle and the 200-year ‘Suess’ cycle. Several
persistent, chaotic variations in the way in which hot plas- Holocene climate records suggest that there might be
mas circulate within the Sun itself. These variations in two longer cycles with periods of about 1500 years and
the Sun’s outputs may cause climatic changes (Bard and 2200 years, but researchers have proposed a large number
Frank, 2006), which would then be described as due to of other possible cyclicities in Holocene climate, unfortu-
‘(direct) solar forcing’, as opposed to ‘orbital forcing’ for nately often on the basis of palaeoclimatic data from a sin-
Milankovitch-driven changes. gle site. These apparent cyclicities may not be real, and even
Measurements of solar forcing variations on a day- if they are, they may not be due to changes in solar output.
to-day basis are now being carried out by satellites, and for This uncertainty about the importance of solar forcing is
some centuries astronomers have kept records of sunspot essentially due to three factors. First, the actual magnitude
activity, which is correlated to solar output. Measuring of changes in solar output is very small – of the order of
changes deeper in the past is also possible using a small { 0.1% for the 11-year sunspot cycle – so they are difficult
number of recently developed techniques. Most rely on to measure. Second, these small changes in solar output
the apparent correlation between solar activity and the translate into only very small climatic changes, even with
strength of the cosmic ray flux: the stream of photons the help of positive feedbacks (Figure 5.4). These climatic
Normalised 10Be concentration
10
Be 1.4
Atmos. ¢ 14C [permil]
1.0
15 14
C 0.6
0
–15
Oort Wolf Spörer Maunder Dalton
700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900
Year AD
Figure 5.3 A stacked 10Be record from two Antarctic ice cores for the last ∼1300 years (top line on graph). High
10
Be concentrations imply lower solar irradiance, and hence global cooling. Atmospheric 14C concentrations are
shown during the same period (bottom line on graph), which show a similar pattern (see Box 5.1). Oort, Wolf,
Spörer, Maunder and Dalton are the names of periods when sunspot activity was low. (Source: from Delaygue and
Bard, 2011)
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5.2 Holocene climatic change
(a)
Stacked Stacked @18O records from Bog surface
pollen-based chironomid-based two calcareous wetness record
temperature temperature lake sediment from S. Finland
deviations deviations cores
5C 5C @18O (‰) cm
-0.4 -0.2 0.2 0.4 -0.6 -0.2 0.2 0.6 -2.0 0.0 2.0 20 12 4 -4 -12 -20
0 Present
LIA
Long warm
1000 and dry
period,
‘Medieval
Calendar years BP
2000 warm period’
and ‘Roman
warm period’
3000 Cold and wet
-13.5 -12.5
period
peaking
4000 at 3.5 kyr
Warm and dry,
end of the
5000 HTM
Colder Colder Colder and/or Moister
moister
(b)
0
1000
2000
3000
Calendar years BP
4000 Figure 5.4 (a) Careful syntheses of different lines of evidence are beginning
to produce consistent records of Holocene climate change. In this compila-
5000
tion of records from Scandinavia, which have been detrended to remove the
6000 long-term decline in temperature due to orbital forcing, two periods of par-
ticularly cold and/or moist climate stand out: the Little Ice Age and a period
7000 around 3500 years BP. Notice that the magnitude of the changes is less
than 0.5°C, where the records can be calibrated. LIA: Little Ice Age; HTM:
8000
Holocene Thermal Maximum. (b) From the same paper, a reconstruction of
9000 climate change in Scandinavia for the last 9000 years based on p ollen data.
Here the effect of insolation stands out clearly. The 8200 BP event is visible
as a small excursion towards cooler temperatures. The left-hand curve is a
.0
.0
.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
0
47
49
51
53
-3
-1
-2
summary curve of reconstructed temperature change. The right-hand curve
5C W m-2 is June insolation at 60°N. (Source: from Seppä et al., 2009)
changes are difficult to detect using existing palaeoclimatic in solar forcing studies is sometimes possible, but it is very
proxy techniques and their interpretation is usually ambig- time-consuming and expensive to do so.
uous; it is a real challenge to find records sensitive enough The main alternative explanations of cyclical climatic
to pick up such small climatic variations. Third, in order change during the Holocene are what are usually called
to detect cycles on decadal and century scales we need ‘internal oscillations’. That means they are internal to the cli-
very accurate knowledge of the age of the deposits being mate system, an inherent part of it. Perhaps the best-known
analysed. A typical radiocarbon date might itself have an internal climatic oscillation is the El Niño Southern Oscillation
analytical uncertainty, after calibration, of centuries. Gen- (ENSO, Chapters 6 and 8). ENSO, which has a periodicity of
erating the kind of detailed, precise age models required around seven years, is essentially caused by a time delay in the
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Chapter 5 The Holocene
Radiocarbon dating 14
C is radioactive, which means that, sample. Willard Libby, who is credited with
over time, it decays back to nitrogen. The doing most to develop the technique, was
In reconstructing the story of Holocene
rate at which it does so is constant. We awarded a Nobel Prize for his work.
environmental change, we need to know
say that 14C has a half-life of 5570 years: Radiocarbon dating rests on many
the age of the deposits we are studying.
Many dating techniques have been devel- if your body contains 1 * 10 - 14% radio- assumptions. The most important assump-
carbon today, then in 5570 years your tion is that we know the proportion of
oped, some of which were introduced in
sub-fossil skeleton (if you are lucky enough radiocarbon in the atmosphere. In the
Chapter 4. In Holocene research, undoubt-
to be preserved in the geological record!) early days of radiocarbon dating it was
edly the most important is radiocarbon
will only contain half as much radiocar- thought that this had not changed over
(14C) dating. This technique makes use
of the fact that the radioactive form of bon (0.5 * 10 - 14%). By the time it is time to any significant extent, and the
carbon, 14C, is continuously created in the 11 040 years old (two half-lives) it will only resulting dates seemed acceptable. How-
upper atmosphere: cosmic rays collide with contain a quarter as much radiocarbon ever, eventually it became apparent that
14
N atoms and create 14C atoms, which are as it does today (Figure 5.6). By the same the proportion of radiocarbon in the
then oxidized and incorporated in carbon logic, if we take a sample of material con- atmosphere has in fact changed quite sub-
dioxide (CO2) molecules. Carbon dioxide taining carbon from a Holocene deposit stantially, for two main reasons. The first
is mixed throughout the atmosphere and and measure its radiocarbon content, we is to do with the production of new radio-
absorbed by plants, which incorporate it can infer its age. carbon in the upper atmosphere, which is
into new cellular growth. This means that When radiocarbon dating was invented normally approximately in balance with the
all living plants, and the animals that eat in the 1950s its impact was tremendous: rate at which radiocarbon decays, so that
them, incorporate some 14C, as well as the for the first time geologists and archae- the overall proportion of radiocarbon in
far more common 12C and 13C isotopes ologists were able to put a firm figure the atmosphere stays roughly constant. In
(Figure 5.5). on the age of many different kinds of fact, the rate of production does change
Radiocarbon 14
(14C) dating C is formed by interaction
of cosmic rays with gases in the
upper atmosphere
... and mixes with 12C, the
common form of carbon,
as carbon dioxide gas
Both 14C and 12C are taken up by
plants during photosynthesis ...
Once dead, no more 14C is
taken up
... and enter
the food
chain
Figure 5.5 The principles of radiocarbon dating.
Box 5.1 ➤
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5.2 Holocene climatic change
➤
rings in a sample of sub-fossil wood can be
100
matched with the end of a sequence
in a second, older sample. In this way sev-
75 eral continuous sequences of tree rings
Total 14C activity (%)
Half-life =
5730 yr have been compiled from various parts of
the world, some of which extend all the
50
way from the present day into the last
glacial. And because we can count each
25 annual ring, we know the precise actual
(‘calendar’) age of each tree ring. The
science of estimating ages from tree rings
0
0 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 is called dendrochronology (dendron means
Years BP tree and khronos means time in Greek).
Figure 5.6 The radiocarbon decay curve. Tree rings also provide the solution
to correcting or calibrating radiocarbon
dates. Samples of wood from individual
over time. It depends on the strength of ages using the half-life does not yield an tree rings, from thousands of samples,
the cosmic ray flux, which is linked to the accurate estimate of the true age of the have been painstakingly radiocarbon dated.
intensity of the Sun’s output. This is known sample. The discrepancy tends to increase Plotting all of these dates on a graph with
to change cyclically on a variety of time- with age, so that a sample from the very the radiocarbon age on one axis and the
scales, the best documented of which is beginning of the Holocene, 11 700 years actual age of the sample (determined by
the 11-year Schwabe sunspot cycle, but ago, will give an apparent radiocarbon counting the tree rings) yields what is
there is evidence that the strength of the age of about 10 000 years. This would be called a calibration curve. The most com-
Sun’s output varies on longer timescales called an uncalibrated date. monly used calibration curve at the time
too. So the amount of new radiocarbon One reason we know that uncalibrated of writing, INTCAL13, has been assembled
produced varies semi-periodically on a radiocarbon dates are inaccurate is that by an international team of scientists and
range of timescales. The second reason scientists have, for many decades, been refined over many years (Figure 5.7). To
that the proportion of radiocarbon in the assembling sequences of modern and calibrate a radiocarbon date, we look up
atmosphere changes over time is that a sub-fossil wood. The width of rings laid the calibration curve for the apparent
substantial amount of CO2 is stored in down annually by trees changes from year radiocarbon age of our sample and read
the oceans, potentially for thousands of to year depending on the weather during off the corresponding calendar age of the
years, and the rate of exchange between the growing season. Year-to-year changes tree ring that yields the same apparent
the oceans and the atmosphere varies. in weather leave distinctive patterns of radiocarbon age. A complicating factor is
Sometimes large amounts of CO2 are variation in ring widths, which means that that, often, tree rings of several different
released from the oceans back into the the beginning of one sequence of tree ages give the same apparent radiocarbon
atmosphere quite suddenly. This happened,
for example, at the very beginning of the
3000
Holocene, when ocean overturning in the
North Atlantic restarted after the Younger 2500
Dryas. Large amounts of carbon had been
Calendar years BP
locked up in stagnant deep water, losing 2000
radiocarbon all the time. When the North
1500
Atlantic deep-water circulation started
again, much of this 14C@depleted CO2 was 1000
released back into the atmosphere, caus-
500
ing the proportion of radiocarbon in the
atmosphere to drop markedly. The net 0
result of these changes in the proportion 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Radiocarbon years
of radiocarbon in the Earth’s atmosphere
is that simply calculating radiocarbon Figure 5.7 A radiocarbon calibration curve.
Box 5.1 ➤
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Chapter 5 The Holocene
➤
age. Statistical techniques are used to they have used! Generally, publications ‘BP’ (before present) means, by
cope with this uncertainty and calibrated published before 2000 are likely to use convention, ‘before AD 1950’ (because
ages are usually quoted as a range of ages uncalibrated dates. The offset generally that is when radiocarbon dating began
within which the true age of the sample is increases with age. As a rule of thumb, you to be used). Many authors prefer to
likely to fall, with 95% confidence. could memorize the following approxi- use AD and BC dates. To simplify the
In practical terms, this means that you mately equivalent dates: true calendar ages arithmetic involved in converting
need to be careful when reading the litera- (years BP) of 0, 6000, and 11 650 (start from BP to AD/BC, some authors are
ture because calibrated and uncalibrated of Holocene) are equivalent to the uncali- now starting to quote dates as ‘b2k’,
ages are often used by different authors, brated radiocarbon age (years BP) of 0 (i.e. which is shorthand for ‘before the year
and they do not always specify which AD 1950), 5500 and 10 000 respectively. AD 2000’.
Box 5.1
response of one part of the Pacific Ocean to temperature and climate variations have occurred in relatively recent times.
circulation changes in another part of it. This delay drives a Over much of the globe, the period between around AD
semi-periodic cycle in sea surface temperatures, which in turn 1350 and AD 1900 was colder than today; best estimates
cause further changes in air temperature and moisture load, are that much of northern Europe, for example, was at
eventually affecting the climate of a large part of the planet. times between 0.5 and 1.0 °C colder than present. This
Systems theorists have shown that such oscillations are period has become known as the ‘Little Ice Age’ (Grove,
quite common in complex systems where feedbacks from 2004; some authors use the term to refer only to the period
one part of the system to another are delayed, and climate between AD 1570 and AD 1900, when temperatures were
scientists thus suspect that there might be many more at their lowest).
internal oscillations in the climate system operating on a Some of the geomorphological effects of the Little
variety of timescales. Two others operating on timescales Ice Age are clearly visible. For example, many glaciers in
of decades and known from instrumental data are the northern Europe have relict terminal and lateral moraines
North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) and Arctic Oscillation which demonstrate that they were larger in the recent
(AO) (see Chapter 8). Much longer oscillations have been past (Figure 5.8). But perhaps the particular fascination
identified in numerical models of oceanic circulation and of the Little Ice Age is that it demonstrably had an effect
ice sheet behaviour, and have been suggested as the cause
of Dansgaard–Oeschger climate cycles during the last glacial
(Chapter 4). Some argue that internal oscillations such
as these could account for most, if not all, of the quasi-
periodic climatic variability in the Holocene, without the
need to invoke solar forcing.
Although it is a considerable challenge to collect data
that are good enough to test alternative explanations, the
study of solar output variations and internal climatic oscil-
lations, and their effects on climate, is a growing field. It is
also an important one, because the relatively fast pace of
many of these cycles means that understanding them may
help to predict future climate change on timescales that are
relevant to people.
5.2.3 The Little Ice Age Figure 5.8 Little Ice Age moraines at Gígjökull, Iceland. The glacier is sur-
rounded by debris (foreground) left by its Little Ice Age advance. A muddy
As we move into recent centuries, historical documents
meltwater lake has ponded up behind the moraine. This picture was taken
increasingly add detail to our knowledge of past climate. in 2008; the eruption of Eyjafjallajökull just south of Gígjökull in 2010
It so happens that some of the most interesting Holocene reduced the size of the glacier considerably.
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5.3 Holocene geomorphological change
on people. During the most severe decades, upland farms hold only discontinuous valley glaciers. Only two really
throughout Europe were abandoned and farm production large ice sheets survived into the Holocene, in Greenland
declined. The Arctic sea ice made incursions much fur- and Antarctica. The Greenland ice sheet is much smaller
ther south than it does today, and polar bears carried by than it was during the last glacial, but the Antarctic ice
the ice became a regular menace to the people of Iceland. sheet is almost the same size: its growth during glacials is
Rivers and lakes in Britain and Holland froze much more limited by the fact that it terminates in the ocean, and dur-
regularly and thickly than they do today; people held fairs ing interglacials its weather systems remain separated from
on the ice on the River Thames in London, the farmers of the rest of the planet by strong oceanic and atmospheric
East Anglia became famous for their prowess in ice-skating currents that encircle and isolate the Antarctic continent.
on their frozen ditches, and the Scots developed the sport The retreat of most of the Earth’s ice sheets revealed
of curling, played on the ice of frozen lakes. The cultural large areas of bare rock and glacial deposits in North
memory of the Little Ice Age lingers on: British Christmas America and Eurasia, which together with the change
cards often portray snowbound scenes that would have towards a warmer and wetter climate meant a fundamen-
been much more commonly a part of the Christmas expe- tal change in the kind of geomorphological processes
rience in Victorian London than they are today. acting over large parts of the planet. Periglacial processes
Some palaeoclimatologists interpret the Little Ice (Chapter 24), permafrost, and glacial erosion and deposi-
Age as marking the beginning of the transition from tion all became less widespread.
the H
olocene interglacial into the next glacial, resulting In some places the loss of ice sheets and valley glaciers
ultimately from the gradual Milankovitch-driven down- caused a delayed relaxation of the landscape to fit the
ward trend of northern hemisphere summer insolation. new conditions. For example, where glaciers carve out a
Ruddiman et al. (2005) used climate modelling experi- U-shaped valley, the valley sides can become very steep,
ments to suggest that, if it had continued, positive feed- even where the bedrock is quite soft or mechanically weak,
backs such as the ice–albedo feedback (Chapter 4) would because the ice supports the valley walls and prevents them
have encouraged ice sheets in parts of Canada to grow, from collapsing. When the ice disappears, the support is
perhaps ultimately building a new continental ice sheet. removed, and the slopes can fail through a series of land-
slips until the valley sides are at a more stable, shallower
angle. Many previously glaciated valleys show evidence of
this kind of mass movement, which often dates to the first
Reflective questions few centuries or millennia of the early Holocene. Particu-
➤ To what extent do you think patterns of Holocene climate larly good examples are to be found on the western side of
change might suggest patterns and mechanisms of future the Trotternish Peninsula on the Isle of Skye (Figure 5.9).
climate change? This is an example of paraglacial geomorphology, which
produces a landscape feature that owes its existence to (the
➤ Why was the climate generally more stable during the previous presence of) ice, even though the ice is only indi-
Holocene than during the previous glacial? (Compare with rectly involved (Ballantyne, 2002).
Chapter 4.) Another slow response of landscapes to the removal of
the ice sheets is isostatic rebound. The Earth’s crust rests
on the mantle, which is partly molten and behaves as a
very viscous fluid (Chapter 2). The additional weight of
5.3 Holocene geomorphological change
the 3-km thick Laurentide and Fennoscandian ice sheets
pushed the crust into the mantle. Once the ice sheets
5.3.1 Retreating ice sheets
were removed, the land began to rise again. The response
Warming at the start of the Holocene had the most obvi- is extremely slow and indeed is still continuing; close to
ous direct geomorphological effect of causing most of the former centre of the Fennoscandian ice sheets, in the
the Earth’s ice sheets to diminish or disappear, a pro- northern Gulf of Bothnia (Sweden/Finland), the land is
cess that took thousands of years. The largest were the still rising at about 9 mm yr - 1.
Laurentide (North American) and Fennoscandian (north- As the ice sheets decayed and periglacial disturbance
ern European) ice sheets, but smaller ice caps centred on diminished, soils began to form through the chemical
mountain ranges such as the Alps and the Rockies also and physical weathering of newly exposed and stabilized
shrank and fragmented. In most cases, these regions now regolith (Chapter 17). In wetter areas, peat accumulated.
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Chapter 5 The Holocene
Figure 5.9 A paraglacial landscape on the Trotternish Peninsula, Isle of Skye, Scotland. During the last glacial the cliff on the left of the photograph
was supported by the edge of an ice sheet. When the ice melted, the support was removed, and the oversteepened cliff edge collapsed in a series of
rotational landslips.
The extensive peatlands that now occupy large parts of of northern Europe, for example, there are a series of old
Canada, Scandinavia and western Siberia are globally coastlines which have been successively uplifted during the
important because, on the one hand, they represent a large Holocene to form what are called raised beaches, outpacing
long-term store of carbon and, on the other hand, the slow the general rise in sea level.
decay of organic matter under waterlogged conditions in In most of the world, rather than the uplifting of
the peat leads to emissions of methane (CH4), a powerful land from the sea, the opposite has occurred: a great
greenhouse gas. Ice core records show that atmospheric deal of land was drowned by the eustatic sea-level rise
methane concentrations increased markedly at the start of during the first 5000 years of the Holocene. This has
the Holocene, probably reflecting the expansion of north- some substantial implications. The majority of global
ern peatlands. The greenhouse effect of this additional coastlines are only a few thousand years old: most of our
methane acted as a positive feedback to the initial warm- coastal geomorphological features, such as salt-marshes,
ing, accelerating the pace of deglaciation. beaches and spits (Chapter 22), are relatively young. In
some regions the outlines of continents and islands have
changed substantially. One of the best-studied areas in
5.3.2 Rising seas
this respect is the southern North Sea, between Britain
As the ice sheets melted, they returned a huge quantity of and the Netherlands. Today this is a relatively shallow
water – some 44 million km3 – to the oceans. This meant sea, often only 20 m deep, with occasional shallows and
that global average sea level (sometimes called eustatic sea sandbanks that are dangerous to shipping. At the start
level, to differentiate it from local sea-level changes that of the Holocene the whole area was dry land, a region
can be caused by changes in the elevation of the land – see that palaeogeographers call ‘Doggerland’ after the
below) dropped to around 120 m below present at the Last Dogger Bank, the largest of the remaining sandbanks
Glacial Maximum. The eustatic sea level began to rise (Figure 5.10). Trawlers operating in the North Sea regu-
again around 19 000 years BP, and only reached approxi- larly dredge up the traces of this lost landscape, such
mately its present level around 7000 years BP. In some as the teeth of woolly mammoth and stone tools left
parts of the world, particularly close to the previous ice by hunter–gatherers. As the sea invaded this largely flat
sheets, sea-level history has been more complex because, at landscape during the early Holocene, the geography must
the same time that global sea level has been rising, so too have changed quickly; even within a human lifetime the
has the land been rising due to isostatic rebound. In parts advance of the sea would have been obvious.
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5.3 Holocene geomorphological change
05
SHETLAND
VIKING-
BERGEN
NORTH SEA
Dee
Tweed
ER S
O GG ILL
D H
Elbe
545
Ouse Rhine
Thames
C H A N NE L 0 200 km
05
Figure 5.10 A reconstruction of the coastline of Britain during the early Holocene, showing the area now
under the North Sea known as Doggerland. (Source: from Coles, 2000)
There are cases where the effect of the rising sea level Consequently, during the Holocene the general pattern
on geography may have been even more dramatic. Some has been for river systems at lower latitudes to deposit
palaeogeographers think that the Bosporus Strait, which sediment in their lower reaches through a process of
separates the Mediterranean from what is now the Black aggradation. However, river geomorphology is controlled
Sea, was reached by the rising sea around 9400 years by a number of other factors, including changes to the
BP (Ryan et al., 1997). The Black Sea was then a rela-
tively small freshwater lake (Figure 5.11). The rising sea
eventually overtopped the sill at the Bosporus Strait. 345
Geomorphological evidence gained by seismic survey of
the bed of the Black Sea suggests that this may have initi- Sea of
ated a catastrophic flood, accelerating as the flood waters Azov
Danube
eroded the base of the sill; one of the more extreme esti- Delta
mates is that, at its peak, the Black Sea rose at a rate of
several centimetres per day. The abrupt flooding could 445
have meant the loss of 100 000 km2 of land in as little as
Black Sea
a year, an event so cataclysmic for local populations that
some people suggest that it inspired myths and legends of
catastrophic floods in many Near Eastern cultures, persist- Bosphorus
ing to this day in the biblical story of Noah.
The effects of the rising sea level were not just limited
to the coasts. River systems are adjusted to the base level 405 Sea of Marmara
of the sea (Chapter 19). As sea level rose, so the gradients
Figure 5.11 The current coastline of the Black Sea, and its much smaller
of river systems declined. This meant that there was less extent prior to the early Holocene ‘megaflood’ proposed by Ryan et al.
energy to transport sediment from inland to the oceans. (1997). (Source: after Giosan et al., 2009)
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Chapter 5 The Holocene
discharge regime (largely driven by climate) and the extent parts of the tropics, lower rainfall meant that rainforests
of sediment supply (which, in temperate regions at least, contracted. There were also some ecosystems that we
is often a function of the degree of vegetation cover, which would not recognize today. Pollen evidence (see Box 5.2)
protects soils from erosion). The interaction of these and shows that much of northern Europe was dominated by
other factors means that rivers have had strikingly dif- species such as sea buckthorn (Hippophaë rhamnoides),
ferent and often complex Holocene histories in different which today is associated with the dry, salty conditions of
parts of the world (Chapter 19; see also, for example, sandy shores. Its abundance inland during the last glacial,
Gibbard and Lewin, 2002). along with other halophilic (salt-tolerant) species, is attrib-
In this section we have seen that the geomorphologi- uted to aridity causing soil salinization widely across the
cal history of the Holocene has been dominated by the continent. There were also many species that no longer
response to the major shift in climate during the transi- exist on Earth, especially large animals such as the woolly
tion from the Last Glacial Maximum to the warmth mammoth. Large herbivores like mammoths were so abun-
of the interglacial, and the subsequent equilibration dant that it is thought that their browsing, and fertiliza-
of landscapes. There has also, of course, been climatic tion by their dung, helped to maintain grass-dominated,
change within the Holocene, and at times this has caused nutrient-rich ecosystems that have been called ‘mammoth
substantial changes in geomorphology: for example, the steppe’; direct analogues are not present in the modern
re-expansion of many glaciers during the Little Ice Age. world (Guthrie, 2001).
But, as we shall see later, the most important cause of fur- As temperatures increased during the late glacial, so
ther geomorphological change within the Holocene was ecosystems began to adjust to warmer conditions; at the
human action. start of the Holocene, following the end of the Younger
Dryas cold interval, the process of adjustment really took
hold. In many cases, finding a new equilibrium with the
warmer interglacial climate meant that populations of
Reflective questions
plants and animals had to move hundreds of kilometres
➤ Why is there a difference between eustatic and local sea- away from the equator. This was less problematic for
level history? animals than for plants, which can generally only ‘move’
by dispersing their seeds. For a few of the large forest-
➤ Why do geomorphological systems often respond to
forming trees, which often produce large seeds that can-
climate change with a lag of hundreds or thousands
not easily be dispersed by the wind but must instead be
of years?
carried by animals, and whose generations can be many
➤ In what ways might geomorphological systems continue decades apart, this was a very slow process. For many spe-
to react to the last glacial–Holocene transition in the cies (e.g. spruce – Picea abies: see below) the post-glacial
future? spread may still be continuing. With each new immigrat-
ing species, ecosystems had to adjust through competition
towards equilibrium, a process that can take many genera-
tions; again, thousands of years in the case of some long-
5.4 Holocene ecosystem change
lived tree species.
Climatic changes during the Holocene have also driven
5.4.1 Responses of ecosystems to the end of the
major changes in ecosystems. We have already encoun-
last glacial
tered one example, the ‘greening’ of the Sahara during the
Just as in the case of geomorphology, the long-term pat- early Holocene and its subsequent desiccation. Another
tern of change in ecosystems during the Holocene has is the hypothesis that the spread through Europe of some
largely been one of a slow and continuing adjustment relatively cool-adapted trees, such as silver fir (Abies alba),
to the warmer and wetter conditions of the Holocene may have been aided by the 8200 BP cold spell, which gave
after the last glacial. The biogeography of the Earth dur- it a 200-year window in which to out-compete less cold-
ing the last glacial was very different from today. Lower tolerant species and gain a foothold in the forests. Another
temperatures meant that ecosystems such as temperate important factor has been the development of soils, which
forests tended to be found much closer to the equator, and/ is itself a slow process that is closely coupled to vegetation
or at lower altitudes in mountain ranges. Tundra and arid development. Changes in animal populations have also
steppe grasslands were much more widespread. In some been important.
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5.4 Holocene ecosystem change
Pollen analysis Pollen analysis was developed in the some species produce practically identi-
and palaeoecology first half of the twentieth century and has cal pollen. Most members of the grass
remained the bedrock of Holocene pal- family (Poaceae) produce almost identical
Pollen analysis (sometimes called palynol- aeoecology, for several reasons. First, pol- pollen grains – spherical, smooth-walled,
ogy) is one of the most powerful tech- with a single circular opening – which
len analysis tells us something that is very
niques available for reconstructing past means that, in a pollen diagram, we can-
useful. Vegetation dominates ecosystems
environments. Many plants produce tiny not distinguish between such ecologically
in terms of structure and biomass, and it
pollen grains, each typically 10–100 micro- different plants as Phragmites australis
is important to animals and humans, so it
metres in diameter, as part of the repro- (a reed, common in nutrient-rich lakes,
is often the first thing we want to know
ductive cycle (Figure 5.12). Pollen, which often up to 2 m in height), Molinia
about. Second, we can use knowledge of
contains genetic material, is released from caerulea (a medium-sized tussock grass
the vegetation to infer other properties
the male organs of a flower and trans- typical of nutrient-poor, acidic peatlands
of the environment, such as climate. For
ported by wind or by insects, hopefully and moors), and Festuca rubra (a small
example, a pollen assemblage made up of
to collide with and fertilize the female grass common on sub-Arctic heaths).
Arctic species implies an Arctic climate;
organ of a flower of the same species. The Fortunately, some of the most signifi-
vast majority of pollen grains never reach the climatic preferences of individual
cant grasses for humans, cereals such as
their goal, but drop to the ground – or species can often be used to pin down
Triticum (wheat), Hordeum (barley) and
sometimes fall on a lake, a peat bog, or the palaeoclimate more precisely. Third,
Zea (maize), can, with care, be recognized
some other environment where they can pollen analysis can be widely applied.
at least to genus level. Even distantly
be buried and preserved in oxygen-poor Pollen grains are chemically very tough
related plants sometimes, by chance, pro-
conditions. Different species of plant pro- and will survive in most waterlogged
duce identical pollen. A classic example
duce pollen grains of differing shapes and environments. Pollen analysis has been
is Corylus avellana, the hazel, a common
sizes, so examining the pollen preserved in used in most parts of the world with great
shrub or small tree found in woodlands
a sample of lake sediment or peat of a cer- success. throughout much of Europe. Its pollen
tain age reveals which plants were growing Nonetheless, pollen analysis, like all is almost undistinguishable from that of
in the environment at the time, and in indirect measures of past environmental Myrica gale (bog myrtle), a small shrub of
roughly what proportions. conditions, has its problems. For example, a completely different family that is found
on peat bogs. Only when the preservation
of the pollen grains is absolutely perfect
can the two be distinguished (Blackmore
et al., 2003). Another serious constraint
of pollen analysis is that it is rarely pos-
sible to tell exactly where the pollen in
a deposit has come from. Despite a lot
of work on the theory and prediction of
pollen dispersal, transport and deposi-
tion over the last 50 years, pollen analysts
generally have trouble in saying exactly
what area of landscape their pollen data
represent. Pollen can literally be blown
around the world: in a famous early exper-
iment in pollen trapping it was recovered
from the air in the middle of the North
Figure 5.12 Pollen grains under the microscope. A range of pollen shapes Atlantic using a vacuum cleaner on the
and sizes can be seen, each indicating the presence of a different species. deck of an ocean liner (Erdtman, 1937)!
(Source: John Corr)
Box 5.2 ➤
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➤
Pollen from American and European tree parts of the environment. Some examples in different temperature and salinity
species regularly turns up in, for instance, of these include: conditions.
lake sediment samples from Iceland. So
• Diatoms: single-celled algae (plants) • Chironomids: a type of midge; the
we cannot infer the past presence of a head-capsules of chironomid larvae
which live mainly in lakes and the
particular species close to our site from can be abundant in lake sediments, and
ocean; they can be used to infer lake
a find of one or two pollen grains. Pollen different species prefer different water
depth, pH, salinity, and nutrient status.
analysts thus have to use a lot of caution temperatures.
in interpreting their data. • Ostracods: small crustaceans which live
The development of pollen analysis led in lakes; again the species assemblages • Testate amoebae: single-celled animals
reflect variations in lake depth, salinity, which are particularly common in peat
the way for many other palaeoecological
and nutrient status. and which are believed to reflect the
techniques focusing on particular groups
wetness of the peat.
of microfossils, which can generally tell us • Foraminifera: tiny oceanic animals; dif-
more specific things about more restricted ferent species and growth forms occur
Box 5.2
All of these different factors have combined in unique dramatic. The early Holocene was much wetter than
ways in each region of the world. To give a flavour of the today because of the enhanced monsoon system. Lakes
diversity of ecosystem changes that have occurred during filled and much of the desert was covered with a lush
the Holocene, we will look at three case studies: savanna (the western Sahara probably always remained
a desert). Populations of humans made their living by
1. ecosystems in tropical Africa and the Sahara;
fishing for perch and catfish in the lakes, while keeping
2. European ecosystems;
a wary eye out for hippos and crocodiles; they hunted
3. the particular ecological patterns found on isolated
antelope across the savanna, grazed domesticated cat-
islands worldwide.
tle and produced decorative pottery, in areas that are
now absolutely barren, stony desert (Figure 5.13). This
5.4.2 Tropical Africa and the Sahara enhanced wetness extended into tropical West Africa in
what is known as the ‘African Humid Period’. Eventu-
In general, the temperature difference between glacials
ally, however, the monsoon began to weaken; the Sahara
and interglacials is greatest at the poles and least at the
became a desert, the savanna and rainforest belts con-
equator. This often means that ecosystem change during
tracted, and West Africa adopted its current, markedly
glacial–interglacial transitions is least marked in tropical
drier, climate.
areas. Certainly, temperatures during the last glacial must
have remained warm enough that rainforest taxa survived
in at least parts of lowland sub-Saharan Africa. Pollen evi-
dence shows that, overall, the area of rainforest declined,
but rainforest taxa persisted in quite sizeable areas (Lezine
and Cazet, 2005). At the start of the Holocene the forests
expanded, at the expense of the surrounding savanna. This
history is still reflected in patterns of biodiversity in the
modern rainforests: biodiversity tends to be greatest in the
areas where the rainforest survived during the last glacial
(so-called refugia). This has led to debate over whether the
high biodiversity is a result of enhanced speciation in these
small refugial areas, or merely the result of enhanced sur-
vival of species that were never successful in recolonizing Figure 5.13 Rock art from an early Holocene settlement site in the
Sahara. This site in Tadrart, Algeria, lies in the arid desert; during the early
adjacent areas when the climate improved.
Holocene, human hunter–gatherer pastoralists lived here in a savanna
Further north, in what is now the central and landscape, hunting antelope and fishing from now dried-up lakes.
eastern Sahara, the effect on the landscape was very (Source: Pichugin Dmitry Shutterstock.com)
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5.4 Holocene ecosystem change
In addition to this long-term drying trend, there is
evidence of substantial variations in West African climate
within the last few thousand years. A lake-level record
from Lake Bosumtwi in Ghana shows that lake levels have
fluctuated several times over the last few millennia, indi-
cating phases of drought that lasted often for many dec-
ades. This is thought to indicate that the position of the
intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ), a major boundary
between air masses which heavily influences the pattern of
precipitation in West Africa (Chapters 6 and 8), is quite
variable and delicately balanced.
5.4.3 European ecosystems Figure 5.14 The Białowieża forest in Poland. The forest is considered a
close analogue for pristine ‘wildwood’ that covered much of northern
In Europe during the last glacial, tundra and grassy steppe Europe on the eve of the Neolithic. The primeval forests were likely wet-
dominated over large areas, possibly with some conifers ter, and host to a wider array of animals, than European forests are today.
and cold-tolerant trees north of Alps; to the south, most (Source: Aleksander Bolbot Shutterstock.com)
of the warmth-demanding species that dominate European
forests today were restricted to small refugial areas. At fertile (though where rainfall is high, fertility peaked then
the start of the Holocene, the warmth-demanding spe- declined as soluble nutrients were leached away). Eventu-
cies began the slow spread northwards, one generation ally the whole forest might be replaced by beech, a relatively
at a time, spreading their seed by wind, water or with recent immigrant to southern Britain but an aggressive one,
the help of animals and birds. The pace at which forest- capable of out-competing all other trees in the right circum-
forming species spread varied considerably (Huntley and stances to form the monospecific beech woodlands that are
Birks 1983). Birch (Betula sp.) has very light seeds with now so characteristic of parts of southern Britain.
thin wings which help it to travel on the wind. At the start More ancient interglacials were populated by a fan-
of the Holocene, birch spread extremely quickly and had tastic range of animals, many of which we now associate
reached the northern parts of Britain within a few centu- with the tropics. Famously, river deposits excavated from
ries. Most trees, such as pine (Pinus), oak (Quercus) and Trafalgar Square in London dating to the last interglacial,
elm (Ulmus), took a little longer, up to a few thousand also known as the Ipswichian or Eemian (c.127 000–
years, to expand from southern Europe to the north of 117 000 years BP), contained fossil material from animals
Britain. A few species, such as spruce and perhaps beech including lion, elephant and hippopotamus (Franks, 1960;
(Fagus sylvatica), are probably still spreading. Others have Figure 5.15). Many of these animal species did not become
probably reached their high-water mark and are retreat- widespread in Europe during the Holocene, probably
ing: hazel (Corylus), for example, occurred a little further
north of its current limits in Scandinavia under the slightly
warmer conditions of the early Holocene. The Białowieża
forest in Poland (Figure 5.14) is often considered to be the
closest analogue left for the pristine ‘wildwood’ that cov-
ered much of northern Europe on the eve of the Neolithic.
If an observer were able to stand in one location in north-
ern Europe and watch the surrounding ecosystem develop
around them over the course of the Holocene, they would
see a succession of radically different vegetation communi-
ties. Typically, in southern Britain, this would consist first
of thin, open birch woodland, then pine would invade; then
both would be replaced by a darker, denser woodland of oak
and elm; this in turn would be invaded and enriched by later
Figure 5.15 A hippopotamus skeleton recovered from last interglacial
arrivals such as alder (Alnus) and hornbeam (Carpinus). deposits at Barrington, near Cambridge, and now on display at the Sedg-
All the while the soil would be becoming deeper and more wick Museum in Cambridge.
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Chapter 5 The Holocene
Figure 5.16 A beaver dam. Many species of animal have become locally or globally extinct during the Holocene,
sometimes with significant consequences for the structure of ecosystems. The loss of beavers from the British
Isles, and the consequent change in wetland structures due to their habit of constructing dams (pictured), has
become a cause celebre for restoration ecologists who want to see this animal reintroduced.
(Source: Jonathan Esper Shutterstock.com)
due to hunting by people (though lions were still being A strange feature of islands is that very often, over long
hunted in classical Greece, and a small breed of hippos periods of time, the animals that live on them change size.
survived into the Holocene on Cyprus). Nonetheless, early Large mammals tend to become smaller. This is because,
Holocene environments were faunally richer than they are if they are lucky enough to be stranded on an island
today, with species such as lynx, wolf, bear, beaver and without predators, there is little evolutionary pressure for
the extinct aurochs (a creature similar to cattle) common them to maintain a large body size as a defensive meas-
even in Britain. In fact some of these species survived until ure; and there is selective pressure for them to be small,
relatively recent times: the last wolf in Scotland was shot so that they are less vulnerable to food shortages and can
about AD 1750. There have been attempts to reintroduce grow to reproductive maturity more quickly. Many of the
some of these species to restore the faunal diversity of var- new islands formed by the Holocene sea-level rise saw
ious parts of Europe. The absence of beavers from Britain spectacular examples of this ‘island dwarfing’. One well-
is particularly significant because these animals have the documented case is a group of islands off the north coast
habit of making dams which block rivers (they are often of Siberia. Here, woolly mammoths became stranded as
referred to as ‘ecosystem engineers’). This activity cre- the sea level rose and, on each island where they persisted,
ates new wetlands and encourages flooding (Figure 5.16). underwent dramatic dwarfing. On Wrangel Island, where
Beavers have recently been reintroduced by accident or on the mammoths persisted until just 3500 years BP, the last
a trial basis to various parts of Britain. If they prosper as individuals were only about 2 m high at the shoulder
some people hope, and if potential conflicts with the inter- (Guthrie, 2004). (On the Channel Islands of California,
ests of farmers and landowners can be resolved, we can during the last glacial, isolated populations of mammoths
expect the landscape to change considerably. became even more dwarfed, to only 1.5 m at the shoulder.)
Eventually, however, the last of the dwarf mammoths died
out, around the same time that humans reached Wrangel.
5.4.4 Island ecosystems
The rise in sea level during the early Holocene was particu-
larly important for ecosystems on islands. Many islands Reflective questions
were drowned and new ones were created by the rising seas.
➤ Which factors might allow some species to react quickly to
Animals and plants living on islands sometimes benefit
climate change, and not others? Some things to consider:
from the protection that insularity brings: many of Europe’s
reproduction rate; mobility; degree of specialization to any
largest seabird colonies, for example, are established on
one habitat; whether they are plants or animals; and so on.
islands from which predators such as rats are absent. But at
the same time, island ecosystems can be vulnerable because ➤ Should we be making more of an effort to reintroduce
resources are limited and small populations of plants and locally extinct animals into areas with a long history of
animals are prone to local extinction if they are disturbed. impoverishment, such as Europe, as well as trying to pre-
The early Holocene rise in sea level made many islands serve biodiversity in less disturbed areas?
steadily smaller, which put their populations under pressure.
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5.5 The rise of civilizations
5.5 the rise of civilizations modern humans – these three species, and perhaps others
we do not yet know about, disappeared. Homo sapiens
5.5.1 Humans at the end of the last glacial was left as the only survivor of 5 million years of hominin
evolution and diversification.
While the boundary between the last glacial and the At the same time, modern humans were spreading
Holocene was significant for geomorphology and for eco- around the globe, entering Eurasia from Africa around
systems in general, it was perhaps even more significant 120 000 years BP, reaching Australasia around 50 000 years
for humans. At or close to this transition, the first steps BP and taking advantage of the waning Laurentide ice
were taken towards constructing a wholly new relationship sheet to enter the Americas for the first time during the late
between people and the environment: the development glacial (Figure 5.17). The spread of humans was to con-
of agriculture. By the end of the last glacial, our species, tinue during the Holocene, with the remote islands of the
Homo sapiens, appears to have been the only species of Pacific being colonized progressively (the last, the Chatham
hominin left on the planet. On present evidence, for much Islands off New Zealand, were only colonized around AD
of the last glacial we had shared the Earth with at least 1000). Despite their wide spread, the impact of humans on
two and probably three other species of hominin: the ecosystems was, as yet, relatively minor by modern stand-
neanderthal Homo neanderthalensis, which went extinct ards: people lived by hunting, fishing and gathering plant
about 30 000 years BP; the ‘hobbit’, Homo floresiensis, foods, and most societies were nomadic, so their impacts
first discovered in 2004 on the island of Flores and thought were spread thinly over the landscape. Estimates of prehis-
to have survived until at least 18 000 years BP (Brown toric population size are notoriously difficult to evaluate,
et al., 2004); and a probable third species, at the time of but few would argue that at the end of the last glacial there
writing still unnamed, known only from DNA recovered were more than 10 million people on Earth – about the
from a finger bone dated to 30 000–48 000 years BP found same as the population of London, Paris or Chicago today.
in a cave in the Altai Mountains of Siberia in 2008 (Krause The most important environmental impact of people at
et al., 2010). For one reason or another – habitat loss, that time was their probable role in the extinction of many
competition for resources, or perhaps direct hunting by species of large animal (see Box 4.4 in Chapter 4).
30 kyr(?)
60 kyr
0.7 Myr
35 kyr 1.0 Myr
60 kyr
1.8 Myr
60 kyr
130 kyr 2.0 Myr
50 kyr
H. erectus migrations
H. sapiens migrations
Figure 5.17 The migration of hominins: the most widely accepted theory is that most hominin lineages
arose in Africa and spread across Eurasia during two migration periods. The first involved Homo erectus
over a million years ago. The second was the expansion of our own species, Homo sapiens, out of Africa
around 130 000 years ago.
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Chapter 5 The Holocene
5.5.2 The beginnings of agriculture Domestication is a special kind of symbiosis, a kind of
co-evolution between humans and other species. The
Agriculture can be considered as a way of life that involves
new life forms created by domestication were effectively
two key components: cultivating plants and herding
a new kind of ‘tool’ that humans could use to increase
animals. The animals and plants in question have in most
the efficiency and effectiveness with which they could
cases undergone a process called domestication, which
harvest resources from ecosystems. We have seen
means that humans have taken control of the reproduc-
that the domestication of dogs helped people to tran-
tion of the individual plants and animals concerned.
scend their biological limitations as hunters. In the
The process of domestication probably differed for each
Holocene, the domestication of many other animals –
individual species that came to be cultivated or herded,
goats, sheep, horses, cattle – gave humans the ability
so it is perhaps easiest to understand by examining a few
to convert biomass they could not eat (grass) into food
case studies. they could (meat and milk); new technologies for keep-
The first animal to be domesticated was the dog, pos- ing warm (wool); and the ability to travel much faster
sibly as early as 135 000 years ago according to recent than human anatomy alone will allow and a ready source
genetic evidence, and there are good reasons why it was of superhuman motive power (horses and other beasts
the first. The ancestors of dogs, various species of wolf, of burden). Similarly, the development of crop plants
share key behavioural properties with humans. Wolves gave us a way to turn more of the available energy from
live in social groups; they have a strong social structure, sunlight, through photosynthesis, into the things we find
with a hierarchy and an inherent willingness to submit to useful: food of course, but also textiles, fuel, wood and
the pack leader. Wolf cubs taken from the wild today can medicines.
be tamed and, sometimes, trained to submit to humans, The dog is rather exceptional in having been domesti-
though they are usually still dangerously aggressive. cated so early. Almost all domestication occurred during
Wolves are also pack hunters, used to chasing down prey the Holocene (or very shortly beforehand, during the
together and sharing the proceeds. For humans, tamed Younger Dryas; Blockley and Pinhasi, 2011). Most of
wolves would have made very useful hunting tools: wolves the earliest sites of domestication are in the Near East,
are faster and better armed with teeth and claws than in the so-called Fertile Crescent. Here, around 12 000
humans, making up for some of the biological inadequa- years ago, hunter–gatherers lived by collecting the large
cies of humans as carnivores. seeds of certain wild grasses, the ancestors of wheat
Taming an animal from the wild is one thing; domes- and barley (Figure 5.18). At some point they must have
tication requires the further step of intervening in the realized that planting the seed in the soil led to a more
reproduction of individuals. In the case of tamed wolves, predictable crop the following year. They favoured the
some might have preferable characteristics: they might plants with the largest seeds, and with non-shattering
be a little more docile and more easily controlled than seed heads (most grasses drop their seed to the ground
others, for example. These wolves might be kept, and when ripe, but a few genetic mutants in any population
allowed to breed; the more aggressive might be killed will retain the seeds on the head where they can more
at an early age. If only docile individuals are allowed easily be collected). Consequently, over time, the average
to breed and if docility is a genetically controlled trait, seed size of the wheat and barley they grew increased;
then they will tend to have docile offspring. Over many and as the seeds remained on the seed heads, these new
generations this process of conscious or unconscious strains could not reproduce without human help. The
selection for certain traits has produced not just several first domesticated crops had been developed by the first
types of hunting dogs – spaniels, Afghan hounds, terri- cultivators.
ers – but also breeds prized for intelligence (sheepdogs), In these first farming communities in the Near
speed (racing dogs), companionship (many small breeds) East, the new varieties of cereals were joined by other
and aesthetics: the fact that most dog breeds have much crops – peas, lentils, beans – and by domesticated
shorter muzzles than wolves has been suggested to reflect animals, notably goats in the first instance. Over time,
unconscious selection of individuals with flatter, more more crops and animals were added to the Near Eastern
‘human-like’ faces. agricultural package. Elsewhere in the world, and often
The development of domestication is very significant entirely independently, people began domesticating
in human history because of the change it represents in plants and animals as the Holocene progressed.
the relationship between people and their environment. Domestication was concentrated in a few key areas
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5.5 The rise of civilizations
One important consequence of agriculture was that the
populations of farming communities grew rapidly. The
gap between offspring in modern hunter–gatherer socie-
ties is often around four years. In farming communities,
where the food supply can be more assured, where more
food is available from a given area of land, and where
the settled way of life means that infants are not such
a burden as they are to nomadic hunter–gatherers, the
gap between births is typically around two years. Groups
dependent on farming typically grew rapidly. This is the
fundamental reason why there are over 7 billion people on
Earth today.
Farming also appears to have enabled technologi-
cal innovation. Nomadic hunter–gatherers tend to own
few possessions, and their societies tend to be non-
hierarchical and unspecialized: everyone contributes more
or less equally to food collection (although there can be
strong gender biases). For farming societies, which are
rooted to the land they cultivate, there is nothing to pre-
vent them from accumulating goods, even if those goods
are large and heavy. Furthermore, because many farm-
ing communities can produce more food than they need,
they are able to support some individuals who do little
Figure 5.18 Differences in the shape of wild and domestic einkorn wheat. or no food production. These people can specialize in
Wild einkorn (a) disperses its seeds (b) naturally, leaving a smooth scar
(c) on the base of each spikelet. By contrast, the domesticated variety
using and developing other technologies, such as pottery,
of einkorn (d) has a ‘non-shattering’ head: the seeds are firmly attached. woodwork and, in the second half of the Holocene, met-
This makes it much easier for farmers to harvest the ripe grain. When the alwork. Because individuals are able to accumulate wealth
seeds are separated from the ear during threshing, the spikelets break in the form of land and material goods, some become
off leaving a characteristically rough edge (e), which makes it easy for
wealthier than others. This encourages the development
archaeologists to tell whether individual grains come from wild or domes-
ticated varieties. (Source: from Tanno and Willcox, 2006) of stratified societies, where power is concentrated in the
hands of a few people. They are then often able to mobi-
lize others to contribute to large-scale social projects:
constructing irrigation systems, building city walls, or
(known as ‘Vavilov Centres’ after the first person to iden- raising monuments and temples. It is impossible to envis-
tify them). From South and Central America, for exam- age the complex society we live in today being supported
ple, we now have potatoes, maize, squash, chilli peppers, by a hunter–gatherer way of life. By permitting techno-
cotton, tobacco, turkeys and llamas, while from South- logical innovation and enabling social stratification, the
East Asia we have rice and chickens. transition to agriculture paved the way for the long-term
increase in humankind’s ability to shape and transform
the planet. We will explore some of these transformations
5.5.3 Social and environmental consequences
in the next section.
of agriculture
The beginning of agriculture was important not just in
its own right, as a notable innovation in human behav- Reflective questions
iour, but for its repercussions, both for Homo sapiens as
➤ Summarize the differences between natural and artificial
a species and for the relationship between people and the
selection.
environment. The two are inextricably linked, because the
invention of agriculture seems to have triggered a series of ➤ Why have so many species of plants and animals not been
further innovations in human behaviour which, in turn, successfully domesticated?
affected the environment.
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5.6 Human interaction with physical that of the Easter Islanders, whose society appears to have
geography collapsed due to environmental degradation and deforesta-
tion (see Box 5.3). If an ecological crisis through over use
5.6.1 Out of Eden? of a key ecological resource can cause an island society
to collapse, perhaps this proves that a similar collapse is a
One possible interpretation of environmental history, real threat to global civilization today.
perhaps a common one among western peoples, is that While the investigation of environmental crises is cer-
before the Industrial Revolution (c. AD 1800) people lived tainly an important aspect of this field, we can make a
in harmony with nature. This view can be traced back to strong argument that the story of past human impacts is
the Romantic movement of the nineteenth century, which largely a positive one. For every example of resource deple-
was critical of the changes that were being wrought on the tion there is another example of successful husbandry of
landscape in the name of progress, the ‘dark Satanic mills’, resources over the course of millennia. For every degraded
contrasted against an idealized, gentler past, where people and ravished landscape, there is another that has been
farmed and hunted in a timeless, changeless world. There transformed by generations of farmers into a rich, produc-
is no doubt that the invention of the steam engine and sub- tive, benign home for people. Studying the past can give us
sequent methods of energy production and transformation a deeper appreciation of the extent to which our civiliza-
marked a step change in the behaviour of people, arguably tion depends on this accumulated long-term effort, and
comparable to the importance of the development of agri- can help us to maintain that legacy far into the future.
culture. The impacts of post-industrial human activity on In the following sections we will look at three key facets
the natural environment are beyond the scope of this chap- of human impact on past environments: deforestation, soil
ter. But academic investigation of the pre-industrial past erosion and drainage.
is counteracting the Romantic myth of a ‘golden age’ of
human–environment relations. Hundreds of case studies
have shown that pre-industrial people had significant and 5.6.2 Deforestation
far-reaching effects on the environment: they deforested Having evolved from a lineage of apes that was specialized
large tracts of land, reduced biodiversity in many areas in consuming fruits, which are relatively rich in sugars,
and introduced new species to others, eroded the soil, human beings have unusually limited digestive systems.
altered drainage patterns, and moved earth and reshaped Unlike most herbivores, we cannot digest cellulose, which
the land to a surprising extent, given that it was almost all makes up the bulk of plant biomass on the planet; and,
done with human and animal muscle-power alone. unlike most specialist carnivores, we find uncooked meat
That pre-industrial humans changed the world is difficult to digest. Only in the tropics are fruits readily
beyond doubt. A more subtle debate concerns the extent to available all year round, and even then they make up a
which this change was for the worse. Environmental histo- small proportion of the available biomass. The natural
rians and archaeologists have perhaps tended to emphasize vegetation of temperate zones is even less edible from
the negative aspects of human impact: the detrimental the point of view of humans. One great liberating conse-
loss of biodiversity, the loss of soils, the unintended and quence of farming is that it enables us to turn much more
unfortunate consequences of deforestation. This echoes of the available energy from the Sun into a form we can
the growing concern of environmentalists over the last eat. We replace inedible forests with fields of grain, or,
50 years or more that modern society is facing an envi- on poorer soils, with grassy pastures stocked with sheep
ronmental crisis. There is a tendency to look for signs of and cattle which convert the cellulose in grass into edible
similar crises in the past, which perhaps says more about (cooked) meat and milk. Thus agriculture necessarily
the preoccupations of modern society than about the involves the conversion of natural, relatively unproduc-
realities of the past. Indeed, one justification that environ- tive vegetation – and over most of the planet, that means
mental historians sometimes use for their work is that a forest – into a cultural landscape where a much greater pro-
better understanding of how people caused and reacted to portion of the Sun’s energy ultimately becomes stored in a
past crises, which often take decades or centuries to play form that is useful to humans.
out, can help us to understand our present situation. For Destruction of woodland by colonizing farmers is thus
example, there are many case studies of societies that ‘col- a common feature of the past, and pollen diagrams from
lapsed’ in the past due at least in part to ecological pres- many regions of the Earth mark the coming of farmers by
sure on their environment. The most famous example is a decline in tree pollen abundance. The actual process of
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5.6 Human interaction with physical geography
EAStER ISLAND island in 1774, marvelled at the statues the palaeoecologist John Flenley and col-
in his account of his voyage: ‘We could leagues offered new data to support this
Easter Island, or Rapa Nui, is the most
hardly conceive how these islanders, idea (Flenley et al., 1991). They studied
isolated inhabited island on Earth, lying
wholly unacquainted with any mechani- the pollen in sediment sequences from
some 2250 km from Pitcairn Island, its
cal power, could raise such stupendous the three volcanic craters on the island. All
nearest neighbour in the South Pacific
figures, and afterwards place the large three pollen records suggested that, until
(Figure 5.18). Almost from its first discov-
cylindric stones before mentioned upon about AD 1500, the island was covered
ery by Europeans on Easter Day, AD 1722,
their heads’ (Cook, 1777). Cook assumed in woodland dominated by a species of
the island has been the cause of much
that the statues had been made by the large palm tree (Figure 5.20). This conclu-
discussion and mystery. The first European
visitors encountered an island almost bare ancestors of the contemporary Easter sion was shortly afterwards confirmed by
of trees, mostly covered by grassland, and Islanders, as he noted that the produc- archaeological finds of fossil fruits similar
populated by a few thousand Polynesian tion of new statues had stopped and no to those of the palm Jubaea chilensis.
farmers growing potatoes and plantains attempt had been made to raise the fallen Flenley and his colleagues, and later work-
and keeping chickens. The most striking ones. This led to speculation that the ers, speculated that deforestation would
feature of the island was the presence of Easter Islanders had undergone a social have caused soil erosion, undermining
hundreds of huge statues, called moai, collapse, leading to the loss of the art of agriculture. Deforestation might also have
carved out of the volcanic rock, up to statue-making. caused local aridity by reducing recy-
five metres in height, often with a large At just 22 km by 11 km, the resources cling of water by evapotranspiration and
rounded stone perched on top like a hat, on Easter Island are inherently lim- increasing exposure to desiccating winds.
and arranged in rows on well-crafted ited. This has led many researchers to The loss of trees in itself would have con-
masonry platforms. Many of them had suspect that the decline of the native stituted a major loss of resources: without
fallen over by the time the Europeans society was due to a lack of prudence timber, canoes for fishing could not be
arrived. Captain Cook, who visited the in conserving resources. In the 1980s built and houses could not be repaired,
Figure 5.19 Location of Easter Island in the
South Pacific.
EQUATOR
Galapagos Is.
Marquesas Is.
m
40
2k
43
km
387
Pitcairn I.
2250 km
3140 Juan
Ropa 3850 km km
EASTER I. Fernandez
3747
km
Concepcion
bOx 5.3 ➤
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Chapter 5 The Holocene
➤
perhaps, as Diamond (2005) envisaged,
s
or
se
s
someone consciously took the decision
ph
lm
as
So
Gr
Pa
to chop down the last tree, knowing that
Post-settlement there would be no more.
This vision of ecological suicide is
compelling to many environmentalists who
fear that modern society might be fac-
ing a similar situation on a grander scale.
Perhaps what happened on Easter Island
Pre-settlement is a harbinger of the self-destruction that
Holocene might occur for the whole population of
our planet, if we keep polluting the atmos-
phere, changing the climate, replacing
forests with fields, and driving animals and
plants to extinction.
Other authors are more sceptical.
They point out that even in the case
of Easter Island, which is probably the
best-documented example of ‘eco-
logical overshoot’ (Tainter, 2006) in the
palaeoecological canon, the case for such
thoughtless self-destruction is far from
proven. The society of Easter Island might
Pleistocene indeed have become simpler over time,
but not to the point of total collapse: there
were still several thousand Easter Island-
ers even at the time of European contact,
making a reasonable living from agriculture,
with food to spare for trading. Moreover,
the extinction of the palm trees might not
simply have been due to intentional defor-
estation by people. Every one of the fossil
palm fruits that have been recovered from
archaeological contexts shows signs of
0 20 40 60 0 20 0 20 40 60 80
% having been gnawed by a small species of
rat, probably Rattus exulans which is com-
Figure 5.20 Summary pollen data from Rano Raraku, Easter Island.
mon on Pacific Islands and was probably
(Source: based on data in Flenley et al., 1991)
introduced by the first Polynesian settlers
on Easter Island (who likely arrived around
and the loss of palm fruits would have symbolized prestige or ownership of land AD 1200; Hunt and Lipo, 2006). As the rat
removed a valuable food source. (perhaps in the same way that expensive population increased, more and more of
The causes of this deforestation have cars and grand buildings symbolize wealth the palm seeds would have been eaten
been much debated. Some researchers see and power in modern western society). before they could germinate. So even if
Easter Island as a paradigmatic example of They may have needed large timbers to the decline of Easter Island’s society can
ecological disaster brought about by care- construct sledges and rollers to help move be blamed on ecological degradation, that
less resource use. One scenario is that the the statues from the quarries to their final degradation might have been accidental
Easter Islanders became driven by inter- platforms, and then to lever them upright. (by the unintended introduction of the
tribal competition which was expressed in Perhaps the compulsion to build moai out- rats) and, once under way, unstoppable: still
the building of moai (Figure 5.21), which weighed the need to conserve palm trees; bad news for Easter Islanders, and perhaps
BOX 5.3 ➤
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5.6 Human interaction with physical geography
Figure 5.21 Examples of moai, the giant statues raised in prehistory by the Easter Islanders.
(Source: Ty Parker)
still with important parallels in the modern as to seal their own fate by a deliberate example, Hunt and Lipo (2009), Mieth and
world, but much easier to accept than act of environmental suicide. These argu- Bork (2010), Rull et al. (2010) and Brandt
that people should behave so illogically ments are still being hotly debated: see, for and Merico (2015).
BOX 5.3
deforestation probably varied from place to place. Trees The consequences of converting forest to what Rackham
can be cleared deliberately for agriculture by axe, though (1986, p. 72) called ‘an imitation of the dry open steppes of
this is hard work. In drier environments, woodland can the Near East’ – the natural environment of the ancestors
be burned, as it is in the subtropics today. Less rapid, but of most of our crops and animals – go beyond the obvious
much easier, is to allow your animals to clear the woodland loss of plant and animal diversity. After all, we are talking
for you. Goats and sheep will eat saplings and pigs will about a major change in the structure of the ecosystem.
root them up; over the course of decades to centuries the Forests are three-dimensional structures: they harbour
woodlands around a pastoral settlement will tend to thin animals and understorey plants that are frequently unable
out unless grazing is carefully kept in check. Collection of to survive in the disturbed, unshaded, two-dimensional
relatively small amounts of wood for fuel and timber for landscape of fields and pastures. With clearance, the total
construction can, over long periods, have a similar effect. biomass declines, and as the trees decay or are burned
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Chapter 5 The Holocene
their stored carbon is released back into the atmosphere. deforestation. A forest canopy limits the amount of rain-
Carbon emissions from modern deforestation are a signifi- fall that reaches the soil, which limits the erosive effects of
cant contributor to global warming, but Ruddiman (2003) rainfall impact and rainwash (Chapter 15). Little rainfall
pointed out that the same process has been occurring for reaching the soil means that soluble nutrients such as
at least 8000 years. He argued that atmospheric CO2 con- some forms of phosphorus are not lost to leaching. Tree
centrations have been elevated for most of the Holocene roots bind the soil physically together. Leaf litter adds
as a result (though other climate scientists argue that pre- a constant supply of organic material to the soil, which
industrial deforestation was slow enough for the excess improves water retention and nutrient status. When the
CO2 to be absorbed by the oceans, rather than accumulat- forest is removed by deliberate clearance, fire or grazing,
ing in the atmosphere). A canopy of trees also intercepts a all of these benefits are lost.
lot of rainfall; loss of trees therefore has consequences for The results of deforestation on soils can be quite spec-
soil erosion and hydrology (see below). tacular. Physical soil erosion is particularly important on
All this talk of destruction might seem rather nega- sloping terrain. For example, across wide areas of B ritain,
tive, so it is worth reiterating that the loss of forests rivers have deposited large amounts – often a metre or
is not a ‘bad thing’ in every respect. After all, without more – of reworked soil since the Bronze and Iron Ages;
cleared space for farmland, most of us would not be here. these deposits are often referred to as the ‘Romano-
Furthermore, western people today have a tendency to British Silt’, although their origins can be older than the
romanticize forests. Just two centuries ago in Europe and Roman period. In more mountainous regions, such as the
North America, attitudes were very different: forests were Mediterranean Basin (Figure 5.22), the removal of forests
dark, ominous wildernesses, unproductive and harbouring mainly through over-grazing has caused the almost total
bandits and dangerous animals; they made a landscape loss of the thin soils that had built up on steep limestone
claustrophobic and difficult to traverse. To an eighteenth- slopes over many thousands of years. Archaeological sites
century pioneer in North America, the modern fondness of Greek or Roman age are frequently buried under many
for forest would seem difficult to understand. metres of river-transported soils. In Iceland, where the
People have also had a more positive relationship with soil is made up of very fine volcanic ash, the removal of
woodland. In most environments, efforts have been made birch woodland by Viking colonists allowed the soil to be
to retain some woodlands because they provide valuable simply blown away by the wind into the North Atlantic
resources: fuel-wood and timber, seasonal nuts and fruits, (Figure 5.23). It is estimated that 40% of Iceland’s soil
deer and other animals for hunting, and forage for animals cover has been stripped since the settlement began around
such as pigs. These remaining woodlands were often much AD 870.
more carefully managed than they are today, with regular Of course, not all soils have been lost. In fact eroded
cycles of cutting (coppicing and pollarding) and legislation soils are often transported into basins or re-deposited on
to prevent over-exploitation that can seem surprisingly river floodplains, where they can make exceptionally fertile
modern in its concern for conservation and sustainabil- farmland: one region’s loss can be another’s gain. In flatter
ity. Many European woodlands still show the signs of areas, or where the soil contained enough clay to make it
past management in the form of, for example, banks and sticky and resist erosion, the original soil cover may still be
ditches designed to control animals and delineate parcels more or less intact. Nonetheless, even where it remains in
of land, overgrown coppice stools that produced a sustain- situ, the quality of the soil can change. In the uplands of
able harvest of wood for centuries, and deliberate plant- the UK, the removal of trees and the consequent increase
ings of favoured species such as sweet chestnut. in the amount of rainfall reaching the soil has meant that
soluble nutrients have tended to be washed away more
quickly. This accelerated leaching tends to make the soil
5.6.3 Soil erosion and impoverishment
not just less fertile, but also more acidic, which encour-
For farming communities, the health of the soil is abso- ages colonization by bog plants such as Sphagnum moss.
lutely paramount. Most crops grow best in relatively Sphagnum absorbs water and makes the soil much wetter,
thick soil with good water-retention properties and the and therefore more likely to be anaerobic, so plant litter
capacity to store and provide nutrients. Unfortunately, in decays more slowly. Under the right circumstances, this can
many places one long-term consequence of farming has lead to the beginning of peat growth. Blanket peatlands
been to erode or otherwise impoverish the soil resource across much of the British and Irish uplands probably owe
(Chapter 17). Often this comes as a consequence of their origin, at least in part, to prehistoric deforestation.
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5.6 Human interaction with physical geography
Figure 5.22 Degraded hillslopes in Spain. The loss of forest cover has led to soil erosion on a large scale across much of the limestone terrain of the
Mediterranean. (Source: Katy Roucoux, University of St Andrews)
5.6.4 Irrigation and drainage Irrigation and drainage have a long history in many
parts of the world. In Britain, the focus has been on
Plants need water to survive, and in arid areas farmers
drainage, particularly in the low-lying areas of eastern
need to find ways to direct freshwater onto their land, and
England. The Romans began extensive drainage of the
to keep it there. On the other hand, waterlogged basins
fenland of East Anglia, a process that was accelerated
can be too wet: because most of the ancestors of our crops
in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries when first
are adapted to a semi-arid climate, they will not flourish in
wind power and then steam were used to pump water
wet conditions. For these reasons, a range of technologies
out of the low-lying peaty fens. Rivers were straight-
have been developed over millennia to allow farmers to
ened so that they would drain more quickly to the sea.
control the amount of water their plants receive.
Earth banks were used to constrain the floodplains of
rivers and to keep the sea at bay. Every field had its own
ditches and drains to encourage the water to leave as
quickly as possible. The drained soil, made up mostly of
rich fen peat or (towards the coast) silty sediments, made
superb farmland, and the region remains a cornerstone
of British agriculture. One unexpected consequence of
the drainage, however, was that the soil began to dis-
appear. Peat can be more than 90% water by weight,
and the loss of water causes it to shrink. The dry peat
becomes vulnerable to wind erosion. Worse still, as the
peat dries out, so oxygen levels rise, encouraging rapid
aerobic decay, so the peat gradually becomes oxidized
to CO2 gas. In some places, the vertical thickness of
Figure 5.23 A degraded landscape in Iceland. The fine volcanic soils of peat lost is impressive. In 1851, an iron post was driven
Iceland are particularly prone to wind erosion. Once the woodland cover into the peat until its top was flush with the surface at
is damaged the wind begins to eat into the soil from above, and then
sideways. Up to 40% of Iceland’s soil has been stripped from the glacial
Holme Fen in Cambridgeshire (Figure 5.24). Today, the
substrate since the settlement of the island around ad 870. top of the post stands more than 4 m above the peat
(Source: Mike Church) surface. Embanked rivers often flow high above the level
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Chapter 5 The Holocene
of the surrounding land. Artificial coastal defences and
constant pumping are all that keep the Fens from being
reclaimed by the sea.
The East Anglian Fens are an extreme case of a
general tendency across the temperate world to drain
boggy land and convert it to farmland. Studying an
early map will often show that, a few centuries or even
decades ago, the landscape was much more watery than
it is today. Thousands of ponds, fens, marshes and wet
woodlands have been reclaimed by agriculture. Preserv-
ing and restoring wetlands, for the benefit of the plant
and animal diversity that they support, is now a conser-
vation priority.
In the drier parts of the world, by contrast, the prob-
lem has always been to increase the water supply. Like
drainage, irrigation has a very long history. Some of the
most famous early civilizations developed on the basis
of their command of the water supply, such as the so-
called ‘hydraulic civilizations’ of Mesopotamia (Iraq)
(Figure 5.25). From around 10 000 years ago, groups of
farmers came together on the floodplains of the Tigris
and Euphrates Rivers and developed sophisticated sys-
tems of flood-farming, diverting the courses of rivers and
embanking and arranging their fields so that water could
be retained and made to flow from one field to another.
Figure 5.24 The Holme Fen Post. In 1851 this post was driven into the
The combination of a hot climate, fertile floodplain soils,
peat at Holme Fen so that its top was level with the surface. Now, due to
drainage and peat shrinkage, it stands 4 m tall.
Figure 5.25 The Ziggurat of Ur. This ancient, mud-brick temple has been largely reconstructed to give a sense of the achievement of its builders. Meso-
potamian cities including Ur flourished between 6000 and 1500 years ago, but failure to maintain complex irrigation networks, coupled with problems
such as soil salinization, means that today they stand in the desert.
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5.7 Summary
and a carefully controlled water supply made these farm- example of landscape engineering that allowed complex
ing techniques very productive, and empires were built civilizations to flourish for many millennia.
on the surpluses they produced. In the long run, however,
problems could emerge. Disputes over water rights, and
the political difficulty of building and maintaining such Reflective questions
large shared resources, could lead to conflict. In such arid
➤ To what extent have past human–environment relation-
areas, excessive evaporation in irrigated fields can draw
ships been sustainable?
salts upwards through the soil, eventually making it toxic
to plants and ruining the land. On the whole, though, ➤ How do human–environment interactions today differ
the transformation of Mesopotamia from semi-desert from those of the pre-industrial past?
to the bread-basket of the Near East was an outstanding
5.7 Summary Sea level change has been a major feature of the Holocene
that has dramatically changed the landscape. Eustatic (global)
The Holocene began at the end of the final short cold phase sea level began to rise around 19 000 years BP, and only reached
(Younger Dryas) during the several thousand year transition from approximately its present level around 7000 years BP. This 120 m
the last glacial period to the present interglacial. Although it is the rise in eustatic sea level drowned large areas of land, dramatically
most recent epoch of Earth history, and although we have learned changed coastlines and cut off some ecological passages for
an astonishing amount about it in recent decades, there is much plants and animals. However, in some regions the local landscape
still to be discovered the Holocene. In particular, while it would has also been rising relative to sea level as the land recovers from
still be fair to say that the Holocene has been climatically rather the previous weight of deep ice sheets that once exerted huge
stable by comparison with most of Quaternary time, the true pressures upon it (isostatic rebound).
complexity of Holocene climate variability is only just beginning While we know about key changes in habitat in many regions
to emerge, spurred on by developments in palaeoclimatological during the Holocene including large changes in vegetation cover
techniques. Orbital forcing combined with internal feedbacks and soils (driven by climate and humans) and major extinctions of
related to ocean circulation are key drivers of climate changes mega fauna, there is a lot left to be discovered about the effects
during the Holocene. However, short-term changes in solar of Holocene climate change on geomorphology and ecology. For
output and internal mechanisms related to ocean–atmosphere instance, efforts have long been under way to determine the his-
feedbacks (e.g. El Nino Southern Oscillation) have also impacted tory of glaciers and ice caps within the Holocene; the results are
climate during the Holocene. Scientists are still debating the very beginning to help us to put the present changes in the planet’s
existence of some climatic events that lie close to the detection ice into context, and to predict what to expect in the warming
limits of current methods. For example, there are hints in various world of the twenty-first century. Similarly, even in areas where
palaeoclimatic records that the later Holocene was punctuated by Holocene palaeoecological research has a long history, such as
short-lived cold or dry events reminiscent of, but less extreme and northern Europe, new techniques and new datasets are con-
less widespread than, the 8200 BP event; one such drought event, stantly refining our understanding of the sensitivity of ecosystems
4200 years ago, may have led to the collapse of the A
kkadian to environmental change. In less-explored parts of the world,
Empire in the Near East and of the Old Kingdom in Egypt. The notably the tropics, palaeoecological research is still in its infancy.
exact character and magnitude of this and many other events The last two sections this chapter examined the rise of civiliza-
and cycles remain to be properly established. There are also other tions, and some of the ways in which pre-industrial societies inter-
possible causes of climate change, such as volcanic eruptions, acted with and affected their environment. Living as we are in an
which remain to be explored in detail. age when technological progress is rapid, the human population
➤
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Chapter 5 The Holocene
➤
is expanding dramatically, and ‘natural’ ecosystems are under human activity. Management of natural resources has not always
increasing pressure, it is important to place our modern situation been detrimental: the countryside and landscapes that we enjoy
in the longer-term context. Many of the environmental problems today are more often than not the result of coppicing, hedging,
that society is struggling with today, such as deforestation, soil ploughing, ditching, drainage, planting and herding over centuries
erosion and the loss of biodiversity, have a much longer history or millennia: a huge investment of human labour and ingenuity.
than we commonly recognize. We can also appreciate that much Understanding how these landscapes came about is key to mak-
of what we value about the environment is, in fact, the result of ing the most of this legacy for the future.
Further reading Rather technical, but the latest of many papers suggesting
that the natural progress of Holocene climate change has
been f undamentally altered by anthropogenic fossil carbon
emissions to the extent that we are likely to skip the next
Bard, E. and Frank, M. (2006) Climate change and solar vari- glacial cycle.
ability: what’s new under the sun? Earth and Planetary Science
Letters, 248, 1–14. Roberts, N. (1998) The Holocene: An environmental history,
A sceptical look at direct solar forcing. 2nd edition. Blackwell, Oxford.
This is a good, well-illustrated textbook on the Holocene.
Diamond, J.M. (1997) Guns, germs and steel: A short history
of everybody for the last 13,000 Years. Jonathan Cape, London.
Waters, C.N. and 24 others (2016) The Anthropocene is
A classic and very readable account of the history of the human
functionally and stratigraphically distinct from the Holocene.
race from an environmental perspective.
Science, 352, DOI: 10.1126/science.aad2622.
Ganopolski, A., Winkelmann, R. and Schellnhuber, H.J. (2016) A review of the evidence for and against designating different
Critical insolation-CO2 relation for diagnosing past and future parts of the Holocene as being so fundamentally affected by
glacial inception. Nature, 529, 200-203. human activities as to merit being called ‘the Anthropocene’.
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C H A PTER 6
Atmospheric processes
John G. Lockwood
Formerly of School of Geography, University of Leeds
Learning objectives The climate system is driven by various external mecha-
nisms, the most important of which is the Sun. In this
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
chapter the main concern is with the atmosphere, which
is the unstable and rapidly changing part of the climate
➤ describe the major components of the climate system and their
system. In particular its composition, which is continually
most significant interactions
changing, together with the resulting climate changes have
become of major international concern. The Paris Agree-
➤ understand the basic properties of the atmosphere and the vari-
ment of the United Nations Framework Convention on
ous flows of energy and matter that connect components of the
Climate change (UN, 2015) comments that climate change
climate system
represents an urgent and potentially irreversible threat to
➤ describe general atmospheric circulation processes and under- human societies. The overwhelming body of scientific evi-
stand concepts of planetary waves, jet streams, El Niño and North dence indicates that the Earth’s climate is rapidly chang-
Atlantic Oscillation ing, predominantly as a result of increases in so-called
➤ understand the greenhouse effect and predict the likely impact greenhouse gases caused by human activities. Greenhouse
of enhanced greenhouse gases on climate and the importance of gases trap heat near the Earth’s surface and cause the sur-
limiting average surface temperature increases over the twenty- face temperature to increase. Carbon dioxide (CO2) and
first century to less than 2°C. methane (CH4) are among the most important anthropo-
genic greenhouse gases.
The Earth’s atmosphere has a composition that is
6.1 Introduction strongly influenced by the biosphere (vegetation and ani-
mals); conversely, atmospheric composition is of impor-
The term ‘climate system’ is often used to refer to an tance for the biosphere. The present-day atmosphere
interactive system consisting of five major components: consists of 78.1% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen and 0.035%
the atmosphere, the hydrosphere (e.g. oceans, lakes, riv- CO2 with a surface pressure of 1 atmosphere. If the effect
ers), the cryosphere (e.g. ice, snow, glaciers), the land of life were removed, then it is estimated that the atmos-
surface and the biosphere (e.g. vegetation) (Figure 6.1). pheric composition would be 1.9% nitrogen, nil oxygen
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Chapter 6 Atmospheric processes
Changes in the atmosphere: Changes in the
composition, circulation hydrological cycle
Changes
in solar
inputs
Clouds
Atmosphere
Volcanic
N2, O2, Ar, activity
H2O, CO2, CH4, N2O, O3, etc. Atmosphere–biosphere
aerosols interaction
Atmosphere–ice Precipitation
interaction Evaporation
Terrestrial
radiation Ice sheet
Heat Wind Glacier
exchange stress
Land–
Human influences atmosphere
Biosphere interaction
Sea
ice Soil–biosphere
Hydrosphere: interaction Land surface
ocean
Ice– ocean coupling
Hydrosphere: Cryosphere:
rivers and lakes sea ice, ice sheets, glaciers
Changes in the ocean: Changes in/on the land surface:
circulation, sea level, biogeochemistry orography, land use, vegetation, ecosystems
Figure 6.1 Schematic view of the components of the global climate system (bold), their processes and interactions (thin orange arrows) and some
aspects that may change (thick white arrows). (Source: IPCC, 2001)
and 98% CO2, with a surface pressure of 70 present-day just the distribution between reservoirs that differs. In the
atmospheres – an atmosphere similar to that found on absence of water on Venus, carbonate rocks have prob-
present-day Venus, a planet without life or surface water. ably never been formed and most of the CO2 remains in
This is important because it illustrates the close relation- the atmosphere. On Earth most of the CO2 is contained
ship between life and atmospheric composition. The in solid rocks such as limestones, chalk, coal, etc., formed
present atmosphere of the Earth is created by life, par- initially by the action of life. It is essential for present life
ticularly plant life. Oxygen concentrations in the absence that the vast majority of ‘buried carbon’ remains out of
of life are at least 1000 times smaller than they are in the the atmosphere. If just 0.03% of the ‘buried carbon’ was
contemporary atmosphere. Using solar radiation to pro- returned to remain in the atmosphere, the atmospheric
vide the energy for photosynthesis, vegetation converts carbon concentration would double, with damaging
CO2 into carbon and frees oxygen gas. The carbon is com- results for climate change. The problem with fossil fuels
bined with other elements to build plant tissue, such as is not that they will run out, but that we cannot use the
stems, leaves and wood. This material is often known as majority of the reserves because we will overload the
biomass. Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is absorbed atmosphere with CO2.
by biomass throughout its lifetime and is then released Since the industrial revolution began more than
into the atmosphere again when burnt. This is why bio- 150 years ago, the concentration of CO2 in our atmos-
mass is often referred to as carbon neutral. Since CO2 is a phere has increased by around 40% from 280 to 290 ppm
greenhouse gas, this suggests a relationship between life to present levels (see Chapter 7). Monthly global average
and atmospheric temperature. The total amount of CO2 CO2 concentrations passed 400 ppm for the first time in
is not much different on Earth from that on Venus, it is March 2015 and are continuing to rise. Evidence from
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6.2 The basics of climate
ice-cores shows that CO2 concentrations are higher now rise. Above 2°C, the risk of a disintegration of the West
than at any point in the last 800 000 years. Levels of other Antarctic ice sheet rises significantly.
greenhouse gases, such as methane, have also been rising. This chapter therefore seeks to explore the Earth’s
This long-term increase is largely due to the burning of fundamental global atmospheric processes so that we may
fossil fuels, industrial activity and changes in land use. The better understand, predict and mitigate the effects of such
Paris Agreement (2015) recognizes that deep reductions in climate changes. It will start by introducing the basics
global emissions are urgently required, such that aggregate of atmospheric processes before moving on to examine
emission pathways are consistent with holding the increase energy systems and moisture circulations. The chapter will
in the global average temperature to well below 2°C above then return to a more detailed treatment of atmospheric
pre- industrial levels and pursuing efforts to limit the tem- motions including processes linked with inter-annual
perature increase to 1.5°C. Amidst all this discussion of variations in climates such as those associated with El
energy demand, the IEA (2010) estimates that 1.4 billion Niño. Finally the important processes associated with the
people across the world lack any access to electricity and greenhouse effect will be discussed. This will then provide
2.7 billion still use wood or other biomass to cook. While the basis for a more detailed treatment of contemporary
governments argue over energy policy, a huge proportion climate change given in Chapter 7.
of the world population is still stuck in energy poverty.
In 2015, global surface temperature reached around
1°C above levels around the industrial revolution for the 6.2 The basics of climate
first time. This marks a significant milestone as the Paris
Agreement (2015) aims to limit long-term global warming Global atmospheric circulation consists of wind systems
to 2°C or less (1.5°C) to avoid the most dangerous impacts that can show marked annual and seasonal variations. They
of climate change. The rate of global surface temperature are one of the principal factors determining the distribution
rise has varied greatly over the past century due to natural of climatic zones. The two major causes of the global wind
variability and other factors, but there has been a clear and circulation are inequalities in the distribution of solar radi-
ongoing warming trend. In the last decade or so surface ation over the Earth’s surface, particularly in a north–south
temperatures have gone through a spell of slower warm- direction (more received at the equator), and the Earth’s
ing. Although it cannot be certain that the current pause rotation. Global wind and ocean current circulations redis-
is over, global temperatures are rising again. 2014 was the tribute heat from equatorial regions where it is in surplus
warmest in records dating back to 1850, while observa- to polar regions where it is in deficit. The solar radiation
tions suggest 2015 is on course to be warmer still. received mainly at the equatorial Earth’s surface and reradi-
Predicted changes in global temperature due to human- ated back out from the whole surface provides the energy to
induced global warming may seem small, but they need drive the global atmospheric circulation, while the Earth’s
to be compared with the change in global average tem- rotation determines its shape (Lockwood, 2009).
perature between the present and the depth of the last ice Fundamental causes of seasonal differences in climate
age at around 19 000 years ago. The difference is only 5 across the globe are the approximately spherical shape of
to 8°C, making a warming of 2 to 4°C by the end of the the Earth and the way the Earth’s axis of rotation is tilted
twenty-first century of great significance. A temperature at 23.44° in relation to a perpendicular to the plane of the
increase of 2°C is now considered to represent the thresh- Earth’s orbit round the Sun. This tilt is probably the result
old between dangerous and extremely dangerous climate of the Earth being hit by another large object in space sev-
change. Even a temperature rise of 1.5°C can cause a sea- eral billions of years ago. The gravitational attraction of
level rise that would pose a significant threat to many low the Sun, the Moon and the other planets causes the tilt of
lying islands. Risks rise rapidly and non-linearly with tem- the Earth’s axis of rotation to vary between at least 21.8°
perature increases. Once temperature increase rises above and 24.4° over a regular period of about 41 000 years. At
2°C up to 4 billion people could be experiencing growing present it is decreasing by about 0.00013° per year. The
water shortages. Agriculture could cease to be viable in greater the tilt of the axis, the more pronounced the dif-
parts of the world, particularly in the tropics, and millions ference between winter and summer. If the axis tilt were
more people will be at risk of hunger. This rise in tem- zero, the present seasonal differences between winter and
perature could see 40–60 million more people exposed to summer would not exist. The spherical shape of the Earth
malaria in Africa. The warmer the temperature, the faster results in sharp north–south temperature differences. This
the Greenland ice sheet could melt, accelerating sea-level is because, as Figure 6.2 shows, the same amount of solar
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Chapter 6 Atmospheric processes
Same amount of radiation or below the horizon for 24 hours. At the poles themselves
has to cover larger surface there is almost six months of darkness during winter fol-
area nearer the pole
lowed by six months of daylight in summer.
In the tropical world, the Sun is nearly always almost
overhead at midday, with little seasonal variation in day
length from about 12 hours. Seasonal temperature vari-
ations in the humid tropics are therefore generally small,
Solar radiation particularly near the equator. The annual temperature
Earth
range (mean January minus mean July) is very small at
3°C or less over the oceans in the equatorial zone, and is
only 2 or 3°C greater at 30°N and 30°S. While values of
annual temperature range are equally small over the equa-
Atmosphere
torial continents, values increase rapidly towards the sub-
tropics to reach, for example, 20°C in the Sahara Desert
and 15°C in central Australia (see Chapter 8).
Figure 6.2 The effect of apparent altitude of the Sun in the sky upon
The interiors of the northern hemisphere mid-latitude
solar radiation received at the Earth’s surface. The Earth’s 23.44° tilt
means that the Sun appears overhead at midday at the Tropic of Cancer continents are far removed from oceanic influences and
(23°279N) on 21–22 June and the Tropic of Capricorn (23°279S) on because of their location experience extreme continen-
22–23 December. tality of climate. In continental climates, the influence
of seasonal variations in daylight length and incoming
radiation is spread over a larger area nearer the poles and solar radiation on temperature is greatly exaggerated,
also has a thicker layer of atmosphere to penetrate because producing large seasonal temperature variations. Thus
of the angle at which the solar radiation is received. The Bergen (60°24′N, 5°19′E, 44 m) on the Atlantic coast of
tilt in the Earth’s axis of rotation is responsible for month- Norway has a mean annual temperature of 7.8°C and an
by-month changes in the amount of solar radiation reach- annual range of 13.7°C, while at approximately the same
ing each part of the planet, and hence the variations in the latitude the central Asian city of Omsk (54°56′N, 73°24′E,
length of daylight throughout the year at different latitudes 105 m) has a mean annual temperature of 0.4°C and a range
and the resulting seasonal weather cycle. With zero axial of 38.4°C.
tilt, the length of daylight would be approximately 12 hours By definition, the positions of the Tropic of Cancer,
everywhere throughout the year. The 23.44° tilt accounts for Tropic of Capricorn, Arctic Circle and Antarctic Circle all
the position of the tropics: the Tropic of Cancer at 23°27′N depend on the tilt of the Earth’s axis relative to the plane of
and the Tropic of Capricorn at 23°27′S. At the tropics its orbit around the Sun. However, this angle is not constant,
the Sun is overhead at midday on the solstices, 21–22 June but has a complex motion determined by the superimposi-
(northern summer) and 22–23 December (northern winter) tion of many different cycles with short to very long periods.
respectively. The length of daylight throughout the year does As the axial tilt varies, so do the positions of the tropical and
not vary significantly from 12 hours over the whole of the polar circles. This causes the tropical circles to drift towards
area between the tropics. At the spring (21 or 22 March) and the equator by about 15 metres per year, and the polar circles
autumnal (22 or 23 September) equinoxes, when the noon to drift towards the poles by the same amount. As a result of
Sun is vertically overhead at the equator, day and night are the movement of the tropical circles, the area of the tropics
of equal length everywhere across the Earth. This is not so decreases worldwide by about 1100 km2 per year on average.
at the winter and summer solstices, since each year the areas The major controls of very long-term climatic change
lying polewards of the Arctic (at 66°33′N) and Antarctic (at include palaeogeography, green house gas concentra-
66°33′S) Circles have at least one complete 24-hour period tions, changing orbital parameters and varying ocean
of darkness at the winter solstice and one complete 24-hour heat transport. On timescales of a few years, variations
period of daylight at the summer solstice. The Arctic Circle in ocean heat transport and atmospheric greenhouse gas
marks the southernmost latitude (in the northern hemi- concentrations are particularly effective in changing cli-
sphere) at which the Sun can remain continuously above or mate. The greenhouse effect is a natural process that keeps
below the horizon for 24 hours. Similarly, the Antarctic Cir- the Earth’s surface around 30°C warmer than it would
cle marks the northernmost latitude (in the southern hemi- be otherwise. Without this effect, the Earth would be too
sphere) at which the Sun can remain continuously above cold to support life. Fourier realized in the 1820s that
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6.3 The global atmospheric circulation
Local and global feedbacks, for example:
changes in the clouds, the water content
of the atmosphere and the amount of
sunlight reflected by sea ice (albedo)
Physical changes
in climate
Land-use change
Rising global
mean surface
Rising
temperatures
atmospheric Impacts
Rising atmospheric temperatures Rising sea levels on
greenhouse gas Radiative forcing physical,
concentration Changes in rainfall
Emissions (change in energy biological
(measured in CO2 variability and
balance) and
equivalent) seasonality
Rising ocean human
temperatures Changing patterns of systems
(lagged) natural climate
variability
Melting of ice sheets,
sea ice and land
Feedbacks include a possible reduction glaciers
in the efficiency of the land and oceans
to absorb CO2 emissions and increased
natural releases of methane
Figure 6.3 The link between greenhouse gases and climate change. (Source: after Stern, 2006)
the atmosphere was more permeable to incoming solar 6.3 The global atmospheric circulation
radiation than outgoing infrared radiation and therefore
trapped heat (Fourier, 1824). The link between greenhouse The excess of incoming solar radiation over the tropics,
gases and climate change is illustrated in Figure 6.3, and is compared with the polar regions, drives the atmospheric
explored further later in the chapter. circulation. Incoming solar radiation is mainly absorbed
by the Earth’s surface in low-latitude regions, while infra-
red long-wave radiation is continuously radiated to cold
outer space from across the whole of the Earth’s surface.
Reflective question This creates the north–south temperature gradients that
➤ Why are there seasonal differences in climate across the drive the atmosphere/ocean circulation. Modern observa-
globe? tions of the atmosphere support a three-cell circulation
model in each hemisphere as shown in Figure 6.4. Air
Subtropical Tropical
jet tropopause
Polar-front
jet
Polar
tropopause
Dominating
horizontal Intertropical
mixing convergence
zone
905 Latitude 605 Polar 305 05
front
Figure 6.4 Schematic representation of atmospheric circulation cells and associated jet stream cores in winter. The tropical Hadley, the middle-latitude
Ferrel and the polar cells are clearly visible. Surface winds are not directly north or south because of the Earth’s rotation that forces the air to move in an
easterly or westerly direction.
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Chapter 6 Atmospheric processes
rises near the equator where there is a heat surplus, flows of low pressure near the equator. This trough contains a
poleward at high levels, sinks at about 30°N and S and convergence zone near the surface known as the intertropi-
returns at low levels to the equatorial regions. Climatolo- cal convergence zone (ITCZ) where conditions are favour-
gists know this simple circulation cell as the Hadley cell; it able for ascending motion, condensation of water vapour,
is restricted to tropical regions by the Earth’s rotation (see cloudiness and high precipitation rates. It is only a few
Section 6.6.2). Over both poles where there is a heat defi- hundred kilometres in width and its position varies from
cit, a similar circulation with subsiding air and surface- day to day. Thus the ascending limb of the Hadley cell
level winds flowing back towards the equator exists, but is limited to a few areas of cloud and rain in the equato-
they are diverted in an easterly direction by the Earth’s rial trough, while the descending motion covers much of
rotation. Between the tropical Hadley cell and the polar the subtropics giving widespread desert conditions. The
cell there is, to complete the three-cell structure, a reverse Hadley cells are relatively stable; therefore Figure 6.4 is
cell with sinking air around 30°N and S, poleward-flowing a reasonable representation. Compared with the Hadley
westerly winds, and rising air along the boundary (the cells, the middle-latitude atmosphere is highly disturbed
polar front) between the mid-latitude and polar cells. This and the Ferrel cell circulation shown in Figure 6.4 is highly
middle-latitude cell is known as the Ferrel cell. schematic. At the surface the predominant features are a
Between 20° and 30° latitude from the equator are areas series of eastward-moving closed cyclonic and anticyclonic
of high pressure, such as the Azores anticyclone, where circulation systems. At high levels in the atmosphere these
air from the tropical Hadley cells descends (Figure 6.5). features are associated with large-scale open waves with
Since descending air warms (see Section 6.6.1) there is little jet streams imbedded in them. These waves and jet streams
chance of moisture condensation and generally these are are discussed in more detail in Section 6.6.4.
regions of clear skies with high pressure and light winds.
Almost all the major deserts of the world lie in these lati-
tudes. Research by Qiang Fu et al. (2006) suggests a widen-
ing of the tropical circulation zone and a poleward shift of Reflective question
the subtropical jet streams and their associated subtropi-
➤ Which major circulation zone do you live in? What are its
cal dry zones. Since 1980, the area defined climatically as
main characteristics?
‘tropical’ has expanded by 277 km in either direction away
from the equator. The equatorward-flowing easterly winds
on the equatorial sides of the subtropical anticyclones are
known as trade winds. The trade winds meet in a trough
6.4 Radiative and energy systems
Polar high
6.4.1 The nature of energy
Many meteorological processes involve flows of energy;
605
it is therefore essential to have some understanding of the
Sub-polar low
nature of energy. Energy supply is the very life-blood of
Westerlies 305 existence. Energy may formally be defined as the capacity
Subtropical high for doing work. It may exist in a variety of forms including
heat, radiation, potential energy, kinetic energy, chemi-
Trade winds
cal energy and electromagnetic energies. It is a property
Equatorial trough 0 of matter capable of being transferred from one place
Trade winds to another, of changing the environment and is itself
susceptible to change from one form to another. Except
Subtropical high
at the sub-atomic scales, energy is neither created nor
Westerlies 305 destroyed and from this it follows that all forms of energy
Sub-polar low are exactly convertible to all other forms of energy, though
not all transformations are equally likely. This is because
605
of something called entropy, which is explained in more
Polar high detail in Box 6.1. When energy is used, it is still there, but
Figure 6.5 Idealized mean surface wind circulation. normally cannot be used over and over again, because
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6.4 Radiative and energy systems
only low-entropy energy is ‘useful’. Once energy is used via the formation of new compounds. The direct trans-
even once, it converts to a useless low-grade, high-entropy formation of sunlight into kinetic energy of atmospheric
form. Thus hydrogen is a low-entropy fuel; on combin- motion is extremely uncommon, since this normally takes
ing with oxygen it produces heat energy and high-entropy place via heat energy. It is possible for any particular sys-
water. Water is completely useless as a fuel. The transfor- tem to produce an exact energy budget, in which energy
mation of light into heat is common, and if sunlight falls gained exactly equals the energy lost plus any change in
on green plants it can be transformed into chemical energy storage of energy in the system.
Energy exchanges system increases with time so that it be burnt later using atmospheric oxygen
and entropy becomes more disordered. The whole uni- and producing CO2, releasing the stored
verse is progressing from a state of simple energy. Photosynthesis results in a large
In very general terms it can be stated order to states of increasing disorder. So if reduction of entropy in the vegetation
that used drinks bottles can be recycled the system starts off in a state with some system. Green plants achieve this entropy
while used energy cannot. Used energy kind of organization, this organization will, reduction by using short-wave radiation
still exists in a high-entropy form but can- in due course, become degraded, and the from the Sun to drive the chemistry of the
not be reused, because only low-entropy special features (e.g. wind motions) will photosynthetic process. The light from
energy is useful. Taken one step further, it become converted into ‘useless’ disorgan- the Sun brings energy to the Earth in a
can be noted that organized systems seem ized particle motions. Thus, over time, all comparatively low-entropy form, namely
to have an annoying tendency to become organized atmospheric motions, unless in the photons of visible light. The Earth
disorganized. Both these very simple state- continually renewed, will be destroyed by does not retain this energy, but after some
ments are underpinned by the concepts of friction and vanish. time reradiates it all back into space. If
entropy and thermodynamics. However, observation suggests that this were not so the temperature of the
Energy transformations are best under- many natural systems do not increase Earth would continually increase. However,
stood in terms of the first and second laws their entropy through time. On medium the reradiated energy is in a high-entropy
of thermodynamics and the concept of and large scales, atmospheric motions form of relatively useless radiant heat or
entropy (Lockwood, 1979). The first law show a high degree of stable organiza- infrared photons. The sky is in a state of
of thermodynamics is a statement of the tion. Since entropy is always tending to temperature imbalance: one region of it
law of conservation of energy for a ther- increase in these systems, they must be (occupied by the Sun) is at a very much
modynamic system. Entropy, however, is a receiving new supplies of low entropy to higher temperature than the rest. The
measure of the unavailability of a system’s maintain the stable, low-entropy condi- Earth receives energy from the hot Sun
heat energy for conversion into mechani- tions. It is therefore necessary to enquire in a low-entropy form and reradiates it
cal work. The lower the entropy, the more about the source of this supply of low to the cold regions of the sky in a high-
energy the system has for conversion into entropy. The answer to this may be illus- entropy form. The existence of the cold
mechanical energy. It is also a measure of trated by a consideration of the energy sky is essential to make the entropy flow
the degradation or disorganization of the flow in plants. Green plants take atmos- system work. The total amount of entropy
system: the higher the entropy, the more pheric CO2, separate the oxygen from the exported by the Earth–atmosphere sys-
disorganized the system. Friction continu- carbon using photosynthesis, and then tem to space is 22 times the amount of
ally degrades and destroys atmospheric use the carbon to build up their own entropy imported by the incoming solar
motions by converting them back into substances and grow leaves, roots, fruits radiation at the top of the atmosphere.
heat, but this heat is in the form of low- and so on. In doing this they supply free The gains in entropy represent the export,
grade, high-entropy energy, which cannot oxygen gas to the atmosphere; indeed a in the form of long-wave radiation, of
create fresh motion systems. test of the presence of carbon-based life the disorder continually being created in
The second law of thermodynamics on a planet is free oxygen in the atmos- atmospheric flow patterns and surface
asserts that the entropy of an isolated phere. The plant biomass produced can ecological systems.
Box 6.1
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Stated in simple climatological terms, heat is a form pure ice (0°C), and the Kelvin temperature scale is meas-
of energy and the indirect transformation of heat energy ured upwards from absolute zero in Celsius units, making
into various forms of mechanical energy is the process 0°C equivalent to 273.15 K. The Kelvin temperature scale
that drives the global circulation of the atmosphere. is often used in basic physical equations, particularly those
Thus the transformation of heat into mechanical energy concerned with radiation.
is responsible for the formation of weather systems Heat is transferred from high- to low-temperature
whose cumulative effects define the climate of a particu- objects and this alters either the temperature or the state
lar region. Friction continually degrades and destroys of the substance, or both. Thus, a heated body may
atmospheric motions by converting them back into heat, acquire a higher temperature and this is known as sensible
but this heat is in the form of low-grade, high-entropy heat gain. Alternatively a heated body may change to a
energy, which cannot create fresh motion systems. higher state (solid to liquid, or liquid to gas) and therefore
Throughout Section 6.4 and Box 6.1 it will be demon- acquire latent (or hidden) heat. For example, ice at 0°C
strated that the source of low-entropy energy, which can be heated and melt to form water. Once the melting
drives the atmospheric circulation, is sunlight, while the process is complete the temperature of the water may still
low-grade, high-entropy energy produced as a result of be 0°C. The extra heat was simply used to change the state
the motions is lost to space as long-wave infrared radia- of the solid to a liquid and this is known as latent heat.
tion. At the most fundamental level, the important fact One or more of the processes of conduction, convection
is that the Sun is a hot spot in an otherwise cold dark or radiation affects the transfer of heat to or from a sub-
sky. Had the entire sky been at the same temperature as stance. Conduction is the process of heat transfer through
the Sun, then its energy would have been of no use in matter by molecular impact from regions of high tempera-
driving atmospheric and oceanic circulations because ture to regions of low temperature without the transfer of
long-wave loss would not have been possible. One final matter itself. It is the process by which heat passes through
question is why is the night sky dark since the universe is solids (e.g. soils, rocks). The effects of conduction in fluids
of immense size and full of radiating stars? The answer is (liquids and gases) are usually negligible in comparison
that the universe is expanding, and this expansion causes with those of convection. Convection is a mode of heat
the wavelength of light from distant stars to increase transfer in a fluid (e.g. atmosphere, oceans), involving the
(reddening) and move away from the visible due to the movement of substantial volumes of the substance itself.
so-called Doppler effect. So without the expansion of Examples are wind systems in the atmosphere and ocean
the universe, atmospheric circulations (and vegetation as currents.
well) would not be possible! Radiation is the final form of heat transfer and is trans-
mitted by any object that is not at a temperature of abso-
lute zero (0 K). This type of heat transfer is discussed in
6.4.2 Distinguishing between temperature
the following section.
and heat
It is important to distinguish between temperature and
heat. Temperature is a measure of the mean kinetic energy 6.4.3 Radiation
(speed) per molecule of an object, while heat, or sensible
heat as it is often called, is a measure of the total kinetic
6.4.3.1 The nature of radiation
energy of all the molecules of that object. Thus the tem-
perature of the air is simply a measure of the ‘internal Radiation does not require any medium through which to
energy’ of the air. This internal energy is associated with travel and so it can pass through a vacuum with the speed
the random motion of the molecules. If two equal masses of light. This is how radiation from the Sun reaches the
of gas are brought into intimate contact, this internal Earth. Radiation can be regarded as having both a wave
energy is rapidly shared between them and their tempera- structure and a particle (photon) structure. Sometimes
tures become equal. its properties are best described in terms of waves, while
As the temperature decreases it is possible to imagine at other times in terms of a particle structure. Radia-
a state being reached when the molecules are at complete tion is characterized by wavelength, of which there is a
rest and there is no internal energy, a point on the tem- wide range or spectrum extending from very short X-rays
perature scale known as absolute zero. This has been deter- through ultraviolet and visible light to infrared, micro-
mined as 273.15 degrees Celsius below the melting point of waves and long radiowaves.
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6.4 Radiative and energy systems
Radiation laws A black body emits radiation with a atmosphere possess spectra that allow
range of frequencies, but with a maxi- them to emit and absorb thermal infrared
A perfect black body is one that absorbs
mum at frequency lmax. It can be shown radiation (49100 mm); such gases include
all the radiation falling on it and that
by the Wien displacement law that the water vapour, CO2 and ozone, but not the
emits, at any temperature, the maximum
wavelength of maximum energy lmax is main constituents of the atmosphere,
amount of radiant energy. This definition
inversely proportional to the absolute oxygen or nitrogen. These absorption
does not imply that the object must be
temperature: properties are directly responsible for the
black, because snow, which reflects most
natural greenhouse effect. Vigorous verti-
of the visible light falling on it, is an excel- lmax = a/T (6.2)
cal mixing takes place in the troposphere
lent black body in the infrared part of the
where a is a constant as explained in Section 6.6.1. Therefore it
spectrum. For a perfect all-wave black
(1.035 * 1011 K - 1 s - 1). is not the change in thermal infrared radia-
body the intensity of radiation emitted
Objects on the Earth’s surface are com- tion at the Earth’s surface that determines
and the wavelength distribution depend
monly assumed to emit and absorb in the the strength of the greenhouse warming.
only on the - absolute temperature, which
infrared region as a grey body: that is, as a Instead it is the change in the irradiance or
is the temperature measured in degrees
body for which the Stefan–Boltzmann law radiative flux (F ) at the top of the tropo-
Celsius from absolute zero, and in this case
takes the form: sphere (tropopause) that expresses the
the Stefan–Boltzmann law (equation 6.1)
forcing of the climate system by radiation.
applies. This law states that the flux of F = esT 4 (6.3) Unless a gas molecule possesses strong
radiation from a black body is directly pro-
where the constant of proportionality e absorption bands in the wavelength region
portional to the fourth power of its abso-
is defined as the infrared emissivity or, of significant emission from the ground
lute temperature, that is:
equivalently, the infrared absorptivity (one surface, it can have little effect on the radi-
minus the infrared albedo). Typical infrared ative flux at the tropopause (Houghton,
F = sT 4 (6.1)
emissivities are in the range 0.90 to 0.98. 2015). Thus global climate change is
where F is the flux of radiation (watts At normal temperatures many gases strongly affected by the atmospheric com-
per square metre), T is the absolute are not black bodies since they emit position. The roles of the troposphere and
temperature (Kelvin) and s is a constant and absorb radiation only in selected tropopause are discussed in Section 6.6
(10 - 8 W - 2 K - 4). wavelengths. Many molecules in the (see Figure 6.12).
Box 6.2
The radiation laws contained in Box 6.2 describe It is therefore convenient to divide the entire atmos-
the emission of radiation by an object. These laws pheric radiative regime into two parts: the solar (or short-
show that the amount of radiant energy emitted by wave) regime and the terrestrial (or long-wave) regime.
any object is much greater as temperature increases. A division of the spectrum at about 4 mm effectively
At the same time hotter objects also produce more separates the two. The atmosphere is nearly transparent
radiation at shorter wavelengths than cooler objects to short-wave radiation from the hot Sun, of which large
because the maximum wavelength emitted by an object amounts reach the Earth’s surface. However, the atmos-
is inversely proportional to absolute temperature (K). phere readily absorbs longer-wave infrared radiation.
The high temperature of the radiating surface of the
Sun (about 6000 K) results in over 99% of the solar
6.4.3.2 Global radiation
energy being at wavelengths of less than 4 mm (mm
stands for micrometre and is equivalent to one-millionth Global radiation is the sum of all short-wave radiation
of a metre), whereas the much lower temperature of received, both directly from the Sun (direct solar radiation)
the Earth’s atmosphere and surface (generally around and indirectly (diffuse radiation) from the sky and clouds,
300 K or lower) yields most radiative energy in the on a horizontal surface (radiation pathways are shown in
49100 mm region. Figure 6.6). Direct solar radiation casts shadows, and its
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Chapter 6 Atmospheric processes
Incoming Outgoing radiation
solar radiation
Short- Long-
100
Outer space wave wave
28 72
Absorption Emission by
by O 3 CO2 and H2O
Stratosphere 3
3 Sensible and eddy
heat transport
Backscatter
by cloud
39 19 Sensible and latent
Emission by
heat flux by air motion
H2O, CO2
64 and clouds
41
Net absorption
17 Absorption 13 by H2O, CO2
Absorption by clouds 5 and clouds
by H 2 O, dust 5
Troposphere 109
and haze 15 Backscatter
17 by air dust
and haze
6 Sensible and
3 latent eddy heat
Backscatter transport
11 by surface
Sensible Latent
2 heat heat
1 5 24
114 96
22 25
Absorption Absorption 18
Hydro- Net long-wave
of direct of diffuse
lithosphere solar sky and cloud reradiation
radiation radiation Transport by
Values are percentages of incoming solar radiation ocean currents
Figure 6.6 Schematic diagram showing the interactions that radiation undergoes in the atmosphere and at the land surface. Values are percentages of
incoming solar radiation. The stratosphere is the upper atmosphere and the troposphere the lower atmosphere. The hydro-lithosphere refers to the land
or oceans. (Source: after Rotty and Mitchell, 1974)
intensity on a horizontal surface varies with the angle of found in the subtropics where there are clear skies because
the Sun above the horizon (solar angle). Diffuse radiation, of the prevailing anticyclonic conditions associated with
in contrast, does not cast shadows, is usually much less the descending air from the Hadley cell circulations illus-
intense than the direct component and only varies slightly trated in Figures 6.4 and 6.5.
throughout daylight. Since diffuse radiation is the result
mainly of scattering and absorption in clouds, its intensity
6.4.3.3 Albedo
depends on cloud structure and thickness, not just on solar
angle. Radiation falling on a solid surface may be partly
Global radiation with a large direct component shows reflected, partly absorbed and partly transmitted. In
a strong diurnal variation in intensity (e.g. Figure 6.7), contrast, water is translucent and light penetrates the sur-
with maximum values when the Sun is at its greatest angle face layers of the oceans, while the atmosphere is nearly
above the horizon around midday. This diurnal variation transparent to short-wave radiation. Radiation received
nearly vanishes on cloudy days when the diffuse compo- from the surface of an object may result from either reflec-
nent dominates the global radiation. The actual worldwide tion by that surface, or radiation emitted (according to
distribution of global radiation reflects astronomical fac- the radiation laws in Box 6.2) from the surface, or indeed
tors and the distribution of cloud, which in turn is deter- both. Albedo is a measure of the reflecting power of a
mined by the global wind circulation. Thus Figure 6.8 surface, being the fraction of the short-wave radiation
shows that the areas receiving most global radiation are received that is reflected by a surface. Albedo is sometimes
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6.4 Radiative and energy systems
1000
St
called reflectivity, but this term properly refers to the
reflected : received ratio for a specific wavelength. Reflec-
tivity therefore varies with wavelength; for example, grass
is green because it reflects much of the green light in solar
800
radiation and absorbs most of the energy in other colours.
Sb
Total Albedo is important because it determines the frac-
tion of the incoming solar radiation that is absorbed by
Irradiance (W m-2)
600 the surface. This absorbed radiation is then available to
heat the surface. Typical albedo values are contained in
Table 6.1. The greater the albedo, the less solar radiation
400
is absorbed. Albedo varies from 0.08 for dark, moist soils,
to 0.86–0.95 for fresh snow. In the latter case nearly all the
Direct
incident solar radiation is reflected and the solar warming
of the surface is small. Clouds also have very high albe-
200 dos, and therefore greatly restrict the amount of sunlight
Diffuse Sd
falling on the ground below them. The planetary albedo
of the Earth as seen from space is made up of three main
0 components. These are the light reflected from the actual
0 30 60 90
land and sea surfaces of the Earth, the light reflected by
Solar elevation (deg)
clouds, and light scattered upwards by the atmosphere
Figure 6.7 Solar irradiance (F ) on a cloudless sky (16 July 1969) at (Figure 6.6).
Sutton Bonington (53°N, 1°W): St total flux; Sb direct flux on horizontal
The global distribution of surface albedo is shown in
surface; Sd diffuse flux. Solar elevation is the angle of the Sun above the
horizon. (Source: after Monteith and Unsworth, 1990) Figure 6.9, where the extremely high albedo values of the
90 5N
106
106 80
60 5N
80 80
80
133 106
160 18 133
6 21 6
18 186 3 160
239
30 5N
239 160
266 293
239
213 186 213
160
05 18
21
160 6
3
239
186
213
3
21
23 9
30 5S
3
21
160 186
133
106
60 5S
90 5S
1805W 1205W 605W 05 605E 1205E 1805E
Figure 6.8 Worldwide distribution of annually averaged global (direct plus diffuse) surface-received solar
radiation (W m22). (Source: after Lockwood, 1979 and Budyko, 1974)
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Chapter 6 Atmospheric processes
Table 6.1 Values of albedo for various surfaces 6.4.3.4 Net radiation and energy balances
The full energy balance of, for example, a sample land sur-
Albedo (percentage of
face (Figure 6.6) involves not only radiative fluxes, but also
incoming short-wave
radiation which is fluxes of energy in the form of sensible heat (heat that can
Surface reflected) be detected by a thermometer) and latent heat (e.g. energy
contained in evaporated water vapour). The sensible heat
Fresh, dry snow 80–95
fluxes may be both downwards into the soil and upwards
Sea ice 30–40 into the atmosphere. The energy available for the sensible
Dry light sandy soils 35–45 and latent heat fluxes depends on the net radiation. The net
Meadows 15–25 radiation at a surface is the difference between the total
Dry steppe 20–30 incoming and the total outgoing radiation. The net radia-
tion indicates whether net heating (positive) or cooling
Coniferous forest 10–15
(negative) is taking place; the net radiation will normally be
Deciduous forest 15–20
negative at night, indicating cooling, but during the day it
may be positive or negative depending on the balance of the
ice fields of Antarctica should be noted and compared incoming and the outgoing radiation. Low cloud blankets
with the low albedo values over the equatorial rainforests. the Earth’s surface and at night restricts the long-wave radi-
Particularly high gradients of surface albedo are seen in ation loss, thereby causing only small net radiative losses
both the Arctic and Antarctic where ice fields replace open and temperature decreases. If the sky is clear at night, the
water or ice-free land. High albedo values also occur over long-wave radiative loss is large, so is the net radiative loss,
the dry sands of the subtropical deserts. Albedo over the resulting in a large nocturnal temperature decrease. The
oceans is, except for the high latitudes, nearly uniform at term ‘available energy’ is often used to describe net radia-
around 10%. tion minus the sensible heat transfer into the soil.
50
50 805 40
40 30 60 40 30
20
15 20 20 15
15 15 605
20 15 15 15
20 20 15
15 15
15 10
10 10 15 10
20 405
20 10 10 20 20 15
25
5 20
15 10 25 30
15 30
30
205 10 15 10
10 30
25
10 15 20 15 10
10 10 15 20 15
20 20 10 20 10
1605 1405 1205 1005 805 605 405 205 05 205 405 605 805 1005 1205 1405 1605
10 10 10 20 15
15 15 10 10 10
20 10 10
10 20
10 15
10 15 15 10
10
15 205
10
10 20
15 10 10
10
10 10 25
10 10 15
10 405
10 10
15 15 10
10 15 15
15 20 20
605
40 20 20
20
50
30 60 40 30
60 805
60
Figure 6.9 Distribution of minimum albedo (%) from Nimbus 3 satellite measurements during 1969–1970. This is a good approximation to the
albedo of the surface. The assumption is that the albedo of the Earth–atmosphere system is higher over each area in the presence of clouds
than for a cloud-free atmosphere. Therefore estimates of the albedo of the surface and also locations of persistent cloud fields and of ice and
snow can be made. The effects of changing cloud fields are removed by displaying only the lowest observed satellite albedo value in each area.
(Source: after Raschke et al., 1973)
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6.4 Radiative and energy systems
Net radiation is defined as: above. Drier conditions result in an increase in the
Bowen ratio.
Rn = (1 - a)Q - Lout + Lin(6.4)
If water is readily available for evaporation, because it
where Rn is the net radiation, a is the albedo of the sur- is on the soil surface or the roots of vegetation have access
face, Q is the incoming global radiation, Lout is the outgo- to water in the soil, then as much as 75–80% of the total
ing long-wave radiation from the surface and Lin is the daytime transport of energy to the atmosphere occurs
incoming long-wave radiation from the atmosphere. For as latent heat. This high evaporation rate from a moist
a normal surface (land or ocean) the sensible and latent surface cools the surface and keeps daytime maximum
heat fluxes are balanced by the net radiation. This gives an temperatures below about 32–34°C. At this temperature
equation of the form: all the net radiation is used for evaporation. Higher evapo-
ration rates can occur only by extracting heat from the
Rn = lE + H + S(6.5)
atmosphere and thereby cooling it. At the other extreme
where l is the latent heat of vaporization, E is the evapora- of the desert, where water for evaporation is very limited,
tion rate, H is the sensible heat flux into the atmosphere most of the net radiation during daylight is transferred to
and S is the sensible heat flux into the soil or ocean. the atmosphere as sensible heat, which warms the lower
atmosphere. Under these circumstances the Bowen ratio
6.4.3.5 The Bowen ratio – the partition of net has values above 1 and daylight surface temperatures can
radiation reach values considerably above 34°C since the surface is
not cooled by evaporation. Because the desert surface is
The key issue over land is the partition of the net radia- hot in daytime, the long-wave emission can be very large,
tion into sensible and latent heat fluxes. One approach significantly reducing the net radiation. The degree of wet-
to this problem is to consider the Bowen ratio, which ness of a surface therefore exerts, through the Bowen ratio,
is defined as H/lE (sensible heat flux divided by latent a strong control over surface temperature and near-surface
heat flux). For normal moist surfaces, values of the atmospheric temperature. For example, maximum tem-
ratio are in the range 0 to 1 (Figure 6.10). The value of peratures observed over tropical oceans or moist tropical
the Bowen ratio varies widely over land. The Bowen land surfaces rarely exceed 32–34°C, while over dry tropi-
ratio decreases with increasing temperature and the cal deserts they may reach 50°C.
ratio reaches zero at about 32–34°C over moist sur-
faces. The ratio also depends on the availability of
water for evaporation, which is controlled by soil mois- 6.4.4 Thermal inertia
ture, v egetational controls and input of dry air from A scientific consideration of critical importance to policy-
makers who seek to mitigate the effects of undesirable
anthropogenic climate change is that the Earth’s climate
0.5
system has considerable thermal inertia. The effect of the
0.4
inertia is to delay the atmospheric and oceanic response to
various climate forcings. Of particular importance is that
0.3 the existence of thermal inertia implies that still greater
climate changes will be in store for present increased
Bowen ratio
0.2 atmosphere CO2 levels, which may be difficult or impossi-
ble to avoid. The primary symptom of the climate system’s
0.1
thermal inertia, in the presence of increasing green-
house gas concentrations, is an imbalance between the
0
energy absorbed and emitted by the planet. Hansen et al.
-0.1 (2005) finds using a climate model, driven mainly by
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
increasing human-made greenhouse gases and aerosols,
Temperature (5C)
among other forcings, that the Earth is now absorbing
Figure 6.10 Values of the Bowen ratio at a freely evaporating surface for 0.85 { 0.15 W m-2 more energy from the Sun than it is
various surface temperatures. This diagram applies only to a freely evapo-
emitting to space. This imbalance is confirmed by precise
rating surface. If the surface becomes dry, the value of the Bowen ratio
will increase to above that appropriate for the surface temperature. measurements of increasing ocean heat content over the
(Source: after Lockwood, 1979) past 10 years. This implies an expectation of additional
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Chapter 6 Atmospheric processes
global warming of about 0.6°C without further change therefore evaporation, the atmosphere can adjust itself to
of atmospheric composition. IPCC Working Group 1, a new steady state through an increase in radiative cool-
Fourth Assessment Report (2007a) (WG1 AR4) estimated ing. For both cases, although the new steady-state tem-
a further 0.6°C unavoidable warming by the end of the perature is higher, the changes in global precipitation, and
century relative to 1980–1999 even if atmospheric green- therefore in the intensity of the hydrological cycle, are in
house gas concentrations remain at 2000 levels. Working opposite directions. Thus an increase in temperature due
Group 2, Fourth Assessment Report (2007b) (WG2 AR4) to global warming may decrease or increase the rainfall.
commented that this leads to the conclusion that there are This is explored further in the next section and it is to the
some impacts for which adaptation is the only available role of moisture in the atmosphere that we now turn our
and appropriate response. attention.
6.4.5 The atmospheric energy balance
The atmosphere continually loses more heat to space in Reflective questions
the form of long-wave radiation than it gains from the ➤ Where are the main areas of latent heat release in the
absorption of short-wave radiation, and this is equivalent global atmosphere?
to a cooling of 1 or 2°C per day. The heat lost to space in
➤ What is the visual evidence of convection in the
the form of long-wave radiation is largely compensated for
atmosphere?
by the latent heat released by atmospheric water vapour
that has evaporated from the surface, condensing to form ➤ How would you expect daily totals of global radiation to
precipitation. Typical annual global values for the energy vary through the year at (a) the South Pole, (b) Singapore
balance of the atmosphere are: and (c) London?
• net radiative loss = - 99.4 W m - 2 (this must be bal- ➤ Why are snow and ice fields able to exist on high tropical
anced by the sensible and latent heat gained by the mountains?
atmosphere);
• sensible heat gain = 20.4 W m - 2; ➤ Will the transfer of sensible heat to the atmosphere
• latent heat gain = 79.0 W m - 2. over a moist grass surface be greater at higher or lower
temperatures?
Annual global precipitation is therefore linked closely
to the atmospheric energy balance and can change only ➤ Many hot desert areas have very high surface albedos. Do
if there are associated changes in the global energy bal- they warm or cool the atmosphere in comparison with a
ance. The latent heat gain of 79 W m - 2 is equivalent similar but vegetation-covered area?
to an average annual global precipitation of about
1004 mm yr - 1, which has shown yearly variations of
about { 50 mm ({ 5%) over the past 100 years.
6.5 Moisture circulation systems
On a global mean basis, to a good approximation, a
balance between radiative cooling and condensational
6.5.1 Moisture in the atmosphere and the
heating maintains the mean equilibrium atmospheric
hydrological cycle
temperature. This has interesting and important conse-
quences for the relationship between changes of global The full cycle of events through which water passes in the
atmospheric temperature and associated changes in surface–atmosphere system is best illustrated in terms of
global precipitation. For example, a temperature increase the hydrological cycle, which describes the circulation of
initiated by a reduction in radiative cooling in the lower water from the oceans, through the atmosphere back to
atmosphere, because of an increase in atmospheric CO2, the oceans, or to the land, and then to the oceans again
and therefore the greenhouse effect, can be achieved with by overland and subsurface routes. Water in the oceans
a corresponding decrease in condensational heating and evaporates under the influence of solar radiation and the
therefore a reduction in precipitation. In contrast, for a resulting water vapour is transported by the atmospheric
temperature increase initiated by an enhancement in con- circulation (see Section 6.3) to the land areas, where pre-
densational heating (increase in global precipitation), for cipitation may occur in a variety of forms including rain,
instance, due to increased sea surface temperatures, and hail and snow. Some of this precipitation will infiltrate
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6.5 Moisture circulation systems
into the soils and rocks below the surface from where it Earth’s atmosphere contains on average an amount of
flows more slowly to river channels or sometimes directly water vapour which, if it were all condensed and depos-
to the sea (see Chapter 18). The water remaining on the ited on the surface of the Earth, would stand to a depth
surface and in the upper layers of the soil will partly of about 25 mm. Therefore, to maintain the precipitation
evaporate back to the atmosphere. Since evaporation is amounts observed in many parts of the world, there must
linked to the surface energy balance, the hydrological cycle be a continual flow of very moist air into the area from the
is directly linked to, and indeed is part of, global energy surroundings. The general wind circulation (Section 6.3) is
exchanges. therefore very important in explaining the observed global
It is simplest to regard the hydrosphere as a global sys- precipitation patterns. Particularly high precipitation
tem consisting of four reservoirs linked by the hydrologi- regions are found where moist winds from oceanic areas
cal cycle. These are the world ocean, polar ice, terrestrial either flow onto windward continental coasts, Europe for
waters and atmospheric waters; estimates of the amount example, or converge into low-pressure troughs such as
of water stored in these reservoirs are summarized in that found in the equatorial zone.
Table 6.2. The average residence times (Table 6.3) of water
in the various reservoirs are of particular interest to cli-
6.5.2 Global distribution of precipitation and
matologists. The water vapour in the air at any one time
evaporation
represents about one-fortieth part of the annual rainfall
or the supply of water for about 10 days of rainfall. The While on a global scale over an annual period, evapora-
tion approximately equals precipitation, this is not so for
Table 6.2 Estimated volumes of principal components of the either particular regions or seasonal timescales. Figure 6.11
hydrosphere shows estimated annual distributions of precipitation and
evaporation. It is clear that the main areas of evaporation,
Present amount mostly over the oceans, do not coincide with the major
Surface area of water precipitation regions. This implies an atmospheric flux of
covered resources
(106 km2) (103 km3) (%)
water vapour from the oceans to the land masses. Indeed,
the water forming precipitation over the continental land
World ocean 361 1 370 000 93 masses can be divided into two components. First, there is
Polar ice 16 24 000 2 the water component of the precipitation that originated
Terrestrial 134 64 000* 5
from distant oceans and has been circulated over the land
waters by low-level winds. Second, there is the component that is
Atmospheric 510 13 0.001 formed of locally evaporated water. In the middle-latitude
waters continents, the first component dominates in winter and
is associated with the middle-latitude westerlies and active
* Includes groundwater (almost 64 000), lakes (230), soil moisture (82).
frontal depressions, while the second is more important in
summer, and tropical/equatorial areas, and is associated
Table 6.3 Average residence times of water with convective storms. Evaporation rates (Figure 6.11b)
over the land masses are relatively low, only about 50% of
Water source Residence time
the global average (Brutsaert, 1982). There are a number
of reasons for this, mostly linked to the moisture-holding
Atmospheric waters 10 days capacity of the land surface soils, and the annual dis-
Terrestrial waters tribution of precipitation and net radiation. Many land
surfaces are able to sustain typical evaporation rates of
Rivers 2 weeks
293 mm day - 1 for less than a month. In climates with
Lakes 10 years
marked wet and dry seasons, found particularly in the
Soil moisture 2–50 weeks tropics, soil moisture soon becomes exhausted in the dry
Biological waters A few weeks season and evaporation rates fall to very low values. Here
Groundwaters Up to 10 000 years vigorous evaporation is restricted to the wet season. In
Polar ice 15 000 years many areas in the subtropics, the wet season is short or
World oceans 3 600 years
non-existent, and annual evaporation rates are very low.
Similar arguments apply in many middle-latitude regions,
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Chapter 6 Atmospheric processes
(a)
805N
500
1000
250 250
250
0
00 50
10
250 1000
05
10
00
500 250
10
00 250 500 250
500 1000
1000
605S
(b)
905N
40 0 100
20 0
20 0 300
605N 300 800
300 1200 500 40 0
400 400
500 600 40 0
30
600 800
800
0
40 300
120
20
8 0 00
200
160 0
0
0
7
0 0 0 0
80
305N 0 0 20 100 60
240 00
16
12 100 00 24
00 00 100
100 8
00
20
0
200 1000
200
0 400
800 1600
1000 1000
2000
05 1300 1200
12
00 8 0 0 600
600
600
2000
80
0
240
0
1000
1000
600 40
20 00
200 0
80 0
0
00
200
400
2000
16
150
305S
0
200
1600 0
60
1600 1200
0 800
120
400
80 0
605S
905S
Figure 6.11 (a) Global distribution of annual precipitation (mm), simplified to show only major regimes; oceanic rainfall estimated.
(Source: after Riehl, 1965) (b) Global distribution of annual evaporation (mm) based upon a number of recent estimates. Oceans are almost infinite
moisture sources, while land areas frequently become dry, so there is a marked discontinuity between adjacent land and ocean regions. Oceanic evapo-
ration shows a dependence upon ocean surface temperature. (Source: after Brutsaert, 1982)
where precipitation is often plentiful in winter, but because In many summer and dry-season cases, the actual land
of a Sun low in the sky associated with short daylight surface evaporation is considerably less than predicted by
hours, net radiation is restricted and hence evaporation the energy balance equations with assumed moist land
rates are low. Much of the winter precipitation either surfaces. The evaporation may be considered as being
recharges soil moisture or forms river runoff. In contrast, restricted by some form of resistance in the evaporative
in summer with long daylight hours and a Sun high in pathway from the soil to the atmosphere. When the soil is
the sky, the net radiation values are high but soil moisture moist the resistance is relatively low, but as the soil mois-
becomes seriously depleted, because of low precipitation ture decreases, the resistance increases in response and
rates, leading to restricted evaporation rates. limits the evaporative loss.
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6.5 Moisture circulation systems
6.5.3 The influence of vegetation on evaporation standard level (often at 2 m) in the overlying atmosphere.
The value of the first (the bulk canopy resistance) depends
Evaporative losses from land surfaces have three compo-
on such factors as the vegetation type, soil moisture, sun-
nents, known as transpiration, interception loss and soil
light and atmospheric humidity. The value of the second
surface evaporation. While they are governed by the same
(the aerodynamic resistance) depends on such factors as
physical laws, they do not necessarily behave in the same
vegetation height, wind speed and so on.
manner under similar conditions. Water is extracted from
Stomatal pores in leaves are necessary for the uptake
the soil by the roots of actively growing vegetation and
of CO2 from the ambient air, but at the same time water
transpired through small holes in the vegetation leaves
vapour escapes via transpiration since there is a common
called stomata. Transpiration is therefore strongly con-
physical pathway of water vapour and CO2 through the sto-
trolled by the nature and condition of the vegetation. Dur-
matal pores. The degree of opening of the pores can be con-
ing rainfall, water is intercepted in vegetation canopies and
sidered as a compromise in the balance between limitation
evaporated back to the atmosphere during and just after
of water loss and admission of CO2. The generally observed
the rainfall event. This re-evaporated rainwater is termed
closure of stomata when CO2 increases is an expression of
interception loss. Provided there is rainwater on the plant
this compromise. Thus for many vegetation types the bulk
leaves, the rate of interception loss is independent of the
canopy resistance increases as atmospheric CO2 increases,
vegetation state but strongly dependent on atmospheric
resulting in a fall in transpiration rates. As a result vegeta-
conditions. Lastly, water is evaporated directly from mois-
tion uses water more efficiently in an enhanced CO2 atmos-
ture held on or just below the soil surface. The sum of
phere. Therefore some vegetation types could grow in drier
transpiration, interception loss and soil surface evapora-
climates than they do at present (Lockwood, 1993, 1999).
tion is termed evapotranspiration. Further discussion of
evapotranspiration is provided in Chapter 18.
Evaporation from the ground surface depends on the net 6.5.4 Drought
radiation, which supplies the energy for the latent heat of
Droughts rank among the world’s costliest natural disas-
vaporization, and also the vertical gradient of water vapour
ters because they affect a very large number of people each
pressure. Equations describing evaporation are normally
year. Drought is a recurring phenomenon that has plagued
expressed in terms of conceptual resistances, using Ohm’s
civilization throughout history. A drought is considered
law for electricity as a direct analogue. Ohm’s law gives the
to be a period of abnormally dry weather that causes seri-
relationship between current (amps) in a circuit to the elec-
ous hydrological imbalance in a specific region. However,
trical potential (volts) and the resistance of the wire:
the definitions of ‘serious’ and ‘abnormally dry’ depend
potential difference on the nature of the local climate and the impact of the
Current = (6.6)
wire resistance drought on the local society. A dry spell in a humid climate
may be classified as a drought, while similar conditions in
For entities transported from the surface through the
a semi-arid climate would be considered a wet period. This
atmosphere such as water vapour, heat and CO2 this may
makes it difficult to produce a definition of drought that
be rewritten to read:
applies in a variety of climates.
concentration The American Meteorological Society (1997) grouped
difference of property drought definitions into four categories: meteorological
Flux rate = (6.7) or climatological, agricultural, hydrological and socio-
resistance of flow
exerted by the system (r) economic. If atmospheric conditions result in the absence
or reduction of precipitation over several months or years
where r represents the appropriate system resistance with the result is a meteorological drought. A few weeks’ dry-
units of seconds per metre. In the case of evaporation, the ness in the surface layers (vegetation root zone), which
concentration difference may be expressed as the vertical occurs at a critical time during the growing season, can
gradient of vapour pressure. result in an agricultural drought that severely reduces crop
In the case of transpiration, which is the removal of yields, even though deeper soil levels may be saturated.
water from plants, two resistances are frequently used: The onset of an agricultural drought may lag that of a
one applies to the passage of water though the vegetation meteorological drought, depending on the prior moisture
from the soil to the atmosphere, and the other applies to status of the surface soil layers. Precipitation deficits over a
the passage of water vapour from the canopy surface to a prolonged period that affect surface or subsurface water
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Chapter 6 Atmospheric processes
supply, thus reducing stream flow, groundwater, reservoir
and lake levels, will result in a hydrological drought, which Reflective questions
will persist long after a meteorological drought has ended.
Socio-economic drought associates the supply and demand ➤ What are the fundamental differences in precipitation
of some economic good with elements of meteorological, and evaporation likely to be during the year between
agricultural and hydrological drought. northern and southern Europe?
There are a number of quantitative definitions of ➤ What reasons are there that actual evaporation from a
drought based upon knowledge of precipitation, soil mois- desert surface might be lower than predicted by typical
ture, potential evapotranspiration or some combination of energy balance equations?
the above. A commonly used and widely accepted meteoro-
logical drought index is the Palmer Drought Severity Index
(PDSI). It originated in the United States and is obtained
from a simplistic model of the cumulative anomaly of mois-
6.6 Motion in the atmosphere
ture supply and demand at the land surface, which requires
knowledge of both precipitation and potential evapotran-
6.6.1 Convective overturning
spiration. Model results are adjusted to allow for the local
climate before the final index is calculated. Regardless of the Convection is the dominant process for transferring heat,
simple nature of PDSI, it was found by Dai et al. (2004) to mostly in the form of latent heat, upwards from the sur-
be significantly correlated with the observed soil moisture face. During daylight the surface of the Earth is warmed
content within the upper 1 m of soil during warm-season by short-wave radiation from the Sun. Air close to the
months. They also found that PDSI was a good proxy for surface is heated and rises, because on warming its density
stream flow. Using a global data set of PDSI, Dai et al. becomes lower than that of the surrounding cooler air. In
(2004) found that very dry regions over global land areas this discussion it is useful to consider an isolated parcel of
have increased from ∼12% to 30% since the 1970s, with air which is warmed at the surface. Because pressure falls
a large jump in the early 1980s due to an El-Niño-induced with height in the atmosphere, as the parcel rises it also
precipitation decrease and enhanced surface warming. expands so that the internal pressure of the parcel and the
IPCC (2014) commented that it is likely that droughts have external pressure at the same level in the atmosphere are
increased in many areas since the 1970s, and that it is more always equal. An expanding parcel of air chills because
likely than not that there is a human contribution to this its molecules lose a little of their internal energy, which as
trend. During the past two to three decades, there has been explained earlier we sense as temperature, as they bounce
a tendency for more extreme (either very dry or very wet) off the retreating parcel walls.
conditions over many regions, including the United States, Vertical motions in the atmosphere are usually rapid
Europe, east Asia, southern Africa and the Sahel. enough to make temperature changes occur much more
The UK Hadley Centre’s global climate model quickly than any interchange of heat, by conductive or
(HadCM3) has been used, together with PDSI, to study radiative processes, between the parcel and its surround-
drought on a global basis (Burke et al., 2006). The model ings. The temperature changes may then be said to be
shows that between 1952 and 1998 on average 20% of the adiabatic: that is, there is no interchange of heat between
land surface was in drought at any one time. At decadal the parcel and its surroundings. Adiabatic changes also
timescales, on a global basis, the model reproduced the imply constant entropy throughout the changes. The rate
observed drying since 1952 reported by Dai et al. (2004) of temperature fall with height (dry adiabatic lapse rate) in
and analysis showed that there was a significant influence the rising air parcel under these conditions is 9.8 °C km - 1.
of anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases and sul- A similar rate of warming is observed in a parcel of air
fate aerosols in the production of this drying trend. Future sinking under adiabatic conditions. Cooling in a rising air
projections of drought in the twenty-first century using parcel may cause the air to become saturated with water
HadCM3 show regions of strong wetting and drying with vapour, condensation to take place and clouds and pre-
a net overall global drying trend. The proportion of the cipitation to form. When water vapour condenses to form
land surface in extreme drought is predicted to increase water droplets in the rising air parcel, it releases latent heat
from 1% for the present day to 30% by the end of the which warms the air slightly and therefore causes the rate
twenty-first century. Box 6.6 provides some further exam- of temperature decrease with height to fall below the dry
ples of extreme droughts and future forecasts. adiabatic lapse rate. The new lapse rate, in the presence of
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6.6 Motion in the atmosphere
condensation, is known as the saturated adiabatic lapse altitude of about 5–6 km over polar regions and 15–16 km
rate. Its exact value is variable since it depends on the over equatorial regions. Temperature in the troposphere
rate of condensation. See Box 9.1 in Chapter 9 for further falls from around 15°C at the surface to around - 57 °C
information on lapse rates. at the tropopause at a rate determined by these convective
Considerations of mass balance dictate that as some processes. Since condensation (to form clouds and rainfall)
air masses rise, other air masses descend, so the lower and the release of latent heat occur during the convective
atmosphere is continually turning over. This layer of the processes, the observed fall of temperature with height in
atmosphere where there is large-scale mixing, and which the troposphere is less than the dry adiabatic lapse rate.
also contains most of the atmospheric water vapour as Observations indicate that it is about 6 °C km - 1, but it
well as most clouds and weather phenomena, is known varies with location in the troposphere. The stratosphere
as the troposphere (Figure 6.12). The upper boundary of extends from the top of the tropopause to about 50 km
the troposphere is known as the tropopause, which has an height (the stratopause). In the stratosphere, the tem-
perature either varies very little with height or increases
with height with warmer air overlying cooler air. This is
500
because the maximum temperatures are associated with
the absorption of the Sun’s short-wave radiation by ozone
which is found at this altitude. In the thermosphere tem-
450
peratures, increase with altitude because of the absorp-
Exosphere
tion of extreme ultraviolet radiation (0.12590.205 mm)
by oxygen but really these ‘temperatures’ are theoreti-
400
cal because there is so little air (so few molecules – and
remember that temperature is simply a measure of the
350 mean kinetic energy of the molecules of an object).
6.6.2 The Earth’s rotation and the winds
300
Over timescales of around a year or longer, the complete
Earth–atmosphere system is almost in thermal equilib-
Height (km)
250 rium. Consequently the total global absorption of solar
radiation by the Earth’s surface and atmosphere must be
balanced by the total global emission to space of infrared
200 radiation. While most of the solar radiation is absorbed
during daylight in the tropical regions of the world, infra-
red radiation is lost continually day and night to space
150 from the whole of the Earth’s surface and atmosphere,
Thermosphere
including the middle and polar latitudes. Heat energy is
therefore transferred from the tropics, where it is in sur-
100
plus, to middle and high latitudes, where it is in deficit,
Mesopause
Mesosphere by the north–south circulations in the atmosphere and
Stratopause
oceans. These circulation patterns were described earlier
50
and take the form of a number of cells in the atmosphere,
Stratosphere
Tropopause with rising air motion at low and middle latitudes, and
Troposphere
0
sinking motions in subtropical and high latitudes. This
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 very simple circulation both implies a rotating Earth and
Temperature (K) is further modified by the Earth’s rotation.
Figure 6.12 Temperature variation with height (lapse rate) in the atmos- The simplest atmospheric circulations would arise
phere. Note the three regions of increased temperature where absorption if the Earth always kept the same side towards the Sun.
occurs: (i) the surface (visible and near-infrared absorption); (ii) lower
Under these circumstances the most likely atmospheric
stratosphere (ultraviolet absorption by ozone); (iii) thermosphere (high-
energy absorption). 0 K = - 273.14 °C, 273.14 K = 0 °C. (Source: from circulation would probably consist of rising air over
Robinson and Henderson-Sellers, 1999) an extremely hot, daylight face and sinking air over an
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Chapter 6 Atmospheric processes
extremely cold, night face. The diurnal cycle of heating Coriolis effect varies with latitude (Figure 6.14b) the geo-
and cooling obviously would not exist since it depends strophic wind for the same pressure gradient will decrease
on the Earth’s rotation. Surface winds everywhere would towards the poles. The direction is such that the air flow is
blow from the cold night face towards the hot daylight anticlockwise around low pressure in the northern hemi-
face, while upper flow patterns would be reversed. The sphere. The converse applies in the southern hemisphere
climatic zonation would be totally different from any- where air flow is clockwise around low pressure. For high-
thing observed today. Theoretical studies suggest that if pressure anticyclones the flow in both hemispheres is the
this stationary Earth started to rotate, then as the rate of opposite way round.
rotation increased, the atmospheric circulation patterns There are added complexities in atmospheric air flow
would be progressively modified until they approached which make long-term weather forecasting a challenging
those observed today (Lockwood, 1979). Even with the exercise. These complexities can be related to feedback
present rate of rotation two different atmospheric circu- effects that are not straightforward or linear as described
lation patterns are possible. This is because if the Earth in Box 6.4.
rotated towards the west instead of towards the east as at
present, then the mid-latitude westerlies would become
6.6.3 Long waves, Planetary Waves and
easterlies and depressions and anticyclones would rotate
Rossby Waves
in the opposite sense. Under these circumstances, Europe
would have a climate similar to that of present-day eastern Compared with the Hadley cells discussed in Section 6.3,
Canada, while eastern Canada would enjoy the present- the middle-latitude atmosphere is highly disturbed and
day, mild, western European climate. the suggested circulation of the Ferrel cells in Figure 6.4
Observations of air flow in the atmosphere show that, is largely schematic. At the surface, the predominant
except very near to the surface and in equatorial regions, features are irregularly shaped, closed, eastward-drifting,
it is almost parallel to the isobars (contours of equal pres- cyclonic and anticyclonic systems, while higher up,
sure). This seems odd because air should move at 90° to smooth planetary-scale wave-shaped patterns in the
isobars from high to low pressure. Instead the Earth’s generally westerly flow are observed. These waves are
rotation acts on the atmosphere through the so-called generated by the marked horizontal atmospheric tem-
Coriolis effect (see Box 6.3). The force due to the hori- perature gradients between cold polar and warm tropi-
zontal pressure gradient balances the Coriolis effect and cal regions. Planetary waves are important because they
so the wind blows parallel to isobars (Figure 6.13). This strongly influence the formation and subsequent evolu-
wind, which exists above about 1 km from the surface, is tion of surface weather features. Marked upper troughs
known as the geostrophic wind. The speed of this wind is are regions of cold polar air, while ridges are regions
proportional to the pressure gradient (i.e. wind speeds are of warm tropical air. As the upper winds pass through
greater when the isobars are closer together) but is also these upper patterns they experience dynamic effects
determined by the strength of the Coriolis effect. As the that influence the formation of surface depressions and
anticyclones. Middle-latitude frontal depressions tend to
form and grow rapidly just downwind of upper troughs,
Isobars
while surface anticyclones tend to develop just downwind
of upper ridges. Surface depressions in particular tend to
move in the direction of the upper flow with a speed that
Low Low
pressure VG VG pressure is directly proportional to the upper flow. Planetary Waves
are sometimes termed Rossby Waves, but Rossby Waves
V Gf V Gf
Pressure Pressure are different from the Planetary Waves observed in the
gradient force gradient force
atmosphere because they emerge out of the basic equa-
tions of motion using the Coriolis effect not north–south
temperature gradients.
Northern Southern
hemisphere hemisphere
In a simple atmosphere, Planetary Waves could arise
anywhere in the middle-latitude atmosphere, as is observed
Figure 6.13 The geostrophic wind: VG is the geostrophic wind; f is the
in the predominantly ocean-covered southern temperate
horizontal component of the Coriolis force. The pressure gradient force
tends to balance the Coriolis force. The pressure gradient force acts latitudes. In contrast, the northern temperate-latitude
from high to low pressure. Planetary Waves tend to be locked in certain preferred
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6.6 Motion in the atmosphere
The Coriolis effect continually changes orientation in relation right of the wind. In the nineteenth cen-
to the distant stars. Thus to an observer tury, the French physicist Coriolis formal-
The concept of the Coriolis effect may be
on the rotating Earth, who is unaware ized this concept of an apparent force
briefly explained as follows. Large-scale,
of the Earth’s rotation, it appears that a caused by the Earth’s rotation, later called
horizontal winds flowing across the Earth’s
force is acting on the winds that causes the Coriolis effect. Thus winds blowing
surface tend, if they are not deflected by
horizontal pressure gradients, to move them to be deflected to the right (left) towards the equator are deflected by the
in a straight path in relation to a refer- in the northern (southern) hemisphere Coriolis effect towards the west (generat-
ence frame fixed in relation to the distant (Figure 6.14). The observer will make the ing easterly winds), while poleward-flowing
stars. The movement of winds over the same ‘mistake’ whatever the initial wind winds are deflected towards the east
Earth’s surface is usually made with refer- direction. The observer may conclude (generating westerlies). The magnitude of
ence to the latitude and longitude grid that the deflection to the right has been the Coriolis effect varies with latitude as
which rotates with the Earth and thus brought about by a force acting to the shown in Figure 6.14b.
(a) (b)
Earth’s
rotation
Deflection
to right
0 No deflection
Deflection
to left
Path relative to
Earth’s surface 100%
Apparent movement Relative deflecting force
viewed from space
Figure 6.14 (a) The influence of the Coriolis effect on air movement. (b) The changing magnitude of the Coriolis effect with latitude.
Box 6.3
locations. These preferred locations arise because the warm ocean surfaces. Atlantic Ocean frontal depres-
atmospheric circulation is influenced not only by the dif- sions form just downwind of the American trough, move
fering thermal properties of land and sea, but also by high eastwards with the upper winds and decay near Iceland
north–south aligned mountain ranges such as the Rockies in the upper trough. In some recent winters, eastern
and Andes. North America has been unusually cold resulting in a
In January, at about 5.5 km in the northern hemi- very marked upper trough. This in turn results in a series
sphere, the dominant troughs are found near the eastern of very active deep frontal depressions to form in the
extremities of North America and Asia, while ridges lie western Atlantic and to pass eastwards just to the north
over the eastern parts of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans of Scotland. An example occurred in December 2015,
(Figure 6.15). Climatologically, the positions of the two when a series of very active low-pressure systems formed
troughs are associated with cold air over the winter downwind of the American upper trough and generated
continents and the position of the ridges with relatively record rainfall amounts over parts of north-western
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Non-linear effects northern spring characterized by a sudden often known as ‘tipping points’ in the
shift northwards of the subtropical west- popular literature. Under non-equilibrium
The climate record shows rapid step-like
erly jet stream in early June. This is associ- conditions, local events have repercus-
shifts in climate variability that occur
ated with nearly simultaneous changes in sions throughout the whole system, with
over decades or less, as well as climate
atmospheric circulation parameters over long-range correlations appearing at the
extremes (e.g. droughts) that persist for
large regions of southern Asia. On a longer precise point of transition from equilibrium
decades. The variability of climate can be timescale, throughout the Alps, the last to non-equilibrium conditions. Long-
expressed in terms of two basic modes: the 3000 years were characterized by repeated range correlations (teleconnections) are
forced variations which are the response glacial events at intervals of 200–400 indeed observed in the atmosphere, and
of the climate system to external forcing, years, which, in some, were comparable the strength of these teleconnections is
and the free variations due to internal to the Little Ice Age of around 1700. The observed to vary with time.
instabilities and feedbacks to non-linear advances were quite sudden and rapid, A very important property of develop-
interactions among the various compo- with advances in the later ones obscuring ing weather systems or climate systems
nents of the climate system. The external the earlier events. The sparse long records is that they are very sensitive to initial
causes operate mostly by causing vari- of Sahel rainfall suggest that the condi- conditions. Slight changes in the initial
ations in the amount of solar radiation tions of the last couple of decades may be conditions can lead to very different
received or absorbed by the Earth, and unprecedented in the context of the last development pathways. This is very
comprise variations in both astronomical several centuries, and also that shifts from noticeable in the development of weather
(e.g. orbital parameters) and terrestrial one variability state (e.g. ‘wet’) to another systems, and makes weather forecasting
forcings (e.g. atmospheric composition, (e.g. ‘dry’) may occur over only a couple very difficult for more than a few days
aerosol loading). The internal free varia- of years. ahead. Indeed it places a limit of about 20
tions in the climate system are associated The inherent non-linear nature of the days on the length of detailed weather
with both positive and negative feedback atmosphere is manifest in interactions and forecasts. Weather forecasts are nor-
interactions between the atmosphere, fluctuations on a wide range of space- mally produced with the aid of numerical
oceans, cryosphere and biosphere. These and timescales. Even on the annual scale, atmospheric models. A standard tech-
feedbacks lead to instabilities or oscilla- abrupt circulation changes are observed nique is to vary very slightly the meteoro-
tions of the system on all timescales, and as seasonal changes progress. Many cli- logical data used to start the model. If the
can operate independently or reinforce matic switches take place on timescales resulting forecasts are very similar, the
external forcings. that are relatively short, and make them atmospheric conditions are stable and the
What all this means is that the cli- of significant societal relevance. There weather forecast can be made with some
mate system belongs to a particular set are a number of types of behaviour found confidence. In contrast, if the forecasts
of mathematical systems known as non- in dissipative, highly non-linear systems, diverge rapidly, the resulting weather
linear systems. They have unusual, and under non-equilibrium conditions, such forecasts show little confidence. It is this
perhaps unfamiliar, properties that are as the climate system. In particular, as a great sensitivity to initial conditions that
of great importance to understanding system evolves, due for example to cli- makes seasonal climate forecasting dif-
climate change. Such systems are very mate change, it may approach a so-called ficult, if not impossible. Similarly it is not
common in the environment. Examples of bifurcation point where the natural possible to give detailed climate data for
non-linearity in the climate system include fluctuations become abnormally high, some point in the future; rather the cli-
the following. The Asian monsoon shows as the system may ‘choose’ among vari- mate data have to be expressed in terms
an abrupt change or seasonal jump in the ous regimes. These bifurcation points are of probabilities.
Box 6.4
Britain. For further details see Section 6.8.2 on the about 25° west and lies over the warm North American
North Atlantic Oscillation. In July, the mean 5.5 km continent, while there is a definite trough over the east-
flow pattern found in January over the Pacific moves ern Pacific (Figure 6.16).
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6.6 Motion in the atmosphere
1505 1805 1505 1505 1805 1505
588
1205 1205 1205 1205
905 905 905 546 905
516
605N 605N
546 605 605
605 605 576
305N 305N
576
305W 05 305E 305W 05 305E
Figure 6.15 Monthly mean 500 millibar contours in the northern Figure 6.16 Monthly mean 500 millibar contours in the northern
emisphere for January, based on data from 1951 to 1966. (Source: after
h hemisphere for July, based on data from 1951 to 1966. (Source: after
Moffit and Ratcliffe, 1972) Moffit and Ratcliffe, 1972)
6.6.4 Jet streams divides north and south around the Tibetan Plateau.
The two branches merge to the east of the plateau and
Embedded in the upper Planetary Waves are fast-moving
form an immense upper convergence zone over China. In
bands of air known as jet streams. They are caused by
May and June, in association with the development of
sharp temperature gradients associated with frontal
the southwest monsoon, the subtropical jet stream over
depressions. Separate powerful westerly jet streams, not
northern India slowly weakens and disintegrates, causing
associated with the middle-latitude frontal jet streams,
the upper westerly flow to move northwards into cen-
are also found along the poleward borders of the tropi-
tral Asia. While this is occurring, an easterly jet stream,
cal Hadley cells. Normally a jet stream is thousands of
mainly at about 14 km altitude, builds up over the equa-
kilometres in length, hundreds of kilometres in width and
torial Indian Ocean and expands westward into Africa
several kilometres in depth. An arbitrary lower limit of
(Figure 6.17).
30 m s - 1 (about 60 mph) is assigned to the speed of the
wind along the axis of a jet stream. The global distribu-
tion of jet streams is briefly described below.
6.6.4.2 The equatorial easterly jet stream
During summer, the northern subtropical westerly jet
6.6.4.1 The subtropical westerly jet streams
stream is less well developed, especially over Asia, where it
The subtropical westerly jet streams are found near 30°N moves polewards and is replaced by an easterly jet stream
and S, corresponding to the poleward boundaries of the at about 14 km altitude over the equatorial Indian Ocean.
tropical Hadley cells, and often form continuous belts The formation of the equatorial easterly jet stream is con-
around the globe (Figures 6.4 and 6.17). The jet stream nected with the formation of an upper-level high-pressure
cores with the highest wind speeds are normally found system over Tibet. In October, the reverse process occurs:
near the 12 km level, just below the tropopause. The sub- the equatorial easterly jet stream and the Tibetan high dis-
tropical jet streams draw their high wind speeds partly integrate, while the subtropical westerly jet stream reforms
from the circulations associated with the Hadley cells over northern India.
and are associated with the descending limbs of the cells. The equatorial easterly jet stream forms over Indonesia
In winter, the northern subtropical westerly jet stream and disintegrates over northern Africa. The disintegration
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Chapter 6 Atmospheric processes
Plateau
Upper
convergence
zone
Generally NE
surface winds
Light east winds at 200 mb
Generally SE
surface winds
200 mb subtropical westerly jet stream
200 mb
high
Generally SW
surface winds
Generally SE
surface winds
150 mb equatorial easterly jet stream
200 mb subtropical westerly jet stream
Figure 6.17 Schematic illustration of the major upper-troposphere features of the Asian monsoon in the north-
ern winter (top panel) and summer (bottom panel). The 200 mb pressure level in the atmosphere is around 12
km altitude; the 150 mb level is at around 14 km. (Source: after Lockwood, 1965)
of the jet stream creates a region of subsidence around 6.6.4.3 Polar front jet streams
North Africa, which reinforces the subsiding limb of the
Hadley cell and the associated Sahara Desert conditions. The polar front jet streams are associated with the warm
When it is well developed the equatorial easterly jet stream and cold fronts of temperate-latitude depressions, and are
therefore has the effect of intensifying the summer aridity found at approximately 10 km altitude. They show consid-
over the Sahara Desert and the Middle East. erable day-to-day variation as surface-level fronts form and
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6.7 The influence of oceans and ice on atmospheric processes
develop. They were discussed earlier in Section 6.6.3 on Canada or Siberia may cause variations in river runoff
Planetary Waves. and thereby influence the amount of freshwater reach-
ing the Arctic Ocean. Thus, through a range of feedback
processes, if precipitation changed then the amount of
sea ice formed might change and this may cause major
Reflective questions northern hemisphere climatic changes linked to changes
in albedo, ocean circulation and heat transfers between
➤ How does the Coriolis effect vary with latitude?
deep and shallow layers of the ocean (see Chapters 3
➤ To what extent does convection play a role in atmospheric and 4). F urther information on the Arctic Ocean is pro-
processes? vided in Box 6.5.
Western Europe receives an almost continuous sup-
ply of heat and moisture from the North Atlantic. This
is most noticeable in winter when north-western Europe
6.7 The influence of oceans and ice on is significantly milder than the temperature norm for its
atmospheric processes latitude. Indeed, the mildness of the winter climate of
western Europe is one of the more spectacular latitudinal
We have seen how the land surface can interact with anomalies in the world climatic pattern; in January on
atmospheric processes via albedo effects (Section 6.4.3.3) the Norwegian coast the temperature anomaly may be as
the supply or retardation of moisture and topographic high as 22–26°C, gradually decreasing to 1°C southwards
interactions. However, the oceans also influence atmos- across the continent. This winter temperature anomaly
pheric processes, not only via albedo and moisture arises not only from the prevailing westerly winds but
circulation but via other energy transfer processes too. also because at comparable latitudes the Atlantic Ocean
Most substances become denser as they get colder. How- is 4–5°C warmer than the Pacific. The extension into
ever, freshwater is unlike any other substance because it very high latitudes and the northward narrowing of
is densest at about 4°C. Therefore, when the surface is the northern North Atlantic have consequences on the
cooled below that temperature, the coldest water stays on Atlantic Ocean circulation which in turn has a series of
top as it is less dense (and hence more buoyant) than the unique effects on the climatic system. This is in com-
water at 4°C. When water freezes, the ice floats on the plete contrast to the much more benign Pacific Ocean.
top. This is because water expands when it freezes and Warm, saline surface water flows into the northern
becomes less dense. All other substances contract when North A tlantic, after travelling from the Caribbean Sea,
they freeze. via the Gulf Stream and the North Atlantic Drift (see
By contrast, when saline water, which is normal for the Chapter 3), warming western Europe. This is part of
world’s oceans, is cooled it becomes denser, but does not the so-called thermohaline circulation, which is strongly
reach its maximum density until near its freezing point, developed in the Atlantic but completely absent from
at about - 2 °C. Just above that temperature the ocean the Pacific. Thus the atmosphere forms just one part of
water will undergo marked convection, transferring cold a complex interacting climate system that also incorpo-
water to the depths and warm water to the surface. Sea rates the land, the oceans, ice cover and vegetation. It
ice will form only when a layer of the ocean close to the is because of such a system that there can also be inter-
surface has a relatively low salinity. The existence of this annual variations in atmospheric processes and it is to
layer allows the temperature of the surface water to fall examples of these that we now turn.
to freezing point, and ice to form, despite lower levels of
the ocean having a higher temperature. For example, the
perennial Arctic sea ice is formed in a relatively freshwa-
ter layer formed by runoff from rivers draining the sur- Reflective questions
rounding continents. This is important because the river
➤ Why is western Europe mild compared with eastern
drainage of much of both Arctic Canada (Mackenzie
Canada?
River system) and Siberia (e.g. Lena River system) is into
the Arctic Ocean, thus giving it a positive water balance ➤ Why does ice form on the sea surface rather than on the
and causing a net outflow of ocean water across 70°N. sea floor?
However, precipitation variations across either Arctic
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Chapter 6 Atmospheric processes
The Arctic Ocean coastal areas where winds blow offshore. Passages, could be of major commercial
While there appears to have been no importance.
The radiation budget of the polar surfaces
significant long-term trend in Antarctic In October 2007, surface temperature
is nearly always negative because of the
sea ice extent, Arctic sea ice extent has showed very large positive anomalies
absence in winter of any solar radiation,
decreased by about 2.5% per decade (10–12°C) over areas of the Arctic Ocean
the low angle of solar incidence in the
since 1970. An extensive ice sheet that experiencing record sea ice loss. This
summer, and the high albedo of the ice
rises above 3000 m in elevation covers basic pattern of autumnal warming has
fields. Indeed, the polar regions serve as
more than 80% of Greenland. been emerging over the past seven years
global sinks for the energy that is trans- Simulations from even the earliest or so. Numerical climate model simula-
ported polewards from the tropics by warm global climate models have shown that tions suggest that conditions are ripe for
ocean currents and atmospheric circulation the effects of loading the atmosphere a ‘tipping point’ where summer sea ice
systems, particularly travelling cyclones with greenhouse gases would be seen vanishes once the spring ice thickness
and blocking anticyclones (see Chapter 9). first and be especially prominent in the averaged across the Arctic Ocean thins to
However, there are major differences Arctic, largely due to feedbacks involv- about 2.5 m, close to the value estimated
between the Arctic and Antarctic regions ing surface air temperature and the loss for spring 2007 from IceSat, NASA’s satel-
in terms of the distribution of land, sea and of sea ice and snow cover. Snow and ice lite altimeter system. In one of the model
ice. The Arctic is a largely ice-covered, land- have a high albedo, while that of seawa- simulations, the tipping point occurred
locked ocean, whereas Antarctica consists ter is low. Therefore particularly impor- in 2024 when 1.8 million km2 of ice was
of a continental ice sheet over 2000 m tant are the ice–albedo feedbacks, where lost. However, modelling of Arctic sea ice
thick surrounded by ocean. absorption of solar radiation increases by the UK Met Office Hadley Centre shows
In winter, the southern limits of the when snow melts, and the loss of sea ice that ice invariably recovers from extreme
Arctic sea ice are constrained by the cover allowing for strong heat transfers events, but that the long-term trend of
northern coastlines of Asia and North from the ocean to the atmosphere. reduction is robust, with the first ice-free
America, but pack ice extends into middle The Arctic Ocean and its rim is becom- summer expected to occur between 2060
latitudes off eastern Canada and eastern ing the object of major political impor- and 2080.
Asia where northerly winds and cold cur- tance to the surrounding countries. The Associated with this Arctic warming,
rents transport ice far southwards. West Arctic rim will be transformed by climate the extent and intensity of summer sur-
of Norway there is open water to about change into a new economic power- face melt over the Greenland ice sheet
78°N because of the warm waters of the house. As the ice recedes, ecosystems has shown a general upward trend. The
North Atlantic Drift and thermohaline extend and minerals and fossil fuels are Greenland ice sheet will start to melt
circulation (Chapter 3 describes the ther- discovered and exploited, the Arctic will more quickly than snow accumulates once
mohaline circulation). The North Atlantic become a place of ‘great human activity, regional temperatures are high enough. It
thermohaline circulation is particularly strategic value and economic impor- is not yet known what this exact threshold
vigorous and its climatic effect is often tance’. The eight nations of the Arctic is, but it could be a global temperature
illustrated by comparing the surface tem- rim – the USA, Canada, Russia, Greenland, rise of somewhere between 1.9 and 4.6°C
perature of the northern Atlantic with Iceland, Finland, Sweden and Norway – above pre-industrial values, with resulting
comparable latitudes of the Pacific, since will become increasingly prosperous and sea-level increases of up to 1 m. There is
the former is 4 to 5°C warmer. During powerful (Smith, 2010). This is because evidence that some of this meltwater is
summer the sea ice melts back towards there is a high possibility that there are reaching the base of the large Greenland
the pole, but much of the Arctic ice sur- extensive mineral and oil deposits under glaciers, lubricating them and increas-
vives at least one summer melt season, the Arctic Ocean. Also if the Arctic ice ing the iceberg discharge. This raises
and as a consequence its mean thickness retreats further during the northern concern that projections of sea-level rise
is 3–4 m. The thickness is highly variable summer, it will open sea routes between through the twenty-first century are too
locally, with narrow openings (leads) the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. These conservative. What is surprising climatolo-
throughout the pack ice even in winter, sea routes, to the north of Siberia and gists is the rapid rate of change in Arctic
and larger openings (polynyas) adjacent to Canada, the North-east and North-west conditions.
BOX 6.5
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6.8 The Walker circulation
6.8 The Walker circulation The Walker circulation is closely coupled with the sea
surface temperature distribution over the Pacific, with rela-
Satellite imagery and rainfall data clearly show (Figure 6.11) tively cool water in the east and warm in the west. When
three equatorial regions of maximum cloudiness and rain- the Pacific Ocean off the coast of South America is par-
fall: the so-called Maritime Continent of the Indonesian ticularly cold, the air above is too stable to take part in the
Archipelago, the Amazon river basin in South America and ascending motion of the Hadley cell circulation. Instead,
the Zaire river basin in Africa. The rest of the equatorial the equatorial air flows west-wards between the Hadley
region is comparatively dry, and some, such as the coasts of cell circulations of the two hemispheres to the warm
Peru, even desert. These longitudinal variations in rainfall West Pacific where, having been heated and supplied with
are associated with east–west regional circulations along moisture from the warmer waters, the equatorial air can
the equator, the most important being the so-called Walker take part in large-scale ascent (Figure 6.18). The easterly
circulation, which involves rising air motion over the Indo- winds that blow along the equator and the north-easterly
nesian Archipelago and sinking over the eastern Pacific winds that blow along the coast of Peru and Ecuador
(Figure 6.18). The rising air motion takes place mostly both tend to drag the surface water along with them. The
in deep convective clouds and is associated with intense Earth’s rotation then deflects the resulting surface currents
convective rainfall and therefore the wet humid climates of towards the right (northwards) in the northern hemisphere
the Indonesian Archipelago. The subsiding air suppresses and to the left (southwards) in the southern hemisphere.
cloud formation and rainfall, giving rise to the coastal The surface waters are therefore deflected away from the
deserts of Peru. The Hadley cell circulation refers to the equator in both hemispheres and also away from the coast-
north–south component of these circulations: equatorward line. Where the surface water moves away under the influ-
motion at low levels, rising in the convective regions near ence of the trade winds, colder, nutrient-rich water upwells
the equator, and poleward flow aloft. The Walker circula- from below to replace it. Since the newly upwelled water is
tion refers to the east–west component, which is particu- colder than its surroundings, its signature in infrared sat-
larly prominent in the equatorial plane. Both circulations ellite images takes the form of a distinctive ‘cold tongue’
are driven by the release of latent heat in deep convective extending westwards along the equator from the South
shower clouds. American coast.
Walker circulation
EQ
305S
905W 05 905E 1805 905W
(5C)
+2
905W 05 905W
0
905E 1805E
-2
-4
-6
Figure 6.18 Schematic representation of the Walker circulation along the Equator during non-ENSO (El Niño Southern Oscillation) condi-
tions. The sea surface temperature departures from the zonal mean along the equator are shown in the lower part of the figure.
(Source: adapted from Peixoto and Oort, 1992; Wyrtki, 1982)
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Chapter 6 Atmospheric processes
6.8.1 El Niño Southern Oscillation falls in the east (Figure 6.19). This is El Niño. Under these
conditions Indonesia experiences drought and associated
Since the Sun is nearly overhead for the whole year near
forest fires, while coastal equatorial South America experi-
the equator, the seasonal cycle there is weak. This allows
ences heavy rainfall and floods. These ocean and atmos-
other cycles to dominate the equatorial ocean–atmosphere
pheric changes are part of an oscillating system known as
system. The Southern Oscillation is dominated by an
the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), consisting of
exchange of air between the south-east Pacific high and
the warm ocean pool near the Indonesian Islands, the cold
the Indonesian equatorial low, with a period that var-
Pacific Ocean pool off equatorial South America, and the
ies between roughly 1 and 5 years (Philander, 1998). For
atmospheric circulation over the equatorial Pacific. The
several years during one phase of this oscillation, the
Southern Oscillation may be defined in terms of the differ-
trade winds are intense and converge into the warm-
ence in sea-level pressure between Darwin in Australia and
water regions of the western tropical Pacific, includ-
Tahiti. Records are available, with the exception of a few
ing the Indonesian islands and north-eastern Australia,
years and occasional months, for this pressure difference
where rainfall is plentiful and sea-level pressure is low
from the late 1800s. While the El Niño phenomena are
(Figure 6.19). At such times the ocean surface in the east-
associated with extreme negative Southern Oscillation val-
ern tropical Pacific is cold and the associated atmosphere
ues, most of the time there are continuous transitions from
over the ocean and coastal equatorial South America is
high to low values, with most values being positive. ENSO
also cold and dry. More extreme forms of this ‘normal’
is important climatologically for two main reasons. First,
condition are known as La Niña. Every few years, for sev-
it is one of the most striking examples of inter-annual cli-
eral months or longer, the trade winds relax, the zone of
mate variability on a global scale. Second, in the Pacific it
warmer surface waters and heavy precipitation shifts east-
is associated with considerable fluctuations in rainfall and
wards, and sea-level air pressure rises in the west while it
sea surface temperatures and also extreme weather events
(a) El Niño conditions
around the world (Figure 6.20; Box 6.6).
Australian rainfall is more variable than could be
S.
AMERICA expected from similar climates elsewhere in the world,
mainly due to the impact of ENSO. Australian rainfall
Equator fluctuations, as well as being more severe because of
Westerly winds Weak trades ENSO’s influence, also operate on a very large spatial
285C scale. High rainfall totals in Australia occur when the
255C Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) is large and positive (La
205C
Niña events). The high rainfalls and floods give an exam-
AUSTRALIA ple at the end of December 2010. In contrast, when the
1805 SOI is strongly negative (El Niño years) drought occurs
(b) La Niña conditions over much of the continent. Thus the continental scale of
S. the 1982–1983 drought is typical of many years, although
AMERICA
it was more severe than most. Extended periods of
285C drought or extensive rains in Australia do not occur ran-
Equator
domly in time, in relation to the annual cycle. The ENSO
285C
phenomenon, and Australian rainfall fluctuations associ-
ated with it, are phase locked with the annual cycle. Thus
255C
205C the heavy rainfall of an anti-ENSO event tends to start
AUSTRALIA early in the calendar year and finish early in the following
1805 year. The dry periods associated with ENSO events tend to
Figure 6.19 A schematic view of (a) El Niño and (b) La Niña. During La
occupy a similar time period. For example, the 1982–1983
Niña, intense trade winds result in a cold equatorial Pacific in the drought started about April 1982 and broke over much of
east and warm waters in the west where moist air rises. The air subsides the country in March and April 1983.
in the east, a region with little rainfall. During El Niño the trade winds Australian vegetation should be suited to an environ-
along the equator relax, as does the temperature gradient of the
ocean waters, and the warm surface waters of the west flow eastwards.
ment of highly variable rainfall with frequent severe
(Source: after Philander, 1998) droughts or wet periods. Among the characteristics of
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6.8 The Walker circulation
605N
405N
Very suppressed
Weak summer hurricane
205N monsoon circulation Super -typhoons Dry season
Dry Sept.–Dec.
Continuous drought Heavy rains
05 Very wet Dry
Deficit >500 mm
Surplus >300 mm
205S Stronger jet stream Very wet
Surplus >300 mm
405S
05 305E 605E 905E 1205E 1505E 1805 1505W 1205W 905W 605W 305W
Figure 6.20 Schematic diagram showing the major impacts of El Niño during the period June to December 1997.
(Source: after Slingo, 1998)
Droughts in the modern workers and farm families displaced by north-eastern Pacific are often associated
world the Dust Bowl. with precipitation deficits in California,
At time of writing, California is now the temporal resilience and spatial scale
Increasing concentrations of greenhouse entering its fourth year of drought, lead- of the positive pressure anomalies were
gases in the atmosphere are expected ing to unprecedented restrictions on greater in 2013/2014 than during previ-
to modify the global water cycles with water usage for its 38 million residents. ous droughts in California’s recent past.
significant consequences in the form of Most of California received less precipita- Modern measurements of drought
droughts for terrestrial hydrology. The tion in 2013 than during any previous cal- indicators in the western USA go back
concept of drought was introduced in endar year in the 119 year observational only about 150 years, but centuries-old
Section 6.5.4. Recent research shows that record. Scientists from NASA’s Goddard trees allow it to be extended back into
regional temperature and rainfall world- Space Flight Center and other institutions the distant past. Tree species like oak and
wide will be affected by big changes that recently found that California has accumu- bristle cone pines grow more in wet years,
are already underway in key patterns in the lated a ‘rain debt’ of about 50 cm between leaving wider tree rings, and vice versa for
global climate system, such as El Niño in 2012 and 2015. That is the amount that drought years. By comparing the modern
the tropical Pacific. would normally fall in an entire year in the drought measurements to tree rings in
Major droughts have occurred in the state. The mix of crops that is traditionally the twentieth century for a baseline, the
past. Examples are the droughts of the grown in California is changing. Farmers tree rings can be used to establish mois-
1930s in the central and western USA cre- are ploughing up fields where they used ture conditions over the past 1000 years.
ating the so-called Dust Bowl, when large to grow vegetables like broccoli, carrots These show that megadroughts took
amounts of topsoil blew away and many and tomatoes to put in nut and fruit trees, place between 1100 and 1300 in North
people were driven to migrate to California. which demand less water. The area of cot- America. These medieval-period droughts,
Because of insufficient understanding of ton growth has changed from 600 000 on a year-to-year basis, were no worse
the ecology of the plains, farmers had con- hectares to almost nothing. than droughts seen in the recent past, but
ducted extensive deep ploughing of the One of the most remarkable aspects they lasted, in some cases, 30 to 50 years.
virgin topsoil of the Great Plains during the of the 2013/2014 Californian drought When these past megadroughts are com-
previous decade; this had displaced the event is the spatial and temporal coher- pared side-by-side with computer model
native, deep-rooted grasses that normally ence of strong north Pacific ridging in projections of the twenty-first century,
trapped soil and moisture even during the mid-troposphere and associated both the moderate and business-as-usual
periods of drought and high winds. Author wind anomalies. In particular, although CO2 emissions scenarios are drier, and
John Steinbeck, in his novel The Grapes high-amplitude meridional flow and the risk of droughts lasting 30 years or
of Wrath (1939), wrote about migrant positive pressure anomalies over the far longer increases significantly. Connecting
BOX 6.6 ➤
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Chapter 6 Atmospheric processes
➤
the past, present and future in this way Indian Ocean Dipole phase tends to do the dry season, it is sporadic, leaving many
shows that twenty-first century droughts in opposite. Unlike an El Niño, which peaks in windows of opportunity for burning. During
the Californian region are likely to be even summer, Indian Ocean Dipole events form strong El Niño episodes, almost no rain falls
worse than those seen in medieval times, in winter and then peak in spring. This cre- during the dry season, so in areas where
and require considerable forward planning. ates a narrower predictability window that peatlands have been degraded by logging
In the tropics, droughts are often asso- gives little warning to industries, such as and draining, fires ignite easily and, once
ciated with surface temperatures in the farming, that depend on rain. started, the peat is so dry that fires escape
Pacific and Indian Oceans. El Niño events In 1997–1998, extremely dry El Niño underground, and cannot be put out until
were introduced in Section 6.8.1. The Indian conditions in Indonesia started large-scale after the drought ends. These major fires
Ocean Dipole is a year-to-year see-saw uncontrolled burning, destroying about five have enormous impacts on carbon emis-
pattern in surface temperature and rainfall million hectares of tropical forest. Much sions, regional haze production, biodiversity
across the tropical Indian Ocean. During of the burning occurred in carbon-rich and the economy, and are recognised as
a positive Indian Ocean Dipole phase, sea peatland forests, releasing large amounts a serious health risk in Indonesia as well
surface temperatures off Sumatra and Java of CO2 into the atmosphere, and clouds of as neighbouring Singapore and Malaysia.
in Indonesia are colder than normal. In smoke and haze across the region. At the During past El Niño years, around one giga-
contrast, off east Africa, surface waters are time of writing, conditions in the Pacific tonne of carbon was emitted from peat-
unusually warm. Like an El Niño, a positive Ocean are similar to those in mid-1997, land forest fires, equivalent to about 10%
Indian Ocean Dipole brings heavy rainfall El Niño is set to strengthen, and seasonal of annual global fossil fuel emissions, and
to eastern parts of Africa and drought weather prediction models forecast an regional haze from such fires has caused
to countries around the Indonesian exceptionally dry season in Indonesia. major disruptions to air traffic in nearby
Archipelago, including Australia. A negative Although some rain falls during a normal Singapore and Kuala Lumpur.
BOX 6.6
Australian vegetation that may be, at least in part, attrib- is associated with changes in the strength of the oceanic
utable to ENSO’s influence on climate are the following: surface westerlies. It is often measured by the differ-
ence of December to February atmospheric pressure
• Absence of succulents: succulents are almost totally
between Ponta Delgado in the Azores (37.8°N, 25.5°W)
absent from Australian arid and semi-arid regions,
and Stykkisholmur, Iceland (65.18°N, 22.7°W). When the
because although adapted to arid climates and requir-
values are greater than the average the index is said to be
ing little moisture, they need regular rainfall. Such
positive. Statistical analysis reveals that the NAO is the
plants are therefore unsuited to the high variability
dominant mode of variability of the surface atmospheric
ENSO produces over much of Australia.
circulation in the Atlantic and accounts for more than
• Fire resistance/dependence: much of the Australian
36% of the variance of the mean December to March sea-
flora is fire resistant or even dependent on fire for suc-
level pressure field over the region from 20° to 80°N and
cessful reproduction. Fires are common during drought
90°W to 40°E between 1899 and 1994.
periods, which are often associated with ENSO events.
The oscillation is most marked during the winter. There
• Fluctuating climax: the high inter-annual variability of
can be great differences between winters with high and low
annual rainfall in arid and semi-arid parts of Australia
values of the NAO index. Typically, when the index is high
affected by ENSO means that vegetation appears
the Icelandic low pressure is strong, which increases the
adapted to the climate in such a way that demographic
influence of cold Arctic air masses on the north-eastern
components are in a state of unstable equilibrium.
seaboard of North America and enhances the westerlies
carrying warmer, moister air masses into western Europe.
An example was given earlier in Section 6.6.3. Low val-
6.8.2 North Atlantic Oscillation
ues of the index are associated with large stationary or
A major source of inter-annual variability in the atmos- slow-moving anticyclones over the North Atlantic or
pheric circulation over the North Atlantic and western north-western Europe. These block the normal progres-
Europe is the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), which sion of low-pressure systems from the North Atlantic over
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6.9 Interactions between radiation, atmospheric trace gases and clouds
north-western Europe, and are therefore often termed clouds (all wavelengths). Only about 9% of the infrared
blocking anticyclones. Blocking anticyclones can occur radiation from the ground surface escapes directly to
at any time of the year; in summer they can give hot dry space. The rest is absorbed by the atmosphere, which in
conditions, but in winter with the warm westerlies absent, turn reradiates the absorbed infrared radiation, partly
they often lead to very low temperatures. The record cold to space and partly back to the surface. This blanketing
December 2010 in the United Kingdom was partly due to a effect is known as the natural greenhouse effect and the
continuous series of blocking anticyclones over the eastern gases are known as greenhouse gases. It is called ‘natural’
Atlantic. Thus, NAO anomalies are related to downstream to distinguish it from the enhanced greenhouse effect due
wintertime temperature and precipitation across Europe, to gases added to the atmosphere by human activities
Russia and Siberia. High-index winters are anomalously such as the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation. It
mild while low-index winters are anomalously cold. needs to be stressed that the natural greenhouse effect is
a normal part of the climate of the Earth and that it has
existed for the whole of the atmosphere’s history. Con-
cern about the greenhouse effect arises over two issues:
Reflective question how the natural greenhouse effect may vary with time,
➤ How can ENSO affect human activity across the and how human activities might modify and enhance the
world? natural effect.
Although CO2 is the most important greenhouse gas,
other gases also make a contribution to climate change.
6.9 Interactions between radiation, The combined effect of the increases to 1990 of the
minor greenhouse gases, methane, nitrous oxide and
atmospheric trace gases and clouds
tropospheric ozone, is to add a warming forcing equiva-
lent to that of an additional 60 ppm or so of CO2. Even
6.9.1 The greenhouse effect
if there were no further increase in these minor gases,
The gases nitrogen and oxygen which make up the bulk of the 1990 forcing would still require to be added to future
the atmosphere neither absorb nor emit long-wave radia- projections of change driven by CO2. As an example,
tion. It is the water vapour, CO2 and some other minor the effect of this, if turned into equivalent amounts of
gases present in the atmosphere in much smaller quantities carbon dioxide (CO2e), would be that the 450 ppm CO2
which absorb some of the long-wave radiation emitted by only level would become about 520 CO2e ppm and the
the Earth’s surface and act as a partial blanket. To examine 550 level would become about 640 CO2e ppm. Note
the effect of these absorbing trace gases on surface temper- that, although the amount of forcing from the minor
ature it is useful to consider an atmosphere from which all gases is the same, when turned into equivalent CO2, the
cloud, water vapour, dust and other minor gases have been amounts added increase with the CO2 concentration to
removed, leaving only nitrogen and oxygen. As the Sun’s which the amount is added. This is because the relation-
short-wave radiation passes through the atmosphere, about ship between radiative forcing and concentration is non-
6% is scattered back to space by atmospheric molecules linear. It should also be noted that it is not always clear in
and about 10% on average is reflected back to space from the literature as to whether the authors are using simple
the land and ocean surfaces. The remaining 84% heats the CO2 concentration or the equivalent CO2 value.
surface. To balance this incoming radiant energy the Earth
itself must radiate on average the same amount of energy
6.9.2 A simple climate model of the enhanced
back to space in the form of long-wave radiation. It can be
greenhouse effect
calculated from radiation laws (Box 6.2) that, to balance
the absorbed solar energy by outgoing long-wave radiation, It is possible to construct a simple climate model to
the average temperature of the Earth should be - 6°C. This illustrate the enhanced greenhouse effect due to the
is much colder than is actually observed (15°C). addition to the atmosphere of radiatively active trace
This calculation error occurs because the atmosphere gases such as CO2. Figure 6.21 shows a mean tem-
readily absorbs infrared radiation emitted by the Earth’s perature profile for the troposphere, calculated assum-
surface with the principal absorbers being water vapour ing convective equilibrium, which gives a lapse rate
(absorption wavelengths of 5.397.7 mm and beyond of 6 °C km - 1. The upper atmospheric temperature
20 mm), ozone (9.499.8 mm), CO2(13.1916.9 mm) and all is estimated by assuming that the stratosphere is in
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Chapter 6 Atmospheric processes
profiles connect is the tropopause. Viewed from space,
the Earth is observed to have a temperature of about
- 18°C. This is because most of the infrared radiation to
10 space takes place from the middle atmosphere where the
Height (km)
Average levels
where outgoing temperature is around - 18°C; most of the greenhouse
radiation originates gases are below this level. As the amount of infrared-
5 absorbing greenhouse gases mixed into the atmosphere
is increased, it becomes more likely to absorb infrared
radiation. Thus the effective level at which outgoing
0
infrared radiation originates must rise to allow the radi-
-100 -50 0 ation to escape to space at the same rate as before. How-
Temperature (5C) ever, because the tropospheric lapse rate does not change
Figure 6.21 The distribution of temperature in a convective atmosphere significantly from 6°C km - 1 then the temperatures at a
(solid line). The dashed line shows how the temperature increases when given height in the troposphere must be dragged up by
the amount of CO2 present in the atmosphere is increased (for doubled the changes. Furthermore, since the height of the tropo-
CO2 in the absence of other effects the increase in temperature is about
1.2°C). Also shown for the two cases are the average levels from which
pause is increased, the stratosphere must cool slightly.
thermal infrared radiation leaving the atmosphere originates (about 6 km In particular, and of great importance, the surface tem-
for the unperturbed atmosphere). (Source: after Houghton, 1994) perature is also increased.
From this simple model, the doubling of the CO2
content of the atmosphere in the absence of other effects
radiative equilibrium (its temperature is controlled by would increase the tropospheric temperature by about
its radiation balance and not by vertical convection). 1.2°C. In reality various other effects could increase the
The height at which these two straight-line temperature predicted temperature changes (Box 6.7).
Greenhouse gas stabiliza- concentrations drop rapidly and the gases to vegetation cover. For scales of centu-
tion and global temperature often vanish from the atmosphere. This is ries to about 5000–10 000 years, ocean
the common experience with sulfur diox- uptake becomes dominant. At present,
increases
ide, where closing down pollution sources the terrestrial biosphere appears to be a
Most pollutants released into the ’atmos- causes a rapid improvement in atmos- net sink of carbon, in spite of anthropo-
phere have very short residence times, pheric conditions. genic deforestation predominately in the
often just a few days. Clouds or rainfall Carbon dioxide concentrations in the tropics. Long-term numerical modelling
washes out the common ones, such as atmosphere depend on the interactions studies predict a reversal of present-day
sulfur dioxide, or the larger particles set- between the various carbon reservoirs net CO2 uptake by the biosphere as the
tle out rapidly. The distribution of such forming the so-called carbon cycle. Earth warms, resulting in a net release
pollutants is therefore restricted to near Consider an emission of anthropogenic of carbon to the atmosphere by the end
their source regions, usually large urban CO2 into the atmosphere. Different pro- of the century. Studies also indicate that
or industrial regions. Their extent is cesses, with very distinct timescales, are roughly 80% of anthropogenic CO2 input
rarely global; even the sulfur compounds responsible for determining the lifetime into the atmosphere has an average per-
emitted by erupting volcanoes (Box 6.8) of anthropogenic CO2. For timescales of turbation lifetime in the atmosphere of
rarely stay in the atmosphere for more particular human interest, ranging from approximately 300–450 years. The remain-
than a few years. Long-term concentra- decades to centuries, the responses to ing 20% could remain in the atmosphere
tions of gases such as sulfur dioxide are excess atmospheric CO2 include ocean for more than 5000 years after emissions
usually maintained by continuous emis- uptake, changes in land surface carbon cease. Archer (2005) commented that care
sions. If the emissions cease, atmospheric uptake, CO2 fertilization and alterations is required in using 300 years as a lifetime
Box 6.7 ➤
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6.9 Interactions between radiation, atmospheric trace gases and clouds
➤
of anthropogenic CO2, because it misses Allen et al. (2009), a 2°C limit on the most relative to pre-industrial levels, with best
the immense longevity of the tail in the likely peak CO2@induced warming could be estimates being around 5°C. A temperature
CO2 lifetime. He considered that a better achieved by limiting cumulative CO2 emis- rise of 4°C is predicted by the 2070s, but
approximation of the lifetime of fossil fuel sions to one trillion tonnes of carbon (1 if carbon cycle feedbacks are strong, 4°C
CO2 for public discussion might be ‘300 TtC). Present-day human activities, such as could be reached in the early 2060s – this
years, plus 25% that lasts forever’. burning fossil fuels and changing land use, latter projection appears to be consist-
The long life of the anthropogenic are estimated to put about 26 000 million ent with the upper end of the IPCC’s likely
CO2 released into the atmosphere makes tonnes of CO2 a year into the atmosphere. range of warming for the A1FI scenario.
stabilization difficult, and at present nearly Bowerman et al. (2010) commented The Committee on Climate Change
impossible in the short term, for levels that cumulative emission targets represent (CCC, 2008) has analyzed eight green-
below the present atmospheric concentra- the sum of emissions over time, and there- house gas emission trajectories. Three
tion (400 ppm). The global carbon cycle fore these cumulative emissions could trajectories had global emissions peaking
has a strong one-way arrow in the short be distributed over time in a number of in 2028, with subsequent reductions in
term directed to increases in atmospheric ways. For example, an early peak in emis- total CO2e emissions of 1.5%, 2% and 3%
CO2 concentration. This is because a sions could be followed by a relatively slow per annum. Five of the trajectories have
substantial fraction of the CO2 emitted rate of post-peak decline, or a later peak global emissions peaking in 2016 with
into the atmosphere by human activity could be followed by a much more rapid subsequent reductions in total emissions
remains there, in effect, for centuries to decline. It may not be technically or politi- of 1.5%, 2%, 3% and 4%. None of the three
millennia. This is a very important point to cally feasible, or economically desirable, to trajectories with emissions peaking in
understand: without the use of large-scale decrease emissions at rates much in excess 2028 would keep atmospheric greenhouse
atmospheric carbon capture technologies, of 3 or 4% per year, so that peaking later gas concentrations below 550 ppm CO2e
it is not possible to reduce atmospheric may not be viable, assuming a 2°C warming by the end of the century. The CCC (2008)
CO2 concentrations in the short term. target. does not believe that a global policy which
If the above properties of the carbon The so-called A1FI emissions scenario leaves emissions peaking as late as 2028
cycle are real and enduring, then it is likely is considered by the IPCC to be one of a is adequate for control of global warming.
that bringing future anthropogenic carbon number of equally plausible projections All the trajectories with emissions peaking
emissions to zero will not reduce global of future greenhouse gas emissions from in 2016, except the one with 1.5% annual
average surface temperatures except in a global society that does not imple- reduction after 2016, would keep con-
the very long term. Rather, once tempera- ment policies to limit anthropogenic centrations below 550 ppm CO2e by the
tures have peaked, they will remain almost influence on climate. It assumes that the end of the century. Only emission reduc-
steady (see Section 6.4.4 on thermal iner- world is market oriented with fast per tions after 2016 at 3 or 4% per year would
tia). Several recent studies have sought to capita growth and fossil-fuel-intensive limit the chance of reaching 4°C to very
exploit this observation in order to provide energy production. It also assumes that low levels, with central model estimates
a simple link between levels of cumula- the global population peaks in 2050 and indicating a 2.2°C rise this century with
tive anthropogenic carbon emissions then declines. Previously, this scenario the 3% trajectory, and a 2.1°C rise with
and future warming. Allen et al. (2009), has received less attention than other the 4% one. Even in these cases the CCC
for example, considered the cumulative scenarios with generally lower rates of (2008) commented that the chances of
carbon emissions summed between pre- emissions. However, there is no evidence exceeding 2°C by 2100 would be 63% and
industrial times and 2050, linking them to from actual emissions data to suggest that 56% respectively. These conclusions are
peak global warming. It can be argued that the A1FI scenario is implausible if action reflected in the Paris 2015 Agreements.
warming by a given date is proportional is not taken to reduce greenhouse gas The Paris Agreement (2015) aims to
to cumulative CO2 emissions to that date. emissions, and hence it deserves closer limit the increase in the global average
The recent Copenhagen Accord contains attention than has previously been given. temperature by the end of the century to
the aim of limiting warming to no more The evidence available from recent simula- well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels
than 2°C, drawing on earlier targets from tions, along with existing results presented and to pursue efforts to limit the tempera-
the EU and G8. Though not specified in by IPCC (2014), suggests that the A1FI ture increase to 1.5°C above pre-industrial
the Copenhagen Accord, this 2°C warming emissions scenario would lead to a rise levels, recognizing that this would sig-
limit is usually presumed to be relative to in global mean temperature of between nificantly reduce the risks and impacts of
pre-industrial levels. Using the results in approximately 3 and 7°C by the 2090s climate change. In order to achieve this
Box 6.7 ➤
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Chapter 6 Atmospheric processes
➤
long-term temperature goal, Parties to the It is often argued that it may not be expensive to reduce emissions beyond
Agreement aim to reach global peaking technically, economically or politically some positive level. They use the follow-
of greenhouse gas emissions as soon as feasible to eliminate emissions of all ing conventions: if the emissions floor
possible, and to undertake rapid reduc- greenhouse gases while, for example, is constant, it is referred to it as a ‘hard
tions thereafter in accordance with best preserving global food security. Crop floor’. If, on the other hand, society is
available science, so as to achieve a bal- and animal farming can produce large able to continue to reduce residual CO2
ance between anthropogenic emissions by amounts of CO2 and methane. This limit emissions, eventually to the point where
sources and removals by sinks of green- has been referred to as an ‘emissions net emissions are zero, then it is called a
house gases in the second half of this cen- floor’. It is difficult to estimate a compel- ‘decaying floor’.
tury. The CCC (2008) trajectory described ling emissions floor, either in terms of its The above discussion strongly suggests
above peaking in 2016 and decreasing size (in gigatonnes of carbon per year that it is unlikely that global temperature
afterwards at 4% per year suggests that (GtC yr21)), or in terms of the extent to increases can be kept at relatively safe
the Paris Agreement (2015) will be unable which it can reduce over time as new levels of 2°C or below without major
to limit a temperature increases above pre- technologies become available. Neverthe- reductions in greenhouse gas emissions in
industrial to 2°C. This is because little or no less, Bowerman et al. (2010) commented the next few years and preferably by 2020.
attempt is being made at present to meet that it makes sense to consider the pos- Further discussion of contemporary cli-
this target, and future plans barely exist. sibility that it may prove prohibitively mate change is provided by Chapter 7.
Box 6.7
6.9.3 Radiative interactions with clouds and clouds generally increase planetary albedo and so cool the
sulfate aerosols planet by reflecting more solar radiation to space. How-
ever, for long-wave radiation, clouds generally add to the
The terms ‘forcing’ and ‘feedback’ are frequently used in
greenhouse effect as they absorb upward-moving infrared
climatology. Forcings are processes that act as external
radiation and reradiate it back downwards. Thus cloudy
agents to the climate system, such as changes in solar input
days are normally cooler than clear-sky days, particularly
to the Earth, the loading of the atmosphere with volcanic
in summer, because the short-wave radiative input to the
ash and aerosols (see Box 6.8), or rising levels of CO2 gas.
surface is restricted. In contrast, cloudy nights are warmer
As a result of temperature changes caused by increasing
than clear nights, particularly in winter, because the long-
concentrations of greenhouse gases, other changes may
wave radiative loss from the surface to space is restricted
take place that could in turn influence temperature. For
(Figure 6.22). However, observations from satellites show
example, an increase in temperature could result in greater
that the albedo cooling effect dominates, and the net effect
evaporation from the ocean, enhancing atmospheric humid-
of clouds at present is to cool the Earth.
ity. Since water vapour is an active greenhouse gas, the
increase in atmospheric humidity causes a further increase
6.9.3.2 Aerosols
in temperature. This is an example of a positive feedback
process. It also demonstrates that the intensity of the hydro- Over the last few years, it has become evident that, when
logical cycle is closely linked to the greenhouse effect. averaged over the global atmosphere, part of the enhanced
greenhouse effect has been offset by a negative forcing due
to the human-induced emission of aerosols (Figure 6.23).
6.9.3.1 Clouds
Aerosols have two effects, a direct one and also by modify-
Conventionally, the radiative effect of clouds is discussed in ing cloud properties. Aerosol particles reflect short-wave
terms of ‘cloud radiative forcing’, even though cloud effects radiation and therefore increase atmospheric albedo. Aero-
are actually feedback processes. The radiative forcing of sols also increase cloud albedo and influence cloud lifetime
the Earth’s climatic system is in part determined by the and precipitation. Sulfate aerosols, formed from sulfur
distribution of cloudiness, since clouds strongly influence dioxide emitted during the combustion of fossil fuels and
the distribution of both short-wave and long-wave radia- partly responsible for producing acid rain, are regarded
tive fluxes within the atmosphere. At short wavelengths, as particularly important. Sulfate aerosols located in the
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6.9 Interactions between radiation, atmospheric trace gases and clouds
Volcanoes and Climate concentrations may cool the climate for the direct and diffuse components almost
a few months, or even a year or two, but completely cancelled out, and only a very
Volcanic eruptions are of two main types:
then the droplets fall out of the strato- slight fall was detectable in the global
effusive eruptions and explosive eruptions
sphere and temperatures return to normal. radiation curve. The consequence is that
(Chapter 2). Effusive eruptions are those
Large-scale winds in the stratosphere tend the cooling effect of volcanic eruptions is
in which local lava flows predominate, and
to flow towards the east with a small polar generally small. Large volcanic eruptions
are of little meteorological interest. Explo-
component. Thus stratospheric dust clouds of the calibre of K rakatoa (1883) or Agung
sive eruptions can throw vast quantities
tend to move eastwards and polewards; (1963) are required to cause atmospheric
of rocks, dust and gases to great heights.
they also tend to be restricted to the par- dust loadings that would affect surface
The volume of material blown into the
ticular hemisphere in which they formed. solar radiation.
atmosphere during an explosive eruption
Typically, volcanic dust takes 2 to 6 weeks
can amount to 1 km3 or more. During the Carbon dioxide
to circuit the Earth in middle or lower lati-
eruption of Hekla, Iceland, in 1947, dust
tudes, and from 1 to 4 months to become This is a greenhouse gas, so when it is
fell on ships in the Atlantic Ocean up to
a fairly uniform veil over the whole of the emitted in large enough quantities it can
800–1000 km away to the south and east.
latitude zone swept by the wind system have a warming impact on the global cli-
Major volcanic eruptions can be highly
into which it is injected. Thus volcanic mate. The last remnants of CO2 emissions
disruptive, mainly due to five significant
eruptions near to the equator can spread have an atmospheric lifetime of several
effects: tsunamis may inundate surround-
stratospheric dust over much of one or, hundred years, so any impact will be felt
ing low-lying land; sulfate aerosols circulat-
if they are almost on the equator, both over a long timescale. Even so, it is still
ing in the stratosphere may cause globally
hemispheres. In contrast polar eruptions much smaller than that produced from
lowered temperatures for several months
often have only a restricted influence. The human activity, such as burning fossil fuels
or years; toxic elements such as fluorine
final stage of a worldwide dust veil from an and changing land use.
deposited on the ground or in water may
equatorial eruption is probably a concen-
cause death if ingested; tropospheric sul- Examples of volcanic eruptions
tration of the last remaining airborne dust
fates, which precipitate within a few days
over the two polar caps. 1. Tambora volcano, Sumbawa, Indonesia:
as acid rain, may stunt or kill vegetation
Because of their relatively large size The Tambora volcano on the island of
over huge areas downwind from the erup-
compared with the wavelength of the Sumbawa in Indonesia erupted on 10
tion; and volcanic dust may disrupt aircraft
incident short-wave radiation, sulfuric April 1815, sending a massive cloud of
movements by damaging jet engines.
acid droplets and volcanic dust particles aerosols into the stratosphere. This was
The gases emitted by eruptions are
predominantly scatter solar radiation in one of the largest eruptions of the past
largely water vapour, CO2, sulfur dioxide,
the direction of the incident beam. The 500 years. The year 1816 is often known
and small quantities of other gases. Vol-
result is that scattering reduces the direct as the ‘year without a summer’. Snow
canoes emit two gases that can have an
radiation much more substantially than is every month of the year started a mass
impact on global temperatures: sulfur diox-
the global solar radiation, since the bulk migration from the US East Coast across
ide and CO2. They each have very different
of the radiation scattered from the direct the Appalachian Mountains to the
effects and work on different timescales.
beam reappears at the surface as diffuse Midwest. The effects of the 1816 sum-
radiation. For example, after the erup- mer on agricultural productivity in New
Sulfur dioxide tion of Mount Agung (Bali) in 1963, the England were mainly due to a series of
When this gas is emitted to high altitudes stratospheric dust veil was the most effec- killing frosts that reduced the grow-
(about 12–14 km or above) it enters tive since 1902–1903 and possibly since ing season. This, along with a severe
the stratosphere. Here it can form acid 1883–1886. A marked drop in the direct drought, reduced agricultural output to
droplets that partially scatter and reflect beam radiation at Aspendale, Melbourne, record low levels. In Europe, by contrast,
sunlight away from the Earth, causing Australia, was observed which was largely there were record low temperatures
surface cooling. The droplets have a compensated by a similar large increase in accompanied by above average rainfall
fairly immediate impact, and in sufficient the diffuse components. The changes in and cloudiness, the combination of
Box 6.8 ➤
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Chapter 6 Atmospheric processes
➤
which slowed the growth of crops and estimated 250 million tonnes of CO2 4. Santorini, eastern Mediterranean: The
produced fungus and moulds. Thus, was put into the atmosphere. This is eruption of Santorini (Thera) was one
food production was negatively affected a significant amount, but is still much of the largest volcanic events of the last
in both regions, but by different mecha- smaller than that produced from human four millennia. Some 30 cubic kilometres
nisms. This shows the complex relation- activity, such as burning fossil fuels and of rock was erupted, and ash from the
ship between climate and its impacts. changing land use, which is estimated to eruption has been identified across more
2. Mount Pinatubo, Philippines: Recent put out about 26 000 million tonnes of than 2 million square kilometres extend-
history has produced a good case study CO2 a year. ing from the Black Sea in the north
of the impact of a large volcanic erup- 3. Eyjafjallajökull eruption, 14 April–23 through Turkey and the south-eastern
tion. Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines May 2010: Volcanic eruptions are not Mediterranean to the Nile Delta in the
erupted in 1991, making it one of the uncommon in Iceland (Swindles et south. The best date for this eruption,
biggest volcanic events of the twentieth al., 2016). This eruption is of interest consistent with all the data, is 1628 BC.
century. It put about 20 million tonnes because the upper winds were north- 5. Toba, Sumatra, Indonesia: The largest
of sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere. erly and spread clouds of volcanic ash known eruption of the past 100 000
As expected, this impacted global tem- over north-western Europe, severely years was the great Toba eruption
peratures. The average for the following disrupting air travel. This was because about 71 000 years ago, which occurred
year was reduced by between 0.1°C and the ash clouds can damage jet engines close to the beginning of a major glacial
0.2°C, although temperatures quickly and cause them to fail (see Box 26.1 in advance, although a causal relationship
recovered the year after. In addition, an Chapter 26). has yet to be established.
Box 6.8
troposphere are rapidly washed out of the atmosphere anthropogenic contributions to aerosols (primarily sulfate,
by rainfall; hence they do not travel far from their indus- organic carbon, black carbon, nitrate and dust) together
trial sources. The IPCC Report (2014) suggested that produce a cooling effect, with a total direct radiative
Figure 6.22 Values of incoming short- and long-wave radiation for actual
900 Cloudless sky and cloudless sky conditions for a site near Pateley Bridge, North York-
short-wave shire, for two days in June, 1984. During the night of 27/28 June, 2 mm
radiation
of rain fell in two events of 1 mm each. It is seen that, while cloud makes
800
effectively no contribution to the downward-moving long-wave radia-
tion across the midday period of 27 June (a relatively cloudless day with
700 near-maximum values of incoming short-wave radiation), it contributes
Observed
short-wave around 90 W m-2 throughout the rainfall of the night of 27/28 June and
radiation only slightly less during the relatively cloudy 28 June (with much reduced
600 incoming short-wave radiation). (Source: after Lockwood, 1993)
Radiation (W m-2)
500
Observed
400 long-wave
radiation
300
Cloudless
200 sky
long-wave
radiation
100
Rainfall
0
0 12 0 12 0
27 June Time (GMT) 28 June
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6.10 Geoengineering
RF terms RF values (Wm-2) Spatial scale LOSU
CO2 1.66 (1.49 to 1.83) Global High
Long-lived
N2 O
greenhouse gases 0.48 (0.43 to 0.53)
0.16 (0.14 to 0.18) Global High
CH4 Halocarbons
0.34 (0.31 to 0.37)
-0.05 (-0.15 to 0.05) Continental
Ozone Stratospheric Tropospheric Medium
0.35 (0.25 to 0.65) to global
Anthropogenic
Stratospheric water
vapour from methane 0.07 (0.02 to 0.12) Global Low
(CH4)
Land-use Black carbon -0.2 (-0.4 to 0.0) Local to Medium
Surface albedo
on snow 0.1 (0.0 to 0.2) continental to low
Continental Medium
Direct effect -0.5 (-0.9 to - 0.1)
Total to global to low
aerosol
Cloud albedo Continental
-0.7 (-1.8 to -0.3) Low
effect to global
Linear contrails 0.01 (0.003 to 0.03) Continental Low
Natural
Solar irradiance 0.12 (0.06 to 0.30) Global Low
Total net
1.6 (0.6 to 2.4)
anthropogenic
-2 -1 0 1 2
Radiative forcing (W m-2)
Figure 6.23 Global-average radiative forcing (RF) estimates and ranges in 2005 for anthropogenic CO2, methane, nitrous oxide and other important
agents and mechanisms, together with the typical geographical extent of the forcing and the assessed level of scientific understanding (LOSU).
(Source: IPCC, 2007a)
forcing of - 0.5 W m-2 and an indirect cloud albedo forc- of climate change. Basically they attempt to modify the
ing of - 0.7 W m-2. The combined radiative forcing due various atmospheric processes described in this chapter.
to increases in the greenhouse gases of CO2, methane and None are fully operational at present, but there is growing
nitrous oxide is estimated to be + 2.3 W m-2. Therefore interest in developing some of them. One class removes
IPCC (2014) reports with a very high confidence that greenhouse gases from the atmosphere after they have been
the globally averaged net effect of human activities since released; the other involves solar radiation management,
1750 has been one of warming, with a radiative forcing of such as deflecting sunlight away from the Earth. The first
between + 0.6 and + 2.4 W m-2 (Figure 6.23). approach makes use of biological agents, such as land
plants or aquatic algae, to produce, for example, biofuels.
There is growing interest in this approach, and the plant-
ing of forests is already considered in international climate
Reflective question
negotiations. The second approach could involve increas-
➤ Sulfate aerosols originating from industrial areas cool the ing the albedo of land surfaces so that they reflect more
atmosphere but cause acid rain. Attempts to remove such sunlight and thus cool the Earth. It is not yet clear how this
aerosols from the atmosphere will accelerate global warming. could be done on a scale large enough to be effective.
What therefore should be the policy on industrial pollution?
6.10 Geoengineering Reflective question
➤ Are there any planned geoengineering projects intended
Scientists have identified a range of engineering techniques, for your area to control greenhouse gas concentrations?
collectively called geoengineering, to address the control Do some web searches to find out.
of atmospheric greenhouse gases and reduce the risks
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Chapter 6 Atmospheric processes
6.11 Summary upper ridges. Frontal depressions also move with the upper winds.
Embedded within the upper Planetary Waves are strong, narrow
The climate system consists of a closely coupled atmosphere– currents of air known as jet streams.
ocean–ice–land–vegetation system. Short-wave radiation from Hydrological processes play an important part in atmospheric
the Sun is the main energy input that drives the climate system, and climatic processes. For example, condensation is important
while long-wave radiation from the atmosphere to the cold in controlling the convective overturning of the atmosphere
of space is the main energy lost. The processes of absorption, and clouds act as both cooling and warming agents across the
reflection and reradiation of energy, however, are of fundamental planet. Atmospheric circulation patterns are naturally variable on
importance to atmospheric processes. There is a net radiation an inter-annual scale. Among the more important are the El Niño
surplus at the surface near the equator and a net radiation deficit Southern Oscillation associated with the Walker circulation, and
in polar regions, leading to energy transfers. These transfers to the North Atlantic Oscillation with its influence on winter climate
rectify the equator/pole energy imbalance take place through in western Europe. On longer timescales there is also natural cli-
atmospheric and oceanic motions. mate variability.
The basic circulation of the atmosphere is dominated by a A natural greenhouse effect operates because certain trace
three-cell structure in each hemisphere that is controlled by gases in the atmosphere such as water vapour and CO2 act to
a pressure gradient force. The Earth’s rotation, however, has a absorb long-wave radiation emitted from the Earth’s surface
profound influence on air movements across its surface, making and reradiate it back downwards. They act as a blanket. This
circulation systems much more complex than they would other- effect is being enhanced by increased atmospheric concentra-
wise be. In the tropical world there are mean north–south circula- tions of such greenhouse gases as CO2 due to the use of coal
tions, known as Hadley cells, with rising air over the equator and and oil as energy sources. However, there are also negative
sinking air in the subtropics. There are also east–west circulation feedback effects from atmospheric aerosol pollution produce
cells along the equator known as the Walker circulation. At the by various industrial processes. Increased clouds and sulfate
surface in middle latitudes, the predominant features are closed, aerosols can increase atmospheric albedo and reflect more of
eastward-drifting, cyclonic and anticyclonic systems, while higher the Sun’s energy directly back into space and thus partly offset
up in the troposphere smooth wave-shaped patterns are the gen- the greenhouse effect. Nevertheless, increasing atmospheric
eral rule. There are normally five to eight upper Planetary Waves greenhouse gas concentrations are now dominating global
circling the poles. They are important because frontal depressions climate change, and unless restricted by the end of the present
tend to form and grow rapidly just downwind of upper troughs decade have the potential to cause massive damage by the end
while surface anticyclones tend to develop just downwind of of the century.
Further reading Lockwood, J.G. (2009) The climate of the Earth. In: Hewitt,
C.N. and Jackson, A.V. (eds) Atmospheric science for environ-
mental scientists. Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester, 1–25.
A detailed introduction to the circulation and climate of the
Hansen, J., Sato, M., Kharecha, P. et al. (2008) Target atmos- Earth’s atmosphere.
pheric CO2: where should humanity aim? The Open Atmos-
pheric Science Journal, 2, 217–231. MacKay, D.J.C. (2009) Sustainable energy – without the hot air.
Good paper about uncertainties and targets for atmospheric UIT, Cambridge.
emissions and carbon uptake measures. An excellent introduction to the physics of energy use. Free
copies are available on the Internet at www.withouthotair.com.
Houghton, J. (2015) Global warming: The complete briefing,
5th edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Stern, N. (2006) The economics of climate change: The Stern
This up to date book describes the uncertainties surrounding Review. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
predictions of the effects of global warming including positive The Stern Review is an independent, rigorous and comprehen-
and negative feedbacks. sive analysis of the economic aspects of climate change
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C H A PTER 7
Contemporary climate change
John Grace
School of GeoSciences, University of Edinburgh
Learning objectives contains not only carbon but also 1–4% sulfur and traces
of heavy metals, and therefore its combustion releases a
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
multitude of pollutants as well as carbon dioxide (CO2).
With the onset of the Industrial Revolution in western
➤ discuss the evidence for anthropogenic global warming
Europe, around 1780, the use of coal increased dramati-
cally and cities like London became heavily polluted with
➤ understand how the use of fossil fuels has impacted upon the
smog, a mixture of fog and smoke. Domestic coal burn-
climate
ing was a major contributor to smog, and the industrial
➤ describe how the carbon cycle has been perturbed regions around Birmingham in England became known
➤ appreciate how humankind has created environmental problems as the Black Country and even non-industrial Edinburgh
and perceive how they may be solved was known as Auld Reekie, referring to the smell of coal
burning.
Diseases such as bronchitis and tuberculosis were wide-
7.1 Introduction spread following the Industrial Revolution, and nearly a
quarter of deaths in Victorian Britain (1837–1901) were
Environmental change on a global scale first became a from lung diseases. In one week of December in 1952,
matter of public concern in the 1960s. Before then, the 4000 Londoners were killed by a particularly severe epi-
perceived environmental problem was urban pollution, sode of smog. The ensuing public outcry resulted in the
which affected human health and the quality of life of so Clean Air Act of 1957, which restricted coal burning and
many people. Although urban pollution became acute dur- resulted in the use of cleaner energy sources such as oil,
ing the Industrial Revolution, it was not new. The smelting of gas and electricity. Other coal-burning cities of the world
toxic metals such as copper and lead was a health hazard such as Pittsburgh in the United States have a similar his-
in ancient Rome, as revealed by analysis of hair samples tory. Problems were greatly exacerbated by the growth
from the preserved corpses of Roman soldiers found in in use of the motor car, especially in regions receiving
bogs, and from traces of metal in Greenland ice cores. high solar radiation, such as Los Angeles, Athens and
Coal was used in London in the thirteenth century. Coal Mexico City, where the ultraviolet radiation reacts with
M07 An Introduction to Physical Ge 83575.indd 175 24/05/2017 13:10
Chapter 7 Contemporary climate change
uncombusted hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen from (a)
exhausts of cars to yield photochemical smog, irritating
the eyes, nose and throat. An important milestone in the 0
awakening of environmental concern was prompted by the
widespread use of the persistent pesticides that were intro- -2
duced after the Second World War and the publication of
Rachel Carson’s book Silent Spring in 1962. Silent Spring -4
warned against the dangers of pesticides, especially to
-6
songbird populations, indicating how persistent chemicals 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
might spread in food chains as well as in the atmosphere, Millions of years ago
Temperature relative to modern average (5C)
(b)
and ultimately damage non-target species. At the same
time, other scientists were demonstrating that the pesticide 0
DDT could be found in rainwater in the Antarctic, and Glaciers
retreat from
that pesticides were responsible for eggshell-thinning in -2 Most recent Britain
wild birds, threatening especially those species at the end glaciation
of food chains such as raptors. Thus, the idea of environ-
mental change on a global scale soon became a permanent -4
part of western culture, and part of the international
20 10 5
research agenda. Thousands of years ago
The global scale of human influence on the planet is (c)
1.5
today felt even more strongly, but not because of fears of
widespread pollution of the land and sea by pesticides. 1.0
The global environmental challenge that we face now is
0.5
climate change, and that is the main focus of this chapter.
0
7.2 Climate change -0.5
-1.0
7.2.1 Long-term change 1000 1400 1800
Year (AD)
The climate has always fluctuated, but usually over very
Figure 7.1 Air temperature over three timescales, relative to modern
long timescales. There are many sources of information records: (a) the past million years; (b) the past 20 000 years; (c) the past
that help in the reconstruction of past climates. These millennium. (Source: after Brohan et al., 2006; Hegerl et al., 2007)
include historical records, evidence from the annual
growth rings of trees, deposits of pollen in lakes and
bogs, isotopes and fossils (see Chapters 4 and 5). The lost, perhaps 75% of plant species, and (most famously)
picture that emerges is quite complex, showing cyclic dinosaurs became extinct. Such events are now usually
fluctuations on several scales (Figure 7.1). The long- attributed to the impact of comets, asteroids or large
term cyclic trends in the Earth’s temperature, associated meteorites, which would have thrown up debris into
with periods of glaciation known as ‘the Ice Ages’, were the atmosphere and greatly reduced the penetration of
attributed by Scottish geologist James Croll and Serbian solar radiation, causing widespread cooling, a reduction
astronomer Milutin Milankovitch to the irregularities in in photosynthesis and collapse of food chains. The KT
the orbit and tilt of the Earth, which influence the energy boundary is considered to have been caused by an asteroid
received from the Sun (see Chapter 4). These are known 10 km in diameter, which impacted at Chicxulub, north-
as the M
ilankovitch cycles. In contrast to these gradual east Yucatan, Mexico. Geologists recognize five such mass
changes, there have also been catastrophic events caus- extinction events in the fossil record, all of them global in
ing mass extinctions on a global scale. For example, in extent, taxonomically broad, and most evident in marine
the Late Permian (245 million years ago) about half the invertebrates (for which the fossil record is relatively com-
families of marine animals were lost. At the boundary of plete). It is against this background that we examine the
the Cretaceous and Tertiary (known as the KT boundary, changes in the climate system which are currently occur-
some 65 million years ago) 15% of marine families were ring, and their link to anthropogenic activity.
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7.2 Climate change
7.2.2 Recent climate change and its causes A causal association between greenhouse gases and
temperature is inevitable, ever since the demonstration in
Over the past century the Earth has warmed by about
1859 by the Irish scientist John Tyndall that CO2 absorbs
0.8°C, particularly in the early part of the twenty-first
infrared radiation. In the Earth’s atmosphere, CO2 and a
century (Figure 7.2). Apart from this modern instru-
range of other gases, including water vapour, absorb some
mental record from meteorological stations, there are
of the infrared radiation that would otherwise stream
a number of independent sources of information to
directly out to space, thus causing a heating effect known
demonstrate the phenomenon of climate warming: gla-
as the greenhouse effect (the name arises because glass
ciers have been receding, snow cover has declined, polar
also absorbs infrared radiation and so the glass panes in a
ice has been melting, sea levels have been rising and
greenhouse have exactly the same effect on a local scale).
spring has been arriving earlier. This period of rapid,
The amounts of three of these gases, CO2, CH4 and N2O
human influenced change has been considered as a
(nitrous oxide), have risen sharply in recent times, and the
new geological epoch, the Anthropocene, following the
extent of warming to be expected from these rises can be
Holocene (see Chapter 5).
calculated (see the right-hand axis of Figure 7.3). The rise
Many authors describe the present-day temperatures
in heat supply to the Earth’s surface caused by these gases,
as ‘unprecedented’. We know the temperatures and the
known as radiation forcing (see Chapter 6), amounts to
concentrations of CO2 and CH4 that have occurred over
2–3 watts per square metre (W m-2). This is much smaller
the last 650 000 years from analysis of deep cores taken
than the average incoming solar radiation (averaging about
from polar ice, and we can compare these with those being
230 W m-2 at the Earth’s surface) but enough to increase
experienced now. Although the 650 000 year record does
the global temperatures.
contain large fluctuations, associated with the ice ages and
We know for sure that humans have emitted vast quan-
the warm interglacial periods, we see that today’s tem-
tities of CO2 by burning fossil fuels and biomass, thus
peratures and concentrations of CO2 and CH4 are much
interfering with the global carbon cycle. The rise in CH4
higher. Moreover, the rate of increase in temperature is
concentrations can be attributed to increases in various
faster now than previously.
types of human activity. Only about 45% of all CH4 emis-
sions are produced naturally: from wetlands, termites, the
ocean and from the decomposition of gas hydrates. The
remainder is anthropogenic: from energy production, rice
0.5 (a) 14.5
fields, landfills, ruminant livestock, waste treatment and
Temperature (5C)
difference (5C)
biomass burning. The rate of increase in CH4 has in fact
Temperature
0.0 14.0 been levelling off in the last few years. As for N2O, the
causes of its increase are somewhat less clear. It is pro-
-0.5 13.5 duced naturally by microbial activity in the nitrogen cycle
(see Chapter 13), and at a much faster rate when land is
(b)
50 ‘improved’ by the use of nitrogen fertilizer. It is estimated
1961 to 1990 (mm)
Difference from
0 that about one-third of the global emissions of N2O are
-50 anthropogenic.
-100 Other processes influence global temperatures (see
-150 Figure 6.23 in Chapter 6). Some are less well understood,
and are the subject of current research. One such case is
(c)
the influence and general behaviour of aerosols. These
Area covered (million km2)
4
40 are particles in the atmosphere, including fumes and
Area difference
(million km2)
0 smoke from industrial processes and transport, and natu-
36
rally produced particles such as pollens and spores. To
-4
32
some extent, they shield the planet from solar radiation,
absorbing, scattering and reflecting solar radiation. The
1850 1900 1950 2000
Year aerosol ‘haze’ that we see in the clear sky (especially in the
northern hemisphere) effectively reflects part of the inci-
Figure 7.2 Observed trends on (a) global average temperature, (b) global
average sea level and (c) northern hemisphere snow cover for the past dent solar energy back into space, contributing to a cool-
century. (Source: IPCC, 2007a) ing effect and therefore offsetting the warming effect of
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Chapter 7 Contemporary climate change
to the aerosol content of the atmosphere, by emitting
400
certain volatile organic compounds which form aerosols
350 (Meir et al., 2006).
Carbon dioxide, CO2 (ppm)
Variations in the Sun’s energy output is sometimes
Radiative forcing (Wm-2)
350 300
1 proposed as a possible cause of global warming. Although
1800 1900 2000 we talk of the energy incident on the Earth as measured
Year outside the atmosphere as the ‘solar constant’ (and assign
300 it the value of 1366 W m-2), it is not quite constant. The
0 most conspicuous variations are associated with sunspots,
which appear as dark marks on the solar surface and arise
because of variations in the magnetic properties of the
250
Sun. They occur in an 11-year cycle, but there is a possibil-
2000 ity of less conspicuous longer-term trends (see Chapter 5).
2000 Changes in the solar output caused by sunspots are only
1500 about 0.1% of the solar constant. Changes in solar irradi-
ance since 1750 have caused a radiative forcing of only
Radiative forcing (Wm-2)
0.4
1500 1000
+ 0.12 W m-2, and Lockwood and Fröhlich (2007) have
Methane, CH4 (ppb)
500 shown that the changes in solar radiation since the preced-
1800 1900 2000
Year ing 20 years to their paper were in the opposite direction to
0.2
1000 that required to explain the observed rise in global mean
temperatures.
0 Volcanic eruptions are sometimes large enough to
500
have a short-term impact on the climate (see Box 6.8 in
Chapter 6). Globally, the CO2 emissions from volcanoes
are much smaller than fossil fuel emissions, probably
330
less than 0.3 Gt C yr-1. The significance of volcanoes
330
is in their injection of aerosol particles into the atmos-
300 phere. For example, following the June 1991 eruption of
Mount Pinatubo the aerosols formed a reflective layer of
Radiative forcing (Wm-2)
Nitrous oxide, N2O (ppb)
300 270 0.1
sulfuric acid haze and global temperatures dropped by
1800 1900 2000
240 about 0.5°C. Likewise, the April 1815 eruption of Mount
Year Tambora in (modern-day) Indonesia is believed to have
been the cause of the exceptionally cold conditions eve-
270 0
rywhere in the world in the following year: 1816 is known
as ‘the year without a summer’. Significant volcanic erup-
tions in recent times were Mount Agung in Bali in 1963
and El Chichonal in Mexico in 1981.
10000 5000 0 The scientific consensus is, overwhelmingly, that the
Time (before 2005)
production of greenhouse gases by humans is the primary
Figure 7.3 Trends in three global atmospheric greenhouse gases over the cause of recent global warming, as outlined in various
past 10 000 years. Different colours denote different studies. The inset reports from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
box shows the period since 1750 in more detail. The left-hand axis shows
the concentration of each gas and the right-hand side shows the radia-
Change, IPCC (www.ipcc.ch). One of the most compelling
tive forcing that the concentration implies. (Source: IPCC, 2007a) lines of evidence is that global climate models (GCMs),
in which production of these gases is simulated, show the
same pattern of global warming as that observed, and in
greenhouse gases. Periodic changes in the aerosol content all parts of the world (Figure 7.4). When run without add-
of the atmosphere, for example by major volcanoes and ing anthropogenic production of greenhouse gases, GCMs
by periods of heavy industrialization or biomass burning, show no appreciable global warming.
have the capacity to change the temperature of the planet. Understanding the causes of climatic variation is still
Marine phytoplankton and the vegetation itself contribute an area of intense research, drawing upon expertise from
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7.2 Climate change
Figure 7.4 Comparison of observed and simulated climate change based on three large-scale indicators in the atmosphere, cryosphere and
ocean: change in continental land surface air temperature (yellow panels), Arctic and Antarctic September sea ice extent (white panels) and upper
ocean heat content in major ocean basins (blue panels). Time series are decadal averages, plotted at the centre of the decade and are relative to
1880–1919 for surface temperatures, 1960–1980 for ocean heat content and 1979–1999 for sea ice. For ocean heat content three different sets
of observations are shown. For temperature panels, observations are dashed lines if the coverage of examined areas is below 50%. For other pan-
els, dashed lines indicate poor data coverage. Model results shown are from Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 (CMIP5) multi-model
ensemble ranges with shaded bands indicating 5 to 95% confidence intervals. (Source: IPCC, 2014).
many scientific disciplines. One important issue is the and sea absorb more energy than ice and snow). A decline
behaviour of a myriad of negative feedbacks which tend in albedo will make the planet’s surface absorb more solar
to dampen any instability, and the extent of the influence radiation, and thus further warming will occur. In this
of positive feedbacks which might cause run-away warm- way, warming may give rise to further warming, an exam-
ing. For example, as the climate warms and the polar ice ple of a positive feedback loop. Some examples of positive
melts, the overall albedo of the planet will decline (land and negative feedbacks are given in Box 7.1.
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Chapter 7 Contemporary climate change
Climate Feedback • As the sea surface warms, more water Negative feedbacks
Anthropogenic activity is believed to be vapour enters the atmosphere. H2O is • Deforestation will lead to an increase
enhancing climate change and encourag- a strong absorber of infrared radiation of soil erosion, atmospheric aero-
ing the planet to warm. However, there and so this increased water vapour sols will increase and solar radiation
may be a range of feedbacks that result in is expected to increase the rate of at the surface will decline, causing
different responses to human activity. Posi- warming. cooling.
tive feedbacks on the climate system will • Warming will melt snow and ice, decreas- • Replacement of coniferous forest by
accelerate global warming, whilst negative ing albedo and thus increasing warming, warmth-loving broadleaved forests and
feedbacks will suppress warming. There are melting even more snow and ice. by agriculture will decrease planetary
a whole range of interlinked processes that • Tropical deforestation will cause warm- reflectance, causing cooling.
suggest we need to look at environmental ing and drying, itself causing a decline • Increased transpiration in a warm world
change taking a whole-system viewpoint. in the rainforests of the world. will lead to more clouds, cooling the
This box lists some of the hypothesized
climate feedbacks which global modellers
• Increased cover of woody vegetation in planet.
are investigating.
the high latitudes, caused by warming, • Increased precipitation and ice melt
will decrease the reflectance of the land will result in increased runoff into
Positive feedbacks surface, and thus accelerate warming. sensitive parts of the oceans altering
• Warming will cause release of CO2 from • Warming will increase the decom- the balance between freshwater and
increased biomass decomposition, pri- position rate of gas hydrates (see saline water thereby resulting in a
marily in the forest regions of the world Chapter 24) leading to a release of the slowing of ocean circulation and allow-
but also in the tundra, thus accelerat- potent greenhouse gas methane; this ing northern high latitudes to cool (see
ing warming. will increase warming. Chapters 4 and 5).
Box 7.1
7.2.3 Predictions from global climate models thereafter a decline, and the rapid introduction of more
(GCMs) efficient technologies. Three A1 groups are distinguished:
A1FI is fossil fuel intensive, A1T uses non-fossil energy
Global climate models have developed from global cir-
and A1B uses a mixture of the two. A1B corresponds
culation models (both abbreviated GCM), which in turn
to what most traditionalists imagine will happen. A1FI
sprang from the application of numerical methods to
leads to the CO2 concentration rising from 380 ppm to
weather forecasting. Predictions of the climate for the
around 960 ppm while A1B results in 710 ppm by 2100.
next century are made by running GCMs with specified
prior assumptions about the pattern of greenhouse gas A2: Here, the world develops in a more heterogeneous
emissions. In reality, these patterns will depend on social, way with emphasis on self-reliance. Fertility patterns
political and economic development in the world, and they have regional characteristics and converge slowly; eco-
are patterns which we cannot foretell. So researchers define nomic growth and technological uptake are more frag-
them as ‘scenarios’ or ‘storylines’, each storyline having mented. In this scenario, the CO2 concentration rises
a particular pattern of greenhouse gas emissions, and use from 380 ppm to 860 ppm by 2100.
GCMs to investigate the consequence of each scenario.
B1: Like A1, scenario B1 is a convergent world with a
In the year 2000, the scenarios were defined by the IPCC
population that peaks in the mid-century but with a
and are summarized below (in the most recent, Fifth IPCC
strong evolution of a service and information technology,
Assessment report (2014) scenarios are replaced by ‘Repre-
with reductions in material intensity and clean technolo-
sentative Concentration Pathways’, RCPs):
gies. In B1, global solutions are found to economic, social
A1: In this scenario, there is rapid economic growth, and environmental sustainability. In this scenario, the CO2
an increasing human population until mid-century and concentration rises from 380 ppm to 540 ppm by 2100.
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7.2 Climate change
A2
6.0 A1B
B1
Year 2000 constant
5.0 concentrations
Twentieth century
4.0
Global surface warming (5C)
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
-1.0
A1FI
A1B
A1T
B1
B2
A2
1900 2000 2100
Year
Figure 7.5 Predictions of global warming for different scenarios (see text for an explanation). The coloured lines show
the assumed socio-economic scenarios and the bands around the lines show the range of model behaviours. Note: the
orange line shows the effect of keeping the concentration constant from the year 2000. (Source: IPCC, 2007a)
B2: In B2, local solutions to economic, social and When the GCMs are run, we see a warming by 2100
environmental sustainability are found; the popula- ranging from 1.8°C in the B1 scenario to nearly 4°C in the
tion growth rate is slower than A2, with intermedi- A1B scenario (Figure 7.5). There are associated changes
ate levels of economic development, and there is less in rainfall. In the A1B scenario, the rainfall patterns are
rapid technological change than in A1 and B1. In this substantially different from those today with more rain
scenario, the CO2 concentration rises from 380 ppm falling in the polar regions while the mid-latitudes will
to 615 by 2100. become drier (Figure 7.6). The Mediterranean region of
A1B December, January, February A1B June, July, August
—20% —10% —5% 5% 10% 20%
Figure 7.6 Relative changes in precipitation for the period 2090–2099, relative to 1980–1999, assuming the A1B scenario for December to February
(left) and June to August (right). White areas are where less than 66% of the models agree on the sign of change. (IPCC, 2007a)
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Chapter 7 Contemporary climate change
(b)
(a)
20
16 A2
Standard deviation
B1
12 A1B
8
-4
1880 1920 1960 2000 2040 2080 —3.75 —3 —2.25 —1.5 —0.75 0 0.75 1.5 2.25 3 3.75
Year Standard deviation
Figure 7.7 Increase in heatwaves over the rest of the century, expressed as the standard deviation of temperature: (a) trends
from runs of the GCM for three scenarios; (b) global pattern for A1B. (Source: IPCC, 2007a)
Europe and Central America will both become especially the UK government (Stern, 2006). Box 7.2 provides some
dry according to this prediction. examples of potential impacts of global warming.
These changes are profound, especially so as the mod-
els suggest a more variable climate with an increasing
7.2.4 Critical evaluation of the state-of-the-art
frequency of extreme events. News reports of storms,
in GCms
droughts and hurricanes are increasingly shown in the
media but these alone should not be taken as evidence of a GCMs have significant weaknesses which are frequently
link between global warming and extreme events. Analyses highlighted by sceptics. However, according to the IPCC,
of reliable long-term records and model predictions are the most climatologists agree that better models would not
proper evidence that must be considered. Emanuel (2005) materially influence the conclusions of the model runs.
investigated data on hurricanes and found the total power Some of these perceived weaknesses are mentioned for
dissipated (longer storms and more intense storms) has consideration here, as follows.
increased markedly since the mid-1970s. Moreover, model
predictions do indeed show an increased variability with 7.2.4.1 Resolution
an increased frequency of extreme events. The 2014 report
of the IPCC states: The spatial resolution of models may be too coarse. For
example, in the HADCM3 model, the GCM used at the
Changes in many extreme weather and climate events
Hadley Centre in the United Kingdom, the grid cells for
have been observed since about 1950. Some of these
the global runs made for the IPCC are 2.5 * 3.75 degrees
changes have been linked to human influences, includ-
in latitude * longitude, and the time steps are half-hour.
ing a decrease in cold temperature extremes, an increase
There is a practical limitation on spatial and temporal
in warm temperature extremes, an increase in extreme
resolution imposed by the speed of the supercomputer as
high sea levels and an increase in the number of heavy
it takes a long time to run a GCM for a 100 year or more
precipitation events in a number of regions.
simulation. As computing power increases over the next
Heatwaves, for example, are expected to increase few years there will be improvements in resolution. Some
(Figure 7.7). Results such as these prompt economic features of the climate system of course have a character-
analysis and receive the attention of the public and of istic size which is small in relation to the grid cells (hurri-
politicians. Insurance companies can no longer base their canes and even clouds have to somehow be represented).
premiums on the analysis of past data when the climate
system is so clearly changing its behaviour. Such ‘extremes’
7.2.4.2 Biological and chemical coupling
in temperature, rain and wind will all cause appreci-
able damage, and the cost of repairing the damage will Attempts to represent the impact of the biology and chem-
ultimately consume much of the wealth of the world, as istry in GCMs are in their infancy. To some extent this bot-
emphasized by the report of Sir Nicholas Stern made to tleneck relates to the lack of process understanding. For
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7.2 Climate change
Impacts Of Global Warming may become too hot and dry for crops to • Diseases are likely to spread from the
grow. This would include major ‘bread- tropics to the temperate and north-
Most current models suggest a 2–4 °C
basket’ regions such as central and ern regions as the climate warms.
increase in global temperature over the
southern Europe and North America. Outbreaks of pests may become more
next century. This rate is 10 times faster
than the warming experienced over the • Low-lying ground, including many extreme, as the natural biological
past 10 000 years, and substantial impacts major cities of the world and some control processes may not always be
on human societies are anticipated. The entire small island states, may be inun- present. Of particular concern is the
following is a summary of some of the dated as a result of thermal expansion northward spread of insect pests which
main effects that have been widely dis- of the ocean and the melting of ice. damage crops or transmit disease. One
cussed in various publications. According to IPCC (2014) sea levels are such example is Lyme disease, a life-
likely to rise 0.20–0.86 m from 2000 threatening disease carried by ticks
• Extinction rates, already very high, will to 2100 (IPCC, 2014), but some recent and found to be more prevalent in the
be increased even more. Species would United Kingdom during warm years.
authors have found much higher rates
have to be capable of very fast migra-
tion to keep up with the isotherms
(e.g. Levermann et al., 2013): 1.6 m for • The cost of repairing damage caused
every 1 °C rise in temperature. by extreme events will escalate and
which would move northwards at
about 10 km per year. A recent study • Some geographical regions will suffer occupy a major proportion of the
suggests that 13–37% of species will more than others. Temperature rises world’s economic production.
be ‘committed to extinction’ by 2050 are currently especially high in the high Although there is considerable uncer-
(Thomas et al., 2004). latitudes (leading to melting of ice). tainty in model predictions, partly because
• Although cold countries such as Russia Models show an increase in the extent the models do not incorporate many of the
may enjoy an increase in agricultural of El Niño, with high rates of warm- likely feedbacks that derive from the vegeta-
productivity as a result of warming, at ing and drying in some of the tropical tion itself, there is now agreement that the
least in the short term, many of the regions, causing replacement of the countries of the world must co-operate to
world’s main food-producing regions rainforest of Brazil by savanna. reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases.
Box 7.2
example, how should we model the effect of warming on therefore profoundly altering the distribution of heat over
the respiratory production of CO2 by the soil microbes? In the Earth’s surface. Such abrupt events may have occurred
general, our understanding of the carbon cycle is incom- before, as the Heinrich events, which are evident during the
plete, and arguably we are not yet ready to represent it in last glacial period (Rahmstorf, 2000; see Chapter 4).
global climate models, yet its behaviour clearly has the
potential to generate ‘surprises’ in the form of new and
7.2.4.4 The human dimension
substantial sinks and sources of carbon. This is touched
upon in Section 7.3 below. Similar remarks could be made No one has attempted to incorporate models of the social
in the realm of atmospheric chemistry and aerosol science. and economic life into GCMs. The most significant change
in land use is currently tropical deforestation. When for-
est is replaced by pasture, as for example, in Amazonia,
7.2.4.3 The behaviour of ice
the land surface becomes more reflective, the pattern of
It is very difficult to represent properly the melting of ice, evapotranspiration becomes more seasonal, the cloud
and the existing GCMs fail to deal specifically with the con- cover is reduced, and the surface becomes aerodynamically
sequences of the possible melting of the Greenland ice sheet. smoother (Figure 7.8). These changes, on the scale of the
This would cause a massive influx of meltwater into the Amazon Basin (over 4 million km2), have the potential to
North Atlantic, changing the ocean circulation patterns and change the climate not only in Brazil but elsewhere.
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Chapter 7 Contemporary climate change
Forest Pasture
Solar radiation
Solar radiation
Low
rainfall
High
rainfall
High sensible High
High Low sensible Low Low heat loss albedo
evapotranspiration heat loss albedo evapotranspiration
Deep roots Shallow roots
Figure 7.8 The effect of land-use change (tropical forest to pasture) on the energy and water balance of the
landscape. Forests absorb more solar radiation and have a higher evapotranspiration rate than pastures.
igure 7.9. Greenhouse gases have ‘sources’ and ‘sinks’. In
F
Reflective questions the case of CH4, the main sink is the photochemical pro-
cess whereby it is oxidized in the troposphere by the radi-
➤ What evidence is there that global warming is caused by cal OH, and its lifetime in the atmosphere is well known
human action? (9.6 years). In the case of CO2, the sinks are many and
➤ What might be the impacts of climate change associated some of them are long-lived compounds such as lignin and
with enhanced greenhouse gas concentrations? the carbonates, which makes it much more difficult to esti-
mate its atmospheric lifetime.
➤ What are the benefits and limitations of GCMs? An understanding of the carbon cycle is fundamental to
our understanding of life itself, as all biomass is carbon-
based. The principal biochemical constituents of cells
(carbohydrates, proteins, lipids) have a high carbon con-
7.3 The carbon cycle: interaction with tent, and the overall carbon content of dry biomass is in
the climate system the range 45–55%. The carbon cycle has become especially
topical in recent years, since the realization that warm-
The carbon cycle is the circulation of carbon atoms ing is large enough to force the cycle out of equilibrium,
between the ocean, land and atmosphere by physical, whereby the concentration of the gas in the atmosphere
chemical and biological processes. Living organisms are is rising. As we have seen above, CO2 is by far the most
of great importance in the carbon cycle, because life on important of the several gases that absorb infrared radia-
planet Earth is made of carbon compounds such as pro- tion emitted from the planetary surface, and its continuing
teins, carbohydrates and lipids. Thus, the cycle is one of rise is capable of causing additional global warming.
many biogeochemical cycles, whereby organisms reuse vital The annual quantity of carbon emitted by burning fos-
elements such as carbon, nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus. sil fuels and making cement in the period 2005–2014 was
The principal processes involved in transfer from the 9.0 Gt C yr-1 and clearing forests in the tropics released
atmosphere are the dissolution of CO2 in the oceans and about 0.9 Gt C yr-1, making a total anthropogenic burden
the uptake of CO2 by the balance between photosynthe- on the atmosphere of 9.9 Gt C yr-1. However, the con-
sis and respiration of living organisms. The processes centration of CO2 in the atmosphere is increasing by only
involved in the return to the atmosphere are the release of about 4 Gt C yr-1. The CO2 not appearing in the atmos-
CO2 from the ocean in regions where the ocean upwells phere (the ‘missing’ carbon) is being taken up by terrestrial
(see Chapter 3), and the breakdown of organic matter photosynthesis or dissolving in the ocean. It seems that
by respiration or fire. We can thus envisage the carbon the terrestrial vegetation may be absorbing around half of
cycle as a set of fluxes between major pools as shown in the ‘missing’ carbon, and the rest is dissolving in the ocean
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7.3 The carbon cycle: interaction with the climate system
Atmosphere, 750 ¢ about +4.4 per year
Land sink
3.0
Land-use change
Fossil fuels
Terrestrial
9.0
Oceanic sink
ecosystems 0.9
Vegetation 610 2.6
Soils 1400
Litter 60
Total 2070
0.9 Surface ocean
1020
Land to ocean
40 50 100 92
Marine biota 4 Ocean
3 38,100
6 6 0.2
Fossil fuel reserves
900 DOC
Sediment
700
Carbonate rocks
65 * 106
Figure 7.9 The global carbon cycle, averaged over the period 2005–2014 (units are gigatonnes, i.e. billions of tonnes, 109 tonnes or 1 petagram). The
term for fossil fuels includes emissions from cement manufacture. Land and ocean sinks may vary from year to year, especially the land sink. The land
sink is the net of very large gains by photosynthesis (around 120 gigatonnes of carbon per year) and losses of a similar magnitude by respiration of
plants and other organisms. Data for stocks on the land and in the ocean are very uncertain. ‘DOC’ is an abbreviation for dissolved organic carbon. For
regular updates to the global carbon budget please visit: www.globalcarbonproject.org/carbonbudget/
(Friedlingstein et al., 2010). This is reflected in the fluxes land-use changes of this kind is considerable. The ocean
shown in Figure 7.9. However, the ocean and terrestrial sink might also be managed by fertilizing the ocean. The
might not continue to provide this service. According to scientific basis for this proposition is the observation that
some models, the terrestrial sink will diminish and then phytoplankton in the deep ocean are short of iron, one of
become a source as a result of the impact of high tempera- micronutrients that all life requires. When iron is added as
tures and droughts in the tropics (Cox et al., 2000). On ferric ions the productivity of phytoplankton is increased.
the other hand, as warming occurs there is a reasonable This provides more food for zooplankton, and more food
expectation that the sinks in the northern regions will for the fish that eat the zooplankton, so there should be an
strengthen, perhaps enough to compensate for the loss enhanced stream of dead biota and carbonate shells that
of sink strength in the southern regions. This theme is sink to deeper layers of the ocean. This, in turn, should
returned to in Chapter 13. enable more CO2 to dissolve in the surface waters. No
There are prospects of enhancing the strength of the one really knows whether this will work on a large scale.
sinks in order to slow down the rate of climate warming. Environmentalists have generally opposed all suggestions
On the terrestrial side, this might be done by planting of increasing the strength of ocean sinks, and sometimes
more forests, or by protecting existing forests. It could sinks in general, arguing that the mechanisms and pro-
also be done by modifying agricultural practices (less cesses are imperfectly understood, and the sinks cannot
ploughing, for example) in order to conserve the carbon be depended upon in the long term. They argue that there
stocks in the soil or to protect peatlands and other wet- is no alternative but to reduce emissions by reducing con-
lands. The potential of enhancing the terrestrial sink by sumption and finding alternative ‘clean’ sources of energy.
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Chapter 7 Contemporary climate change
mentioned in the protocol, of which CO2 is the most
Reflective questions important contributor to warming (Table 7.1). They differ
greatly in their residence time in the atmosphere, and in
➤ Can you draw a diagram of the carbon cycle and the extent to which they are effective in absorbing infrared
explain it? radiation. These two factors together are incorporated
➤ Why is the total increase of CO2 in the atmosphere cur- into an index called the global warming potential (GWP),
rently less than the CO2 emitted by human actions? which measures the relative effectiveness of the gas,
on a per molecule basis, in causing global warming over
a century.
To date, the Kyoto Protocol has not been successful.
7.4 Mitigation Most signed-up countries failed to meet their emission
targets. The protocol has been largely replaced by the
The question of ‘what can be done?’ to avoid dangerous cli- Paris Agreement made in December 2015 at the United
mate warming has to be addressed at a global scale. If one Nations Climate Change Conference, COP 21. Members
country alone were to apply stringent measures at great agreed to reduce their carbon output ‘as soon as possible’
expense to reduce fossil fuel emissions while other coun- and to do their best to keep global warming ‘to well below
tries go ahead and increase theirs, then no one would gain. 2°C’. Meanwhile, the first indication that global carbon
Countries therefore must engage in debate and decide on emissions may have peaked was published (Jackson et al.,
the actions required before it is too late. Following the 1992 2016). The slow-down of China’s economic growth and
‘Rio Summit’ to discuss environmental change, many coun- fossil fuel usage, rather than any international agreement,
tries joined an international treaty – the United Nations seems to be the main cause of the apparent reduction in
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) – global carbon emissions.
to consider what might be done to reduce global warming. At an individual level, some people opt to take personal
Later, in 1997, a number of nations approved an addition responsibility for their carbon emissions. In a developed
to the treaty: the Kyoto Protocol, which imposes powerful western society it is possible to make substantial savings
(and legally binding) measures to reduce emissions. in this way, as Reay (2006) has pointed out. But only a few
The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement people have so far taken direct control over their ‘carbon
to limit the emission of greenhouse gases. Six gases are footprints’ by changing their lifestyles. Most people in the
Table 7.1 Greenhouse gases in the Kyoto Protocol, lifetime in the atmosphere and global warming potential (GWP) on a scale where CO2 = 1 (see text
for definition)
Gas Sources Lifetime (years) GWP Comment
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Fossil fuel burning, cement Sometimes assumed to be 1 On the increase still, but Annex 1
manufacture 100 years but probably longer countries* likely to reduce
emissions
Methane (CH4) Wetlands, rice fields, burning, 12 21
oil wells, ruminants, termites
Nitrous oxide (N2O) Land disturbance, use of 120 310
nitrogen fertilizers
Hydrofluorocarbons Industry, refrigerants 1–300 140–11 700 Substituting for CFCs. They contain
only hydrogen, fluorine and carbon,
and do not damage the ozone layer
(CF3CFH2, CF3CF2H, CHF3, CF3CH3
and CF2HCH3)
Perfluorocarbons Industry, electronics, 2600–50 000 6500 Also substituting for CFCs
(CF4, C2F6) firefighting, solvents
* Annex 1 countries are 37 developed countries and economies in transition who had committed themselves to reducing emissions to 1990 levels by 2000. The term ‘An-
nex 1 countries’ is still used despite the original date having lapsed. Annex 1 countries pledged in the Kyoto Protocol to reduce emissions to 5.2% below 1990 levels in the
2008–2012 period.
(Source: Woodward et al., 2004)
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7.5 Destruction of the ozone layer by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
developed world, and an increasing number in the develop- inevitable association between wealth and travel emissions.
ing countries, have a substantial component of emissions The challenge for governments is how to enable modes of
from travel; they often ignore options to reduce these by travel which are efficient and affordable yet which do not
selecting low-carbon-emitting modes of transport (train incur such high emissions of greenhouse gases.
not plane, bike not car). Currently, the cheapest and most At a national level, some countries have set themselves
convenient mode of transport is often plane or motor vehi- carbon emission reduction targets which go well beyond
cle, both of which have high emissions per journey. In a those prescribed by the Kyoto Protocol. Various countries
survey of the travelling habits of the people of Edinburgh have passed legislation to limit their own emissions. For
a linear relationship was found between personal income example, the UK government’s Climate Change Act states:
and transport emissions (Figure 7.10), suggesting an ‘It is the duty of the Secretary of State to ensure that the
net UK carbon account for the year 2050 is at least 80%
lower than the 1990 baseline.’ Other European countries
(a) have similar legislation, passed or in preparation. These
12 goals will only be achieved by quite radical and potentially
unpopular changes which will have to include: carbon
10
taxes, new technologies (especially, the burial of CO2
CO2 emissions from travel
in geological strata) and a move back to nuclear power.
(t CO2 yr-1 capita-1)
8
The use of renewable energy sources such as wind power
6 and biomass energy can make a significant contribution.
Countries such as China that are developing economically
4 at a very fast rate, and have a large reserve of easily acces-
sible coal, may decide that their economic growth will not
2
be fuelled by coal.
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Income (thousands £ per household per year)
(b)
3.0 Reflective questions
➤ Can you list some positive and negative climate feed-
2.5
backs and some of the impacts of climate change that
Mean annual CO2 emissions
could be associated with increased greenhouse gas
(t CO2 yr-1 capita-1)
2.0
concentrations?
1.5
➤ Using Internet tools work out your own personal carbon
1.0 footprint and reflect how you might make it smaller.
Would this impact on your quality of life?
0.5
0.0
7.5 Destruction of the ozone layer by
ol
UK
ns
ns
he
ur
n
oa
ho
so
so
pi
is
e
Ot
br
op
sc
th
ea
Le
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
e
a
lr
lr
Sh
to
in
na
na
io
n
n
at
io
re
sio
io
c
at
ild
ss
Va
es
c
fe
Ch
Va
of
ro
pr
rp
Electromagnetic radiation from the Sun reaches the Earth’s
r
fo
fo
UK
ad
atmosphere at a rate of about 1366 W m-2. Much of it
ro
e
th
ab
in
is scattered back into space, and only a fraction reaches
ys
ys
ne
ne
ur
the surface; it drives photosynthesis and evaporation, and
ur
Jo
Jo
warms the planetary surface. The radiation contains ultra-
violet (waveband 100–400 nm) radiation, visible radiation,
Figure 7.10 Per capita energy emissions associated with travel for
which happens also to be the photosynthetic waveband
people of Edinburgh, Scotland, in 2005: (a) relationship with income;
(b) type of travel (blue bars are deprived social group, grey bars are (waveband 400–700 nm), and near-infrared radiation
affluent social group). (Source: from Korbetis et al., 2006) (waveband 700 nm to a few nanometres). Ultraviolet
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Chapter 7 Contemporary climate change
radiation is absorbed by the DNA of all organisms, caus- and it is now evident that a steady decline is occurring
ing damage to the genetic code and consequently interfer- over Antarctica (Figure 7.11) whilst a decline has also
ing with protein synthesis and the control of cell division. been detected over the Arctic. In the 1980s, Australians
In humans the most common effects include reduction in sunbathed much less than before, and sales of sunhats
the immune system (all races), skin cancer in Caucasian- and skin creams to protect against ultraviolet radiation
type humans and damage to the eyes. increased. Plants and animals are less able to take such
For the last billion years, the Earth has been shielded protective measures.
from damaging ultraviolet radiation by ozone (O3) in The Montreal Protocol of 1987, in which nations
the stratosphere. This protection has enabled life to agreed to phase out the use of CFCs, has undergone sev-
develop on the land. Now, the ozone layer is diminishing eral modifications. Trade sanctions on CFCs have been
as a result of a chain of chemical reactions that begins imposed and a total phasing out is due in 2030. In March
with totally human-made chemicals, the chlorofluoro- 1989, environmental ministers of the European Commu-
carbons (CFCs). These CFCs are synthetic non-reactive nity announced a total phase-out of CFCs in Europe by
gases and liquids first made in 1930 and used as refrig- the year 2000. More recently, related chemicals which do
erants (later as propellants in spray cans). Being inert not significantly destroy ozone have been introduced: these
under normal conditions, they persist in the atmos- are the hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and the perfluoro-
phere, and slowly make their way to the stratosphere. carbons (PFCs). Unfortunately, these gases are powerful
Laboratory studies in 1974 established that CFCs could greenhouse gases (Table 7.1), although their concentration
catalytically break down ozone in the presence of ultra- in the atmosphere is very low and so they do not presently
violet radiation to form highly reactive radicals such contribute much to global warming.
as ClO and OClO. It is these radicals that catalyze the
breakdown of O3 to O2. A ground-based survey of
stratospheric ozone was started in Antarctica in 1956,
followed by satellite surveys in the early 1970s. In 1985, Reflective questions
a British team based in Antarctica reported a 10% drop
➤ Why is the ozone layer crucial to life on Earth?
in the ozone level during the spring, which they attrib-
uted to CFCs and oxides of nitrogen. A similar decline ➤ Has the Montreal Protocol of 1987 been more successful
was also seen in data from NASA’s Nimbus 7 satellite than the Kyoto Protocol of 1997?
carrying TOMS (Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer),
Oct 1979 Oct 2015
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Total Ozone (Dobson units)
Figure 7.11 Images of the average monthly thickness of the stratospheric ozone layer over the southern hemisphere comparing October 1979 with October
2015. The units are Dobson units named after G.M.B. Dobson, an early investigator. Dark blue and purple indicate thinner ozone. The scale is linear.
(Source: NASA Ozone Watch)
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7.6 The future
7.6 The future important. This technology was first developed during
the exploration of space in the 1960s. Silicon solar cells
Fossil fuel continues to be the main source of energy. convert solar energy to electrical energy with an efficiency
Moreover, the developing world, which consists of about of 20%, and the energy may be stored and transported
five-sixths of humankind, will continue to increase its pop- in fuel cells. The construction cost of a solar cell is rather
ulation and its fossil fuel burning for many years after the low, as the main elemental ingredient, silicon, is abundant.
rich countries have stabilized and decreased their depend- Unlike wind turbines and wave power generators there are
ency on fossil fuels. Some poor countries have neither no moving parts and consequently maintenance costs are
fossil fuels nor any other supply of energy, and so cannot extremely low. Even in winter in northern countries, solar
develop. Even fuel-wood is in short supply. cells can provide useful quantities of solar energy. In the
Nuclear power was developed enthusiastically by many future, roof tiles incorporating solar cells may be used in
countries in the 1950s, and 29 countries were running all new housing construction, and solar energy ‘farms’
437 nuclear power plants by 1998. Early optimism about may cover large areas of deserts.
development of an energy economy from nuclear fission The major problems facing the world are related to each
faded, following nuclear accidents and leakages such as other: climate change, energy supply, poverty and the ten-
Chernobyl in the USSR in 1986 and Fukishima in Japan sions arising from a disparity of living standards between
in 2011. Many environmentalists believe that the risks different people. It is difficult to foresee what kinds of
that are inherent in nuclear fission are quite unacceptable. environmental change are just around the corner, and there-
Power from nuclear fission is very expensive, once the costs fore hard to plan for the future. A hundred years ago, the
of handling radioactive waste and decommissioning old problems of today were invisible and quite unpredicted. But
power stations are taken into account. Despite all this, there is some evidence from recent history (Box 7.3) that
many governments are in favour of continuing and even we are at last beginning to grasp the nature of the human–
expanding their nuclear power programmes, and for many environment interaction. For 200 years humans have been
it is the only practical way to reduce carbon emissions. inadvertently damaging the life-support system of the planet.
There are, however, some reasons for optimism. In the In the last 30–40 years we have realized what is happening,
period since 1960 considerable progress has been made and governments are beginning to take remedial action.
towards developing alternative sources of energy to replace
carbon-based fuels (coal, oil and gas). Governments in the
richer countries are setting ambitious targets to decarbon-
ize their energy economies (which means they will use
Reflective question
less fossil fuels to produce energy) and are pushing for ➤ Despite the challenges ahead, why should we be optimis-
investment in renewable forms of energy such as wind tic about dealing with climate change?
and biofuels. Solar cells are likely to become increasingly
Important Recorded Events
The most important dates in the relationship between humans and the global environment are listed below. These events and
discoveries changed our perceptions of the world we inhabit, and contributed to global environmental change. From 1500 to 2015
the human population increased from 0.5 billion to 7.3 billion.
1400–1450 Chinese fleets arrive in Middle East and East Africa; Arab fleets cross Indian Ocean. Intercontinental trade begins.
1450 Johannes Gutenberg, Germany, establishes printing press, enabling humans to communicate efficiently and to learn from each
other more effectively than ever before.
BOX 7.3 ➤
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Chapter 7 Contemporary climate change
➤
1490–1500 Decade of European maritime exploration of Asia, Africa and America, paving way for settlement, slavery, trading, further
spread of economically important plant and animal species.
1610 Galileo Galilei, Italy, uses the telescope to observe behaviour of the Moon and planets. Other scientific instruments for Earth
observation were developed: microscope (1618), thermometer (1641) and barometer (1644).
1780–1820 Industrial Revolution. Dramatic increase in the use of coal. Western Europe sees rapid technological, social and economic
transformation, driven largely by the steam engine fuelled by coal. Widespread urban pollution, exploitation of workforce,
occupational diseases. Humans begin to alter the composition of the global atmosphere.
1796 First blast furnace opens in Gleiwitz, Poland. Manufacture of iron and steel followed in urban centres: Belgium, Germany, Great
Britain. Respiratory diseases increase.
1798 Thomas Malthus, English clergyman, writes Essay on the principle of population, pointing out the natural tendency of human
populations to grow exponentially, outrunning the food supply.
1821 William Hart obtains natural gas (methane) from a 9 m well in New York, and provides street lighting.
1827 Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier (France) first proposed that ‘light finds less resistance in penetrating the air, than in repassing
into the air when converted into non-luminous heat’. Possibly the first articulation of the greenhouse effect.
1838 Birth of John Muir at Dunbar, Scotland. First person to call for conservation of wilderness areas, arguably the father of the
modern conservation movement.
1839 Antoine-Cesar Becquerel, France, discovers the photoelectric effect, demonstrating that sunlight can be converted into elec-
tricity. But practical solar cells were not developed until 1954.
1842 John Lawes, England, invented superphosphate fertilizer.
1851 James Young, Scotland, discovers how to extract hydrocarbons from oil shale, and develops process of refining oil. He estab-
lishes a paraffin industry in Scotland (paraffin is called kerosene in the USA) and is nicknamed ‘Paraffin Young’.
1859 Edwin Drake strikes oil at 20 m in Pennsylvania, USA. Oil was soon discovered in North and South America, Mexico, Russia, Iran,
Iraq, Romania, Japan, Burma and elsewhere. Oil soon plays its part in the industrialization of the world.
1859 Charles Darwin publishes The origin of species, proposing the theory of evolution by natural selection.
1859 Irish scientist John Tyndall discovers that H2O and CO2 absorb selective wavebands of infrared radiation, and suggested a role
for these gases in the regulation of the Earth’s temperature.
1864 James Croll, Scotsman, proposed theory of long-term climate change to account for the Ice Ages (see also the reference to
Milutin Milankovitch, 1895)
1866 German engineers Langen and Otto patent the internal combustion engine. The manager in Otto’s factory, Daimler, makes the
first petrol engine in 1884.
1868 In Japan, the Meiji Restoration. Japan opens to the west and large-scale industrialization spreads to Asia.
1885 German chemist Robert Bunsen discovers how to make a very hot flame from gas, by mixing it with air before combustion.
Gas burners were thereafter much more efficient.
1895 Serbian astrophysicist Milutin Milankovitch describes theory of long-term climate change. Essentially it is the same theory
that Croll had proposed in 1864, but Croll’s work was ignored by his peers.
1896 Arrhenius, Swedish chemist, advances theory that CO2 emissions will lead to global warming, and postulates the ocean as a
CO2 sink.
1901 Italian Guglielmo Marconi invents radio, achieves first transatlantic radio message.
1903 Henry Ford, USA (1863–1947), establishes the Ford Motor Company, makes Model-T Ford cars in 1908. Others would follow
Ford’s idea of mass production, and car ownership would increase rapidly.
1903 Orville and Wilbur Wright, USA, demonstrate a flying machine based on the internal combustion engine. Rapid intercontinen-
tal travel by air would follow in 50 years.
1907 Henry Ford completes first tractor, a machine that was to revolutionize agriculture.
1909 Fritz Haber, Germany, shows how to synthesize ammonia from N2 in the atmosphere, and Karl Bosch uses this process for
mass production of nitrogen fertilizer. This was to greatly increase the capacity of humans to grow crops.
1915 German geophysicist Alfred Wegener publishes his controversial hypothesis of continental drift, in a book entitled The origin
of continents and oceans.
Box 7.3 ➤
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7.6 The future
➤
1917 Chainsaw manufactured for the first time. Enables rapid deforestation.
1926 John Logie Baird, Scotland, invents television, but TV broadcasts did not start until 1936 (Britain) and 1941 (USA), and TV sets
were not widespread until the 1950s. Television has allowed ordinary people to see how others live, and thus to understand
better their own place in the world.
1927 Alexander Fleming, Britain, discovers the antibiotic effect of the fungus Penicillium. Much later (1940) Florey and Chain, work-
ing in the USA, discover how to make the antibiotic penicillin in bulk. This launches golden age of medicine. Infant mortality
declines and people live longer.
1928 Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, India leader, questions the sustainability of the industrial age: ‘God forbid that India should
ever take to industrialism after the manner of the West. If it took to similar economic exploitation, it would strip the world
bare like locusts.’
1930 Thomas Midgely, USA, invents the gas freon. It was the first of the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which much later (1970s)
became widely used and caused thinning of the stratospheric ozone layer.
1938 Guy Stewart Callendar (UK) predicted global warming at a rate of 0.03°C per decade.
1943 Primitive electronic computers constructed: Harvard Mk I (USA) and Colossus (Britain).
1944 Pilotless planes and rockets developed in Germany for use in warfare. Later, the technology formed the basis for space explo-
ration and Earth observation.
1945 Atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima. Guardian newspaper (UK) comments ‘man is at last well on the way to mastery of the
means of destroying himself utterly’.
1948 Agricultural efficiency increases dramatically in the developed world, as a result of mechanization, fertilizers, pesticides, plant
breeding and managerial skill. Crop yields increase. Later (1960s and 1970s) the new agricultural technology is taken to the
developing countries, and becomes known as the Green Revolution.
1948 First operational stored-program computer, known as Manchester Mk I (Williams, Kilburn and Wilkes, Britain).
1951 Age of nuclear power starts with first commercial nuclear reactor at Idaho, USA. Later there are significant accidents: fire at
Windscale, UK, in 1957; meltdown at Three Mile Island, Michigan, USA, in 1979; meltdown and large release of fission products
at Chernobyl, USSR, in 1986.
1952 British jet airliner, De Havilland Comet, begins regular intercontinental travel.
1954 Chapin, Fuller and Pearson develop silicon solar cell capable of converting solar energy into electrical energy with a conver-
sion efficiency of 15%.
1957 First spacecraft, Sputnik, USSR; to be followed by first man in space, Yuri Gagarin, USSR, in 1961 and first man on the Moon,
Neil Armstrong, USA, 1969.
1958 Charles Keeling, of the Scripps Institute in the USA, begins the first reliable measurements of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa
in Hawaii.
1960 Soviet engineers begin large-scale irrigation using rivers flowing to the Aral Sea, the world’s fourth largest lake. Within 40
years the lake would almost disappear, possibly the greatest hydrological change yet engineered by humankind.
1962 Silent spring by Rachel Carson, USA, warns of dangers of pesticides to wildlife. This best-seller inspired a whole generation of
environmentalists.
1968 Satellite remote sensing starts. Pictures of Earth from deep space, Apollo 8 mission, USA; followed in 1972 by Earth Resources
Satellite ERTS-1 carrying multispectral sensors later called Landsat.
1969 In the USA, the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) begins the ARPANET. Soon, global communication by e-mail and
Internet would become possible.
1970 Establishment of Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), USA.
1971 Formation of Greenpeace. A group of activists sail their small boat into a US bomb-test zone near Alaska to draw attention to
the environmental dangers of nuclear war.
1971 Swedish scientists demonstrate long-range transport of sulfur as the cause of acidification of Swedish lakes, and predict that
acid rain will damage fresh water ecosystems and forests.
1972 In the UK, publication in The Ecologist of ‘A blueprint for survival’, warning of the extreme gravity of the global situation and
criticizing governments for failing to take corrective action.
Box 7.3 ➤
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Chapter 7 Contemporary climate change
➤
1972 Publication of The limits to growth by the Club of Rome, dealing with computer simulation of global environmental change.
Fails to identify the threat of global warming; points to resource depletion and pollution as the major threats.
1972 First international conference on the environment, Stockholm, leading to the establishment of the United Nations Environ-
ment Programme (UNEP). Acid rain is widely publicized, especially in relation to forest decline, but since then the developed
world has been moving to low-sulfur fuels.
1972 The anchovy fishery of Peru collapses because of overfishing and bad weather. Other fish stocks decline sharply, and manage-
ment of marine resources becomes an important issue.
1973 Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) restricts the supply of oil, forcing its price to rise five-fold and threat-
ening the global economy.
1979 James Lovelock proposes the Gaia hypothesis (see Chapter 23).
1985 Farman, Gardiner and Shanklin, a British team working in the Antarctic, report thinning of stratospheric ozone, attributable to
CFCs.
1986 Nuclear accident at Chernobyl, USSR, creates radioactive fallout everywhere in the northern hemisphere, reminding people
that environmental problems cross political boundaries. The expansion of nuclear power in the west falters.
1987 First appearance of the word biodiversity in the scientific literature (by E.O. Wilson, USA).
1987 Ice core from Antarctica, taken by French and Russian scientists, reveals close correlation between CO2 and temperature over
the last 100 000 years.
1987 Montreal Protocol signed, an agreement to phase out CFCs.
1987 United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development produce the Brundtland Report, dealing with definitions
of sustainability.
1988 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPPC) is established.
1990 IPPC’s first Scientific Assessment Report, linking greenhouse gas emissions to warming.
1992 Implementation of the International Geosphere Biosphere Programme (IGBP) to predict the effects of changes in climate,
atmospheric composition and land use on terrestrial ecosystems; and to determine how these effects lead to feedbacks to
the atmosphere.
1992 Earth Summit, Rio de Janeiro. Leaders of the world’s nations meet in Rio and set out an ambitious agenda to address the
environmental, economic and social challenges facing the international community. Heads of state sign the UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change. The UNFCCC was one of three conventions adopted. The others – the Convention on Biologi-
cal Diversity and the Convention to Combat Desertification – involve matters strongly affected by climate change.
1997 Kyoto Protocol is drafted, the first international agreement to limit greenhouse gas emissions.
1997–1998 Particularly severe El Niño causes drought and widespread forest fires in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brazil and Mexico. In Indonesia
alone, 97 000 km2 of forest is destroyed, releasing 2.6 Gt CO2.
1998 The warmest year of the century, and probably of the millennium.
2000 International Coral Reef Initiative reports that 27% of the world’s corals reefs are lost, mainly a consequence of climate
warming.
2001 US President George Bush announces that the USA will not ratify the Kyoto Protocol.
2002 As warming of Antarctica proceeds, some 3200 km2 of the Larsen B ice shelf collapses.
2002 Schools in Seoul, S Korea, are closed when a dust storm originating from China sweeps over the country.
2003 Gates of China’s Three Gorges Dam are shut, and the world’s largest hydropower reservoir is created, destroying archaeologi-
cal sites and forcing the relocation of nearly 2 million people.
2003 European heatwave causes premature death of 35 000 people.
2004 Indian Ocean earthquake causes large tsunami, killing a quarter of a million people.
2005 Kyoto Protocol comes into force, 16 February.
2005 Hurricanes sweep the US Gulf Coast, causing widespread damage and loss of life. New Orleans evacuated.
2005 Worst Amazon drought in the last 100 years.
Box 7.3 ➤
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7.7 Summary
➤
2006 The film An Inconvenient Truth (Director Davis Guggenheim, Presenter Al Gore) presents the science of global warming in a
manner accessible to non-scientists. It is a box-office success and wins awards.
2006 Nicholas Stern, an economist, in a report for the UK Government, suggests that global warming will cause the greatest and
widest-ranging market failure ever seen, and proposes environmental taxes as the best remedy.
2006 China becomes the top CO2 emitter, overtaking the USA.
2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report predicts that temperatures will rise by 1.8–4.0°C by the end of the century.
2008 Forests of western North America devastated by epidemic of mountain pine beetle.
2009 Worse wildfires in Australian history, 181 killed in the state of Victoria.
2009 Global fossil fuel emissions fell by 1.3% to 8.4 Pg C per year, as a result of the economic recession; emissions in China and India
rose, nevertheless, by 8% and 6% respectively.
2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference ‘Copenhagen Climate Summit’ fails to reach legally binding agreement on curb-
ing greenhouse gas emissions or reducing deforestation. In the resulting Copenhagen Accord many governments pledge to
reduce emissions by 2020, including the USA.
2010 Deepwater Horizon oil leak discharges the equivalent of 4.9 million barrels of oil into the Gulf of Mexico, causing a 6500 km2
oil slick and harming fisheries. It became known as the BP oil disaster.
2010 Severe Amazon drought, thought to be the second (after 2005) most severe drought on record.
2010 Arctic sea ice now covers its smallest area since records began.
2011 Canada becomes the first signatory to announce its withdrawal from the Kyoto Protocol.
2011 Two papers in the journal Nature present compelling evidence that an increase in the frequency of heavy rain and floods in
the northern hemisphere is linked to the increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
2014 Speaking for the two largest greenhouse gas emitting nations, the President of the USA, Barack Obama, and his Chinese coun-
terpart, Xi Jingping, pledge to reduce their nation’s carbon emissions.
2014 IPCC Fifth Assessment Report states that the effect of increases in greenhouse gas concentrations are ‘extremely likely’ to
have been the dominant cause of observed warming since the mid-twentieth century.
2015 Strong El Niño impacts are recorded in Brazil: severe drought and water shortages. Carnival festivities are scaled back.
2015 At the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference, COP 21, the members agreed to reduce their carbon output ‘as soon
as possible’ and to do their best to keep global warming ‘to well below 2 degrees C’. This is called ‘The Paris Agreement’.
2015 The global annual average surface temperature reaches a record level, 1 °C above the pre-industrial average (as represented
by the 1850–1900 reference period).
2016 First indication that global carbon emissions may have peaked, published in the journal Nature Climate Change and discussed
further in Earth System Science Data.
Box 7.3
7.7 Summary have an impact on the environment. The enhanced greenhouse
effect appears to be causing accelerated climate change which
The overwhelming scientific consensus is that the production will have major impacts on humans and global ecosystems.
of greenhouse gases by humans is the primary cause of recent However, there are a number of positive and negative feedback
global warming, as outlined in various reports from the IPCC. The effects that global circulation models are only just being able to
burning of fossil fuels and the creation of human-made chemicals predict and model.
such as CFCs and techniques of creating nitrogen fertilizer all
➤
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Chapter 7 Contemporary climate change
➤
World population growth has been associated with increased health and biodiversity. Cities often experience harmful smogs,
utilization of the land for agriculture. Increased domestication of and the ozone layer which protects the Earth from vast amounts
plants and animals and use of wood for fuel have resulted in vast of harmful ultraviolet radiation is suffering severe damage due
amounts of deforestation, particularly over the past 200 years to CFC use.
when the human population has increased from 1 billion to However, humans are an inventive species and technologi-
7.3 billion. Humans now appropriate 40–50% of the land’s bio- cal improvements are continuously being made that may help us
logical production. Large-scale change in the land surface from cope with and mitigate environmental change. The development
forest to farm influences regional and global climates in many of safe nuclear fusion and increased use of solar cells may allow
ways that are still not properly understood. Conversion of forest us to harness the world’s resources in a more sustainable manner.
to pasture involves release of CO2 to the atmosphere, as well as In addition, the international recognition that global environ-
changes to albedo, air movements, and the water, carbon and mental change is taking place has been achieved and there is
nitrogen cycles. Atmospheric pollution from industry, combus- a willingness around the world to try to combat environmental
tion engines and agricultural practice is impacting on human problems.
Further reading Levermann, A., Clark, P.U., Marzeion, B. et al. (2013)
The multimillennial sea-level commitment of global warming.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110,
13745–13750.
Hegerl, G.C., Crowley, M. Allen, W. et al. (2007) Detection This paper estimates much faster rises in sea levels than the
of human influence on a new 1500-year temperature IPCC (2014) report, especially as a result of ice melting in
reconstruction. Journal of Climate, 20, 650–666. Antarctica.
Pulls out human impacts on the recent temperature record.
Lovelock, J.L. (1979) Gaia: A new look at life on Earth. Oxford
Houghton, J.T. (2015) Global warming: The complete briefing,
University Press, Oxford.
5th edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
This is a very readable book, and a seminal work, proposing
An authoritative and lucid account. If you want to read only
that the biosphere behaves as a homeostatic system. In a
one book about global warming then it should be this.
more recent book, The Revenge of Gaia, published in 2006,
Jackson, R.B., Canadell, J.P., Le Quéré, C. et al. (2016) the author argues that it is now too late to avoid substantial
Reaching peak emissions. Nature Climate Change, 6, 7–10. global heating which will make large regions of the Earth
The first indications that global CO2 emissions have started to inhospitable. In 2014, his new book, A Rough Ride to the
decline. See also the related in-depth paper by Le Quéré et al. in Future, takes a rather different viewpoint. But read the 1979
Earth System Science Data 7, 349–396. book first.
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C H A PTER 8
Global climate and weather
John McClatchey
Late of Environmental Research Institute, University of the Highlands and Islands
Learning objectives latitudes, fluvial (water-related) features dominate the
landscape. The vegetation cover is also strongly con-
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
trolled by the thermal conditions and by the availability
of moisture.
➤ understand how major features of the general atmospheric circu-
The climate at any one location arises from the types
lation play a role in climate
of weather that are experienced there over a period of
years. However, the climate is not just about average
➤ describe the types of climates that exist across the Earth
values of weather elements such as temperature or pre-
➤ identify the type of weather associated with different types of cipitation but includes the range and extremes of those
climate elements and the frequencies of types of weather. For
➤ recognize the importance of seasonality in different climates example, in desert regions the average monthly precipita-
➤ understand why there is a distinct geographical distribution of tion total may be almost meaningless, as precipitation
climates might occur only on one or two days a month. Of much
more importance is the number of days on which pre-
➤ explain why there are differences between the climates of the
cipitation falls and the amounts that fall in each event.
northern and southern hemispheres
Of course in all climates there can be substantial local
and regional variations from the average conditions (see
8.1 Introduction Chapter 9) but despite such local variations, the types of
weather and the weather systems in each major climate
The climate at any place has a critical influence on the regime will be similar. Therefore, in order to understand
natural vegetation, the landscape and human activity. why a location has a particular climate, the starting point
For the natural world, three components of climate are should always be to understand what types of weather are
crucial, these being the precipitation, the thermal condi- a feature of that climate. This chapter therefore starts by
tions and the wind conditions. For example, in desert outlining the general controls of weather conditions and
climates the landscape is usually dominated by aeolian climate across the Earth, before discussing the features of
(wind-related) features, while in much of the middle the major global climate zones.
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Chapter 8 Global climate and weather
8.2 General controls of global climates Therefore, although important, solar radiation alone does
not control the climate. The distribution of the oceans
The Sun drives weather systems and the global climate. and continents, ocean currents and the general circula-
As a result, the latitude of any location plays an impor- tion of the atmosphere also play an important role (see
tant role in determining the climate. The decline of the Chapter 6). Hence despite having a similar solar radiation
solar radiation input that takes place in moving from the input, places at the same latitude may have mild winters
equator to higher latitudes eventually leads to a negative in one case and very cold winters in another. For exam-
net radiation balance at the top of the atmosphere (the ple, Scotland has much milder winters than Labrador at
balance between the incoming solar and outgoing ter- the same latitude in north-east Canada. Climate is often
restrial radiation). This occurs at close to 45°N and 45°S assessed by using a network of observation stations that
and would lead to a cooling at higher latitudes if energy record meteorological and climatological data. There are a
were not transported there from lower latitudes by ocean number of types of such records that can be used to assess
currents and the general circulation of the atmosphere. climate and these are discussed in Box 8.1.
Meteorological and Climato- and past (over past 3 hours) weather are Z denoting Universal Time, equivalent to
logical Observing Networks also recorded but recent developments in Greenwich Mean Time) and many sta-
equipment now allow visibility and some tions make hourly observations. These
It is important to be aware of the availabil- cloud information to be recorded at some synoptic stations are located to provide
ity and type of climatological records that automatic weather stations (Figure 8.1). measurements representative of a wide
can be used to assess climate. There are Synoptic stations record weather area. Many are at airports or military avia-
a number of different types of observing elements at least every 6 hours at the tion bases and therefore the local area
station but the three principal types are same time at every station in the world surrounding the station is generally flat
synoptic stations, climatological stations (at 00:00, 06:00, 12:00 and 18:00Z, the and open.
and precipitation stations. They are not
spread uniformly across the planet. There
are very few in oceanic locations or in less
developed countries, deserts, polar regions
and other harsh or inaccessible places.
Such stations tend to be concentrated in
developed countries.
Synoptic stations
Synoptic observing stations provide sur-
face weather observations as an input into
numerical weather forecasting models. The
principal elements recorded are tempera-
ture, humidity, wind speed, wind direction
and atmospheric pressure (and change
over past 3 hours). These elements are
recorded at all synoptic stations, includ-
ing automatic stations. For stations at
which meteorological observers are based,
observations of cloud cover, cloud heights,
visibility, precipitation, current weather Figure 8.1 An automatic weather station.
Box 8.1 ➤
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8.2 General controls of global climates
➤
Solar radiation is recorded at only a few the variation of climate within a region and wind vane is 10 m (although a range
stations, mostly at what are termed ‘agro- (Chapter 8). The number of stations required between 8 and 12 m is acceptable).
meteorological stations’ (used to provide to show the local variations of climate within A ‘climate normal’ (average) is estab-
information specifically for agriculture). At a region depends on the topography and the lished over a 30 year period for a stand-
some of those stations both the direct and proximity to the sea or very large lakes (such ard station updated every 10 years (e.g.
diffuse solar radiation are recorded and at as the North American Great Lakes). 1971–2000, 1981–2010), which is the
a few stations there will also be an obser- 30 year average of the individual monthly
vation of the net radiation, which is the Precipitation stations values. Often, however, meteorological and
balance between the short- and long-wave In addition to climatological stations there climatological observations are made as
radiation (see Chapter 6). are also a large number of precipita- part of micrometeorological, ecological,
tion stations at which only precipitation hydrological and even geomorphological
Climatological stations investigations. Such measurements may
is recorded. In areas of frequent winter
Climatological observations are generally snowfall, special snow gauges are used to not conform to WMO standards but may
taken at least once per day, although at obtain a rainfall equivalent measure. be appropriate in terms of the particular
some sites it is twice per day. The time at investigation. However, non-standard
which observations are taken at an ‘ordi- World Meteorological Organization observations cannot be directly compared
nary’ climatological station is decided by standards with standard measurements and there-
each country (e.g. 09:00 GMT in the United Both synoptic and climatological stations fore they need to be used with care if used
Kingdom). All climatological stations make have to conform to certain standards set in any local climate assessment.
an observation of the maximum and mini- out by the World Meteorological Organiza- With modern technology it is now
mum temperatures and precipitation total tion (WMO). These ensure that observa- becoming much easier to collect auto-
over the previous 24 hours. The ‘average’ tions taken at any place in the world are mated data from synoptic stations that
temperature is just the sum of the maxi- directly comparable. For example, ther- are at WMO standards. In some countries
mum and minimum temperatures divided mometers are sited in a screen at between there are networks for public enthusiasts
by 2. Note that for synoptic stations, how- 1 and 2 m above a grass surface (this may to share data and for their data to be used
ever, a more representative mean can be be a snow surface during winter). This by weather forecasters as part of synoptic
obtained from the hourly values. Some sta- screen has to be above the surface as at station data collection. The UK Met Office
tions record soil temperatures (at various night there can be differences of over 10°C for example, runs the Weather Observa-
depths) and some record a night ‘grass’ between the (colder) grass (surface) mini- tion Website, http://wow.metoffice.gov
(surface) minimum temperature. Some mum and screen minimum temperatures .uk/home, which allows users to upload
non-instrumental observations of weather as a result of surface radiational cooling. their data from their stations and website
phenomena are also recorded. The height at which wind is recorded is visitors can click on each station and see
There are far more climatological sta- also important as the friction of the sur- that live data. These datasets from pri-
tions than synoptic stations (which also face slows the wind and causes the wind vate individuals now supplement the Met
record climatological observations), as direction to change. The standard height Office’s own official synoptic and climato-
they are used to provide an indication of for an anemometer (wind speed recorder) logical networks.
Box 8.1
A key factor determining global climate is the presence precipitation, areas in which anticyclones are located tend
of zones of ascent or descent of air. In areas of the world to be dry. Conversely, in areas of the world with low pres-
subject to high-pressure anticyclonic conditions, air is sure, air is ascending (as a result of convergence in the
subsiding (descending) and is being warmed by compres- lower atmosphere) and clouds can often grow to consider-
sion. That warming leads to the formation of a tempera- able depths. This convergence can enhance thermal convec-
ture inversion at a few hundred to perhaps 2000 m above tion or encourage slantwise c onvection (movement of air
the surface whereby warmer air overlies colder air. This upwards and north or south) if there are noticeable ther-
prevents any further rise of the lower colder air because it mal contrasts between regions of air (e.g. at fronts).
is more dense and less buoyant than the overlying warm A map of average surface pressure (Figure 8.2) there-
air. This inversion therefore inhibits the growth of clouds, fore provides an initial indication of likely areas of ascent
and as clouds need to be deep to give substantial falls of (relatively wetter areas) and descent (relatively drier areas).
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Chapter 8 Global climate and weather
1205W 605W 05 605E 1205E 1805E
(a) July High 1011
1014
1008
Low
605N 605N
1011
1014
7
101
0
405N H 102 23 405N
10
1026
101
1023 High
10
Low
7
1020 10
14
11
205N 1017 999 205N
1014 1002
1005
1008
05 1 14 05
101 10
1011
1017 1014
205S 1023 1020 10 205S
17
10 High H 1023
101
4 10
17
20 H
101
1
405S 405S
1008
1014
1005 1008 1011
1002
999 1002 1005
605S 605S
1205W 605W 05 605E 1205E 1805E
1205W 605W 05 605E 1205E 1805E
(b) January High
1011
0
Low 102 3
605N 102 6 605N
Low 996 102 29
1002 10 32
10
2 05 100181 High
100 10 008
1 11
1020 10 4 10 Low
10 14 101 0
10170 10 5
405N 10 17 1020 101 08 405N
10 102 1
High High H 1014
1020
205N 1017 1014
205N
1014 1011
05 05
1008
205S
1011 Low 100
8
205S
H 1008 1
High 1011 101
1017
1020 1020
101
7
1014 H
405S 1017 405S
1014 1014
1011
1011 1008
1005 1008
1005
605S 605S
1205W 605W 05 605E 1205E 1805E
Figure 8.2 A map of average surface pressure over the Earth in (a) July and (b) January in hPa (or millibars). High-pressure areas represent zones of descending
air (air at the surface is diverging away from that point) while low-pressure areas are zones of ascending air (air at the surface is converging towards that point).
(Source: after White et al., 1992, Environmental Systems: An Introductory Text, 2nd edition, by D.N. Mottershead, S.J. Harrison and I. White, Fig. 4.5, p. 84.
Published by Taylor and Francis Books Ltd (Nelson Thornes) 1992. Reproduced by Permission of Taylor & Francis Books UK)
In addition, because the middle and high latitudes have expected and the circulation of air around pressure systems
an overall energy deficit (more radiation is lost to space at means that these regions will be on the southern and eastern
the top of the atmosphere than is gained from solar radia- sides of low-pressure systems in the northern hemisphere
tion) the weather systems help transport energy from lower (northern and eastern sides in the southern hemisphere).
to higher latitudes. Therefore, the average position of the The type of weather experienced at a particular loca-
weather systems can give an indication of regions for which tion depends on latitude, the position and movement of
air is generally being brought into from lower latitudes. pressure systems and the presence or absence of areas of
These regions will be milder than might otherwise be ascent or descent (subsidence) of air. The thermal climate
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8.2 General controls of global climates
will depend on latitude (height of the Sun in the sky), of classifications of climate have been suggested, with
the principal prevailing wind directions (from warmer probably the most commonly used being Köppen’s classi-
or colder areas) and the cloudiness (thick clouds reduce fication that was developed in the early twentieth century.
daytime maximum temperatures but keep night-time The classification scheme was modified by Köppen’s stu-
minimum temperatures higher). Cloud and precipitation dents (Geiger and Pohl, 1953) and is shown in Table 8.1.
depend on the presence or absence of ascending air (giv- It is, however, important to realize that the boundaries
ing cloud) or subsidence (giving clear skies). Therefore, between different types of climate are not distinct and that
although the following discussion will be separated into climates merge into each other. Nevertheless a very general
latitudinal zones, there will be substantially different cli- map of climatic zones is provided by Figure 8.3 based on
mates experienced within each latitudinal zone. A number Köppen’s classification.
Table 8.1 Köppen’s climate classification with additional modifications by Geiger and Pohl (1953)
Letter code
1st 2nd 3rd Basic description Classification criteria†
A Humid tropical
f tropical wet (rainforest) Wet all year
w tropical wet and dry (savanna) Winter dry season
m tropical monsoon Short dry season
B Dry Potential evapotranspiration 7 precipitation
S semi-arid (steppe) Mean annual precipitation between 250 and 760 mm
W arid (desert) Mean annual precipitation 6 250 mm
h hot Mean annual temperature Ú 18°C
k cold Mean annual temperature 6 18°C
C Moist with mild winters Coolest month mean temperature between 18°C and -3°C
w dry winters Wettest summer month 10 times rain of driest winter month
s dry summers Driest month 6 40 mm and wettest winter month Ú 3 times driest month
f wet all year Criteria for w or s not met
a summers long and hot Warmest month 7 22°C with more than 4 months 7 10°C
b summers long and cool All months below 6 22°C with more than 4 months 7 10°C
c summers short and cool All months 7 22°C with 1 to 3 months 7 10°C
D Moist with cold winters Coldest month … -3°C warmest month 7 10°C
w dry winters Same as Cw
s dry summers Same as Cs
f wet all year Same as Cf
a summers long and hot Same as Cfa
b summers long and cool Same as Cfb
c summers short and cool Same as Cfc
d as c with severe winters Coldest month 6 -38°C
E Polar climates Warmest month 6 10°C
T tundra Warmest month 7 0°C but 6 10°C
F ice cap Warmest month … 0°C
†
Temperature limits given for warmest and coldest months are for average monthly temperatures.
(Source: Geiger and Pohl, 1953)
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200
805
805
EF ET
Barrow EF
705 ET ET ET ET 705
Cfc Dwd
Fairbanks ET Dfd
Dfd ET ET Dfc
E Cfc Cfc Dfc
605 H
Cfc Cfb
M08 An Introduction to Physical Ge 83575.indd 200
605
E Cfc Dfc
Dfb Dwc
505 Port Hardy Cfb
Winnipeg Cfb BSk
Dfa 505
BS BSk
H Bsk Dfb Dfb Dwb
Chapter 8 Global climate and weather
Csb BSk Cfa BWk
H Bsk BWk Denver Dfa BWk BSk
405 Des Moines Dwa
BSk H 405
San Francisco BWk BSk
Cfa Csa Dwb
Csa
Phoenix BSh
Mobile H BSk H Cwa
305 BWh Dwb Cfa
BSh BSh 305
BWh Bwh BWh BSh Cfa
Tropic of Cancer Cwa
BWh
205 Af H Aw Aw Cwa
Aw 205
1805 1605 1405 1205 Af Aw
Aw BSh Aw
Af Tropical rainforest Aw BSh Aw Am
A Moist BW BSh
tropical Am Tropical monsoon Am
105 Timbo H Am Aw 105
climate Aw
Aw Tropical wet-and-dry Af
Aw BSh Af
B Dry BW Arid desert Equator Am BWh Equator
05
Am Af
climate At 05
Aw
Iquitos BSh
BS Semi-arid or steppe H 1005
Aw Am Af
60 5 Af
C Moist 105 Aw
Cfa Humid subtropical Cw Aw Aw 105
climates Cwa Aw 1205
Af Aw
with mild Cfb Marine
Af
winters Cfc Arica BSh Af Aw
205 H 205
Mediterranean Tropic of Capricorn BSh BSh BSh Cw
Tropic of Capricorn
Cw Af
Cc (dry summer)
BWh BSh
BWk Cwb
BSh BSh BWh
Cw Dry winter BWh Cfa
305 Cfa Cfa
BWk 305
Dfa Bsk Cfb
D Moist Humid continental BSk
Dfb Csb Csb Cfb Csb
climates BWk Csb
with severe Dfc 405 Cfb
Subpolar Bsk 405
winters Dfd Cfb
Dw Dry winter Bsk Cfb
505
Cfc 505
E Polar ET Polar tundra ET ET
climates
EF Polar ice cap 605 605
ET
H Highland H Highland
climates 1005 805 EF 405 205 205 05 205 405 EF 605 1005 1205 EF 1405 1605 1805
Figure 8.3 A map of the Köppen–Geiger–Pohl climate classification. (Source: from Meteorology today: Introduction to weather, climate and the environment, 6th edition by AHRENS, 2000. Reprinted
with permission of Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning: www.thomsonrights.com, Fax 800-730-2215)
24/05/2017 12:57
8.3 The tropics and subtropics
905N
Reflective questions 605N
➤ What are the main factors controlling the location of cli-
305N
mate zones?
July
➤ What would happen to our climate zones if motions in 05 January
the atmosphere and oceans did not redistribute energy
305S
around the planet?
➤ Which Köppen climate zone do you live in? 605S
905S
1805W 1205W 605W 05 605E 1205E 1805E
8.3 The tropics and subtropics Figure 8.4 Average position of the intertropical convergence zone in
January and July. North-east trade winds and south-east trade winds
converge at the ITCZ. Here solar heating and convergence of air results in
8.3.1 Equatorial regions ascension and instability. Thus precipitation rates are high.
(Source: Critchfield, H.J., General climatology, 3rd edition, 3rd © 1974.
Horizontal air movement occurs if there is a pressure Adapted (or electronically reproduced in case of e-use) by permission of
gradient force caused by a pressure difference between Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ)
different places. Over much of the Earth, once air moves
as a result of a pressure gradient force, the Coriolis effect
becomes apparent (see Chapter 6) and the winds deviate particularly in the southern hemisphere summer. These are
to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in into southern Africa, east of the Andes in South America
the southern hemisphere. Close to the equator, however, and a larger and more consistent extension called the
the Coriolis effect is negligible and therefore air follows the South Pacific convergence zone, roughly south-south-west
pressure gradient from high to low pressure. This is impor- from the north-east of Australia (Figure 8.4).
tant as it means that near the equator, the weather is not Low-level convergence of air such as at the ITCZ leads
dominated by the movement of large circulatory weather to rising air and the formation of clouds (Figure 8.5).
systems. However, outflow from the large subtropical anti-
cyclones (the north-east and south-east trade winds) does
play an important role leading to convergence of air into a
region of somewhat lower pressure sometimes termed the
equatorial trough.
This trough can be seen as a distinct intertropical con-
vergence zone (ITCZ), particularly over the oceans, and
is part of the Hadley cell circulation (see Chapter 6 for
further details on the formation of the ITCZ). The ITCZ
is not located along the equator but moves quite well north
of the equator in some places in the northern hemisphere
summer and a little south of the equator in the southern
hemisphere summer, with an average position somewhat
north of the equator (Figure 8.4). This movement is in
response to seasonal differences in pressure gradients
caused by changes in solar energy received during the year.
The movement of the ITCZ north and south is greater
over land because the seasonal cooling and warming are
more pronounced over land (the oceans warm and cool
at a much slower rate than land). The ITCZ is typically
Figure 8.5 A satellite image showing a distinct narrow region of cloud
from 4° to 8°N (in March and September respectively) in
aligned across the Pacific close to the equator, representing the location
the Pacific. There are, however, extensions of the ITCZ of the ITCZ. (Source: NASA-Goddard Space Flight Center, data from NOAA
further south of the equator (Linacre and Geerts, 1997), GOES)
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Chapter 8 Global climate and weather
Therefore, the weather close to the equator is dominated conditions keep night temperatures high, giving a rela-
by frequent convectional clouds and rain. This convec- tively small diurnal range with average annual tempera-
tional activity may be relatively random with many indi- tures around 27 °C. Typical monthly temperature and
vidual cumulus clouds being formed but there are also precipitation values for equatorial stations are given in
more organized cloud clusters. For example, in some tropi- Figure 8.6. Equatorial climates are not exactly alike in
cal coastal areas, more organized features sometimes occur every place, particularly over the continents of Africa
diurnally as part of a land and sea breeze circulation (see and South America, as topography and proximity to the
Chapter 9). Equatorial climates are therefore dominated sea do play a role in altering thermal and precipitation
by the movement of the ITCZ with many places close regimes (see Chapter 9).
to the equator having no distinct dry season. However, Moving north and south away from the equator into
some equatorial areas show a clear peak in the monthly the trade wind belt, between about 5° and 20° latitude,
precipitation totals at each of the equinoxes with lower the ITCZ still plays a key role in the climate but as the
totals when the ITCZ is at its northern and southern limits ITCZ is only close to these areas in the summer (in that
(summer in the northern and southern hemisphere respec- hemisphere), there is a distinct rainy (summer) and dry
tively). Total annual precipitation is high and in some (winter) season. This greater seasonality gives a greater
parts of the Amazon and West Africa totals can be from range of temperatures through the year, but still much
2500 to over 4000 mm. less than in many middle and high latitudes, with the
As the Sun is always high in the sky, average tem- highest temperatures tending to be observed just before
peratures in the equatorial regions are fairly constant the rainy season. There can be quite large average diur-
throughout the year, although maximum temperatures nal ranges of temperature in places (15°C or more), par-
may be a little lower during the wetter periods. Humid ticularly in the dry season. The trade winds also mean
(a) (c)
35 35
30 30
25 25
Temperature (5C)
Temperature (5C)
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
-5 -5
-10 -10
J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D
Month Month
(b) (d)
400 450
350 350
300 300
Precipitation (mm)
Precipitation (mm)
250 250
200 200
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D
Month Month
Figure 8.6 Example temperature and precipitation graphs for equatorial stations. Mean monthly temperatures (°C) and mean monthly rainfall (mm) for
(a) and (b) Belem, Brazil (1.5°S), and (c) and (d) Tamavate, Madagascar (18°S).
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8.3 The tropics and subtropics
Tropical cyclones require high sea surface tempera-
High
tures (at least 27°C) and do not form over land as the
1022 mb energy of the system comes from the release of latent heat
1020 mb when the clouds are formed. The moisture evaporating
1018 mb from the sea is therefore a key factor in sustaining tropi-
1016 mb cal cyclones and when that source of moisture is cut off
(when hurricanes move inland) the intensity declines.
1014 mb
Although tropical cyclones occasionally move inland,
1012 mb
the majority are confined to the oceans. Even across the
0 500 km Low 1010 mb oceans the tracks of tropical cyclone systems show a
distinct geographical distribution (Figure 8.8). Tropical
cyclones do not occur at the equator as there needs to
Figure 8.7 An easterly wave in the subtropical easterly flow. Easterly
waves occur within the trade wind belt and represent waves of air (mov- be a sufficient Coriolis effect to help develop the circula-
ing north and south) for air travelling in an easterly direction. tion of the initial depression. As well as requiring high
(Source: after Critchfield, H.J. General climatology, 3rd edition, 3rd sea surface temperatures, the mid-troposphere has to be
© 1974. Adapted (or electronically reproduced in case of e-use) by per- moist in order to allow tropical cyclone development.
mission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ)
There must also be no strong temperature inversion
inhibiting mixing of the warm moist surface air with
that there is a fairly steady but not particularly severe the mid-troposphere air. This is why tropical cyclones
wind regime. are extremely rare in the South Atlantic. In the South
Atlantic there is a noticeable extension of the trade wind
inversion from south-west Africa towards Brazil and
8.3.1.1 The easterly wave and tropical cyclones
hence there is insufficient opportunity for the build-up of
One important type of more organized cloud is related a deeper moist layer. A strong temperature inversion also
to easterly waves in the trade winds. Such waves repre- extends out into the Pacific from northern Chile and Peru
sent moving troughs of slightly lower pressure denot- and the sea surface temperatures are also relatively cool.
ing zones of low-level convergence. This convergence is This again inhibits the development of tropical cyclones.
concentrated along the trough line resulting in a zone However, the Pacific is much wider than the Atlantic and
of heavier rain. These wave features (Figure 8.7) are therefore a deeper moist layer has time to build up and
important as they can develop into tropical depressions as a result tropical cyclones are found in the central and
and tropical storms (Malkus, 1958) and some of those west Pacific south of the equator (Brasher and Zheng,
become tropical cyclones. These cyclones are called hur- 1995). Figure 8.8 shows the tracks of tropical cyclones in
ricanes in the Atlantic and typhoons in the west Pacific. both the northern and southern hemispheres. It is also of
The WMO has produced a classification system that note that there are fewer tropical cyclones in the south-
allows us to define when tropical depressions become ern hemisphere as the summers are somewhat cooler
severe enough to be called tropical storms or tropical than those in the northern hemisphere and therefore the
cyclones (Table 8.2). area of the ocean with high sea surface temperatures is
Table 8.2 World Meteorological Organization classification of tropical storms
Wind speed
m s -1 knots Beaufort scale
Tropical depression 6 17.2 6 34 7
Moderate tropical storm 17.2–24.4 41–47 8–9
Severe tropical storm 24.5–32.6 48–63 10–11
Hurricane (tropical cyclone) 7 32.6 7 63 12
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Chapter 8 Global climate and weather
605N
305N
Typhoon Bangladesh
Hurricane
05 Cyclone Hurricane
Cyclone
305S
605S
905E 1805W 905W 05 905E
Figure 8.8 Typical tracks of tropical cyclones, hurricanes and typhoons. Note that hurricanes and typhoons are also tropical cyclones but that the names
depend on their location (called hurricanes in the Atlantic, typhoons in the west Pacific). (Source: from Meteorology today: Introduction to weather,
climate and the environment, 6th edition by AHRENS, 2000. Reprinted with permission of Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning: www.thomson-
rights.com, Fax 800-730-2215)
smaller and confined to north of 20°S. In the northern Amazon Basin and in North Atlantic sea surface tem-
hemisphere, high sea surface temperatures of 27°C and peratures. The current phase of the cycle has involved
above extend to 30°N. lower wind shear (change of wind speed and/or direc-
Tropical cyclone activity in the Atlantic has been above tion with height) and warmer sea surface temperatures
‘normal’ since 1995 (Figure 8.9). This has been largely across the tropical Atlantic. In addition, there have been
in response to the active phase of the ‘multi-decadal sig- weak low-level easterly (trade) winds and a westward
nal’. The multi-decadal signal relates to cycles of about expansion of upper-level easterly winds from Africa, the
20–40 years in monsoon rains over West Africa and the African Easterly Jet. These conditions are favourable to
30
Other named storms
25 Other hurricanes (category 1, 2)
Major hurricanes (category 3, 4 5)
20
Number of storms
15
10
0
1855 1875 1895 1915 1935 1955 1975 1995 2015
Year
Figure 8.9 Total recorded Atlantic tropical storms in each year since 1851. Note that prior
to 1966 some storms may have been missed as many tropical storms may not have hit
land and gone unobserved. However, from 1966 onwards satellite data has provided a
more reliable record.
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8.3 The tropics and subtropics
the development of hurricanes. This phase is expected to
continue for the next few years.
Figure 8.9 shows a peak in Atlantic tropical cyclones in
2005. Of the 28 named storms in 2005, 15 were hurricanes
and 7 of these were major hurricanes. Hurricanes are clas-
sified on the Saffir–Simpson scale between 1 and 5 with
hurricanes that are category 3 and higher being classed as
major. A category 5 hurricane called Katrina made land-
fall during August 2005 with devastating consequences
(Box 8.2). The strongest winds recorded in a tropical
storm (215 mph, 96 m s-1) occurred in October 2015 dur-
ing Hurricane Patricia which struck Mexico (Figure 8.10).
Fortunately it weakened just before landfall and hit a
sparsely populated region, but it still resulted in a track of
devastating damage and two deaths.
8.3.1.2 Monsoons
One other important feature of the climate in the north-
east and south-east trade wind areas is that there are
regions that experience an exceptionally wet rainy season
with a very distinct dry season (Figure 8.13). These are the
regions that experience monsoon conditions (monsoon is
from the Arabic, meaning season). The largest and most
Figure 8.10 Satellite image of hurricane Patricia approaching the Pacific
intense monsoon is in Asia but there are monsoon-type cli-
coast of Mexico on 23 October 2015. The classic ‘eye’ of the hurricane
mates in West and East Africa, and in Australia (Webster, can easily be seen. (Source: NASA, Jeff Schmaltz, LANCE/EOSDIS Rapid
1981). There is a much less well-defined monsoonal Response).
Hurricane Katrina between Hallandale and North Miami gradually turned to the north-west and
Beaches with sustained winds estimated then north (Figure 8.11). The high sea
Hurricane Katrina was the most costly
at 36 m s - 1 gusting to over 40 m s - 1. surface temperatures and an upper-level
natural disaster in US history and also Katrina moved south-west across the tip anticyclone over the Gulf encouraged the
caused the highest number of deaths of the Florida Peninsula during the night rapid intensification, which led to Katrina
from a single hurricane since 1928. Tropi- but the landfall did little to reduce the attaining ‘major hurricane’ (category 3)
cal storm Katrina was designated on 24 intensity as the storm re-intensified as it status on the afternoon of 26 August.
August 2005 at which time it was located moved back to sea over the warm waters By 07:00 CDT (12:00 UTC) on 28 August,
in the central Bahamas. The track of the of the Gulf. The sustained winds over hurricane Katrina reached category 5
storm is shown in Figure 8.11. Katrina Florida were never higher than 36 m s - 1 status with wind speeds of 72 m s - 1 or
began strengthening rapidly and became but the heavy rain and gusty winds more. At 16:00 CDT (21:00 UTC), Katrina’s
a category 1 hurricane 24 km east-north- caused substantial damage and flooding, minimum central pressure dropped to
east of Fort Lauderdale at 17:00 EDT and 14 people lost their lives. Katrina 902 hPa, one of the lowest pressures ever
(21:00 UTC) on 25 August. At 18:30 EDT moved west after entering the Gulf of recorded. At this time Katrina was at its
(22:30 UTC), the hurricane made landfall Mexico and then over the next few days peak strength with hurricane force winds
BOX 8.2 ➤
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Chapter 8 Global climate and weather
Tropical depression
30/08/05 : 0900 Tropical storm
Category 1
Category 2
29/08/05 : 1500 Category 3
Category 4
29/08/05 : 0900 Category 5
28/08/05 : 2100
25/08/05 : 1500
24/08/05 : 1500
26/08/05 : 1530
27/08/05 : 2100 23/08/05 : 2100
Figure 8.11 The storm track of hurricane Katrina.
extending outwards up to 168 km from Mississippi estimated at around US$125 bil- • the massive size of the storm;
its centre and tropical storm force winds lion. The loss of human life was even more
(up to 33 m s - 1) extending outwards up catastrophic with an official death toll of
• the strength of the system (category 5)
just prior to landfall;
to nearly 370 km. Sustained tropical storm 1836 with the majority of the deaths in
force winds were already battering the Louisiana (1577) and Mississippi (238). This • the 920 hPa central pressure at landfall;
south-east Louisiana coast and the 16:00 made Katrina the third deadliest hurricane and
CDT (21:00 UTC) Bulletin from the National since 1900, after the Galveston hurricane • the shallow offshore waters.
Hurricane Center warned of coastal storm of 1900 (at least 8000 deaths) and the
surge flooding of 5.5 to 6.7 m above nor- Lake Okeechobee Hurricane of 1928 (over In the delta country south-east of New
mal tide levels, locally as high as 8.5 m, 2500 deaths). Orleans, a number of towns were completely
and stated ‘some levees in the Greater While the wind damage caused by flooded, with Plaquemines and St. Bernard
New Orleans area could be overtopped’. Katrina was significant, the bulk of the Parishes particularly badly affected. The
At 06:00 CDT (11:00 UTC) on 29 August devastation was caused by flooding, largely levee system protecting New Orleans was
Katrina made landfall in Plaquemines due to the very substantial storm surge put under severe pressure due to the rise
Parish just south of Buras (between Grand which peaked at 8.5 m at Pass Chritian, in the level of Lake Pontchartrain caused by
Isle and the mouth of the Mississippi River) Mississippi. A surge of 7.3–8.5 m was esti- the surge. Damage and high-water marks
and by 10:00 CDT (15:00 UTC), the eye of mated along the western Mississippi coast indicated that the surge reached up to
Katrina was making its second northern across a path of about 32 km. The surge 19 km inland in some areas, especially along
Gulf coast landfall near the Louisiana– was 5.2–6.7 m along the eastern Mississippi bays and rivers, and in New Orleans there
Mississippi border. coast, 3.0–5.8 m along the Louisiana coast were significant failures in the levee system
Katrina affected over 15 million people and 3.0–4.6 m along the Alabama coast. on 30 August on the 17th Street Canal,
and caused enormous damage to homes A number of factors contributed to the Industrial Canal and London Avenue Canal
and businesses in both Louisiana and extreme storm surge: levees (Graumann et al., 2005). As much of
box 8.2 ➤
206
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8.3 The tropics and subtropics
➤
New Orleans lies below sea level, the failure
of the levees led to drainage of water into
the city, leading to 80% of the city being
underwater to depths of over 6 m. While
much of the flood waters had been cleared
by 20 September, the storm surge from
hurricane Rita on 23 September caused a
new breach in the repaired Industrial Canal
levee and many of the areas of the city were
flooded again.
Much of New Orleans is below sea level
and the Mississippi Delta will always be lia-
ble to flooding whether due to river floods,
extreme rainfall events or storm surges.
While levees can be built up and strength- Figure 8.12 Heavily damaged homes from the Katrina storm surge flood-
ing in the ninth ward of New Orleans. (Source: Brian Nolan)
ened, deltas are notoriously unstable and
there is still the danger that levees may be
overtopped or undermined. The loss of life
and the cost of damage caused by Katrina falling over two to three days from a of the importance of these events in the
provide a warning about possible future single hurricane can even be close to climate of these areas. They are high-
events and the need for disaster systems the average annual total in some places. magnitude, low-frequency events. In any
to be designed to help vulnerable people – The relatively low frequency of tropical one year, two locations that have similar
more than half of the victims of Katrina storms, and the even lower frequency of mean rainfall totals may well have widely
were senior citizens. tropical cyclones at any individual loca- differing totals if one of the locations
Tropical cyclones give very high rain- tion, mean that the standard climate sta- had experienced a severe tropical storm
fall totals and intensities. The rainfall tistics do not provide any real indication or tropical cyclone.
Box 8.2
climate in South America, partly as a result of the rela- encourages the inflow of warm moist air from the south
tively cool sea surface temperatures to the west of South (Robinson and Henderson-Sellers, 1999).
America that increase stability in the lower layers of the In summer, the upper-level westerly jet stream to the
atmosphere. The Andes also play a role as they obstruct south of Tibet breaks down and then moves north across
the trade winds and air descent in the lee of the mountains Tibet. As it moves across the mountains and the Tibetan
increases atmospheric stability. Plateau, the high ground blocks the flow and the lower
Monsoon regions are all subject to the switching of the portion of the jet is deflected and re-established to the
wind direction as the ITCZ moves north and south. Dur- north. The strong convection over India (enhanced by the
ing the Asian winter, the winds are generally north-easterly heat low) creates an outflow of air aloft and the south-
(although they may be north-westerly over western India). erly outflow develops into an easterly jet (under the influ-
At high levels in the troposphere (above 11 000 m) there is ence of the Coriolis force). This upper air flow reversal
a distinct westerly jet stream (see Chapter 6) located to the from a westerly to an easterly jet is associated with the
south of Tibet. This jet stream is the s outhern and stronger onset of the monsoon season in India and South-East
branch of the subtropical westerly jet stream, the northern Asia (Figure 8.14). As noted earlier, the south-east trades
branch being located to the north of Tibet. In spring, this are located to the south of the ITCZ. In some parts of
southerly branch of the jet stream weakens but remains the world, these winds remain basically south-easterly as
south of Tibet while the northern branch strengthens and the ITCZ moves north during the northern hemisphere
becomes extended. At the same time, the north of India is summer. Over India and Asia where the ITCZ moves
warming, with temperatures reaching a maximum in May. much further from the equator than in most regions,
This warming creates a ‘heat low’ beginning a process that the south-east trades move far enough north to become
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Chapter 8 Global climate and weather
(a) (c)
35 35
30 30
25 25
Temperature (5C)
Temperature (5C)
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
-5 -5
-10 -10
J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D
Month Month
(b) (d)
650 650
600 600
550 550
500 500
Precipitation (mm)
Precipitation (mm)
450 450
400 400
350 350
300 300
250 250
200 200
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D
Month Month
Figure 8.13 Example temperature and precipitation graphs for monsoon climate stations. Mean monthly temperatures (°C) and mean monthly rainfall
(mm) for (a) and (b) Bombay, India (19°N), and (c) and (d) Manaus, Brazil (3°S).
affected by the Coriolis force. As a result, they are of the wet places. These exceptionally high totals compare
deflected to the right and become south-westerly. The with more typical values of between 1500 and 2000 mm
warm moist winds of the monsoon are therefore south- close to the Bay of Bengal coast (∼300 km to the south of
westerly. The return of the upper westerly jet takes place Cherrapunji).
in October but the cessation of the monsoon rains is less Despite such examples of orographic and convergence-
distinct than their start. October and November also induced enhancement of rainfall, the dominating influ-
have the most frequent occurrences of tropical cyclones ence on rainfall in monsoon regions is the large-scale
in the Bay of Bengal, and the rains from those cyclones circulation system creating the monsoon itself. The Asian
give rise to a rainfall maximum at this time of year in monsoon therefore comes about as a complex interaction
south-east India. of the formation of the heat low, the changes in the upper
Monsoon rains are not continuous throughout the air flow patterns, the movement of the ITCZ and the
monsoon summer period, as there are breaks between topographical barrier of the Himalayas and the Tibetan
more active phases. In some places there is orographic Plateau. It is also important to note that there is great vari-
enhancement of rainfall (forcing air to rise leading to fur- ability from year to year. For example, El Niño years can
ther condensation, see Chapter 9) and the alignment of be associated with the failure of the monsoon rains, result-
hills can also lead to increased low-level convergence (cre- ing in food shortages (Kumar et al., 2006).
ating zones of ascending air). In such places the rainfall Northern Australia has some monsoon rains but there
can be exceptionally high, as for example in Assam (north- is no topographical barrier to the south, and the land
east India) where a number of places have exceptionally mass is not as large as in Asia and so the ‘heat low’ is
high rainfall totals (annual totals in excess of 10 000 mm). not as intense. There is a less intense monsoon circula-
Cherrapunji, at 1340 m above sea level, is the most famous tion over West Africa but the lack of a major mountain
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8.3 The tropics and subtropics
Subtropical jet
(a) Winter Air descends
beneath jet Cold
surface
INDIAN TIBETAN
SEA Winter rains PLATEAU
HIMALAYAS
Subtropical jet
Equatorial jet
(b) Summer
Jet draws up air Heated
from surface surface
Major surface
flow from ARABIAN L
south-west SEA
BAY OF TIBETAN
Summer rains BENGAL PLATEAU
HIMALAYAS
Figure 8.14 Upper air flow reversal and the onset of the Asian monsoon. (Source: after Robinson and Henderson-
Sellers, 1999)
barrier allows a more steady movement of the ITCZ. which makes adaptive planning very difficult for the
However, as with Asia, the northward movement is suf- region. Hence significant research is required.
ficient to allow the Coriolis force to deflect the winds
round to the south-west, bringing warm moist air in
8.3.2 The Sahel and desert margins
from the Atlantic Ocean. Researchers are aiming to
develop better predictions of the monsoon so that farm- The influence of the poleward movement of the ITCZ
ers can grow the right crops for the year ahead (e.g. see declines further away from the equator. The effects of this
Fitzpatrick et al., 2016). A major long-term collaborative are seen most clearly in the Sahel region of Africa that lies
research project called AMMA 2050 (African Monsoon on the southern side of the Sahara Desert (Figure 8.15).
Multidisciplinary Analysis 2050) is currently operating Most of the year the region is under the influence of the
and aims improve understanding of how the West Afri- north-east trade winds blowing out of the subtropical
can monsoon will be affected by climate change in the anticyclone to the north. Temperatures are high during the
coming decades – and help West African societies pre- day (possibly higher than 40°C in early summer) and there
pare and adapt. Further detail can be found at www is a substantial diurnal range of temperature (10–15°C).
.amma2050.org. In recent decades, West Africa has expe- The Sahel region still has a rainy season (when the ITCZ
rienced some of the most extreme rainfall variability is at its furthest north), but the amounts are generally
anywhere in the world. This is extremely problematic for modest (300–600 mm) and in some years the rains fail to
its growing population and we are uncertain as to how come (Nicholson et al., 1996). During normal years, the
climate change may influence the seasonal monsoon, rainfall is usually sufficient to sustain the vegetation and
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Chapter 8 Global climate and weather
0 2000 km
Tunisia
Morocco
S A H A R A D E S E R T
Algeria Libya N
Western Egypt
Sahara
Mali Niger
Mauritania
S A H E L
Senegal Eritrea
Gambia Burkina Chad Sudan
Guinea Faso Djibouti
Guinea
Bissau
Nigeria Somalia
Sierra Leone Ivory Ethiopia
Coast Ghana Central African
Liberia Republic
Togo Benin Cameroon Democratic Republic
of Congo Uganda Kenya
Figure 8.15 The Sahel region of Africa.
any grazing by animals (Figure 8.16). In dry years, how- 8.3.3 Subtropical deserts
ever, there is an encroachment of the desert from the north
To understand the geographical pattern of these deserts,
(although that encroachment may be partly due to over-
it is necessary to examine the positioning and intensity of
exploitation by people – see Chapter 21). There are several
the subtropical anticyclones that form the descending part
regions of the world with a similar climate to that of the
of the Hadley cells north and south of the equator. These
Sahel, but they are not as extensive and the problems of
anticyclones are large features extending across the North
drought are less severe. For example, in northern Argen-
and South Atlantic and Pacific Oceans centred at about
tina and south-east New South Wales in Australia the
30°N and S. The intensity of the temperature inversions
water supply is better because rivers flow into them from
is greater on the eastern side of these anticyclones and the
more humid areas.
inversions are at lower altitudes: 300–500 m, as opposed to
1500–2000 m on the western extension of the anticyclones.
In part, this is due to stronger subsidence in the east but
it is also due to the circulation of the ocean currents, with
cool currents being present under the eastern end of these
anticyclones. The lower sea surface temperatures in these
currents help to increase atmospheric stability and reduce
convection.
The driest hot deserts are therefore found in the west-
ern coastal regions of the continents where the subtropical
anticyclones are most intense (see Figures 8.3 and 21.7).
In the southern hemisphere they are found in Namibia in
south-west Africa (Namib Desert), in western Australia
(Great Sandy and Gibson Deserts) and in northern Chile
(the Atacama Desert). In the northern hemisphere they
are found in southern California (Sonoran and Mojave
Figure 8.16 Sahal landscape in Mali with sparse vegetation around a tra- Deserts), in Africa (Sahara Desert), in Arabia (Arabian
ditional tribal village. (Source: Scott S. Brown) Desert) and in north-west India and southern Pakistan
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8.3 The tropics and subtropics
(Great Indian Desert). The extent of the hot desert region most noticeable in the Atacama Desert in northern Chile.
from the western Sahara, through to the Arabian Desert While it does rain on a few days per year in most deserts
east of the Red Sea and then again in southern Iran, (even in the Sahara), rainfall is very rare in the Atacama
Pakistan and north-west India, is not mirrored elsewhere Desert, which has the lowest annual precipitation totals of
in the world, except in Australia. any place in the world (with the possible exception of the
This very large extent of the hot desert region in Africa, central Antarctic). Close to the coast, typical maximum
the Middle East and southern Pakistan arises as the large temperatures in summer may be 25°C with diurnal ranges
land mass allows a much greater eastward elongation of of 5–10°C and although temperatures do increase some-
the subtropical anticyclone from the east Atlantic. This what inland they are never extreme owing to the moderat-
helps damp down convection over these regions. In addi- ing influence of the ocean. The desert areas in southern
tion, unlike the western side of the Pacific and Atlantic California are similar, but inland from the Californian coast,
where warm ocean currents bring warm moist air to the in the lee of both the coastal ranges and the Sierra Nevada,
east of the continents, warm currents do not move pole- temperatures in Death Valley do reach the very high values
wards in the Indian Ocean but move along the equator found in Libya. Examples of temperature and precipitation
and then cross the equator off the east coast of Africa. data from desert climates are given in Figure 8.17, which
The Australian deserts have greater annual precipitation provides monthly mean temperature and precipitation totals
totals than some of the other deserts at similar latitudes; for Khartoum (Sudan) and Baghdad (Iraq).
the driest regions have annual totals close to 90 mm, while
stations in the Sahara may have less than 15 mm. Part of
8.3.4 Humid subtropics
the reason for greater precipitation is that the Australian
anticyclone is not a constant feature but an average of indi- On the western side of the subtropical anticyclones there is
vidual anticyclones moving eastwards across the continent, a deep moist layer and convective activity is stronger than
allowing occasional inflow of moister air from the oceans on the eastern side giving a higher likelihood of the devel-
to the north and south of the continent. opment of rain clouds. A particular feature of this type of
In North and South America, there is only a relatively climate is the hot (often over 32°C), very humid summers
small area of desert due to major mountain barriers to the associated with the tropical maritime air. These uncomfort-
east: the southern Rockies and Mexican mountain ranges able conditions can occasionally be interrupted if cooler air
in the north and the Andes in the south. However, as the moves in from higher latitudes as part of the return flow of
deserts in North and South America are situated to the lee the Hadley or Ferrel circulation cells (see Chapter 6). How-
of the mountains, the descent of the trade winds as they ever, if a ridge in the upper westerlies becomes established,
cross the mountains further dries the air, thereby intensify- very hot and humid conditions can last for weeks. The
ing the aridity. It is also important to note that variations winters are generally mild, although there can be outbreaks
in weather patterns over time can lead to extension or con- of cold polar air into these regions. These unusually cold
traction of desert regions (Tucker et al., 1991). periods can cause major damage to sensitive crops such
The main features of the weather in most desert regions as citrus fruits and coffee beans (e.g. in Florida or south-
are the wind and the high daytime temperatures (typically east Brazil). Further into the continental interiors winters
over 45°C in the summer in Libya). The wind increases become more severe and at the same latitude winters in
aridity and causes considerable aeolian erosion (by sand China are colder than winters in the United States. Annual
and other particles carried in the wind) in some places (see precipitation totals are typically between 1100 and 1700 mm
Chapters 16 and 21). The dry air and clear skies of the anti- in this climate regime. Examples of areas with this type of
cyclones give large diurnal ranges of temperature (as much climate include south-east Australia (Figure 8.18a and b),
as 20°C in some places). During winter, night temperatures Taiwan and south-east Brazil, P araguay, Uruguay and north-
can even drop below freezing in parts of these deserts. east Argentina in South America and the south-east states
In South America, the northern parts of the desert are in the United States (e.g. Florida, Georgia, Alabama and
narrow and rainfall increases rapidly inland. This is due to Louisiana; Figure 8.18c and d), North and South Carolina.
the sea breeze circulation that can trigger thunderstorms if There is also a small zone of this type of climate in the east
it reaches the edge of the Andes where forced ascent of the of southern Africa. The climate of eastern China is similar
moist air can penetrate the temperature inversion and trig- except that in central and southern China there is a winter
ger the potential instability aloft. South of 10°S the desert minimum of precipitation (increasingly evident towards
widens and even the western Andes are dry. The aridity is the north) rather than the more evenly spread rainfall in,
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(a)
35
(a)
35 30
30 25
25
Temperature (5C)
20
Temperature (5C)
20 15
15 10
10 5
5 0
0 -5
-5 -10
J F M A M J J A S O N D
-10
J F M A M J J A S O N D Month
Month
(b)
(b) 225
225 200
200 175
Precipitation (mm)
175 150
Precipitation (mm)
150 125
125 100
100 75
75 50
50 25
25 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
0
J F M A M J J A S O N D Month
Month
(c)
35
(c)
35 30
30 25
25
Temperature (5C)
20
Temperature (5C)
20 15
15 10
10 5
5 0
0 –5
–5 –10
J F M A M J J A S O N D
–10
J F M A M J J A S O N D Month
Month
(d)
(d) 225
225 200
200 175
Precipitation (mm)
175 150
Precipitation (mm)
150 125
125 100
100 75
75 50
50 25
25 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
0 Month
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Month
Figure 8.18 Example temperature and precipitation graphs for humid
Figure 8.17 Example temperature and precipitation graphs for desert sta- subtropical climate stations. Mean monthly temperatures (°C) and mean
tions. Mean monthly temperatures (°C) and mean monthly rainfall (mm) for monthly rainfall (mm) for (a) and (b) Sydney, Australia (34°S), and (c) and
(a) and (b) Khartoum, Sudan (15.5°N), and (c) and (d) Baghdad, Iraq (33.5°N). (d) New Orleans, USA (30°N).
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8.3 The tropics and subtropics
for example, Georgia and Alabama. This winter minimum Texas, Oklahoma and Kansas, tornadoes are another local-
is a result of cool dry winds circulating around the winter ized feature of the climate which is important. Here warm
Siberia high-pressure region. Areas with a winter precipita- moist air from the Gulf of Mexico moves northwards
tion minimum can also be found in Africa (e.g. east Zim- inland and initially becomes trapped under a temperature
babwe) and South America (south-east Brazil and northern inversion in the westerly winds aloft. If the temperature
Paraguay). inversion is penetrated, substantial instability is released,
Humid subtropical climates do not generally suffer leading to the growth of very large storm clouds, some of
from severe winds but the more coastal areas (in both the which will have associated tornadoes (Box 8.3). Although
United States and China) can be hit by tropical cyclones rare at any one place, these tornadoes are an important
(hurricanes) as they turn northwards and westwards. In feature of the climate of this part of the United States.
Tornadoes
Tornadoes are violently rotating col-
umns of air extending to the ground
(Figure 8.19). They are capable of causing
great damage with wind speeds of over
300 km h - 1 (Figure 8.20). A tornado can
be either very narrow and only a few
metres across or very large with some
over 500 m wide. They can often travel
long distances, with some causing dam-
age over 75 km. Tornadoes are often
thought of as a phenomenon of the
mid-west United States. However, they
occur all over the world (e.g. Holden and
Wright, 2004) and even in the United
Kingdom the Tornado and Storm Research
Organisation (TORRO) reports an aver-
Figure 8.19 A tornado in Texas rampaging across fields. Tornadoes form when two air masses
age of 33 tornadoes per year (mainly
of different temperatures and humidity meet. If the lower layers of the atmosphere are unsta-
in southern Britain, rarely in Northern
ble, a strong upward movement of warmer air is formed. This starts to spiral as it rises, and
Ireland or Scotland). Nevertheless, the intensifies. Only a small percentage of these systems develop into the narrow, violent funnels
largest ones tend to be concentrated in of tornadoes. Wind speeds can reach up to 400 km h - 1 and they can damage an area 1 mile
the Plains of the United States where (1.6 km) wide and 50 miles (80 km) long. Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes.
atmospheric conditions often occur (Source: lafoto, Shutterstock)
that suit their formation. On 25–28 April
2011, a ‘super-outbreak’ of tornadoes,
described by the US National Weather the damage left in just one small area thunderstorms (Figure 8.21). The most
Service (NOAA) as the most severe in from a EF4 category tornado (Table 8.3) destructive and deadly tornadoes occur
recorded history, tore across the south- during this outbreak. from supercells which are rotating thun-
eastern United States leading to a state Tornadoes form when tempera- derstorms with a well-defined radar
of emergency in seven states. In total, ture and wind flow patterns in the circulation called a mesocyclone. As well
362 tornadoes were reported, killing more atmosphere can cause enough mois- as tornadoes, supercells can also pro-
than 320 people and leaving a million ture, instability, lift and wind shear for duce damaging hail and strong winds. All
people without power. Figure 8.20 shows tornadoes to form in association with thunderstorms tend to produce lightning
Box 8.3 ➤
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Chapter 8 Global climate and weather
➤
and heavy precipitation and in supercells
the lightning is often more frequent and
the precipitation can lead to flash floods.
The rotating in the storms is due to wind
shear which is when the wind direction
changes and the wind speed increases
with height. This kind of wind shear and
instability usually exists only ahead of a
cold front and depression system. The
rotation of a tornado partly stems from
updrafts and downdrafts caused by the
unstable air interacting with the wind
shear. Cyclonically flowing air which is
already slowly spinning to the left (in
Figure 8.20 Severe damage being cleared up two weeks after an EF-5
the northern hemisphere) converges
tornado that killed 189 people in Joplin, Missouri, 2011. towards the centre of the thunderstorm,
(Source: FEMA / Alamy Stock Photo) causing it to spin faster due to the con-
servation of angular momentum. This is
a similar process to one you can try for
yourself. If you sit on an office chair and
spin round with your arms outstretched
you spin slowly. If you then pull your
arms towards your chest you will sud-
denly start spinning faster. It is this
conservation of angular momentum that
creates the very high wind speeds within
Mesocyclone tornadoes.
Most tornadoes rotate cyclonically
Cloud base
(counterclockwise in the northern hemi-
sphere and clockwise in the southern
hemisphere) but the Coriolis force does
not play any real part in the rotation as
the size of tornadoes is too small for the
Coriolis force to have any real effect. In
fact there have been observations of
anticyclonic rotating tornadoes, usually
in the form of waterspouts (which are
Warm updraft
essentially tornadoes over water and also
mainly have a cyclonic rotation), non-
supercell land tornadoes, or anticyclonic
whirls around the rim of a supercell’s
mesocyclone.
Tornado intensity is measured by the
Figure 8.21 Formation of a tornado. Warm rising air meets cooler air aloft
Fujita scale (F-scale named after Theodore
creating turbulence. These winds start to rotate because of wind shear
which is when the wind direction changes and the wind speed increases Fujita), which was replaced in February
with height. The larger mesocyclone which then develops aloft can gener- 2007 by the enhanced Fujita scale
ate sufficient strength to extend a funnel cloud down to the ground. (EF-scale) (Table 8.3).
Box 8.3 ➤
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8.4 Mid and high-latitude climates
➤
Table 8.3 Enhanced F-scale for tornado damage (1 mph = 1.6 km h - 1)
Fujita scale Derived EF-scale Operational EF-scale*
F number Fastest 1/4-mile 3 second gust EF number 3 second gust EF number 3 second gust
(mph) (mph) (mph) (mph)
0 40–72 45–78 0 65–85 0 65–85
1 73–112 79–117 1 86–109 1 86–110
2 113–157 118–161 2 110–137 2 111–135
3 158–207 162–209 3 138–167 3 136–165
4 208–260 210–261 4 168–199 4 166–200
5 261–318 262–317 5 200–234 5 Over 200
* Note that the EF-scale still is a set of wind estimates (not measurements) based on damage. It uses 3 s gusts estimated at the point of damage based on a
judgement of eight levels of damage related to 28 indicators.
Box 8.3
makes the weather both much more variable and also
Reflective questions much less predictable, particularly in areas close to the
oceans. The middle latitudes of the southern hemisphere
➤ What is the main feature influencing the climate in equa- are dominated by oceans. The only land in the southern
torial regions and how does it affect temperature and hemisphere middle latitudes is the southern tip of South
rainfall? Africa, the most southern parts of Australia and New Zea-
➤ What are the necessary conditions for the formation of land, and central and southern Argentina and Chile. In the
tropical cyclones? northern hemisphere, however, as well as the North Atlan-
tic and Pacific Oceans, there are the major land masses of
➤ Why are there not as many tropical cyclones in the south- the North American, European and central Asian conti-
ern hemisphere as the northern hemisphere? nents. These span all of the middle latitudes and extend
into the polar regions, and (in the case of North America
➤ What factors make the Asian monsoon a much more and Asia) into the subtropics.
marked feature than in other parts of the world at similar
latitudes?
8.4.1 Depressions, fronts and anticyclones
➤ Why are the deserts located where they are and what fac-
tors help increase aridity in many of these deserts? The equatorial and subtropical climates are dominated by
the weather systems associated with the thermally direct
➤ What is the dominant feature of summer weather in Hadley cell circulation (convection along the ITCZ and
humid subtropical regions? subsidence in the subtropical anticyclones) that transfers
energy from lower latitudes. In the middle latitudes, how-
ever, there is also an energy transfer from lower latitudes
8.4 Mid and high-latitude climates to higher latitudes but this is not achieved by direct con-
vection via heating at the surface. Instead the transfer is
In the tropics and subtropics, the weather is often rela- accomplished through the movements of large weather
tively predictable but the middle latitudes are dominated systems. However, just as in the tropics and subtropics,
by weather systems that move across the planet. This the key to understanding the development, movement and
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Chapter 8 Global climate and weather
dissipation of mid-latitude weather systems is not what
happens at the surface but what happens in the middle and
upper troposphere.
The key factor is the positioning and movement of
the westerly polar front jet stream. The jet stream is a
‘thermal wind’ related to sharp thermal gradients in the
atmosphere. In the case of the polar front jet stream, the
thermal gradient is created by the temperature difference
between polar and tropical air where the two air masses
meet (the polar front). A range of types of air masses exist
Zonal flow (generally west to east)
and are described in Box 8.3, and it is the interaction and
modification of these air masses that may determine the
weather conditions experienced in the middle and high
latitudes. The polar front is just a steeper part of the nor-
mal low- to high-latitude temperature gradient (it is where
there is a sharp transition between warm and cold air).
The polar front jet stream is not fixed both in terms of its
location as it moves north and south and there are marked
waves along its length which vary in amplitude with shal-
lower waves giving what is called a zonal flow (west to
east) and larger amplitude waves giving a meridional flow
(a more marked north to south component as shown in Meridional flow (flow with a large north-south component)
Figure 8.22).
Air accelerates into anticyclonically curved waves
creating a zone of upper-level divergence while the flow
slows down as it enters a cyclonically curved wave creat- L H L
ing upper-level convergence. If the upper-level divergence
is greater than any low-level convergence this leads to a
fall in surface pressure and creates a zone of ascending
air. Such a situation is one of cyclogenesis (development
of a depression). Conversely, if there is strong upper-
level convergence and weaker lower-level divergence,
there is a zone of subsiding air and this situation is one Cut-off high and cut-off lows (giving ‘blocked’ conditions)
of anticyclogenesis. The thermal gradient in the upper Figure 8.22 Zonal and meridional flow.
westerlies is therefore of more significance in the devel-
opment of weather systems than temperatures close to
the surface.
Waves along the upper westerly polar front jet stream L
(Figure 8.23) can develop into frontal depressions. Air gen-
erally rises at fronts (by slantwise convection, as warm air Upper westerly jet
L stream typically
is forced to rise above the cooler air it meets), leading to found at about
the formation of clouds (and precipitation) as the air cools 300 hPa (300mb)
on ascent. Fronts therefore mark areas of general precipi- L–Depression (low-pressure system with fronts)
tation (which may fall as snow in winter), although there
are bands of more intense precipitation embedded within Figure 8.23 Jet stream development. Waves along the jet stream can
develop into frontal depressions.
those areas. Some less active fronts may produce little or
no precipitation.
Jet streams are not simple continuous features. They the jet spreads out and the flow rate reduces. Associated
have marked entrances where the flow becomes more con- with jet entrances and exits are marked zones where the
centrated into a stronger jet. They also have exits where formation of depressions and anticyclones (or anticyclonic
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8.4 Mid and high-latitude climates
Air masses humidity holds 3.9 g of water vapour per continent at higher latitudes in the south-
kg of air at 0°C while a tropical continental ern hemisphere other than the Antarctic
The term ‘air mass’ is given to a body of
air mass with a 30% relative humidity has where the air is classed as being Antarctic
air that has a very large horizontal extent
8 g of water vapour per kg of air at 30°C. continental.
and in which its potential temperature and
Tropical maritime air is common in both It is important to note that all air
moisture content are similar through most
hemispheres, but tropical continental air is masses are modified by the underlying
of the troposphere (close to the surface
less common as the only really large land surface. If the surface is colder than the
there may be differences). An air mass
mass in the subtropics is northern Africa air mass then low-level stability will be
develops over a source region where it
and to a lesser extent in Australia. India is increased. If it is warmer than the air mass,
has remained for a period of days (Barry
a source region for tropical continental low-level stability will be decreased. The
and Chorley, 2010). There are four basic
types of air mass according to their source air in winter but the intense winter high best example of this is Arctic maritime air
regions. These are tropical maritime, tropi- pressure over Siberia and the mountains moving south across the North Atlantic.
cal continental, polar maritime and polar to the north act as a barrier. In summer, The sea surface is much warmer than the
continental. Essentially the tropical air central Asia can be a source for tropical air mass and this warms the lowest layers,
masses are from low latitudes or the sub- continental air although strictly speaking decreasing stability and encouraging con-
tropics and polar air masses are from high it is in the middle latitudes. Polar maritime vection. This leads to the formation of fre-
latitudes. There are also extreme versions air is common in both hemispheres with quent instability showers, a characteristic
of polar air masses called Arctic maritime source regions in the high-latitude oceans. of this type of air mass. By studying source
and Antarctic continental. Continental air As with all air masses, there is not a single areas for air and tracking their movement
masses are relatively dry and maritime set of characteristics defining this air over a particular region and predicting
air masses are relatively humid. The term mass as the values change according to how the air masses might be modified by
‘relatively’ has to be used as warm air the actual source region and the time of local conditions and how they might inter-
holds much more moisture than cold air. A year. Polar continental air is found only in act with other air masses, it is possible to
polar maritime air mass with 90% relative the northern hemisphere as there is no provide short-range weather forecasts.
Box 8.4
ridges) is favoured through divergence or convergence of at lower levels and rise up to replace the ouflow. As a
the upper winds (leading to cyclogenesis and anticyclogen- result there is a general (slow) upward motion of air in
esis respectively) (Figure 8.24). It is important to remember depressions in the conveyor belts moving through the sys-
that if there is an upper-level outflow (divergence) the pres- tem. In anticyclones or ridges the air flows inwards in the
sure will fall at the surface and air will therefore converge upper atmosphere, leading to an increase in pressure with
descent and outflow at lower levels.
Confluent thermal trough Diffluent thermal trough
The descent of air in anticyclones increases the tem-
perature (adiabatically) and dries out the air, which means
CON DIV anticyclones bring clear conditions. However, the descend-
Entrance Jet core Exit ing air does not fall all the way to the land surface and due
to the adiabatic warming a temperature inversion forms.
DIV CON While the air above may be clear, on some occasions the
Confluent thermal ridge Diffluent thermal ridge inversion can trap moister air below and a layer of cloud
CON – Convergence (leads to anticyclogenesis and descent of air) can form below the inversion, giving a condition termed
DIV – Divergence (leads to cyclogenesis ‘anticyclonic gloom’. This is more common in winter than
and ascent of air from below)
summer. This is because during summer solar radiation
Figure 8.24 Jet stream entrance and exit, cyclogenesis and warms the air below the inversion sufficiently to cause the
anticyclogenesis. cloud to dissipate. On occasions the upper westerly flow
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Chapter 8 Global climate and weather
can be interrupted by what is termed a blocking anticy- and over a much greater time than is the case for a con-
clone generally formed by an intensification of a ridge in vective cloud, and therefore although precipitation rates
the upper westerlies into a closed circulation. This can (e.g. how heavy it is raining) may be less than those found
lead to quite long periods of anticyclonic weather in areas with convective clouds, there can be substantial amounts
where normally the weather would be characterized by the of precipitation arising from a frontal depression. It is
passage of mid-latitude depressions. important to note that even within a frontal precipita-
The ascent of air in depressions is concentrated to tion zone there will be areas of more intense precipita-
some extent along the warm and cold fronts. Once aloft, tion so that fronts do not produce simple areas of steady
the air rotates to become more parallel with the upper- precipitation.
level flow (Figure 8.25). The ascent of the air is at perhaps Fronts tend to slope gently at a rate of 1 m vertical rise
20 cm s-1 compared with the 5920 m s-1 that is typically for every 80–150 m of lateral distance (slope of 1 : 80 to
found in large convective clouds. An ascent of air will 1 : 150) with cold fronts being steeper than warm fronts.
eventually produce cloud as water vapour condenses out Over time, the cold front tends to overtake the warm
of the atmosphere in cooler conditions. The ascent of front, leading to what is termed an occluded front, which
warm moist tropical air will quickly lead to the forma- is classified as warm or cold depending on whether the air
tion of layers of cloud (stratiform cloud) and continued ahead of the warm front is colder or warmer than the air
ascent of air is likely to lead to precipitation. The ascent following the cold front (Figure 8.26). The complex three-
of air in depressions takes place over a much wider area dimensional nature of depressions and fronts is important
Jet core
400 hPa
500 hPa
600 hPa
Warm front
700 hPa
WCB
Isobar in WCB
Cold front
WCB – Warm conveyor belt
800 hPa hPa – hectopascals (1 hPa = 1 mb)
Figure 8.25 Conveyor belts in depressions. Slantwise convection (i.e. with a strong horizontal motion as well as conductive ascent) in the warm conveyor
belt carries sensible and latent heat polewards.
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8.4 Mid and high-latitude climates
Tropopause
Tropopause
–605C –605C
Warm air mass Warm air mass
Co
ld
fro
Co nt t
ld t –405C al lof
fro
nt t alof nta –405C
fron fro
of
alo rm Cool air mass –205C rm
t
ft Wa Cold air mass
Wa
oc Cold air mass –205C
Cold air mass 05C rm
Co
Wa
clu
ld
on
sio
05C
usi
n
cl
oc
(a) Cold occlusion (b) Warm occlusion
Figure 8.26 Occluded fronts: (a) cold occlusions are where air behind the cold front is colder than air ahead of the warm front; (b) warm occlusions
are where air behind the cold front is less cold than air ahead of the warm front.
and is one reason why weather forecasting in mid and high of note that the summers in the Mediterranean climate
latitudes is a very complicated science. zones of California and central Chile are drier than in
the Mediterranean owing to the upwelling of cold water
off those coasts. This stabilizes the air and inhibits
8.4.2 Mid-latitude western continental margins
convection.
The Mediterranean-type climate is the first subtype of Further polewards, mid-latitude western continental
climate found polewards of the subtropical desert regions margins are most extensive in the northern hemisphere,
and is characterized by a mild wet winter half-year and a although a similar climate regime is experienced by south-
hot dry summer half-year. It is found in the far south-west ern Chile, Tasmania and New Zealand. These climates
of South Africa, in central Chile, on south-west-facing have unusually mild winters for their latitude (e.g. the
coastlines in the south of Australia, in California, as well British Isles, western Europe and the west of Norway).
as in the Mediterranean itself. In winter, mid-latitude fron- These mild winters are particularly marked in the north-
tal depressions bring rain to these areas, although in the east Atlantic as the North Atlantic Drift pushes relatively
Mediterranean itself, most of the depressions are not the warm water a long way north. There is a similar climate
frontal depressions of the Atlantic, the latter accounting in much of New Zealand where again there is a warm cur-
for only 9% of Mediterranean depressions. A significant rent off the western coast. Generally temperatures in the
proportion of Mediterranean depressions develop as a southern hemisphere are lower than those at similar lati-
result of dynamic effects on air flow over the Alps and tudes in the northern hemisphere owing to the large extent
Pyrenees that can lead to the formation of ‘orographic’ of the southern oceans and the paths of their ocean cur-
low-pressure areas (Barry and Chorley, 2010). These lows rents. As well as unusually mild winters for their latitude,
can develop frontal characteristics, particularly if the air these climates have a remarkably small range of annual
flow across the mountains has a cold front embedded temperature, have precipitation distributed throughout
within it. This does not happen in the other Mediter- the year and there is considerable orographic enhance-
ranean climate zones of the world as they comprise only ment of precipitation in the coastal mountain ranges (see
relatively narrow coastal areas. The Mediterranean Sea Chapter 9). The mountain ranges of North and South
provides the mechanism for extending the climate type America keep this climate confined to a relatively nar-
much further into the continent. row coastal strip while in Europe the relatively low-lying
Typically average winter temperatures in ground from the Netherlands to Russia allows this cli-
Mediterranean climates will be between 5 and 12°C with mate type to extend to Poland in the east (Robinson and
summer daytime maximum temperatures between 25 Henderson-Sellers, 1999). Average winter temperatures are
and 30°C. Rainfall totals will typically be between 400 typically between 2 and 8°C with average summer maxi-
and 750 mm with a distinct summer minimum. It is also mum temperatures between 15 and 25°C. Precipitation
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Chapter 8 Global climate and weather
totals are generally in the range 500–1200 mm. The mid- east of the Tibetan Plateau. Some examples of conditions
latitude depressions that are a feature of this climate can experienced at mid-latitude climate stations are given in
bring strong winds which can cause considerable damage. Figure 8.27.
Windiness is a feature of this type of climate, particularly Winters become increasingly colder as you move north
in coastal areas. or west into the mid-latitude continental interiors and sum-
mers also become milder and less humid (north of 45°N).
Further north still (north of 50°N) the climate becomes
8.4.3 Mid-latitude east continental margins and
subpolar with severe winters and relatively short summers
continental interiors
(only three, or fewer, months with average temperatures
On the eastern side of North America and Asia, the above 10°C). For much of the mid-latitude continental inte-
eastern continental margin climates merge into the con- riors, precipitation is distributed throughout the year but
tinental interior climates. Being within the mid-latitude generally with a distinct summer maximum. This summer
westerly belt, the winds experienced on these continental precipitation is mainly in the form of convective show-
margins have generally had a considerable passage across ers although there are some weak frontal systems. Winter
land. For that reason, the climate is more closely related precipitation tends to fall as snow and as temperatures are
to the continental interior than to the oceans, although low it often does not melt until the spring thaw. Total pre-
some weather systems do come from the oceans to the cipitation amounts are relatively low (below 500 mm), but
east. Winters are much colder, with frequent snowfall, the cold winter period and summer maximum of precipita-
than those experienced in the subtropical humid climates tion ensure that in most years there is sufficient moisture
to the south. These mid-latitude east continental margin for plant growth. The main wheat-growing areas of North
climates do not exist in the southern hemisphere as they America have this type of climate. In Asia, however, the
require large land masses. Furthermore, in South America southern part of these mid-latitude continental interiors
east of the Andes, where such a climate might exist, the is semi-arid (as are those states in the United States just
Andes act as a block to the westerlies and descent in the east of the Rockies). East of the Caspian Sea the climate
lee of the mountains dries the air and creates a climate becomes truly arid. These are cold desert regions in which
that is more like a mid-latitude continental interior (semi- winters are cold, although summers may still be warm. The
arid) climate. Gobi Desert is an example of this type of desert.
The main extent of the humid continental type of cli- The further north you go the shorter the summer
mate is in North America, China and eastern Russia. In and the growing season. Winters are cold with average
China and North America, this climate merges from the temperatures below - 12°C in the coldest month and
humid subtropical into a humid continental maritime below - 25°C in northern regions. In the coldest regions
margin, with increasingly severe winters, although at of Siberia the average temperatures in the coldest month
lower latitudes the summers are hot and long. As noted can even be as low as - 50°C There is a very large range
earlier, in China the cool winds circulating around the in temperatures with the warmest months having average
winter Siberian high pressure mean that there is less pre- temperatures of over 21°C, and even in the coldest parts
cipitation in winter than at other times of the year. The of Siberia, July average temperatures reach over 13°C (an
three winter months (December, January and February) annual range of over 60°C). In North America there can
have a total of close to 13 mm precipitation in Beijing also be some extreme diurnal ranges in temperature, par-
while in New York the total for the same period is over ticularly in areas prone to Chinook winds (see Chapter 6)
230 mm. or if warm moist air from the south pushes much further
Summers are similar in both Asia (eastern China, Korea north than usual. Diurnal changes in temperature have
and central Japan) and the eastern United States (south of even exceeded 50°C. These regions are influenced by mid-
New England), being hot and humid. Average tempera- latitude weather systems. However, in winter, high pres-
tures in July for Beijing, China (40°N) are 26°C and those sure dominates, especially in Siberia where pressures can
in New York (41°N) 24.5°C. Mean winter temperatures reach over 1080 mb. Precipitation totals tend to fall as you
are -40°C and 0°C respectively. In summer, the June, July move north within the mid and high-latitude continents of
and August precipitation total is over 460 mm in Beijing the northern hemisphere, with totals below 400 mm in the
while it is less than 320 mm in New York. Overall Beijing northern United States and southern Canada and falling
is drier (annual total close to 620 mm) than New York below 300 mm further north. In eastern Siberia, annual
(over 1110 mm) owing to the aridity of Asia north and totals can even be less than 150 mm.
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8.5 Polar climates
(a) (c)
35 35
30 30
25 25
Temperature (5C)
Temperature (5C)
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
-5 -5
-10 -10
J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D
Month Month
(b) (d)
225 225
200 200
175 175
Precipitation (mm)
Precipitation (mm)
150 150
125 125
100 100
75 75
50 50
25 25
0 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D
Month Month
Figure 8.27 Example temperature and precipitation graphs for mid-latitude climate stations. Mean monthly temperatures (°C) and mean monthly rainfall
(mm) for (a) and (b) Paris, France (49°N), and (c) and (d) Berlin, Germany (52.5°N).
north of Quebec, North West Territories (north and east
Reflective questions of the Great Slave and Great Bear Lakes), part of central
and northern Yukon and north Alaska. Polar tundra can
➤ Why are the waves in the upper westerlies important in also be found in Europe and Asia in northern Sweden,
encouraging the formation of depressions and anticyclones? Finland and Russia and also in northern Iceland. Coastal
➤ Why are depressions associated with cloud formation and Greenland is also classed as having a polar tundra climate
precipitation? as is the northern part of Graham Land in the Antarctic.
The polar ice caps are found in central G
reenland
➤ What is an occluded front? and all of the Antarctic (except the northern part of
Graham Land).
➤ Why are there no polar continental air masses in the
In the polar tundra climate, the temperature of the
southern hemisphere?
warmest month will be above 0°C but below 10°C. W inter
➤ Why are the winter precipitation Mediterranean systems temperatures are generally extremely low (average temper-
different from those in the other areas with a Mediterra- ature in January below - 25°C), although in coastal Green-
nean-type climate? land winter temperatures are higher ( - 7°C in January).
In North America and Asia, the annual precipitation will
typically be less than 300 mm and even below 120 mm in
8.5 Polar climates parts of north Alaska and northern Siberia, but in coastal
Greenland annual totals are higher from 750 to over 1100
Polar climates are split into tundra and polar ice cap types mm. In the tundra regions, weather is dominated by the
(see Figure 8.3 for a map of their extent). Polar tundra is prolonged winter season characterized by anticyclonic
found in North America, in northern Labrador, the far conditions (particularly in Siberia). However, this provides
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Chapter 8 Global climate and weather
(a) (b)
35
225
30 200
25 175
Temperature (5C)
Precipitation (mm)
20 150
15 125
10 100
5 75
0 50
-5 25
-10 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D
Month Month
Figure 8.28 Example temperature and precipitation graphs for a polar climate station at Ivigut, Greenland (61°N).
a sharp contrast to the short growing season, which El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and the North
although not very warm does provide an opportunity for Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) but there are other telecon-
the local flora and fauna to survive, if not actually flourish. nections and indices which try to characterize variability
The polar ice cap climates are extremely cold and or differences across large regions through time. Key
weather is dominated by high pressure. Data from indices are:
a polar station at Ivigut, Greenland, are given in
• Southern Oscillation Index (SOI): Mean sea-level air
Figure 8.28. Summer temperatures are generally below
pressure anomaly difference for the pressure at Tahiti
0°C and winter temperatures below - 40°C. In parts of
minus the pressure at Darwin, normalized by the long-
the Antarctic, the mean annual temperature can be close
term mean and standard deviation of the mean sea-
to - 50°C and an extreme minimum of - 89.6°C has been
level pressure difference. Data are available from the
recorded at the Vostok research station (21 July 1983).
1860s. Data from Darwin can be used alone, as these
There is little precipitation with annual totals typically
data are more consistent than those for Tahiti prior to
less than 100 mm. These areas can actually be classified
1935. An El Niño event involves warming of tropical
as cold deserts. In the central Antarctic, there is almost
Pacific surface waters from near the International Date
no precipitation. Air with a temperature below - 40°C
Line to the west coast of South America. This limits the
contains almost no water vapour (even when saturated
upwelling of cold water near South America and typi-
the amount of water vapour held at such low tempera-
cally occurs every 3 to 7 years. Periods of below-average
tures is very small), and therefore even if clouds form
temperatures in the eastern tropical Pacific are called
there is unlikely to be any precipitation. Polar ice caps
La Niña events. El Niño events reduce the sea surface
cool the air in contact with them and as a result there can
temperature gradient across the equatorial Pacific and
be strong winds blowing off the centre of the ice caps
are linked with the atmospheric Southern Oscillation,
towards the coasts. This climate type is therefore domi-
which brings changes in trade winds, tropical circula-
nated by the cold and by the frequent strong winds that
tion and precipitation. El Niño Southern Oscillation
produce extreme wind chill.
events are coupled ocean–atmosphere phenomena with
global implications that have extratropical teleconnec-
8.6 A global overview tions characterized by changes in the jet streams and
storm tracks in mid-latitudes (particularly in winter
The previous sections have outlined the major climate months) as well as mean sea-level pressure anomalies
regions of the world but it is worth taking a global over- (Box 8.5).
view to consider how the various parts of the global • North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) Index: The differ-
climate interact and how there can be changes in oppo- ence in normalized mean sea-level air pressure anoma-
site directions at the same time in different regions of lies between Lisbon in Portugal and Stykkisholmur in
the world. Chapter 6 provided an introduction to the Iceland has become the most widely used NAO Index
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8.6 A global overview
and extends back in time to 1864. The data can go the whole Pacific Basin is known as the Inter-decadal
further back to 1821 if Reykjavik is used instead of Pacific Oscillation (IPO). Decadal to inter-decadal var-
Stykkisholmur and Gibraltar instead of Lisbon. The iability of the atmospheric circulation is most promi-
NAO has a strong link to the alternation of westerly nent in the North Pacific, where fluctuations in the
and blocked flow across the Atlantic and is present strength of the winter Aleutian low-pressure system
from the surface up into the stratosphere. co-vary with North Pacific sea surface temperature
• Northern Annular Mode (NAM) Index: The amplitude in the PDO. These are linked to decadal variations in
of the pattern defined by a mathematical term known atmospheric circulation, sea surface temperature and
as the ‘leading empirical orthogonal function’ of winter ocean circulation throughout the whole Pacific Basin
monthly mean northern hemisphere mean sea-level air in the IPO.
pressure anomalies polewards of 20°N. The NAM has • Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO): The AMO
also been known as the Arctic Oscillation (AO), and is is related to the North Atlantic sea surface tempera-
closely related to the NAO. tures that show a 65–75 year variation (0.4°C range),
• Southern Annular Mode (SAM) Index: The differ- with a warm phase during 1930–1960 and cool phases
ence in average mean sea-level air pressure between the during 1905–1925 and 1970–1990. A warm phase could
southern hemisphere middle and high latitudes (usually peak around 2020.
45°S and 65°S), from gridded or station data (Gong
and Wang, 1999; Marshall, 2003), or the amplitude of Some of the above indices and their teleconnections
the leading empirical orthogonal function of monthly provide a means of making long-range weather predic-
mean southern hemisphere 850 hPa height polewards tions. Note that these are not forecasts which use numeri-
of 20°S. This was formerly known as the Antarctic cal weather prediction models, but they give an indication
Oscillation (AAO) or High Latitude Mode (HLM). The of very generalized patterns of weather that might be
principal mode of variability of the atmospheric cir- expected, for example, for a winter seasonal predic-
culation in the southern hemisphere extratropics is the tion. However, there also seems to be some relationship
SAM Index. It is essentially a zonally symmetric struc- between variations in the indices and global climate (see
ture, but with a zonal wave pattern, and reflects changes Section 6.8.1 in Chapter 6). In addition, there is concern
in the main belt of subpolar westerly winds. Enhanced about how climate change may influence many of the
Southern Ocean westerlies occur in the positive phase teleconnections. For example, Wang et al. (2015) showed
of the SAM. that the severe Texas and Oklahoma flooding of May 2015
• Pacific-North American pattern (PNA) Index: The was linked to El Niño, and may have been exacerbated by
mean of normalized height at which the air pressure global warming. Modelling suggested that precipitation
is equal to 500 hPa at 20°N, 160°W and 55°N, 115°W anomalies might increase in association with El Niño as
minus those at 45°N, 165°W and 30°N, 85°W. As the teleconnections are strengthened in the future under
with the NAO, the PNA appears related to periods of climate change.
blocked flow, particularly in the Gulf of Alaska, and It is also important to recognize that there is consider-
periods of stronger westerlies. It is associated with able inter-annual variability in global climate and that
changes in the Aleutian Low, the Asian jet, and the inter-annual variability will be even greater at a regional
Pacific storm track, and affects precipitation in western level and variations in precipitation are much greater
North America and the frequency of Alaskan blocking than those for temperature. The extent of inter-annual
events and associated cold-air outbreaks over the west- variability can clearly be seen in the Central England
ern United States in winter. Temperature (CET) series (Figure 8.29), which runs since
• Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) Index and North 1659 for the period when instruments have collected data.
Pacific Index (NPI): The NPI is the average mean sea- The CET data can be found at: http://hadobs.metoffice
level pressure anomaly in the Aleutian Low over the .com/hadcet. It is also important to note that this inter-
Gulf of Alaska (30°N–65°N, 160°E–140°W) and is annual variation in global as well as the CET series is
an index of the PDO, which is also defined as the pat- less than the variation at a seasonal or monthly scale.
tern and time series of the first empirical orthogonal There are two particularly cold years in the CET series,
function of sea surface temperature over the North 1740 and 1879, with average temperatures of 6.84 and
Pacific north of 20°N. The PDO broadened to cover 7.42°C respectively. There is no obvious explanation as to
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Chapter 8 Global climate and weather
11
10
Temperature (5C)
9
1665 1715 1765 1815 1865 1915 1965 2015
Year
Figure 8.29 Central England mean annual temperatures 1659–2015. (Source: http://
www.metoffice.gov.uk/hadobs/hadcet/index.html)
why those two years were so much colder than the years which is an average calculated over a 30 year period that is
immediately before and after. During the last century, updated every 10 years. Hence, data from 2011 to 2020 will
the cooler period between the 1940s and 1970s was char- typically be compared to the 1981–2010 period. Global
acterized by more frequent negative ENSO indices and temperature series comparisons have been criticized as it
a more frequent occurrence of a negative winter NAO may be that some stations have been affected by urbaniza-
Index. That period was marked by colder winters in tion which will increase local temperatures (see Chapter 9),
northern Europe. although those developing the series have tried to eliminate
This inter-annual variability is why it is important not any such effect by changing the stations used to compile
to assume that a few years when the average temperature the series. In the case of the CET series there has been very
increases or decreases is evidence of a warming or cooling careful quality control to ensure the values are not affected
trend. There is the danger of ‘cherry-picking’ data and by urbanization.
the standard practice is to produce a ‘climate normal’,
The Winter of 2009–2010 This pattern arose due to a strongly nega- Scotland (Figure 8.32) and normal precipi-
in north-western Europe tive phase of the NAO (Figures 8.30 and tation patterns (more in west, especially
8.31). At the same time there was a posi- in the mountains of north-west Wales,
The winter of 2009–2010 was unusual in tive phase of the ENSO and this led to a England and Scotland) were reversed so
the northern hemisphere with cold and different pattern than would have been that much more precipitation fell in the
snow affecting the eastern United States the case with a negative NAO alone, as east of the United Kingdom with much as
and northern Europe but with much milder shown in Figure 8.30. snow from a generally easterly or north-
conditions than normal in Canada, which In the United Kingdom, the winter was easterly direction rather than the usual
caused problems with a lack of snow for particularly cold in central and northern westerly direction (Figure 8.33).
the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver.
BOX 8.5 ➤
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8.6 A global overview
El Niño Negative NAO
Temperature anomalies (5C)
= Land mass
-3 0 3
El Niño + negative NAO Winter 2009–2010 observed
Temperature anomalies (5C)
-6 0 6
Figure 8.30 The combination of ENSO and negative NAO.
Box 8.5 ➤
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Chapter 8 Global climate and weather
NAO negative mode NAO positive mode
Warm & Cold & Warm
Cold more sea
less sea
J et
& dry & wet
L L
str
ice ice
ame
Cold & ‘Blocking’ Jet stream Cool &
snowy Warm Warm dry
H & wet H
Figure 8.31 Phases of the NAO.
Anomaly value (5C)
7-1.5
-2.0 to -1.5
-2.5 to -2.0
-3.0 to -2.5
6-3.0
Figure 8.32 Winter 2010 mean temperature anomaly from the 1971–2000 average.
(Source: Met Office, 2011)
box 8.5 ➤
226
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8.6 A global overview
% of average
7170
150–170
130–150
110–130
90–110
70–90
50–70
30–50
630
Figure 8.33 Winter 2010 rainfall amount (% of 1971–2000 average).
(Source: Met Office, 2011)
Box 8.5
Reflective question (Hint: do not look at absolute values but at the direction
of change: are the anomalies getting larger or smaller as
➤ The raw data for the global temperature series can be
the ENSO Index changes in particular years? Look espe-
found on the Climatic Research Unit website (www.cru
cially at the El Niño years of 1982–1983, 1986–1988,
.uea.ac.uk/cru/data/temperature/#datdow) with the
1997–1998, 2009–2010 and 2015–16 and in the La Niña
temperatures being given as anomalies from the 1961–
years of 1988–1989, 1998–2001, 2006–2008 and 2010–
1990 average of 14.0°C. The ENSO data can be found at
2012. Do not assume that any signal will be clear.)
www.esrl.noaa.gov/psd/people/klaus.wolter/MEI/table
.html. Does there appear to be a relationship between the
ENSO values and the global temperature anomalies?
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Chapter 8 Global climate and weather
8.7 Summary boundaries between air masses are known as fronts and repre-
sent sharp contrasts in temperature and moisture contents of the
This chapter has shown that the climate of any region is a result air. At fronts the warm air rises above the cooler air, often result-
of the type and frequency of the weather systems found in that ing in condensation and precipitation. Continental interiors tend
region. Major features of atmospheric circulation including zones to have different climates from those close to oceans even at the
of ascending and descending air such as the ITCZ (ascending), same latitude.
the subtropical anticyclones (descending) and the slantwise con- Individual climate elements and their changes through the
vection at the polar front (ascending) play an important role in year vary in their importance between different climates. For
climate. example, the distribution of precipitation during the year as well
Equatorial climates are dominated by movements of the ITCZ as annual precipitation totals is important because a region may
whereas at higher latitudes in the tropics the easterly wave, mon- not be arid if there is a winter rainfall maximum, even if it has
soonal conditions and tropical cyclones may be more important, a fairly low annual total and a hot summer. In some regions the
although it is still the movement of the ITCZ that partly controls heat and humidity of the summer are the dominating features
these. Thus, some regions may have a fairly constant climate but of the climate while in others it may be precipitation totals or
are subject to occasional extreme events that have a substantial winter cold. There are also some climate types where there may
impact (e.g. regions prone to tropical cyclones). At still higher be large differences between individual locations in one or more
latitudes in the tropics, desert conditions are prevalent associated climate element (this is discussed further in Chapter 9). It is also
with the anticyclonic conditions related to the descending limb of important to recognize that climate types do not have distinct
the Hadley cell. boundaries, as unless there is a major mountain barrier one type
The distribution of land masses and oceans play an important of climate usually merges gradually into another.
role in global climates. Thus the southern hemisphere experi- Finally, it is clear that far from being constant, the climate,
ences different mid and high-latitude climate conditions to the even as measured over the normal 30 year climate period, is
northern hemisphere owing to the lack of land masses within not constant. During the instrumental record before the twen-
these regions. Air masses are important in the middle and high tieth century these climate changes were relatively small, but
latitudes. They are distinguished by the source area from which the last 100 years have been marked by a period of increasing
they originate (continental or maritime, polar or tropical). The temperatures.
Further reading O’Hare, G., Sweeney, J. and Wilby, R. (2005) Weather, climate
and climate change. Prentice Hall, Harlow.
Excellent and accessible introduction to the area.
Ahrens, C.D. (2015) Meteorology today – An introduction to Robinson, P.J. and Henderson-Sellers, A. (1999) Contemporary
weather, climate, and the environment, 11th edition. Cengage climatology. Pearson Education, Harlow.
Learning, Boston. This book contains good sections on tropical and mid-latitude
This American textbook provides a good clear overview and is climates.
very nicely illustrated with colourful figures. There are lots of
Wang, S.-Y., Huang, W.-R Hsu, H.-H. and Gillies R. R. (2015)
reflective and essay-style questions.
Role of the strengthened El Niño teleconnection in the May
Barry, R.G. and Chorley, R.J. (2009) Atmosphere, weather and 2015 floods over the southern Great Plains. Geophysical
climate, 9th edition. Routledge, London. Research Letters, 42, 8140–8146, doi:10.1002/2015GL065211
This book contains useful chapters on air masses, fronts and An important research paper highlighting teleconnections that
depressions and on climates of temperate and tropical zones. It have been strengthened due to global warming focusing on the
has been a very popular book over the years. case of the severe flooding in Texas and Oklahoma in May 2015.
228
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C H A PTER 9
Regional and local climates
John McClatchey
Late of Environmental Research Institute, University of the Highlands and Islands
Learning objectives Ohio (i.e. the coverage of Figure 9.1) is within the humid
continental climate type. However, there are more gradual
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
regional variations. Tennessee has a humid subtropical
climate but from Illinois to the north into Canada the
➤ understand how local factors can modify regional climate
climate is described as humid continental (see Chapter 8).
In moving northwards the winters become increasingly
➤ understand how altitude and topography control local and
severe. Northern Iowa has summers that are noticeably
regional climates
cooler than the hot humid summers experienced in the
➤ describe how large water bodies influence local and regional south of Missouri. This cooling of the summers continues
climates into Canada. North of Winnipeg the summers become
➤ recognize how human activity can have a deliberate or inadvert- much shorter with less than four months having tem-
ent impact on local climate peratures above 10°C. Iowa, Wisconsin and Michigan are
within the same climate subtype with at least four summer
months with temperatures above 10°C. However, even
9.1 Introduction within this area, there are marked regional variations in
climate on top of the gradual change northwards. The
There is substantial variation at the local and regional most obvious of these differences are associated with the
scales within the global climate zones discussed in areas bordering the Great Lakes of Michigan and Superior.
Chapter 8. In some places the variation is part of a rela- In any climate region, there can be very marked local
tively gradual change from one climate type to another. variations in certain climate elements. For example, over a
For example, in the mid-west states of the United States, distance of little more than 100 km across Scotland there
moving north from Tennessee through Kentucky to Illi- are places in the west where the total annual precipitation
nois (Figure 9.1) there is a steady change in climate. The is nearly 10 times greater than that in parts of the east.
whole of this large area north of the southern half of However, on a global or even European scale the whole
Missouri, Illinois and Indiana and north of the whole of of Scotland falls well within the limits of a single climate
M09 An Introduction to Physical Ge 83575.indd 229 24/05/2017 13:11
Chapter 9 Regional and local climates
500 km
9.2 Altitude and topography
Winnipeg
CANADA
The climate of mountains has always been of interest to
N
Su p e ri o
scientists. Early studies helped establish that pressure and
L ak e
N. Dakota
r
temperature fell with height and in the latter part of the
Minnesota
Michigan nineteenth century a number of mountain observatories
Lake
Huron were established in Europe and North America to support
astronomical studies and weather forecasting. Examples
UN
L ak e Mi c h i gan
S. Dakota
Wisconsin
include Mount Washington (New Hampshire, estab-
IT
lished 1870), Sonnblick (Austria, 1886) and Ben Nevis
ED
e
E ri
T ke (Scotland, 1883). Some of these mountain observatories
S
A La
TE
Nebraska
Iowa closed after 10–20 years of observations (e.g. Ben Nevis,
S O
F AM E R I C A
Ohio 1883–1904) but many are still in existence. The rate of fall
Illinois Indiana of temperature with altitude (the lapse rate, see Box 9.1)
Kansas Missouri West varies in different parts of the world. The amount of
Virginia
solar radiation that can potentially be received by the
Figure 9.1 The mid-west United States and the Great Lakes. ground surface actually increases with height. This is
because less radiation has been absorbed or reflected by
components of the atmosphere back into space by the
type. The classification or description of a climate at a time it reaches the ground at higher altitudes. The lower
particular place therefore depends on the scale at which the altitude, the thicker the layer of atmosphere that can
that climate is being considered. The smaller the geograph- reflect solar radiation back into space. However, whether
ical extent of the area of interest, the more important it solar radiation received at the ground surface actually
becomes to have detailed climatological observations and increases with height in any particular mountain range
statistics in order to specify the climate of an individual depends upon local cloudiness. Harding (1979) reported
location. It is also important to note that regional and that in the mountains of the United Kingdom, which
local climates are a feature of the land and not the oceans tend to be cloudy, solar radiation decreased by 2.5 to
because altitude, topography and proximity to the sea (or 3 million J m-2 day-1 km-1, which was regarded as typi-
large bodies of water) are the key features that lead to the cal by Grace and Unsworth (1988). Nevertheless, even in
development of local and regional climates. These factors those areas where received solar radiation increases with
and associated processes will be discussed in this chapter altitude, temperature is still likely to decline upwards
as it is important to understand how both local and global because of adiabatic processes (see Table 9.1). In many
processes interact at different scales. This interaction helps places, wind speed and precipitation increase with alti-
to explain the nature of local and regional climate across tude but this is not true everywhere. Substantial moun-
the Earth’s surface. tain ranges can also act as a barrier to the movement of
Table 9.1 Predicted change of pressure and temperature with height based on a lapse rate of 6.5°C per 1000 m (pressure P in hPa or millibars and tem-
perature T in °C)
Height (m) Tropical Mid-latitude High-latitude
(above mean sea level)
P T P T P T
0 1013 25.0 1013 15.0 1013 5.0
1000 902 18.5 899 8.5 894 - 1.5
2000 801 12.0 795 2.0 788 - 8.0
3000 710 5.5 701 - 4.5 691 - 14.5
4000 627 - 1.0 616 - 11.0 605 - 21.0
5000 552 - 8.5 541 - 17.5 527 - 27.5
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9.2 Altitude and topography
Lapse Rates of the air decreases. The reverse is true if water evaporates or ice melts, this uses up
air sinks and is compressed, in which case energy in order to change the state of the
The rate at which temperature falls with
the temperature of the air increases. water but without changing the tempera-
increasing altitude is known as the envi- If air expands adiabatically as it ascends, ture of the water (see Chapter 6). When
ronmental lapse rate. An air parcel will the temperature of the air falls at a con- the reverse occurs energy is released. This
rise if it is warmer than the surrounding stant rate of 9.8°C km - 1 (Figure 9.2). If energy release reduces the cooling rate
environment. Once the air parcel reaches air is compressed adiabatically as it sinks of the air as it rises and expands. In the
the same temperature as the surrounding the temperature of the air increases at the absence of any loss of total water content
environment it will stop rising (Figure 9.2). same rate. This rate of temperature change (gaseous, liquid or solid water) from the
When air rises (ascends) it expands. This is called the dry adiabatic lapse rate and air, the rate of change of temperature with
is because the air pressure decreases. applies only if the atmosphere remains height is given by what is termed the satu-
Conversely if air sinks (descends) it is com- unsaturated. Air can hold only a certain rated adiabatic lapse rate.
pressed as the pressure increases. If no amount of water vapour at any tempera- Unlike the dry adiabatic lapse rate, the
energy is added to or lost from that air as ture and if the temperature falls or if more saturated adiabatic lapse rate depends on
it rises (or falls), the changes in pressure water is evaporated into the atmosphere the amount of water vapour the air can
and temperature are the result of what then once saturation is reached water hold at any temperature. The amount of
is termed an adiabatic process. When air vapour will condense out of the atmos- water vapour air can hold more than dou-
rises and the pressure falls, the energy for phere. When water condenses out of bles for each 10°C increase in temperature
the expansion of the air comes from the the air, energy is released. This energy (Table 9.2). This means that the amount
air itself. As temperature is a measure of is the latent heat of vaporization and is of latent heat released is much less at low
the energy of air, if energy is removed by the energy released when gaseous water temperatures than at high temperatures as
expansion of the air then the temperature vapour condenses into liquid water. When less water vapour will condense out of the
air at lower temperatures. The saturated
adiabatic lapse rate therefore varies from
around 0.3°C per 100 m close to the sur-
face in the tropics, where air temperatures
are over 30°C, to close to the dry adiabatic
3000 rate at temperatures below -40°C. Tem-
peratures of below -40°C are normally
found at heights of between 5 and 10 km
SALR in mid-latitude regions.
Height (m)
2000 When saturated air ascends, the
temperature decreases at the saturated
Condensation
adiabatic lapse rate and the water that
level condenses out of the air forms a cloud.
However, when saturated air descends, it
1000
will warm at the saturated adiabatic rate
DALR
ELR only if all of the liquid or solid water (cloud
droplets or ice crystals) is evaporated back
Air parcel
0
into the air. If any of the water has fallen
-5 0 5 10 15 20 out of the cloud as precipitation there will
Temperature (5C) be less water to evaporate and the air will
therefore warm more on descent than it
Figure 9.2 Air parcel buoyancy. A parcel of air warmed at ground level will rise if it is warmer
than its surroundings and will cool at the environmental lapse rate (ELR). Note that the top of cooled on ascent.
the cloud occurs where the air parcel temperature is the same as its surroundings. DALR – dry The difference between the dry and
adiabatic lapse rate (9.8°C/1000 m); SALR – saturated environmental lapse rate. saturated adiabatic lapse rates is crucial
Box 9.1 ➤
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Chapter 9 Regional and local climates
➤
Table 9.2 Water vapour saturated vapour pressures
Temperature (°C) - 40 - 30 - 20 - 10 0 10 20 30
Water vapour pressure (hPa) 0.19 0.51 1.25 2.86 6.11 12.27 23.37 42.43
in understanding why some atmospheric in the atmosphere, particularly when there to mix the atmosphere. This effect is great-
conditions are unstable (or condition- is widespread ascent or descent of air such est in summer and at lower latitudes.
ally unstable) (Figure 9.3). This instabil- as in frontal ascent or anticyclonic subsid- At night when long-wave infrared radia-
ity occurs because if rising air becomes ence, energy can be gained or lost from tional emission from the surface cools the
saturated, any further ascent will cause air by a number of processes including the ground, the lowest few hundred metres of
the air to cool at the saturated adiabatic loss of energy associated with precipita- the atmosphere can be cooled as a result.
rather than dry adiabatic lapse rate. Such tion that falls out of the atmosphere. This creates a temperature inversion
saturated air will therefore be warmer than Radiative exchanges can also be impor- perhaps a few hundred metres deep. This
the surrounding air and as warmer air is tant in the atmosphere. While air is largely is where warmer air overlies cooler air so
less dense than colder air, the saturated air transparent to solar radiation, certain that it is no longer the case that tempera-
will ascend further as a result of this den- atmospheric gases absorb terrestrial (long- ture declines with altitude. Once warmer
sity difference. This leads to strong upward wave) infrared radiation (see Chapter 6). air overlies cooler air, the lower layer is
convection and the growth of shower Liquid or solid water completely absorbs trapped because it is denser. Thus, pollut-
clouds. A situation is described as condi- and reradiates long-wave radiation. This ants from fossil fuel combustion (e.g. fires,
tionally unstable if the environmental lapse means that clouds play an important role car engines) may not be able to escape
rate is steeper than the saturated adiabatic in radiative exchanges. Radiational losses from the lower air layer and thus a long-
lapse rate through the lower atmosphere at the top of clouds can cause localized lasting ‘smog’ can develop. During these
(around 10 km). If clouds form and grow cooling. Radiational heating from the times public health can be at severe risk.
into this layer with a steep lapse rate they ground surface is also important. Strong However, while adiabatic lapse rates
are then going to continue to grow to heating can create steep lapse rates in the are important in the atmosphere, other
great depths. The instability is ‘conditional’ lowest layers of the atmosphere. These processes, such as mixing of air, affect
as clouds have to form and reach the steep lapse rates can be greater than even temperatures. If rising air mixes with its
height at which the cloud temperatures the dry adiabatic lapse rate and are termed surroundings its energy will be shared with
become warmer than the surrounding air. super-adiabatic. Such steep lapse rates the surroundings and the temperature
Although adiabatic processes are common cause rapid local convection which tends changes will no longer be adiabatic.
(a) (b) (c)
ELR
SALR ELR SALR SALR
Height
Height
Height
DALR
DALR DALR
ELR
Temperature Temperature Temperature
Figure 9.3 Atmospheric stability relationships between the environmental lapse rate (ELR), dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR) and the saturated
environmental lapse rate (SALR): (a) stable; (b) conditional instability; (c) absolute instability.
Box 9.1
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9.2 Altitude and topography
weather systems and even smaller ranges of mountains
and hills can give rise to noticeable differences in the
weather (and hence in climate) on the lee side of those
mountains. Hills and mountains are therefore important
as they can create substantial regional and local modifica-
tions to the general climate of that part of the world. The
following discussion will explain how individual climate
elements are modified by hills and mountains, and how a
specific regional climate may be developed on the leeward Figure 9.4 Temperature inversion in the early morning. Cooler air lies
side of upland areas. below warmer air and a mist has formed close to the ground surface in
the valley. (Source: JPL Designs / Shutterstock.com)
9.2.1 Pressure
The fall of air pressure with height is the most consist- form close to the ground (Figure 9.4). Katabatic drainage
ent feature of mountain climate. Up to around 3000 m can further strengthen the night-time inversions (see
the fall in pressure is close to 10 millibars per 100 m. Box 9.4 below). These diurnal variations in the fall, of
The rate of fall is more rapid in colder (denser) air and temperature with height are influenced by cloud cover
therefore pressures are higher at the same altitude in the and the presence or absence of vigorous mixing caused
tropics compared with the middle and high latitudes by strong winds. Together these play an important role
(Table 9.1). in controlling temperatures of mountain regions.
As well as diurnal variations, the lapse rates also vary
according to air mass. As air masses move they can be
9.2.2 Temperature warmed or cooled by the underlying surface, leading to
The change of temperature with altitude is known as a steeper or a shallower lapse rate respectively. Hence
the lapse rate. Box 9.1 describes the important char- Arctic or Antarctic maritime air masses, which are always
acteristics of lapse rates and should be read in order warmed from below as they move into lower latitudes,
to understand fully the following section. The values have the steepest lapse rates, which are often close to the
in Table 9.1 give an indication of the differences in the dry adiabatic lapse rate. Tropical air masses, however,
fall of pressure with altitude in tropical, mid-latitude are cooled from below as they move away from lower
and high-latitude regions, but they are based on an latitudes. This reduces the lapse rate. The affect of warm-
assumed lapse rate of 6.5°C per 1000 m. However, there ing and cooling from below is illustrated in Figure 9.5,
can be substantial diurnal variations in lapse rates and
these will influence altitudinal pressure gradients. Dur- Inversion:
(a) Wind
ing the day strong solar heating warms the air close to top
base
the ground, steepening the lapse rate in the first few
hundred metres, of the atmosphere. In the first few
tens of metres, the lapse rate can exceed the dry adi-
abatic lapse rate of 9.8°C per 1000 m (see Box 9.1), Land Lake or sea
although the lapse rate will depend on how well mixed
the atmosphere is. The stronger the wind, the greater
(b)
the turbulent mixing and the closer the lapse rate will
be to the dry adiabatic rate (as long as there is no 3
condensation of water vapour). In cloudy conditions Wind
with strong winds, the atmosphere is so well mixed in 1 2
4
the lowest few hundred metres that below the cloud Lake
Land
base the lapse rate will approximate the dry adiabatic
lapse rate. Within the cloud the lapse rate will be at Figure 9.5 Temperature inversion: (a) the modification of an unstable
temperature profile to give a surface-based inversion over a cold surface
the saturated adiabatic rate. At night, light winds and
(e.g. lake/ice); (b) elevated inversion due to the advection of stable lake
clear skies allow the ground to cool through long-wave air across the shoreline to a warmer land area on a spring afternoon.
radiation loss and a strong temperature inversion can (Source: after Oke, 1987)
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Chapter 9 Regional and local climates
which shows an air mass being cooled as it moves across Approximately 10 km
a cool lake and one being warmed as it moves from a cold
lake to a warm land area. Temperature inversions are
temporarily formed as the air is warmed or cooled from
below. Polar maritime air may also have steep lapse rates Dry adiabatic lapse rate
if there is a large contrast between the air and sea surface
Altitude
temperatures. As the contrast between the air and sea sur-
face temperatures varies with the seasons, there are some
seasonal differences in lapse rates. The average lapse rates Subsidence
in mountains of the British Isles are steeper than in most inversion
mountainous regions as a result of the frequency of polar
and Arctic air masses and the relatively warm surround-
Temperature
ing sea surface temperatures (Harding, 1978). Air with
steep lapse rates is conditionally unstable (see Box 9.1) Figure 9.6 Lapse rate under anticyclonic conditions with a subsidence
inversion.
and instability showers are therefore common. Air with
a shallow lapse rate is stable, damping down convective
activity. However, such air can be subject to forced ascent base. This will lead to unusual conditions on those
over mountains or dynamically induced ascent such as in a mountains with different lapse rates above and below the
mid-latitude depression. If the ascent is sufficient to cool inversion. There may also be a very low humidity. The
the air to its dew point temperature, clouds will form and descending air in anticyclones leads to exceptionally low
this can lead to enhancement of precipitation. Tropical values of humidity close to the base of the inversion. How-
continental air moving towards higher latitudes is cooled ever, as anticyclones found in the middle and high latitudes
from below but in summer that cooling may only extend are short-lived compared to subtropical anticyclones, on
through a relatively shallow layer. Tropical continental air some days there will be a sharp change in the weather
is dry and is formed over an area in which there was strong conditions experienced on ascending the mountains. Such
heating from below. Therefore above the layer of air that changes will be incorporated into the averages of the cli-
is cooled from below, the lapse rate will be much steeper. mate elements.
This means that there can be strong conditional instability.
Convection that rises above the cooled layer can trigger the
9.2.3 Wind
rapid formation of deep convectional clouds.
Anticyclonic conditions are also important in determin- As well as changes in temperature with height, the wind
ing temperature variations with altitude. The large-scale regime in mountains can be quite different from that at
descent of air in anticyclones creates a dry adiabatic lapse lower levels. It is not, however, altitude that is necessarily
rate aloft, above a strong temperature inversion. For exam- the key factor. It is the topography itself that is important.
ple, in the trade wind belt flowing out of the subtropical For example, the wind can be funnelled through valleys
anticyclones, there is a marked temperature inversion, or even gaps between individual peaks, particularly if the
generally at a few hundred metres above the surface on the orientation is in the direction of the prevailing wind. This
eastern side of the anticyclone rising to 2000 m in the west. will result in much greater local wind speeds. In addition,
Mountain ranges such as the Atlas in Africa, the Andes in individual peaks and exposed ridges will experience higher
South America and the Sierra Nevada in California often winds as there will be less surface friction acting to reduce
penetrate well above these subtropical inversions. This wind speeds as the wind approaches. Friction reduces sur-
leads to distinct changes in temperatures and therefore face winds by about 30% compared with the ‘free atmos-
local climate on ascending such mountain ranges. phere’. In some circumstances, the compression of air
Subsidence inversions as shown in Figure 9.6 are a fea- between mountain summits and a temperature inversion
ture of all anticyclones. Air is forced to descend under the aloft can lead to wind speeds above free atmosphere values
anticyclonic conditions but part of this descending air may (Figure 9.7). This frequently occurs around the Cairngorm
be warmer than the air below it. Thus the temperature Mountains in Scotland and at Mount Washington in New
might vary with altitude as shown in Figure 9.6. Depend- Hampshire, where maximum gusts have been recorded at
ing on the height of the inversion, mountain ranges in any 76 and 103 m s-1 respectively. The wind regimes in mid-
part of the world may be above the height of the inversion latitude mountains are also influenced by the westerly
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9.2 Altitude and topography
Acceleration of flow and particularly over the Antarctic ice sheets more sub-
over mountain top stantial katabatic winds can form due to local cooling (e.g.
Inversion
Renfrew and Anderson, 2002). These winds, which can be
Height
extreme, will flow into hollows and valley bottoms and are
a special case of mountain winds (see Box 9.4 below).
Temperature
9.2.4 Precipitation
Figure 9.7 Acceleration of winds over ridges and mountain tops where The amount of moisture the air can hold is strongly
the air is compressed by a temperature inversion aloft. Because the dependent on temperature and as temperatures fall with
space for the air to pass through is narrower then air is forced through at height, generally the moisture content of air does so too.
greater speeds.
It might therefore be expected that precipitation would
also decrease with height as the moisture content declines.
winds. The westerly winds are generally faster aloft. How- However, in the lowest 3000 m of the atmosphere this is
ever, in the tropical and subtropical trade wind belts, the certainly not the case. Air forced to rise over mountains
north-east and south-east trade winds generally weaken cools at the dry adiabatic lapse rate until the dew point
with height. Therefore, mean wind speeds can be low on temperature is reached. At this point clouds form and tem-
tropical and subtropical mountains. For example, typi- perature then decreases at the saturated adiabatic
cal wind speeds are 2 m s-1 during the period December lapse rate if there is any further ascent of the air. There-
to February at 4250 m in New Guinea and an annual fore, while temperature is reduced by adiabatic expansion
mean of 5 m s-1 at 4760 m in Peru. In the Himalayas, the as the pressure falls, the moisture content of the air does
monsoon circulation gives strong westerly winds through not change until saturation is reached. Hence, even in a
the winter half-year (October–May) with more moder- very dry region, if air is forced to rise, it will eventually
ate easterly winds in the summer (June–September). The reach saturation. For example, if dry air (say 30% rela-
westerly winds decrease from over 25 m s-1 at 9 km in tive humidity) at 30°C is forced to rise, it will become
the winter half-year to only 10 m s-1 by the end of May saturated at about 2000 m and cloud will form. Unless
(being replaced by easterlies in the second half of June). there is no wind, the forced ascent of air over hills will
These wind speed changes in the Himalayas emphasize the therefore provide a supply of moisture from lower levels,
importance of the weather systems experienced in moun- even though there may be a decrease of vapour pressure
tain regions in determining the wind regime. with height in the free atmosphere. This forced ascent of
One other local and regional climate feature of winds air means that in moist airstreams, clouds will form over
is a warm and dry wind that blows down lee slopes of hill relatively low hills (Figure 9.8). Even in dry airstreams
and mountain ranges. These winds tend to warm and dry
as a result of the compression and adiabatic warming of
the air in the lee of the hills and mountains as it descends
from higher levels. It is called a Föhn wind, although it
has other names in different parts of the world such as
in Canada where it is called the Chinook. The onset of the
wind is typically accompanied by a sharp rise in tempera-
ture often with a substantial decrease in relative humidity.
In Canada, in the lee of the Rockies, temperature rises
of over 20°C have been recorded in just a few minutes.
Evidence of smaller rapid rises in temperature has been
found in Scotland and even with winds across the Pennines
in England, where the hills are typically only 500–700 m
high (Lockwood, 1962). Föhn winds in the Alps and other
mountainous regions can cause rapid snow melt, greatly
increasing avalanche risk and flooding (Barry, 1992). Figure 9.8 Cloud formation over Great Dunn Fell, northern England. As the
It has already been noted that surface cooling can lead air is forced to rise over the hill it expands adiabatically and saturation of
to katabatic drainage into valley bottoms. Over glaciers the air occurs aloft. The water vapour can then condense to form clouds.
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clouds will form if mountains are sufficiently high. The common in the trade wind belts where the air above the
mere formation of clouds will not, however, lead to pre- tradewind inversion is very dry. For example, rainfall on
cipitation. Precipitation has to be initiated. This occurs Mauna Loa in Hawaii is over 5500 mm at 700 m but only
either through the formation of ice crystals in the upper 440 mm on the summit at 3298 m, well above the inversion
parts of a cloud which then fall through the cloud leading (Barry, 1992). In the moister equatorial regions, rainfall
to aggregation of crystals and production of supercooled generally tends to decrease with height. For example, in
water (Bergeron process), or by coalescence of smaller equatorial Africa rainfall on mountains above 3000 m is
droplets onto larger droplets falling more quickly through only 10–30% of the highest totals which are observed lower
the cloud. In a convective cloud, the maximum rate of pre- down the mountains. In the middle latitudes, however, pre-
cipitation will be close to the cloud base, as once rain falls cipitation totals increase with altitude above 3000 m. Thus,
out of the cloud the raindrops begin to evaporate. If there there are distinct latitudinal differences in the change of
are strong updrafts even the raindrops may be transported precipitation with height in mountains (Figure 9.10).
upwards and, if that is happening, the zone of maximum The presence of mountains in the middle latitudes
precipitation may be above the cloud base (Figure 9.9). enhances precipitation in a number of ways. The most
Thunderstorms can often occur when the atmosphere is important effect is that low-level cloud is formed as air
very unstable, producing very rapid falls of precipitation. is forced to rise over the mountains (Box 9.3). Although
Box 9.2 provides more details of these hazardous features convective precipitation can form a significant proportion
of the atmosphere. of the rainfall totals in some mid-latitude locations, much
In the tropics and subtropics, precipitation is often as of the precipitation arises from frontal activity associated
a result of convective activity and therefore the highest with depressions. Orographic enhancement through the
rainfall totals are found at typically between 1000 and 1500 feeder–seeder mechanism (Box 9.3) can be substantial at
m, at or just above the average cloud base. This is very warm fronts and in warm sectors, and to a lesser extent
with cold fronts. The forced ascent of air over hills and
mountains may also intensify vertical motions in depres-
sions and troughs or even trigger conditional instability in
polar or Arctic airstreams. The general increase of wind
Strong
speeds with height also ensures there is a supply of moist
updrafts air brought in to replace any loss of water content through
3
Gr
Drops Sp
H (km) above mean sea level
coalesce
2
Drops
break up
P M T E
Drops 1
coalesce
Drops
break up
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Annual precipitation (mm)
Figure 9.10 Precipitation changes with height in different parts of the
world: E, equatorial; T, tropical; M, middle latitude; P, polar (Sp, Spitzbergen;
Gr, Greenland). Only in the middle latitudes does precipitation increase
with altitude over the 3000 m range shown. For equatorial and polar areas
precipitation decreases with altitude and for tropical areas precipitation
increases to about 1500 m and then declines above this height.
Figure 9.9 Raindrop formation where there are strong updrafts. (Source: after Lauscher, 1976)
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9.2 Altitude and topography
Thunderstorms
Thunderstorms form when significant
condensation of water vapour occurs,
resulting in the production of many water
droplets and ice crystals. This happens
when the atmosphere is in an unstable
condition that supports fast upward
motion. Although thunderstorms often
happen during warm weather when
heating of the ground surface causes
sufficient moisture to accumulate in the
lower atmosphere, and the warm surface
causes there to be a steep adiabatic lapse
rate, what is required for thunderstorm Figure 9.11 Large hailstones next to an orange golf ball. Such large
formation is an unstable atmosphere (see hailstones can be very damaging and have been known to smash car
Box 9.1) through a considerable depth of windscreens and cause damage to buildings. (Source: Jack Dagley
the atmosphere (possibly right up to the Photography Shutterstock.com)
tropopause). The unstable atmosphere
means that considerable energy is released
as water condenses out of the atmosphere typically 2–4 cm across) can cause major one another in the strong air movement
to form the deep cumulonimbus clouds damage to crops, property and vehicles. (a bit like when you rub a balloon on your
that characterize thunderstorms. That NOAA notes that hail causes damage to sweater you can create a charge that,
energy can range from the equivalent of crops and property amounting to $1 billion when you put the balloon near your hair,
a small nuclear bomb (say 10 kt of TNT per year in the United States. makes your hair stand on end). The posi-
equivalent) in a small thunderstorm to over Thunder is caused by the explosive tive and negative electrical charges in the
100 times more in a severe thunderstorm. expansion of a narrow column of air which cloud separate from one another, the neg-
Thunderstorms occur anywhere in the is heated by a lightning discharge. There- ative charges dropping to the lower part of
world but are most frequent in the tropics fore lightning precedes all thunder. Large the cloud and the positive charges staying
where they can be an almost daily occur- cumulonimbus clouds form, often extend- in the middle and upper parts (Figure 9.12).
rence. Thunderstorms are more common ing to great heights during thunderstorms, Positive electrical charges also build upon
in summer in the mid-latitudes, although although the storm cloud is not normally the ground below. When the difference in
winter thunderstorms can occur, due to larger than a few kilometres in diameter. the charges becomes large, a flow of elec-
low-level convergence along a cold front, Thunderstorms can be single or multicellu- tricity occurs in a discharge event. Within
while at high latitudes thunderstorms are lar and a series may form a squall line with cloud lightning is most common but light-
fairly rare, and form only in the summer. At an associated gust front of strong winds. ning does strike the ground or strikes from
high latitudes in winter, the air is so cold Supercell storms are severe storms charac- the ground to the cloud. A lightning strike
at the surface and throughout the atmos- terized by wind shear with height creating occurs in less than a millionth of a second.
phere that there is insufficient moisture a rotating updraft or mesocyclone. Severe The temperature of a lightning bolt can be
in the air to provide enough energy for a tornadoes are associated with supercell hotter than the surface of the Sun.
thunderstorm. Thunderstorms are usually storms (see Box 8.3 in Chapter 8). Although lightning is extremely hot,
accompanied by heavy rainfall, often with Lightning occurs when a large charge its short duration means it is not always
strong winds and possibly hail. It is worth is built up within a cloud and is then fatal – around 10–15% of those struck will
noting that large hail (Figure 9.11) (which discharged. In tall cumulonimbus clouds die. It is uncertain how many people are
in supercell storms can be up to 10 cm electrical charge is built up as water killed by lightning each year but it could be
in diameter, although large hail is more droplets, hail and ice crystals collide with more than 24 000. In June 2016, more than
Box 9.2 ➤
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Chapter 9 Regional and local climates
➤
topped metal vehicle with all windows
closed may be the next best thing if there
are no buildings to shelter inside. If you
+ find yourself in open terrain during a thun-
+
+ + derstorm then it is best to avoid areas of
+ + + + +
+ + +
+ + + + + open water and avoid isolated tall trees,
+ + + + +
- - + + towers or metal poles. These all act as focal
- - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - -
- - points for lightning strikes (Figure 9.13). If
- - - - -
you have nowhere to shelter, make yourself
as small a target as possible by crouching
down with your feet together, hands on
knees and head tucked in. Lightning at the
Rain and
hail ground is the most common natural cause
of forest fires, which can cause consider-
able damage and present a major hazard
to both people and the environment, par-
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + ticularly after long periods of drought.
Figure 9.12 Electrical charge in a thunderstorm.
80 people were injured when lightning
struck a music festival in Germany and in
India 93 farm workers were killed in one
day across Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkand
and Madhya Pradesh from separate light-
ning strikes.
If you experience an approaching thun-
derstorm and are outdoors you should try
to get indoors to a fully enclosed building
with wiring and plumbing as these provide
the best protection – if lightning strikes
then most of the charge will be directed
along the wiring or plumbing systems into Figure 9.13 Lightning striking a tall building during a thunderstorm.
the Earth. Tents and sheds will not provide (Source: Cpaulfell / Shutterstock.com)
suitable protection. Getting inside a hard
Box 9.2
precipitation. As a result of orographic enhancement of smaller scale in many hilly locations. This occurs because
precipitation, mid-latitude hills and mountains have unu- the air which can now descend down the lee side of the
sually high annual precipitation totals. In New Zealand, mountains warms adiabatically. This in combination
average precipitation totals on the windward side of the with the earlier loss of moisture through precipitation
Southern Alps can reach 10 000 mm yr-1. on the windward and summit parts of the mountains
As well as enhancing precipitation on the windward makes the air less saturated and thus less likely to produce
side of mountains, there can be substantial reductions precipitation.
of precipitation in lower-lying areas to the lee of the The other feature of mountains is that precipitation
mountains. These ‘rain shadow’ areas are found in many may fall as snow which can accumulate over time. Over
places such as northern Chile (south-east trade wind belt), the winter substantial amounts of snow can accumulate
Patagonia in Argentina and east of the Rocky Mountains in mountains. Often snow melt in the spring can produce
in the United States (mid-latitude westerlies) and on a large river flow peaks downstream even when there is no
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9.2 Altitude and topography
precipitation at the time. Precipitation in mountains is of the air onto the surface of the glacier which is then act-
therefore not just enhanced but its hydrological impact ing as a moisture sink.
may occur a number of months (or years) later. Given suf- Even in mountains where no glaciers exist, snow
ficient depth of snow (many metres) surviving over many patches can survive over the summer. The Observatory
summers it is possible for a glacier to form. At present Gully snow patch on Ben Nevis in the Scottish Highlands
nearly all mid-latitude mountain glaciers are retreating as is an example of this, having only melted completely a
annual melt is greater than snow accumulation. Despite few times over the past 120 years. Although snow may
that retreat, as the glacier surface ice is at 0°C even in mid- last for many years before melting, the Observatory Gully
summer, glaciers have an impact on their local summer cli- patch is too shallow to form a glacier. Like glaciers, such
mate as they act as heat sinks. Glaciers cool air in contact snow patches can also modify the microclimate close by.
with the surface and depending on the moisture content However, this is to a much smaller extent than glaciers.
of the air they can act as either a local moisture source or The snow can also have local ecological impacts creating
sink. If air is dry then water vapour can sublimate (change a niche for certain alpine species. Again the local topogra-
directly from the solid to gaseous state) into the air above phy is important with snow patches forming and surviving
the glacier. If the air is moist then water can condense out in local shaded depressions or gullies in the mountains.
Orographic Enhancement of
Precipitation
Pre-existing seeder cloud
Precipitation totals increase with altitude in
the tropics (up to around 1500 m) but the Raindrops
increase with altitude is greatest in the mid-
Feeder cloud
dle latitudes. This mid-latitude orographic
enhancement of precipitation is related Orographic enhancement
to the feeder–seeder mechanism. As air is
forced to rise over the mountains the adi-
abatic cooling reduces air temperature to
the point at which the air becomes saturated Figure 9.14 Schematic diagram of the feeder–seeder mechanism. The frontal cloud aloft pro-
with water vapour. Further, ascent leads to duces precipitation which falls and hits the water droplets in the orographic cloud. These then
combine to increase the overall precipitation totals on the mountain/hilltop.
the formation of cloud, a common feature
of mid-latitude mountains. This cloud acts
to increase precipitation falling from higher latitudes winter precipitation often falls range such as the Scottish Highlands, typi-
‘seeder’ clouds because the lower ‘feeder’ as snow and the turbulent flow around cally 80 km wide and only up to around
cloud droplets are swept into the precipita- mountains means that the deposition 170 km at their widest (from the west
tion falling through the cloud (Browning and of snow can be into gullies and hollows. coast to the east of the Cairngorms), there
Hill, 1981). This feeder–seeder enhancement Standard measurements of precipitation is a rapid decline in enhancement from
of precipitation as illustrated in Figure 9.14 using rain gauges are therefore impossible. west to east. While enhancement rates can
can be substantial at warm fronts and in In addition, orographic enhancement is be over 4.5 mm m - 1 in the western High-
warm sectors and to a lesser extent with cold not constant in all precipitation events. lands, in the east of the Cairngorms the
fronts. This is most apparent in coastal moun- Enhancement tends to be greatest at warm rate is only of the order of 1.33 mm m - 1
tain ranges such as the New Zealand Alps, fronts and in warm sectors and therefore (McClatchey, 1996). This enhancement
the Coast Mountains of British Columbia and as weather events are not distributed gives annual totals of just over 2000
the western Highlands of Scotland. evenly through time, there are seasonal mm on the highest tops of the eastern
Orographic enhancement of precipita- differences in enhancement. In addition, Cairngorms, as compared with 6000 mm in
tion is difficult to measure as in the middle even across a relatively narrow mountain parts of the western Highlands.
Box 9.3
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Chapter 9 Regional and local climates
9.2.5 Frost hollows sands or gravels, or thin soils on chalk, are more likely to
experience increased frequencies of frosts or unusually low
The density of air is inversely proportional to temperature
temperatures.
(r a 1/T; density increases as temperature falls). In light
Outside the tropics and subtropics, the lowest surface
winds, mechanical mixing of the air is very limited, and at
air temperatures are, however, almost always recorded
night there is a lack of convective turbulence that is nor-
when the ground is snow covered as the snow insulates
mally created by solar radiation warming the ground dur-
the air from the soil heat flux (Robinson and Henderson-
ing the day. As a result, the air close to the surface is cooled
Sellers, 1999). In addition, the cold air above snow surfaces
during the night as the surface temperature drops. This
contains less water vapour and therefore the surface radia-
cooling is greatest when the sky is cloud free and the air
tional cooling will be greater.
is dry. As this cooled air is now denser than the air aloft,
if it is on a slope, the air can start to move downslope in
what is called katabatic drainage. This flow of air is not
fast and is not like that of water but more like the flow Reflective questions
of something like porridge. Very rarely genuine katabatic
➤ While an average temperature lapse rate for the tropo-
winds can occur but this really only happens in the Ant-
sphere may be around 6.5°C km -1, under what circum-
arctic when cold air flows off the main ice sheets (which
stances would the lapse rate in mountains (i) show an
can be at over 3000 m above sea level) down to the coastal
increase in temperature with height from the valleys to
ice shelves. In most parts of the world, katabatic drainage
well up the hillsides; (ii) be close to the dry adiabatic lapse
is slow and the cold air can pond up behind restrictions
rate; (iii) show a fall in temperature followed by a rise and
in the flow such as walls (on a small scale) and on a larger
then a further steep fall in temperature on ascent?
scale where a wide valley becomes constricted at a lower
point in the valley. ➤ Why is it generally windier on the top of mid-latitude
Anticyclonic conditions are most likely to give rise to mountains than at lower elevations?
stronger katabatic drainage, as winds tend to be light and
➤ Why is the change of wind speed with height in tropical
the sky cloud free (calm and clear conditions). Such night-
and subtropical mountains different from that in mid-
time conditions are sometimes called radiation nights as
latitude mountains?
the surface has its maximum radiational loss under such
conditions. Anticyclones have a marked temperature inver- ➤ Why do rainfall totals in the middle latitudes increase
sion aloft formed by the subsidence of air from higher much more greatly with height than those in the tropics?
levels and on such radiation nights the surface temperature
➤ What conditions are needed for thunderstorms to form
inversion, formed by the cooling at the surface, can extend
and what hazards do they pose?
up to the anticyclonic inversion aloft.
The drainage of cold air into lower-lying areas can give
unusually high occurrences of frost and low temperatures
in certain locations. Such frost hollows are much more 9.3 Influence of water bodies
a feature of middle and high latitudes than other loca-
tions. This is because low temperatures occur when there Unlike land surfaces, water bodies have little diurnal
is strong radiational cooling at the surface resulting in a change in surface temperature except in very shallow water
surface temperature inversion. As water vapour is a strong close to the water’s edge. Surface temperatures are fairly
absorber of long-wave radiation, a significant amount of constant for a number of reasons. Solar radiation is trans-
which it re-emits down to the surface, the relatively moist mitted through water to a considerable depth and is not
air in most subtropical and tropical regions (deserts are the absorbed at the surface as is the case for land surfaces. The
exception) reduces the amount of this surface radiational high specific heat of water (the energy required to increase
cooling. Geiger (1965) described an extreme example water temperature) means that it requires more energy to
of local surface cooling at the Gstettneralm sinkhole in be absorbed for any given temperature change than other
Austria where temperature inversions from the bottom substances. Furthermore, the surface layers of water bod-
to the top (about 150 m) can be over 27°C and extreme ies tend to be well mixed, which helps spread any tem-
minima of below - 50 °C have been recorded in the valley perature change through a substantial depth of water. In
bottom. Low-lying areas with well-drained soils such as addition, energy at the surface is used largely for the latent
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9.3 Influence of water bodies
heat needed for evaporation rather than sensible heat that typically have speeds between 2 and 5 m s-1. Sea breezes
would cause a change in water temperature. exist from the surface to 2 km above ground and may
Over the land there are much more substantial diurnal penetrate 30 km or more inland (occasionally as far as
changes in air temperature particularly in the summer 100 km). The sea (or lake) breeze brings cooler (occa-
half-year when solar radiation is stronger. In the mid- sionally up to 10°C cooler) more humid air inland and
dle latitudes, sea surface temperatures (and the air in the a shallow sea breeze front may be evident. Uplift takes
layers close to the surface) are therefore cooler than land place along this front and can trigger the development of
surfaces during the day in the summer half-year. They are cumulus cloud (Figure 9.16). These clouds can be carried
warmer than land surfaces at night. The same is true in seawards by the counterflow present aloft. Occasionally
the high latitudes but in the winter half-year the tempera- sea breezes from different directions can converge enhanc-
ture of the snow-covered land may remain colder than sea ing uplift, which can lead to convective showers. The sea
surface temperatures during both day and night. Such dif- breeze dies off as night falls and is often replaced by a
ferences in local temperature result in sea and land breezes weak land breeze (Figure 9.15).
as shown in Figure 9.15. Features like this can also develop In the introduction to this chapter, the regional change
where there are large inland bodies of water, such as the in climate across the mid-west United States was high-
Great Lakes in North America, when they are called lake lighted as an example of how, although within a single
breezes. climate type, there would be differences in local climate. A
Sea breezes form only when there are light wind condi- further illustration of this can be seen in the temperatures
tions (typically anticyclonic conditions) as the stronger and rainfall of Milwaukee and Madison in Wisconsin,
winds of more active systems help reduce land–sea tem- USA (Madison is about 120 km west of Milwaukee). Both
perature differences through vigorous mixing of air. Sum- are in the same climate type but Milwaukee comes under
mer sea breezes are a feature of many coastal areas and the influence of Lake Michigan, giving it slightly milder
winters and slightly drier summers than Madison. This is
illustrated by climate data shown in Figure 9.17.
Another feature of middle- and higher-latitude large
(a) inland water bodies such as the Great Lakes in North
mb Daytime America is lake-effect snow. When cold polar or Arctic air
950 moves across a warmer underlying water body the tem-
970
990 perature of the lowest layers of the air is increased, which
1010
Land
causes instability and the formation of convective activ-
Sea
ity. As well as warming the lowest layer of the air, some
(b)
additional moisture is also added, but the main effect is
Cumulus
Counter flow develop and
migrate
i n fl ow
B ou n d a ry of seawards
layer
ndary
Lake or sea air rna l bou Land
Inte air
Sea breeze
Sea breeze
front
(c)
mb Night-time
950
970
990
1010
Sea Land
Figure 9.15 Circulation of sea and land breezes for (a) and (b) day time Figure 9.16 Cumulus clouds develop at the coast where air rises over the
and (c) night-time. (Source: after Robinson and Henderson-Sellers, 1999) land and migrates seawards.
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Chapter 9 Regional and local climates
(a) January or early February when the lake freezes over. The
35
Milwaukee
Lake Ontario lake-effect snow season, however, continues
30 into March as it does not freeze completely.
Madison
25 As well as occurring over lakes a similar snow effect
Temperature (5C)
20 can be found with polar or Arctic air flow over bays, some
15 more enclosed seas and oceans. Examples include the
10 eastern Black Sea region, the Aegean and Athens, eastern
5 Italy and the Adriatic, and in the United Kingdom cold,
0 fairly dry, easterly air flow from Europe can be warmed
-5 and moistened over the North Sea giving snow over east-
-10 ern England and eastern Scotland. An ocean effect is also
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Month
seen in the Sea of Japan and can occur in Nova Scotia and
Cape Cod and in northern Scotland on the other side of
(b)
the Atlantic.
150
Milwaukee
125
Madison
Rainfall (mm)
100
75
Reflective questions
50
25
➤ Why do sea and land breezes form?
0 ➤ Why is there more snow in the vicinity of some large lakes?
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Month
Figure 9.17 Mean monthly temperature (a) and precipitation (b) at
ilwaukee (43°N) and Madison (43°N). Milwaukee is close to Lake
M
Michigan and so has milder winters owing to the influence of the warmer
9.4 Human influences
water. The lake water in winter is warmer than the surrounding land
because it cools more slowly than land. Thus air over the lake becomes 9.4.1 Shelter belts
warmed by the lake water. The lake also acts as a moisture source and so
winters in Milwaukee are wetter than those in Madison, which is too far It was noted earlier that coastal areas are subject to
away from Lake Michigan to be affected. stronger winds than inland areas when winds are blow-
ing off the sea. This is a result of reduced friction over
the relatively smooth sea surface. This suggests that
the relative warming (the air may still be very cold, just not any alterations in surface roughness have an impact on
as cold as upwind of the water). The convective activity the local wind. However, unless there is a permanent
causes precipitation which, as the air is cold, falls as snow. change to a new surface (as from sea to land) individual
The convective activity can be enhanced at the edge of roughness elements such as trees or buildings will have
lakes as the greater surface friction over the land can cause an effect for only a relatively short distance downwind.
slowing down of air and hence some convergence which If a line of trees or hedges is planted upwind of a field
then forces air to rise. Convection can be also enhanced sown with sensitive crops it is possible to reduce the
with across-lake flow if there is an upslope (or orographic) local wind speeds in the field to provide some protec-
effect when the air reaches land. Lake-effect snow results tion. The same thing can be done around a garden to
in annual snowfall totals of over 250 cm to the lee of the provide shelter. The ideal shelter belt is slightly perme-
lakes, and exceeds 500 cm in the Tug Hill Plateau in New able as the lower layer of air acts somewhat like a cushion
York (to the lee of Lake Ontario) and on the Keweenaw and extends the reduction in wind speed over a longer
Peninsula of northern Michigan (to the lee of Lake distance as shown in Figure 9.18. An impermeable shel-
Superior). ter belt will produce a greater reduction in wind speed
In areas where lakes become frozen (often with snow close to the belt. However, recovery of the wind speed to
cover) the lake-effect season ends at this point. For exam- upwind values is more rapid for impermeable belts, tak-
ple, at Lake Winnipeg there can be lake-effect snow in ing place over a distance of about 10–15 times the height
November but then the lake freezes and the effect ends. of the barrier. Low-density shelter belts have an impact
For Lake Erie the lake-effect snow season often ends in late 15–20 times the height of the barrier downwind with
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9.4 Human influences
Lee
eddy
High density
‘Cushion’
Low density
120
100 Figure 9.19 Shelter belts in The Netherlands protecting fruit trees and
open fields. (Source: Shutterstock.com)
% open wind speed
80
60 High
Medium density
40
Low 9.4.2 Urban climates
20
The fabric of towns and cities substantially alters surface
0 characteristics compared with surrounding rural areas.
10 5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Distance equivalent to the number of times greater The urban surface is much rougher than most vegetation.
than height of obstacle An indication of roughness can be given by what is called
Figure 9.18 The role of shelter belts in reducing wind speed downwind. the roughness length. This is of the order of 5–20 cm for
Low- and medium-density belts offer better shelter than high-density agricultural crops but up to 10 m for tall buildings. There
belts (e.g. walls) for a greater distance away from the belt. This is
are also important changes to the radiation and energy
because the small amount of air flowing through the low-density belts
cushions the air flowing over the top of the belt. Without this the air fluxes in urban areas. The urban fabric (stonework, road
flowing over the top immediately subsides, causing fast-moving eddies materials, roofs and so on) strongly absorbs solar radia-
to form and thus rendering high-density belts less useful. (Source: after tion. There is also a substantial release of energy into the
Nägeli, 1946)
urban atmosphere as a result of humans heating their envi-
ronment (domestic and industrial). This is especially the
case for mid- and high-latitude cities in winter. The urban
medium-density shelter belts having the greatest impact atmosphere is also affected by air pollution with increased
of up to 20–25 times the height of the barrier. levels of carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and various
The use of shelter belts is best when there is a particu- hydrocarbons. Although the local climatic impact of urban
lar wind direction from which damaging winds come. areas is always present, it is reduced in strong wind condi-
Figure 9.19 shows an example where a tall tree shelterbelt tions as the vigorous mixing spreads any impact through
in the background protects the crops and smaller fruit a greater depth of the atmosphere and rapidly transports
trees in the foreground from winds coming towards the effects away from the urban area. The greatest impact of
photographer. For example, in the Rhône Valley of south- urban areas on the local climate is therefore found during
ern France, shelter belts are planted to protect crops from light wind conditions. While the most important impact
winds that can come down the valley from the north. Snow of urban areas on climate is linked to air pollution, there
fences set back from roads and railway lines are also a type are local climate changes in both the temperature and
of shelter belt as they are used to reduce air flow to allow wind regimes experienced by towns and cities.
snow to fall to the ground before the air reaches the road. The most commonly discussed climate modification in
This keeps roads and rails more clear of snow than would urban areas is the urban heat island effect. This is so called
otherwise be the case. In many ski resorts, snow fences are as the urban area is an ‘island’ of warmer air within the
also used to reduce local air flow and help allow snow to surrounding cooler rural air (Figure 9.20). The urban heat
accumulate on the pistes. island occurs mainly at night when the urban atmosphere
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Chapter 9 Regional and local climates
30
Temperature (°C) 29
28
27
26
25
Farmland Factories Town center Town park Suburbs Rural/Farmland
Figure 9.20 The theoretical urban heat island effect.
cools more slowly than that in the surrounding rural areas leading heat island maxima to occur at that time of year.
(Figure 9.21). It is more strongly developed in generally Even in London, a mid-latitude city with relatively mild
light wind conditions with clear skies when long-wave winters, anthropogenic heat losses reach over 200 W m-2
radiational loss is greatest (at night). Oke and East (1971) in winter, which is greater than typical solar radiation
recorded a maximum heat island of up to 12°C in amounts at that time of year. Infrared technology can be
Montreal in winter, which is unusual for mid-latitude cit- attached to aircraft to examine which buildings emit most
ies where the maximum heat island is normally observed heat and to determine those areas most in need of addi-
in summer. However, in high-latitude cities the anthropo- tional insulation (Figure 9.22). There can be quite rapid
genic heat losses in winter can be very large (owing to the changes in temperatures in moving from urban parks into
extra internal heating switched on in offices and homes), built-up areas (Jauregi, 1991).
Oke (1976) identified two parts to the modification of
the urban atmosphere: the urban canopy layer and the urban
boundary layer (Figure 9.23). Oke (1987) also suggested
how an urban heat island would develop these two layers.
In the case of the urban canopy layer he suggested that the
Air temperature
Urban following would all play a role: (i) greater absorption or
direct solar radiation due to ‘canyon geometry’ (width of
25C the road plus the height of the buildings on either side);
Rural (ii) greater daytime heat storage due to properties of urban
materials; (iii) anthropogenic heat release from buildings
(largely due to heating losses); and (iv) decreased evapora-
tion. In the urban boundary layer, however, he suggested
entrainment of air from the canopy layer, anthropogenic
Heat island intensity
heat from roofs and chimneys, and downward flux of
Urban minus rural temperature sensible heat (see Chapter 6) from the overlying stable layer
would be the principal causes of the urban boundary layer
heat island.
12 18 24 06 12 There appear to be critical wind speeds above which the
Time (h) urban heat island disappears. Examples are 12 m s-1 for
Figure 9.21 Typical temporal variation of urban and rural air temperatures London, 11 m s-1 for Montreal and 4–7 m s-1 for Read-
under clear skies and weak air flow. (Source: after Oke, 1987) ing (England) and these critical speeds are related to size
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9.4 Human influences
High Low
Heat loss
Figure 9.22 Heat loss from an urban area detected using infrared sensors on an aircraft. It is possible to see
which individual buildings are in need of increased insulation.
establishes an adiabatic lapse rate and as a result a stable
layer is formed aloft. The heat island formed in this well-
Regional
wind mixed urban boundary layer is strongly related to the city
size and types of building in the city and therefore the
Urban
Urban largest urban boundary layer heat islands are found in cit-
‘plume’
boundary Urban
layer canopy ies such as New York (e.g. Gedzelman and Austin, 2003).
Rural
boundary The failure to differentiate between the local urban canopy
layer
layer and the more general urban boundary layer heat
Rural Suburban Urban Suburban Rural
islands can lead to erroneous conclusions being drawn in
observational studies.
Figure 9.23 The urban canopy and boundary layer. The canopy layer con- In strong winds, urban buildings can create powerful
sists of the spaces around the local buildings beneath the mean height
of the buildings, whereas the boundary layer is the layer affected by the
gusts as the wind is forced to flow round tall buildings.
urban environment. (Source: after Oke, 1976) In a zone close to tall buildings gusts may reach 2.5 or
even 3 times the mean wind speed upwind of the build-
ing. The Venturi effect occurs when winds are forced to
of the urban area. Even in relatively light wind conditions, funnel between two buildings increasing localized wind
the turbulence caused by air flow over buildings is enough speeds (Figure 9.24a). These winds can cause difficulty
to maintain a well-mixed atmosphere (up to an altitude in walking and opening doors and may put severe stress
of a few hundred metres in the largest cities). This mixing on the buildings. Transverse currents can be generated
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Chapter 9 Regional and local climates
(a) Venturi effect (b) Transverse currents
(-)
(+)
(+) (+)
Zones of increased wind speed + Increased pressure
(up to 2.5 to 3 times regional wind) - Decreased pressure
Figure 9.24 Wind regime around buildings: (a) flow can be funnelled into narrow passages between
buildings resulting in the Venturi effect; (b) transverse currents can develop when buildings are at right
angles to the wind. (Source: after Thurow, 1983)
when buildings are at right angles to the wind. Here 9.4.3 Atmospheric pollution and haze
pressure differences between the upwind and downwind
Most air pollution events are localized in urban or indus-
sides of the buildings can lead to unexpected strong gusts
trial areas where traffic emissions or pollutants from fac-
(Figure 9.24b).
tories occur. There can be periods when the atmospheric
Overall, however, large urban areas tend to reduce
conditions of urban areas are a danger to human health
overall mean wind speeds as their greater roughness slows
(Figure 9.25). In regions with high solar radiation such
wind speeds to below their rural upwind values. This
modification of wind flow around buildings also plays
a role in the dispersion of air pollution and can lead to
areas where the local air pollution is unusually high as
a result of the trapping of pollution between buildings.
Although there is some evidence that convectional rainfall
can be enhanced by urban areas (but perhaps downwind
of the city), there is no real indication that urban areas
have any influence on precipitation events. Therefore, the
climate modifications created by urban areas are largely
the canopy and urban boundary layer heat islands and
the modification of the wind regime. In addition, there is
increased air pollution in cities but levels at any one place
are related to emissions, dispersion and local geography
and not just to any change in the local climate. Urban
Figure 9.25 Smog over Taipei City, Taiwan. Air quality index levels were
areas do also have some influence on local atmospheric
classified as ‘Beyond Index’ (PM 2.5 of over 500 mm per cubic meter).
moisture conditions related to lower evapotranspiration Smog blocks out the sunlight and promotes respiratory and other health
(Deosthali, 2000). problems. (Source: Chen Min Chun / Shutterstock.com)
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9.4 Human influences
as Los Angeles, Athens and Mexico City, the ultraviolet strict traditional rules of using fire. Unfortunately, the
radiation reacts with the uncombusted hydrocarbons from large number of settlers who came from other islands
vehicle emissions and produces a photochemical smog and new plantation companies do not follow rules that
which irritates the eyes, nose and throat. However, often help the long-term maintenance of the environment.
these conditions are localized and do not persist for long Plantation companies (or people hoping to profit from
periods. Recently, however, in some places there have been providing services to them) have a particular responsibil-
haze pollution events that have lasted months and spread ity as they are largely aware of potential environmental
over many hundreds of kilometres (Box 9.4). damage and yet place a higher value on their own profits.
Many of the large haze pollution events have resulted The Indonesian Government has banned the use of fire
from forest fires. Forest fires can occur both through for clearing land for a number of years but fires continue
natural action and by human intervention. Forest fires in to be lit as Indonesia expands its wood pulp, palm oil
Indonesia are very largely the result of human activity as and rubber industries. In addition to fires, the extensive
fire is used to clear land for agricultural purposes. Fire is logging of the rainforests, particularly selective logging,
cheap and, as well as reducing vegetation cover, enriches plus other land-use changes have played an important
what are often very poor soils. Indigenous tribes, such as role in making the Indonesian rainforests more sus-
the Dayak people in Kalimantan, have traditionally used ceptible to fire. Rainforests are humid and fires do not
shifting cultivation (slash and burn) techniques and their naturally take hold. Selective logging and other agricul-
use has been in tune with the natural environment with tural land uses open up the forest and allow it to dry out
2015 South-East Asian Haze
A major air pollution crisis occurred during
June to October 2015 affecting Indone-
sia, Brunei, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand,
Vietnam, Cambodia and the Phillipines.
Fires were started illegally in parts of
Indonesia such as Sumatra and Kalimantan
by those trying to clear peatland forests
for production of palm oil or wood pulp.
The smoke caused significant haze across
the region (Figure 9.26). Many businesses
and schools had to close in Malaysia and
Singapore. Transport was affected with
air and sea travel affected. Major tour-
ist areas in Singapore and Thailand were
affected and life became intolerable in
many locations with serious health conse-
quences. For example, there were states Figure 9.26 Smoke from fires on Sumatra and Borneo, spreading across South-East Asia on
of emergency in six Indonesian states 24 September 2015. Image is approximately 1700 km across. (Source: NASA image by Adam
Voiland, NASA Earth Observatory, and Jeff Schmaltz, LANCE MODIS Rapid Response)
with 500 000 people reporting respira-
tory illnesses, and evacuations of school
children from the worst polluted areas. It is caused by greedy businesses clearing for- than US$50 billion in economic losses for
estimated that the 2015 fires in Indonesia, est for financial gain, may have cost more the South-East Asian region.
BOX 9.4
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Chapter 9 Regional and local climates
more easily. The forest fires have caused massive damage
within Indonesia but, due to the smoke from the fires, Reflective questions
damage has also been caused to neighbouring countries,
such as Malaysia and Singapore. ➤ Why is a permeable barrier more effective as a shelter
As well as human activity, natural climate cycles can belt than an impermeable barrier?
increase the susceptibility of forests to fires. For example,
➤ What is the urban heat island effect?
during El Niño events there tends to be reduced rainfall
over Indonesia which leads to drier than usual vegetation. ➤ If the mean wind speeds in cities are slower than in rural
However, fires now occur every year in Indonesian forests areas why are urban wind gusts sometimes faster?
and are not simply coincident with El Niño events.
9.5 Summary reduction of wind speed close to the surface is much less than
over land. Therefore, if the wind direction is from the sea to land,
Local climate variations vary from extremely localized microcli- coastal areas are subject to stronger winds. In addition, there
mates to more generalized regional climates within a general can often be substantial differences between air temperatures
climate type. Regional and local geographies are the key factors over land and sea partly due to the high specific heat of water
in determining the magnitude and importance of these climates. but also due to the ability of solar radiation to penetrate to
A particular climate classification type can therefore be affected considerable depths before being fully absorbed. This can lead
more locally by a number of different influences, some of which to cooling sea breezes in coastal regions particularly in summer
will depend on particular weather conditions or on the time of (see below). Lakes can also have an influence on the climate
year. The most obvious and rapid climate gradients result from such as lake-effect snow, but except in the case of very large
changes in altitude. With increasing altitude atmospheric pressure lakes (such as the North American Great Lakes that behave like
decreases, and associated with this are decreases in temperature. inland seas) any effect is limited to a very narrow strip around
Precipitation totals often increase substantially with altitude and the edge of the lake.
the wind regime in hills and mountains can be much more severe Human activity can also alter climate on a regional and even
than that for nearby low-lying ground. Small topographic features on a global scale. Examples include the haze pollution caused by
can also be important. At night, radiational cooling takes place, forest fires, and emissions of CO2 into the atmosphere through
reducing the temperature of the air close to the ground. This the burning of fossil fuels (see Chapters 6 and 7). However, there
cooler air is slightly denser and tends to move down slopes to are more localized changes to climate that are a result of human
lower ground and into depressions (this is termed katabatic drain- activity. The most obvious example is the creation of a distinct
age). There are also microclimate variations introduced by veg- urban climate in built-up areas. Urban areas affect the urban
etation and these include both forests and deliberately planted atmosphere and in lighter winds strong heat islands can develop.
shelter belts. The urban atmosphere can be split into a canopy (between build-
The climate near sea coasts is also modified as a result of the ing) layer and a boundary (above roof) layer and each will have its
influence of the sea, particularly in middle and high latitudes. own heat island. Buildings also modify wind flow. Towns and cities
Coastal areas are often subject to stronger winds than more tend to have lower wind speeds but greater gustiness than sur-
inland areas. Winds over the sea are stronger as the frictional rounding rural areas.
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Further reading
Further reading This is republication of a book from 1965 which is still of
great relevance today. It details a whole range of ground–
air i nteractions ranging from soil and vegetation energy
balances to the deposition of dew on ponds. It is a very
Barry, R.G. (1992) Mountain weather and climate. Routledge, detailed text.
London.
Excellent book on topographic controls of local, regional and Robinson, P.J. and Henderson-Sellers, A. (1999) Contemporary
global climate with a whole section dedicated to case studies. climatology. Pearson Education, Harlow.
Chapters 10 and 11 are particularly relevant to the material dis-
Beniston, M. (2006) Mountain weather and climate: a general
cussed above.
overview and a focus on climatic change in the Alps. Hydrobio-
logia, 562, 3–16.
Rosenberg, N.J., Blad, B.L. and Verma, S.B. (1983) Microclimate:
An interesting paper looking at change over time in gradients of
The biological environment. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
rainfall and surface temperature with altitude.
Only Chapter 9 covering the subject of shelter belts is relevant
Geiger, R., Aron, R.H. and Todhunter, P. (2003) The climate here.
near the ground. Rowman and Littlefield, Oxford.
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PA RT I V
Biogeography and ecology
Figure PIV At different levels from the atmosphere, the top of the tree Part contents
canopy and down into the soil and water bodies there are interactions
of species, matter and energy. However, humans can have a major ➤ Chapter 10: The biosphere
impact on these interactions.
➤ Chapter 11: Ecosystem processes
➤ Chapter 12: Freshwater ecosystems
➤ Chapter 13: Vegetation and climate change
M10 An Introduction to Physical Ge 83575.indd 251 24/05/2017 12:59
Part IV Biogeography and ecology
Scope Chapter 12 deals with living things in freshwater. Freshwater
bodies hold around 6% of the Earth’s species of plants and animals
The various features of the biosphere can be associated with all
despite covering less than 1% of the Earth’s surface. Factors that
aspects of geography, from the climate system, oceanography,
control the spatial variability of aquatic life are outlined within
geology, hydrology, social issues and even global tectonics. These
Chapter 12 as are the feedback effects between aquatic life, water
interactions result in distinctive regions of plants and animals
quality and the geomorphology of freshwater aquatic systems.
(biomes) that differ depending upon the controlling variables, and
The biogeographical system also plays an important role in the
often phase into one another along a gradient of change. Chapter 10
climate system and there are twoway interactions between climate
discusses the characteristics of these various biomes. It is not
and vegetation. Chapter 13 considers these interactions and demon-
enough, however, simply to describe their features, but it is necessary
strates how vegetation on Earth is changing in response to climate
to explain their nature and form. Chapter 11 is therefore concerned
change. The alteration and fragmentation of major biomes have been
with studying the processes behind the spatial distribution of plants
features of the human impact on the environment for thousands of
and animals and their change over time. By studying ecosystem
years. However, the increasing density of human populations and
processes, we become aware of the very dynamic nature of ecosys-
improvements in technological capabilities put added pressure on
tems and the checks and balances operating as drivers of ecological
the biosphere including freshwater bodies. The requirement of envi-
change. The planet’s biomes are not static. Closer observation shows
ronmental managers to balance the preservation of ecosystems with
that important links between plants, animals and soils are related
human needs for the ecosystem necessitates a sound understanding
to processes involving the movement of energy and organic and
of the major ecological, biogeographical and environmental pro-
inorganic materials through the system so that ecosystems are in a
cesses that characterize the living portion of our planet.
constant state of change.
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C H A PTER 1 0
The biosphere
Julie Peacock
School of Geography, University of Leeds
Learning objectives some of which are well known, while other feedbacks are
not yet fully understood. Altering one part of the bio-
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
sphere can have profound consequences for other parts.
Therefore, humans have caused substantial impacts by
➤ describe the organizational hierarchy in ecology
altering the nature of the atmosphere, water and land via
pollution, modifications for food supply, and urban or
➤ explain what biodiversity is and how it is calculated
industrial development.
➤ summarize the patterns of biodiversity across the biosphere It has been proposed that the Earth is now approaching
➤ describe the vegetation of the major terrestrial biomes based on a ‘state shift’ in the biosphere, where it will alter rapidly
climatic variables and irreversibly to a new state (Barnosky et al., 2012).
➤ outline the main aquatic biomes While ecologists try to understand what factors will cause
the tipping point for such a transition, scientists who
➤ discuss the issues caused by fragmentation of ecosystems
study genes and gene function are trying to develop ‘the
biocode,’ the genetic variation in the whole of the bio-
10.1 Introduction sphere (Davies et al., 2012). Perhaps by 2050 a DNA-based
code for most of the biosphere will exist. This will vastly
The biosphere is the living part of the planet. It stretches improve our understanding of the interactions within and
from the upper troposphere at an altitude of 15 km, where between ecosystems. With knowledge of the DNA codes,
living microorganisms such as bacteria have been found exciting possibilities to reintroduce extinct species arise.
(DeLeon-Rodrigueza, 2013), down to over 1.5 km below However, knowledge of all genetic information seems
the seafloor, where cells of microbes have been extracted unlikely when it is thought, for example, that there are
(Roussel, 2008). The majority of the biomass in the bio- millions of microbes yet to be discovered. It is also worth
sphere is around the Earth’s surface in the oceans and considering reducing our impact on the biosphere now
on land. In the biosphere, life interacts with physical and rather than risking trying to recreate extinct species using
chemical processes in the atmosphere, water and land with as yet unproven techniques or face the ethical debate sur-
complex feedbacks between the systems (Figure 10.1), rounding the revival of ecosystems from DNA coding.
M10 An Introduction to Physical Ge 83575.indd 253 24/05/2017 12:59
Chapter 10 The biosphere
species, and in addition they did not reproduce with the
Atmosphere other salamander species.
Insolation The definition of a species may at first seem quite
Precipitation
straightforward. However, there are a number of compli-
Habitat
(e.g. microbes) cations. For example, in nature some plants and animals
will form hybrids. When this happens separate groups
interbreed and the offspring will be fertile, leaving an
Alteration of microclimate: unresolved question of how to classify these groups. Per-
transpiration,
albedo changes
haps more difficult to determine are species definitions for
microbes that do not undertake sexual reproduction, but
Geochemical Biosphere reproduce asexually so that offspring arise from a single
movement organism. Defining a species as a group of interbreeding
and storage individuals cannot really be applied to organisms that
reproduce mainly or exclusively asexually. Thus there are
Destructive effects Addition of nutrients
of burrowers to soil, alteration still major questions about defining species but the biolog-
and plant roots of pH balance ical species concept is at the very least a reasonable work-
ing definition, which will be used in this chapter.
Soil
nutrients Habitat
(e.g. burrowing 10.2.2 The naming of species
animals)
Lithosphere In Chapters 10 and 11, species will be identified by their
Latin binomial, which is conventionally written in italics,
Figure 10.1 Interactions between the atmosphere, biosphere and although their common names will be given as well. This
lithosphere. system of naming was originally developed by Carolus
Linnaeus in the 1700s, and is still the accepted method of
This chapter starts with an overview of key functions naming species used by scientists today. It uses a combina-
and processes that operate in the biosphere with the aim tion of two names. The first is the genus name and the sec-
of ensuring that the rest of the chapter then follows from ond the specific epithet. For example, for Homo sapiens,
this overview. Many of these processes are dealt with in Homo is the genus name and sapiens is the specific epi-
more detail in Chapter 11, which deals with ecosystem thet. Why not just use a common name that is easy to
processes. The biomes, which are large ecological areas, remember and say? The reason is that the Latin binomial
with characteristic vegetation usually determined by the can be understood universally. A species with a large geo-
climate, will be outlined. This chapter will consider issues graphic range may have different common names in differ-
caused by fragmentation of ecosystems. ent areas. Taraxacum officinale, for example, is known as
dandelion, blowball, puffball, cankerwort, milk-witch and
yellow-gowan in different places. Further, some species
10.2 Biological concepts
may have different common names depending on their life
stage and some common names can lead to confusion. For
10.2.1 What is a species?
example, the flying fox is actually a species of bat and a
The biological species concept states that a species is a mantis shrimp is neither a mantis nor a shrimp.
group of individuals, which has the potential to interbreed The science of the classification of species is known
in nature and produce fertile offspring, and cannot repro- as taxonomy. Species are classified hierarchically, with two
duce with other groups. Therefore, species are not defined examples given in Table 10.1. The left-hand column in
by their appearance, although this may help in identifying Table 10.1 lists the hierarchical classification levels from the
species. Appearance can cause confusion. For example, in highest level at the top of the table (domain) to lowest level
2001, zoologists discovered a new species of salamander at the bottom (species). When an organism is said to belong
in the hills of Mexico (Parra-Olea and Wake, 2001). The to a taxonomic group this may refer to any level from king-
soil dwelling salamander appeared completely identical dom to genus, because it means a group of related species.
to a salamander found hundreds of miles away. However, A debate remains about how to divide life, particularly at
their DNA showed they were not descended from the same the higher levels of classification. However, many will divide
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10.2 Biological concepts
Table 10.1 The classification of sunflower and humans based on the Table 10.2 Levels of organization in ecology
hierarchical system developed by Linnaeus
Cells
Domain Eukaryota Eukaryota
Tissues
Kingdom Plantae Animalia
Organs
Phylum Tracheophyta Chordata
Organization Organisms An individual
Class Magnoliopsida Mammalia levels of interest
Populations A group of individuals from the
in ecology
Order Asterales Primates same species, occupying the
same area
Family Asteraceae Hominidae
Communities Communities are the different
Genus Helianthus Homo
groups of populations that inter-
Species Helianthus annuus Homo sapiens act together
(common name) (sunflower) (human)
Ecosystems All the communities in an area
and all the abiotic factors that
affect it
it into three domains – eukaryota, bacteria and archaea – Biome A group of connecting
with the first being multi-celled organisms and second ecosystems
two being single celled organisms. Eukaryota are usually Biosphere All the biomes together
divided into four kingdoms – Plantae, Animalia, Fungi and Earth
Protista. The Plantae, Animalia and Fungi kingdoms are Solar System
all very well defined, with all the organisms placed within
them descended from a single ancestor. For example, all the
organisms in Plantae are plants that have evolved from a sin-
gle ancestral plant; all the organisms in the Kingdom Ani- and a study examining ‘What is the ability of tropical
malia are animals descended from a single animal ancestor; forests to store carbon?’ is focused at the biome level.
and all the organisms in the Fungi Kingdom are descended These levels of organization are not scale-dependant and
from one fungus. The Kingdom P rotista, however, contains although they are extremely useful in understanding ecol-
organisms that are now known to be related more closely ogy and framing research questions the levels of organiza-
to organisms in the other Kingdoms than they are to each tion do not hold when you consider that there is an entire
other. Grouping into the Protista Kingdom was based ecosystem within a human gut.
partly on the absence of certain characteristics such as cell
differentiation not being extensive and a lack of complex
10.2.4 Biodiversity
development from embryos. However, it is likely that in the
future this Kingdom will be separated into several smaller The key feature of the biosphere is life. Perhaps life’s most
kingdoms. With only an estimated 14% of the Earth’s remarkable characteristic is its diversity. Biological diver-
8.7 million eukaryotic species identified (Mora et al., 2011) sity, shortened to biodiversity, is a term widely reported
there may be a need to change classification schemes in the by the media, perhaps without many readers fully under-
future and there is still a huge task of species identification standing its meaning. At the 1992 convention on Biological
to be undertaken. Diversity, Rio de Janeiro, biodiversity was defined as, ‘the
biological diversity within species, between species, and of
ecosystems’. So there are in fact three levels of biodiversity:
10.2.3 Levels of organization
genetic diversity – variation in individual genetics within a
It is worth considering the different levels of organiza- population and between populations; ecosystem diversity,
tion that there are within and beyond the biosphere the variety of ecosystems within the biosphere; and species
(Table 10.2). An organism is the smallest unit within the diversity, which is usually what the media refers to, and is
ecological hierarchy. Researchers will often focus on one the variety of species in a given area.
level of organization. For example, a study of ‘What Biodiversity is important as it provides a wide range of
triggers flowering time in Silene dioica (red campion)?’ products and resources from different food crops, to medi-
is focused at the organism level; while a study to answer cine, to rubber and building materials. Biodiversity has intan-
‘How does pond size effect the diversity of freshwater gible value to people for recreation, aesthetic and cultural
invertebrates within it?’ focuses on the community level; reasons. In addition, biodiversity has been shown to increase
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Chapter 10 The biosphere
ecosystem resilience, making them more stable when faced Table 10.3 Examples of biodiversity at two sites. Site 1 and 2 have the
same species richness (5) and the same number of individuals (100).
with environmental stressors (Tilman et al., 1996; Naeem
However, because the individuals in site 1 are more evenly distributed
and Li, 1997). Biodiversity also ensures that a wide range of than site 2, where Lasius flavus dominates, site 1 is considered to be more
ecosystem services, such as carbon storage, water resources biodiverse
and pollination for food production, can be provided.
Biodiversity is made up of two components, namely
Numbers of individuals
richness and evenness. When considering species, biodi-
versity richness is simply the number of species present, Invertebrate Species Site 1 Site 2
known as species richness. Many important theories
Glomeris marginata (millipede) 21 2
in ecology including island biogeography theory (see
Philoscia muscorum (common 23 9
Box 11.3 in Chapter 11) and the keystone concept (see
woodlouse)
Box 11.1 in Chapter 11) are based on species richness.
Trichoniscus pusillus 18 7
Evenness takes into account the abundance of the differ-
(small woodlouse)
ent species present. Where the total number of individuals
Stenobothrus lineatus 12 1
is spread equally between species in an area, the area has (stripe-winged grasshopper)
a greater evenness than one in which a particular species
Lasius flavus 26 81
dominates and the other species have just a couple of indi- (yellow meadow ant)
viduals. An area with the greatest biodiversity has high
Total 100 100
species richness and high evenness scores. An example of
this is shown in Table 10.3. There are a number of tech-
niques that quantify diversity which take account of both Whittaker (1970) introduced the concept of explaining
richness and evenness, and some of these are described in biodiversity at different spatial scales and termed the diver-
Box 10.1. sity at different scales, alpha, beta and gamma diversity
Measuring diversity then the percentage cover of plants, or proportionally to their frequencies in the
biomass can also be used. Diversity can sample (unlike other indices used which
Species richness, the number of species
be calculated for any taxonomic group, give extra weighting to rare or common
in an area, is a basic measure of diversity,
so the focus could be on genera rather species). Some of the advantages of the
but it does not account for the even- than species, if that was appropriate for Shannon–Weiner Index are that it is rela-
ness of species in that area. In addition, the study. tively easy to calculate and fairly sensitive
species richness can also be difficult to The most popular measure of species to site differences. However, there can be
estimate accurately if only small areas of diversity used in ecology, which takes instances where it produces very similar
the study region are sampled and also into account richness and evenness, is results for sites which are in fact quite
when there is extremely high diversity the Shannon–Weiner Index. This index different.
(see Gotelli and Chao, 2013 for a full dis- is also known as Shannon’s Index, the The formula for the Shannon–Weiner
cussion). Diversity indices are commonly Shannon–Weaver Index or the Shannon Index (H′) is:
used as a measure of the biodiversity of
H′ = - a [pi ln(pi)](10.1)
Entropy (it is a measure of entropy). The s
an area. They can be used to compare Shannon–Weiner Index is widely used
1
the species diversity of similar sites, or in other disciplines including Informa-
of the same site over time. Diversity can tion Theory, Computer Science, Chem- where a is the symbol for ‘sum of’, S is
be calculated using the number of indi- istry and Physics. The Shannon–Weiner the number of species, pi is the proportion
viduals of each species, but where this is Index makes no assumptions about data of each species (the ith species), and ln is
difficult to accurately measure in the field being used and all species are weighted the natural logarithm. Equation (10.1) can
Box 10.1 ➤
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10.2 Biological concepts
➤
Table 10.4 Field data with species information and abundances from two woodlands data collected from the same sized area
in two woodlands. Note the number of
individuals and the presence or absence
Woodland 1 Woodland 2
of species in each wood are different.
Table 10.5 shows how to calculate H′ for
Quercus robur (Oak) 4 0
these woodlands. H′ is 1.48 for woodland
Fraxinus excelsior (Ash) 7 2 1 and 0.81 for woodland 2. Therefore bio-
Betula pendula (Silver Birch) 6 23 diversity is higher in woodland 1 than in
Acer pseudoplatanus (Sycamore) 7 2 woodland 2.
It is important to remember two
Fagus sylvatica (Beech) 1 3
things about results from the Shannon–
Total individuals 25 30 Weiner Index. First, the results are rela-
tive values, so you can say that one is
higher than another, but not by how
be expanded so that it is easier to under- The symbols in (10.2) are the same as in much. Second, they are not diversity
stand how it is calculated: (10.1) but in addition N is the total num- values, but indices of diversity and the
ber of individuals, and ni is the number of results cannot be compared with results
H′ = - a J ¢ ≤ * ln¢ ≤ R (10.2)
ni ni individuals of each species (the ith spe- of other indices of diversity such as the
N N cies). As an example, Table 10.4 provides Simpson’s Index.
Table 10.5 Calculating the Shannon–Weiner Index (H′) for woodlands 1 and 2. Note that as no individuals of Quercus robur (Oak) were found
for woodland 2 the data fields are left blank
-a
i Number of individual ni ni ni ni
trees (ni) N ln¢ ≤ * ln¢ ≤
N N N
Woodland 1
Oak 1 n1 4 0.16 - 1.83 - 0.29
Ash 2 n2 7 0.28 - 1.27 - 0.36
Silver Birch 3 n3 6 0.24 - 1.43 - 0.34
Sycamore 4 n4 7 0.28 - 1.27 - 0.36
Beech 5 n5 1 0.04 - 3.22 - 0.13
N = a ni = 25
a J ¢ N ≤ * ln¢ N ≤ R = - 1.48
Sum ni ni 1.48
Woodland 2
Oak 1 n1 0
Ash 2 n2 2 0.07 - 2.66 - 0.19
Silver Birch 3 n3 23 0.77 - 0.26 - 0.20
Sycamore 4 n4 2 0.07 - 2.66 - 0.19
Beech 5 n5 3 0.10 - 2.30 - 0.23
N = a ni = 30
a J ¢ N ≤ * ln¢ N ≤ R = - 0.81
Sum ni ni 0.81
Box 10.1
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Chapter 10 The biosphere
Woodland B Woodland C
Woodland A
Alpha
Woodland Species present diversty
Woodland A 4
Woodland B 8
Woodland C 5
Gamma
diversity
Diversity of 11
woodlands A,
B and C
combined
Unique Species Species Overlap
A compared to B 8 2
A compared to C 9 0
B compared to C 6 4
Figure 10.2 Species richness in three woodlands demonstrating alpha, beta and gamma diversity. Each symbol represents a different species, recording
only presence, rather than the number of species. Woodlands A and C have the greatest beta diversity. For gamma diversity there are three woodland
habitats with a total species diversity of 11.
(Figure 10.2). Alpha diversity is the species richness at a 10.3 Patterns of distribution
particular site. Beta diversity is a measure of the varia-
tion of species between two sites and considers how many There are three factors which determine where species are
species are present at both sites and how many species found: biotic (living), abiotic (non-living) and historical.
are unique to just one of the sites. Studies of beta diver- Below we cover how these factors interact to affect spatial
sity have increased dramatically recently, and there has patterns of species distributions.
been much discussion as to the detailed definition of beta
diversity (Anderson et al., 2011). Finally, gamma diversity
is concerned with diversity at a landscape level and is basi- 10.3.1 Potential species distributions
cally the species richness of the entire landscape.
All species have optimum levels at which growth and
reproductive capacity is greatest for any physical variable.
At the edge of a species distribution there are threshold
Reflective questions levels beyond which an organism’s metabolism cannot
➤ Why are there issues with the commonly recognized defi- be sustained. The most important physical limiting fac-
nition of a species? tors are temperature and moisture availability. In general
terms, moisture and temperature control what plants and
➤ Why is it important to use the Latin binomial when using animals can survive at a particular location and therefore
species names? control the global distribution of biomes. Temperature
➤ What are the components of biodiversity? is so important because enzymes, which are catalysts of
biological metabolic reactions, have adapted to particular
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10.3 Patterns of distribution
PAPUA
South China PHILIPPINES NEW
Andaman Pacific Ocean
Sea
Sea GUINEA
Celebes
Sea Halmahera I.
THAILAND
BRUNEI
Irian Jaya
MALAYSIA
MALAYSIA
Sumatra SINGAPORE SULAWESI
BORNEO
N Medan Banda Sea
Lesser Sunda Is.
Timor
Bali
Java Timor Sea
300 miles
Lombok
Indian Ocean AUSTRALIA
300 km Wallace’s line
Figure 10.3 Wallace’s Line. This line marks a distinct change in biogeography and is coincident with an ocean trench.
environmental conditions. If the temperature becomes too a limit is the so-called Wallace Line that starts between
hot or too cold, the enzyme function will reduce. When the islands of Bali and Lombok and extends between
the threshold level is reached the enzyme will denature Borneo and Sulawesi (Figure 10.3). Alfred Russel W allace
(its structure alters or breaks up) and so can no longer noticed on an expedition in the 1850s that the fauna
work. Water is fundamentally important for all life. Water on the island of Bali represented the Asian continent
transfers substances between cells of living things and whereas the fauna on Lombok, just 30 km away, much
their external environment. Most plants would die if their more closely resembled that belonging to Australia. What
cellular water content drops below 50%. These physical was unknown to Wallace is that this imaginary line cor-
threshold levels of temperature and moisture availability responds approximately with a deep ocean trench sepa-
define the potential range or distribution of a species, rating the continental plates of Asia and Australia, and
determining where a species can exist. Potential distribu- it was not until Alfred Wegener developed the theory of
tions depend on the ability of species to tolerate physical continental drift in 1912 and then in the 1960s when the
stress, with stress defined as ‘any deficiency in light, mois- theory of plate tectonics was developed (Chapter 2) that
ture, nutrients, and optimum temperature’ (Grimes, 1979). this could be explained. The species were from land on
It is important to remember that organisms do not experi- two separate plates which had been separated for more
ence annual means of temperature and precipitation nor than 200 million years but which had now moved closer
monthly means, but seasonality and extremes including together around the Wallace Line. The strong distinction
frost, heat or drought. between both sides of the Wallace Line remains for both
plants and animals, though it is much more distinctive for
animals for which migration over even short stretches of
10.3.2 Actual species distributions
water may be impossible.
Abiotic factors, particularly temperature and moisture, Using transplant experiments, either deliberately or
set the limits of the potential range of a species. However, semi-naturally, is one way to try to disentangle the differ-
biotic and historical factors limit where that species does ent factors to understand what is limiting the distribution
exist, its actual species distribution. Biotic factors, includ- of a species. When Sciurus carolinensis (grey squirrel) was
ing competition for resources are discussed in Chapter 11. ‘successfully’ introduced into Europe from North America
Species distributions are also limited by barriers, such it was clear that it had been historical factors (the A
tlantic
as oceans, mountains and rivers, preventing dispersal to Ocean) that had previously limited its distribution. If
suitable habitat on the other side. A barrier may even no transplantation experiments are not successful, it is possi-
longer exist, but still have an effect as species disperse ble that either abiotic or biotic factors are limiting the dis-
slowly. This is known as the lag effect. Such distribution tribution of a species. Removal investigations can be used
limits are called historical limits. Rather than being deter- in conjunction with transplantation. For example, when
mined by the contemporary environment, these limits are transplanted beyond its northern range limit, Chthamalus
a result of past environments. A classic example of such fragilis (small barnacle) was shown to survive, but only
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Chapter 10 The biosphere
if Semibalanus balanoides (acorn barnacle) had been latitudinal bands plotted for mammals, amphibians and
removed (Wethey, 2002). This shows that competition, a threatened bird species. The figure also shows the land
biotic factor, was limiting the range of Chthamalus fragilis. area for each band, and although this is clearly linked to
the pattern in richness, changes in latitude account for a
lot more of the difference. High temperatures and moist
10.3.3 Spatial patterns in biodiversity
conditions in the tropics provide good conditions for pho-
Understanding the patterns of species diversity is impor- tosynthesis, so there will be more net primary productivity
tant for issues of conservation management, managing (amount of energy produced by photosynthetic organ-
invasive species and understanding the impact of climate isms) (Figure 10.5), which in turn is thought to increase
change on biodiversity (see also Chapter 13). In ecology species richness. Gillman et al. (2015) found a negative
it is usually true that the larger an area is, the greater relationship between latitude and annual net primary pro-
the species richness (Preston, 1962a, 1962b; Rosenzweig, ductivity of forests using several datasets. They also found
1995). Studies of species–area relationships have usually that vascular plant richness was positively correlated with
focused on a particular type of organism, such as birds or net primary productivity (Figure 10.6), although for some
butterflies, or species that perform a particular role in the areas in the tropics there may be extremely small potential
community. The species–area relationship may seem obvi- primary productivity due to low rainfall.
ous, as a larger area is likely to have more resources avail- In addition to the global patterns of species richness,
able to species but it is important and has implications for it is important to understand how richness is modified at
conservation, and it can be used to help plan appropriate regional scales. Soils are particularly important, especially
sizes of protected areas. in relation to rooting depth. For example, in Peru where
However, possibly the clearest spatial pattern regarding tropical rainforest with a high species diversity is typically
species richness is that between richness and latitude, with found, small patches of savanna with lower species diver-
richness being greater at the tropics and declining towards sity can also be found where the soil is much shallower and
the poles. Figure 10.4 shows species richness for five degree cannot support rainforest.
Mammals Amphibians Threatened birds
Land area (n = 4,734) (n = 5,743) (n = 1,208)
905N 905N
805N 805N
705N 705N
605N 605N
505N 505N
405N 405N
305N 305N
205N 205N
105N 105N
05N 05N
105S 105S
205S 205S
305S 305S
405S 405S
505S 505S
605S 605S
705S 705S
805S 805S
905S 905S
0 5000 10 000 0 1000 2000 0 500 1000 1500 0 100 200 300
Area (10 000 km2) Number of species
Figure 10.4 Variation in species richness with latitude for terrestrial mammals, amphibians and threatened bird species. (Source: from Millenium
Ecosystem Assessment, 2005)
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10.4 Terrestrial biomes
0— 2.5
2.5— 5
5—10
10—15
15— 20
20— 25
(t ha–1 yr–1)
Figure 10.5 The potential primary productivity of the Earth. (Source: from Schultz, 1995, after Leith, 1964)
4000
1500
Vascular plant species richness
productivity (g C m-2 yr-1)
3000
Annual net primary
1000
2000
500
1000
0 0
0 500 1000 1500 0 20 40 60
Annual net primary Absolute latitude (Degrees)
productivity (g C m-2 yr-1)
(a) (b)
Figure 10.6 Spatial patterns in vascular plant species richness using data combined from different forest stud-
ies: (a) the relationship between vascular plant species richness and net primary productivity; (b) the relationship
between latitude and total net primary productivity. (Source: Gillman et al., 2015)
10.4 Terrestrial biomes
Reflective questions
Biomes are the Earth’s major ecosystems. Biomes are
➤ Define what a potential species distribution is.
usually defined by the vegetation that characterizes
➤ What are the main patterns of species richness found them. Although the hydrosphere makes up around 70%
globally? of the biosphere, over 90% of the biomass is found in
the terrestrial area, and around 97% of the biomass on
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Chapter 10 The biosphere
-15
Arctic–alpine
-10
Tundra etc.
-5
Cold temperate
0
Taiga
Mean annual temperature (5C)
5
Shrubland
Temperate
Wo
10 forest
od
land
15
Temperate
Semi-desert
(Grassland) Warm temperate
rainforest
20
Thorn scru
(Savanna)
Tropical
Tropical
Woodland
seasonal Tropical
25
b
forest rainforest
30
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Mean annual precipitation (cm)
Figure 10.7 The distribution of the major terrestrial biomes with respect to mean annual precipitation and temperature. Within regions delimited by the
dashed lines a number of factors, including proximity to oceans, seasonality of drought and human land use, may affect the biome type that develops.
Boundaries are, of course, approximate. (Source: after Whittaker, 1975)
land is made up of plants. The major climatic variables neighbouring biomes and sometimes have distinct species
determine where the different species assemblages can of their own. Species often reach the edge of their physi-
survive, and adaptations to environmental variables ological range in an ecotone and so these areas may well
are part of any biome’s character. Whittaker (1975) be greatly affected by environmental change. Ecotones
classified the major terrestrial biomes with respect to can sometimes be more diverse than the surrounding
mean annual temperature and precipitation as shown in biomes.
Figure 10.7. However, where these biomes occur is not
just related to latitude but also varies with altitude as
this also controls temperature and precipitation. This 10.4.1 Equatorial and tropical forests
altitudinal pattern in biodiversity was first noted by
Temperature: The temperature of tropical forests is uni-
Alexander von Humboldt and Aimé Bonpland in 1799
formly high and ranges from 20°C to 35°C with little sea-
after an expedition to the Andes.
sonal difference in temperature.
The global distribution of the biomes can be seen in
Figure 10.8. In reality, the distinction between biomes is Precipitation: Rainfall is high and annually tends to exceed
not usually abrupt but occurs across an environmental 2000 mm.
gradient known as an ecotone. Ecotones are transitional Distribution: These forests are found near the equator,
areas, which have species representatives from both ranging from 23.5°N to 23.5°S.
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10.4 Terrestrial biomes
TROPICAL BIOMES
Tropical forests
Savanna region
Hot deserts
TEMPERATE BIOMES
Mediterranean
chaparral
Temperate evergreen
Temperate
deciduous woodland
Temperate grassland
COLD BIOMES
Taiga
Tundra
Ice/Mountains
Figure 10.8 The distribution of the world’s major biomes.
Important species: Tropical forests are composed of spe-
cies rich, dense forests with tall, broadleaved trees com-
peting for light (Figure 10.9). Moisture and temperature
are ideal for growth and light is often the limiting factor.
The forest canopy typically reaches a height of 25–35 m
with a few emergent trees reaching heights of 50 m. The
advantage of the additional height is the access to light (a)
for photosynthesis. Below the main canopy there may be a
second (about 15 m) and even a third canopy level (about
5 m), which consists of immature trees, ready for a branch
or tree fall in the upper canopy into which they can quickly
grow and win the competition for light. If there are larger
disturbances in the forest creating bigger gaps, pioneer spe-
cies that germinate quickly from seed may fill the gaps and
will gradually be replaced by slower growing, old growth
trees as small gaps appear again. L ianas, which are climb-
ing plants, are important within the tropical forest. They
need structural support and so grow up trees. Once they
reach the top of the canopy they grow across it, ensuring
their leaves capture as much light as possible. If a tree falls,
lianas may pull down several other trees as they are tangled
together. Epiphytes (plants that grow on another plant) are
a common feature of rainforests: orchids, bromeliads, ferns
and mosses are all adapted to grow high in the branches of
trees. The rainforest floor is very dark. By growing higher
up in the trees epiphytes are more likely to get the light
they need. The forest soils are deep, yet infertile and there
is a rapid cycling of nutrients for plant growth, from leaf (b)
or branch fall. This means there is not a build-up of leaf Figure 10.9 Rainforest, Queensland, Australia, showing the upper (a) and
litter in the soil. lower (b) canopies. (Source: Treasure Dragon / Shutterstock.com)
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Chapter 10 The biosphere
The variety of plant species and structure within
the tropical forests enables a huge diversity in animal
and birds. Birds tend to be fruit eaters, rather than
seed eaters. In tropical forests it is easier to hear the
birds than to see them. Animals may stick to one level
within the forests, some never coming onto the forest
floor. For this reason they are adapted to tree climb-
ing, rather than walking and have adaptations such as
suction p added toes (Figure 10.10), grasping feet and
prehensile tails.
Threats: This ecosystem is under threat as it is logged,
cleared for mining, agriculture and urban develop-
ment. Recently there have been many roads built across
tropical forests which greatly fragment the remaining
habitat. Between 1990 and 2015, the global tropical for-
est area decreased by 9.9% (RBG Kew, 2016). There
is some positive news though, as for the last few years
zero-deforestation agreements have been signed by major
corporations who were previously clear-felling areas for
commodities such as soya, palm oil and beef. However, not
all these agreements have been adhered to, but it is a posi-
tive step for this greatly reduced biome.
Figure 10.10 A rainforest lizard with suction padded toes.
(Source: Nicholas Berry and Despina Psarra)
Studying a rainforest
Understanding the vast, complex, biodi-
verse tropical rainforest is clearly of huge
importance, but how do scientists study
such a large and complex biome? The Ama-
zon Forest Inventory Network (RAINFOR)
was set up in 2000 to gain a greater under-
standing of the dynamics of Amazon eco-
systems and is coordinated by Professor
Oliver Phillips at the University of Leeds. It
is an international collaboration working
with over 150 researchers. The network
now has over 750 permanent forest sam-
ple plots across Amazonia. The typical size
of these is one hectare. Each plot is usually
sampled every three to four years, with all
trees of a diameter greater than 100 mm
having their diameter and height recorded
(Figure 10.11), along with species names,
details of the condition of the tree, and Figure 10.11 Researchers measuring the diameter of a rainforest tree in Bolivia.
whether it has any associated lianas and (Source: Roel Brienen, University of Leeds)
BOX 10.2 ➤
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10.4 Terrestrial biomes
➤
crown illumination. Crown illumination is studied for 40 years, enables researchers to AfriTRON (the African Tropical Rainfor-
a measure of how much of the tree crown understand the ecology of the forests, and est Observation Network), coordinated by
is exposed to direct light. Although the determine how the forests are changing in Professor Simon Lewis of the University of
measurements appear straightforward, response to global climate change. Leeds, was set up more recently following
it is critical that consistent methods are Following the 2005 Amazon drought, the same protocols as RAINFOR. It enables
used across the network so these plots can the network was able to gain real insight comparisons between the forests on the
be compared accurately. Field campaigns into responses to global change through two continents and provides much greater
may last for several months as researchers the data analyzed. Usually, tropical forests information of the biome as a whole. With
measure plots in a particular area. Field store carbon, slowing climate change by both networks, there is huge international
teams combine local experts and interna- absorbing some of the carbon from the scientific effort and collaboration. Scien-
tional scientists. Developing and sharing atmosphere. When conditions for growth tists are sharing unpublished data which
the knowledge of all in the network is are not favourable the forests can emit has taken time and energy to collect, often
key. Excellent communication is needed carbon, which is what happened during the in very difficult field conditions. Therefore,
because researchers are based around 2005 drought (Phillips et al., 2009). As the careful data sharing agreements need to be
the world and use different languages and forests are so vast, these drought emissions made. Publishing science is very important
have different cultures. The data built up can have a huge impact on world carbon to researchers, so data sharing on this scale
over years, with some plots having been emissions. requires trust and cooperation.
Box 10.2
10.4.2 Savanna Distribution: Equatorial and subtropical regions.
Temperature: The temperature is similar to that of a tropi- Important species: The savanna biome is characterized
cal forest with a mean monthly temperature above 18°C by clumps of grasses surrounded by bare ground and
in all months. The temperature range in winter is usually occasional trees and shrubs (Figure 10.12). Typical spe-
18–25°C and in summer 25–30°C. cies include Chloris gayana (Rhodes grass), Themeda
triandra (red oats grass) and Pennisetum purpureum
Precipitation: Savannas have a mean annual rainfall of
(elephant grass), which can grow up to 3 m tall. Grasses
500–1200 mm, which falls seasonally. The long dry season
can remain dormant throughout the dry season, to aid
is characterized by rainfall which may be less than 100 mm
water conservation, which therefore enables them to
over a 5–9 month period.
Figure 10.12 An acacia tree among short grasses and bare ground in the savanna of Botswana.
(Source: Artush, Shutterstock.com)
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Chapter 10 The biosphere
survive. A few tree species have evolved to survive the reaching the ground. Fog and dew, however, can provide
drought of the savanna, such as the evergreen Acacia important additional water.
tortilis (umbrella thorn acacia tree), which has a long tap Distribution: Deserts cover about one fifth of the Earth’s
root to access groundwater, and trees in the Adansonia surface, with hot deserts found from 20° to 35° north and
genus (baobab trees), which survive despite having a south of the equator.
shallow rooting system, partly by shedding leaves in the
Important species: Soils are freely draining and coarsely
dry season to reduce water loss and by storing water in
textured as smaller particles are blown away. Plants are
their stems (Chapotin et al., 2006). Stem succulent trees
sparse with a low profile and have extremely reduced
are also prominent in arid tropical regions. The storing
leaves to protect against water loss (see Figure 21.9 in
of water enables the plant to maintain turgor pressure in
Chapter 21). Cacti species have evolved spines and pho-
its cells (which maintains the rigidity of the plant and
tosynthesis takes place on the stems. Many plant spe-
stops it wilting) during the dry period, rather than to
cies only open their stomata (openings in leaves for gas
support further growth and photosynthesis (Chapotin
exchange) at night to reduce water loss. Physiological
et al., 2006).
adaptations include using the alternative photosynthetic
In addition to drought, plants have evolved to with-
pathways, C4 and CAM (see Section 13.2.1 in Chapter 13).
stand grazing and browsing. With more than 40 differ-
Oases, where water from natural springs reach the surface,
ent large herbivores in savannas (Owen-Smith, 1982), the
can result in denser plant cover and some palm species can
dynamic characteristics of savannas are in part due to the
survive here.
impact of these animals (Sinclair and Norton-Griffiths
Animals of the hot desert tend to be nocturnal to
1979). Most herbivores both browse and graze, but there
avoid the very high temperatures during the day. They are
are exclusive grazers, such as zebra, and exclusive brows-
predominately burrowing animals, with burrows provid-
ers, including giraffes (Bergström, 1992). Grasses are pro-
ing further protection from the extremes in temperature.
tected from grazing as their apical and axillary buds are
Insects, arachnids, reptiles and birds can also survive in the
near the base of the plant, enabling them to regrow. Plants
desert and the sparse plants provide shelter for them. This
protect themselves from browsing with tough leaves and
results in greater organic matter in the soil around the base
spines on stems.
of plants.
Threats: As with other biomes, the dominant threats are
Threats: Global warming poses a threat to hot deserts as
conversion to agriculture, and expanding urban areas
extended and prolonged drought may cause seasonal water
which destroy or fragment the habitat. Overstocking
pools to dry up. Hot deserts face destruction of habitat
of domestic grazing animals can damage the ecosys-
for mining and for oil and gas extraction which may cause
tem as well; animals will compact the soils with their
irreversible damage. Irrigation for agriculture may lead
hooves and high levels of grazing means plants cannot
to salt levels becoming too high for plant growth (see
recover and regenerate and species will be lost from the
Chapter 21). The increasing use of off-road vehicles can
area. A model version of this biome has been created as
also damage the fragile desert environment.
part of research and visitor attractions under glass (see
Box 10.3).
10.4.4 Mediterranean-type biome
10.4.3 Hot Desert Temperature: This temperate biome has hot, dry summers,
with mean temperatures of around 30°C and highs over
Temperature: Mean annual temperatures range from 20 to
40°C, and mild, wet winters with temperatures of
25°C. Extreme high temperatures can reach 49°C. At night
10–12°C.
it can become very cold, with minimum temperatures
reaching as low as - 18°C. Precipitation: The majority of the rainfall occurs in the
winter and ranges from 300 mm to 500 mm annually. The
Precipitation: Deserts occur where rainfall is less than
dry season is in the summer.
500 mm annually. In hot deserts, such as the Atacama
Desert in Chile, mean annual precipitation is less than Distribution: This biome occupies five separate areas on
15 mm. Evaporation rates regularly exceed rainfall rates. the west coasts of continents in the mid-latitude region.
Sometimes rain starts falling and evaporates before The area around the Mediterranean Sea is by far the
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10.4 Terrestrial biomes
largest of this type of biome. The four smaller areas are
in California, Chile, the South Western Cape Province of
South Africa and south-western and southern Australia.
The Mediterranean biome has different local names
including the garigue and maquis in France, matorral in
Spain and Chile, Chaparral in North America and fynbos
in South Africa.
Important species: The Mediterranean biome has high
levels of plant species richness and endemism, greater than
the combined floras of tropical Africa and Asia (Cowling
et al., 1996). Plant species of Mediterranean biomes are
ecologically very similar despite their independent his-
Figure 10.13 New shoots appearing after a wildfire on Kythira, Greece.
tory and recent evolution. Plants found in all areas are
(Source: siete vidas, Shutterstock.com)
adapted to drought. Mixed woodland would have been
the original vegetation, but human impact from grazing
and felling trees has resulted in much of the area being
scrubland. Woody species are often sclerophyllous, which in the Mediterranean biome. Many woody species will
means they have hard, thick, small leaves and short inter- burn quickly and then resprout (Figure 10.13). They
nodes between the leaves, which are all adaptations for often have woody underground tubers, burls, which are
conserving water. Typical species include Quercus suber thick enough to protect a store of sugar and hidden buds,
(cork oak), Pinus pinaster (maritime pine) in woodland which resprout quickly after a fire. Quercus suber is one
and Ulex europaeus (common gorse) and Myrtus commu- species whose stem does not burn completely in a fire.
nis (myrtle) in shrubland. Other plants are deciduous and The thick bark of the cork oak protects the stem and
have adapted to the drought by losing their leaves during crown buds so these can resprout (Pausas, 1997). Annuals
the dry season. and perennials will survive fires through their seed bank
Other adaptations to conserve water in this biome in the soil.
include plants changing the position of their leaves to The fauna of the Mediterranean biome is not par-
reduce exposure to the sun or having hairy leaves. The ticularly characteristic only to this biome. The animals
hairs on the surface of the leaf help reflect sunlight and must be adapted for drought and are often nocturnal to
also reduce air movement near the surface, which in turn avoid the extreme heat during the day. Although quite
reduces transpiration and therefore water loss. While diverse, there are few species which are endemic to these
leaves in these regions have evolved strategies to reduce regions. For example, in areas which have some forest,
water loss, roots like those found in savannas have evolved the same species can be found in woodlands outside the
strategies to aid water uptake. Typically, plants in the Mediterranean biome as well, such as deer and hedgehogs.
Mediterranean biome have a dual root system with a long Desert species including lizards and scorpions are also
deep taproot, and a dense network of lateral roots close to found. In grassier areas, ungulate herds, such as mountain
the surface. Hellmers et al. (1955) excavated the roots of all sheep and goats, comprised of the same species that are
Californian shrub species from the Mediterranean biome present in the steppes, can be found.
and found the roots of some species growing at a depth of Threats: Damage caused through overgrazing and
9 m, which were presumed to be growing deeper still. The changes to the fire regime continue to threaten this biome.
deep root system enables plants to access water for most Sala et al. (2000) predicted that the Mediterranean biome,
of the year. Drought-evading annuals are very diverse in due to its sensitivity to land use and climate change, will
this biome. They germinate in late autumn growing slowly experience the greatest proportional change in biodiversity
through the winter, ready to use the last of the water when by 2100 of all biomes. Between 2001 and 2012, this biome
the warm weather returns, before setting seed in late spring had an 18% change in land cover type (RBG Kew, 2016).
and surviving the summer droughts in seed form. Increases in urbanization and population density as well
In addition to adaptations to withstand drought, as a conversion of land to agriculture are the main threats
plants also need to be adapted to withstand fire to survive (Underwood et al., 2009).
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10.4.5 Temperate grassland 10.4.6 Temperate broadleaf forest
Temperature: Summer temperatures can be hot, reach- Temperature: Temperate forests are seasonal with a dis-
ing over 40°C, and winter temperatures are cold, down to tinct winter. Temperatures range from - 30°C to + 30°C.
- 40°C.
Precipitation: Mean annual precipitation in temperate for-
Precipitation: Annual mean precipitation is between ests ranges from 750 mm to 1150 mm.
510 mm and 880 mm, with the majority falling between
Distribution: Temperate forests occur in eastern North
late spring and early summer.
America, north-eastern Asia, and western and central Europe,
Distribution: The major areas of temperate grasslands across latitudes ranging from 25o to 60o both north and south.
are the veldts of South Africa, the puszta of Hungary,
Important species: In the northern hemisphere this tem-
the pampas of Argentina and Uruguay, the steppes of
perate broadleaf forest biome is deciduous with trees shed-
Russia, and the plains and prairies of central North
ding leaves in the winter. In the southern hemisphere the
America.
forests are usually evergreen, probably as a result of their
Important species: As its name suggests, grass is the separate evolution. In these evergreen forests epiphytes
dominant vegetation in this biome. Unlike savannas, trees and climbing plants are commonly found, but there is
and scrub are generally absent. Fires, drought and graz- limited ground flora due to the lack of available light. In
ing all act to prevent trees becoming established. Grasses favourable environments, with rich brown earth soils, in
are usually perennial and adapted to drought, fires and the northern hemisphere tall deciduous trees grow with a
also to cold. Fires are common and the frequency of canopy height of 10–30 m. Below this tree canopy, a shrub
fires means that most plants have underground stems, layer develops at a height of about 5 m, with a ground
bulbs or can regenerate quickly from roots to survive all flora of herbaceous plants, mosses and liverworts. The
but the most severe fires. Moisture variation determines nature of the ground flora is dependent on the canopy-
the height of the vegetation. In wetter regions grasses forming species and the light that can penetrate the
can reach heights of three metres, whereas in drier areas canopy. Much of the ground flora has adapted by flower-
heights may less than half a metre. Perennial forbs also ing early in the season before the canopy species have
grow here, particularly those in the Asteraceae (those regrown their leaves (Figure 10.14). Ground species include
with a daisy-like flower) and Leguminoseae (nitrogen Hyacinthoides non-scripta (bluebell), Galanthus nivalis
fixing) families. (snowdrop), Primula vulgaris (primrose) and orchids. In
There are few places for fauna to hide from predators some areas the soils may be acidic and nutrients may have
owing to the limited structure of the vegetation. Smaller been washed out. On these soils heathland may develop.
grazing animals have adapted by burrowing, larger ones Here Calluna vulgaris (common heather) and Erica tetra-
by forming herds and developing speed (deer) or large size lix (cross-leaved heath) dominate. They typically reach
(elk and bison). Predators include wolves, coyotes, foxes heights of half a metre, but can get to one metre. With the
and polecats. heather, species of grass, rushes and mosses grow.
Threats: The soil of temperate grasslands is nutrient Large mammals which were once found in this biome have
rich from decomposing grass roots, and the rotting roots become extinct or are much reduced in range and numbers
provide a good structure to the soil. For this reason much due to human interference. Deer are found throughout the
of the biome has been developed into grazing land by biome and browse on the trees and shrubs. Smaller mammals
farmers or into arable agriculture. Removal of the root have adapted to the cold winter by either hibernating (hedge-
network holding the soil together for arable agriculture hogs) or burrowing (foxes, rabbits, rodents and badgers).
(e.g. after ploughing) leads to soil loss through water Threats: There is very little temperate forest that has not
and wind erosion. Dust storms in the USA in the 1930s been altered by humans and a classic image of a natural
and 1940s when drought occurred after ploughing were temperate woodland is actually one heavily managed by
environmentally disastrous. Domestic grazing has led to people. Forest size has been eroded by the expansion of
severe damage of temperate grasslands. Unlike farmed urban areas and agriculture and it has been extensively frag-
animals, large native species migrate and rarely over- mented. Invasive species (see Chapter 11), have also changed
graze areas. Encroachment from urban areas and inva- the ecology of a lot of the biome. For example, Rhododen-
sive species also threaten what remains of the temperate dron ponticum was introduced to western Europe and New
grasslands. Zealand as a garden ornamental, but it has spread widely
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10.4 Terrestrial biomes
Figure 10.14 Hyacinthoides non-scripta flowering in spring (April) before the woodland canopy is closed, Belgium.
(Source: Anneka, Shutterstock.com)
in the biome. Its evergreen leaves shade out the ground flora Important species: This biome is also referred to as boreal
and prevent seeds of native trees germinating. forest and the predominant vegetation is coniferous for-
est (Figure 10.15). The soil is nutrient poor and below the
surface layer is permafrost (permanently frozen subsoil; see
10.4.7 Taiga Chapter 24) or bedrock. The predominant trees are Picea
species (spruce), Abies species (fir) and Pinus species (pine).
Temperature: The winter temperature range is - 54°C
These are all evergreen species. In some areas Larix species
to - 1°C and the summer temperature range is - 1°C to
(larch), which is deciduous, survives. The reason the major-
+ 21°C. There are only 50–100 frost-free days in the year.
ity of species are evergreen is that growing leaves requires
Precipitation: Taiga has a mean annual precipitation of high energy and resource input. There are limited resources
300–850 mm, with most of this falling as rain in the summer. with few nutrients in the soil and low light levels. By not
Distribution: This is the largest land biome and spans shedding leaves annually the plants do not use up the lim-
Eurasia and North America in the subarctic region. ited resources, but can use these resources for structural
Figure 10.15 Boreal forest, northern Finland. The trees have wider branches near the foot and
narrower branches at the top – this minimizes potentially damaging snow accumulation.
(Source: Catalin Petolea / Shutterstock.com)
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support instead. As the needles are present on the tree then forest takes a long time to regenerate, as growth rates are
photosynthesis can start as soon as conditions are suitable. slow. Unfortunately, logging is often intensive and clear
The dark green colour of coniferous trees is an adaptation cutting is usual. Vast areas of the biome are also being
to absorb as much light as possible for photosynthesis. Nee- destroyed by exploration for oil and gas. Global warming
dle leaves have a low sap content and this adaptation helps may cause the permafrost to thaw, changing the ecosystem,
prevent freezing in the winter, which would damage cells. and rising temperatures could cause deciduous trees from
The needle shape also reduces water loss, because although the temperate zone to migrate northwards, outcompeting
there is relatively high precipitation, when the ground is fro- current species.
zen plant roots cannot access water. Even the shape of the
trees has evolved to ensure survival in the frozen conditions;
they are conical so snow sheds easily, thereby avoiding the 10.4.8 Tundra
weight of snow causing damage to branches (Figure 10.15).
Temperature: Tundra is the coldest biome with a mean
The canopy is dense so little light reaches the forest floor
winter temperature of - 34°C and a mean summer tem-
and this, together with the needle leaves which maintain
perature of 3–12°C.
an acidic soil, means ground flora is limited. Mosses and
lichens do survive, as do fungi, and all these provide food Precipitation: The yearly precipitation in the tundra biome
for grazing animals. In wet depressions bogs may form and is 150–250 mm.
species of sphagnum moss form mats on these. Distribution: Arctic tundra encircles the North Pole
Occasionally after a disturbance (see Chapter 11), and extending down to the coniferous forest of the taiga.
if conditions are suitable, deciduous trees including Alnus Alpine tundra is located on mountains throughout the
species (alder), Betua species (birch) and Populus species world at high altitude where trees cannot grow, usually
(aspen) can survive. These trees can support larger brows- above 3000 m.
ing animals such as Alces (elk) and Cerus elaphus (red Important species: The growing season for Arctic tundra is
deer). In some areas of this biome Castor fiber (Eurasian just 50–60 days; it is longer for alpine tundra, with approx-
beaver) and Castor candensis (North American beaver) imately 180 days a year. Tundra comes from the Finnish
survive. These large rodents dramatically change the word, tunturia, meaning treeless plain (Figure 10.16).
landscape with the dams they build (see Figure 5.16 in The soil of alpine tundra is free draining, but soil in the
Chapter 5). Predators include Felis lynx (lynx) and mem- Arctic tundra has limited drainage and a permafrost layer
bers of the Mustelidae (weasel) family. that prevents deep plant roots. Despite the harsh growing
Threats: Over-harvesting of the taiga biome is a threat. If conditions there are approximately 1700 species of plants
managed carefully, logging could be sustainable, but the growing in the tundra, which include around 400 species
Figure 10.16 Alpine tundra, Mount Cook National Park, New Zealand.
(Source: Ariadne Van Zandbergan / Alamy Stock Photo)
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10.4 Terrestrial biomes
of flowering plants and mosses, lichens, grasses, liverworts mammals such as Vulpes lagopus (arctic fox) and Canis
and low shrubs. The plants grow close together for protec- lupus arctos (artic wolf) breed and raise their young in the
tion from the cold temperatures and strong winds, and short growing period. Some mammal species hibernate in
snow offers protection from the extreme temperatures in the winter months. Others such as Rangifer tarandus sur-
the winter. Due to the short growing period most plants vive on fungi and lichens through the winter, clearing the
do not produce seeds or spores, but reproduce vegetatively, snow with their hooves and antlers to access them.
where new individuals are asexually produced by a single Threats: The main threat to the tundra biome is global
parent plant. For example, new shoots will grow from a warming, which as in the taiga could cause the permafrost
tuber, or horizontal stems will produce new vertical stems to melt, changing the biome irreversibly. Other threats
and roots. come from oil and gas exploration fragmenting or destroy-
Considering the severe conditions there is a reason- ing areas of the biome. In addition, air pollution is reduc-
able diversity of animal life in the tundra. Many species ing lichen growth, which, particularly in the winter, is the
migrate south in the winter to avoid the worst of the main food source of grazing animals. Ozone depletion
weather. Grazing mammals include Lepus arcticus (arc- over the Arctic results in stronger ultraviolet rays reaching
tic hare) and Rangifer tarandus (reindeer) and predatory the tundra which can damage the organisms living there.
Glass biomes
Enabling a completely different way to
research the changing biomes of the world,
Biosphere 2, named to denote that it is a
model of the Earth’s biosphere, is essen-
tially a huge glass enclosure (Figure 10.17),
recreating major biomes and facilitating
unique large-scale experimentation in
each of the biomes represented. Space
Biospheres Ventures bought the property
in 1984, and in 1986 began developing the
current facility to gain an understanding
of how adept to survival such an enclosure
was. Between 1991 and 1994, two mis-
sions were run with people sealed in Bio-
sphere 2. Columbia University managed it
from 1996 to 2003, changing the emphasis
Figure 10.17 Some of the buildings forming Biosphere 2 in Tuscon, Arizona.
of the scientific research to include a study
(Source: Purestock / Alamy Stock Photo)
on the effects of different carbon dioxide
concentrations on plants. From 2007, the
University of Arizona ran Biosphere 2. In a model city and urban ecosystem, made within these ecosystems aid the develop-
2011, they became the owners, continuing up of the Biosphere 2 campus and associ- ment of computer models to simulate how
the experimental research into ecosystem ated buildings, three desert hillslopes, a ecosystems will respond to environmental
science and global climate change. coastal desert, a savanna, swamp forest, change. The models then help determine
The model ecosystems which the Uni- 2600 m3 of ocean, and a rainforest with the direction of the experiments needed
versity of Arizona run experiments on are over 90 tree species. The experiments to refine the models further.
BOX 10.3 ➤
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Chapter 10 The biosphere
➤
In addition to being a research facility, different ecosystems. It does this in an grassland. These biomes are managed
Biosphere 2 is also a highly rated visitor exciting way and is clearly successful. and because it is not possible to recreate
attraction for people wishing to experi- In 2014–2015 it was visited by over the biomes completely, not all species
ence the ecology of the Earth and under- 47 000 school children, and in 2015 it can be represented, and also some plants
stand the different ecosystems created was awarded ‘Best UK Leisure Attraction’ must be pollinated by staff. Yet, every
there. in the British Travel Awards as voted by effort is made to be authentic. Agricul-
The Eden project in Cornwall, UK, the general public, an award it has held tural systems are also represented. Both
is a visitor attraction which houses for several consecutive years. In addi- Biosphere 2 and the Eden Project show
the largest rainforest in captivity. It tion to the rainforest biome, the Eden the appetite for biogeography as leisure
aims to inform people about the liv- Project also has a Mediterranean biome activities and also play an important role
ing world and the threats faced by as well as a ‘wild Cornwall’ and a Prairie in educating people about the biosphere.
Box 10.3
The intertidal zone fluctuates between being fully
Reflective questions submerged and completely exposed. Organisms that
survive here have to be adapted to these regular changes
➤ What are the key plant adaptations to limited water in environment, with the upper shore experiencing more
availability? exposure to air, with a greater variation in temperature
➤ What are the similarities and differences between tem- as shown in Figure 10.18. This gradient in environmental
perate grassland and the Mediterranean-type biome? conditions is reflected in a change in organisms, from
those adapted to almost dry conditions to organisms that
➤ What are the major differences between the tundra and are only exposed during unusually low tides. Species will
taiga biomes? vary depending whether the substrate is rocky or sandy
and whether it is exposed to strong wave action or it is a
quiet bay. In sandy areas animals which bury into the sand
as the tide comes in are typical. These include worms and
10.5 Aquatic biomes clams. In a protected area with little wave action, marine
algae (seaweed) and seagrass, flowering plants, of which
When considering the Earth’s biomes, it is important to
there are 58 known species, will flourish. There is a lack
consider the aquatic biomes since water covers nearly 75%
of attached plants in areas with strong wave action. In
of the Earth’s surface and it is, after all, where life began.
rocky intertidal zones, animals tend to have adaptations to
Aquatic biomes can be separated into two main regions:
enable them to attach to the rock to withstand the strong
marine and freshwater. The important distinction between
tidal currents.
these is the difference in dissolved salt concentration,
The pelagic zone is the open ocean, not reaching the
which makes up less than 1% of the water in freshwater
bottom or a coast, but with a depth of about 4000 m.
ecosystems but around 3% in marine ecosystems.
There is a steep light gradient in this layer with plenty of
light for photosynthesis until around 200 m depth. Algae
10.5.1 Marine regions and photosynthetic bacteria are abundant in this upper
zone and provide food for the fish and zooplankton.
Below 200 m depth animals rely on plankton floating
10.5.1.1 Oceans
down to provide nutrients and some animals swim higher
The oceans represent the largest biome within the bio- at night to where food is more plentiful. Between 200 m
sphere. The ocean biome can be spilt into zones based and 1000 m depth, bioluminescence, where light gener-
on depth: intertidal, pelagic, benthic and abyssal zones, ated from biochemical reactions is emitted by organisms,
which all have different abiotic conditions to which life is common, with around 90% of animals displaying it.
has adapted. The bioluminescence, where there is little or no sunlight,
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10.5 Aquatic biomes
High High High Low High
Splash
Zone
Competition
Time exposed to air
Temperature variation
Amount of sunlight
Salinity variation
Upper
Shore
Middle
Shore
Low Low Low High Low
Lower
Subtidal Shore
Zone
Figure 10.18 The intertidal zone on a rocky shore. (Source: Marine Biological Association of the UK)
is used to attract or find prey, and as a defence against are known as polyps. Polyps are stationary and feed on
predation and also as sexual communication (Haddock plankton and other tiny organisms, using stinging ten-
et al., 2010). tacles which extend at night. Scleractinia species live in
The benthic zone consists of the areas of the seafloor, colonies. Each polyp excretes calcium carbonate form-
below the pelagic zone and also in coastal areas. Some def- ing an exoskeleton beneath it. This is how the structure
initions include the abyssal zone (see below), as it is also of a coral reef develops over time. Reefs, however, are
on the seafloor, but ecologically these are quite different. one of the most endangered habitats on the planet. It
The bottom is usually sand or silt, and dead organisms is thought that one third of reef-building corals face
may build up forming a detrital litter. There is a wide vari- extinction through climate change and other human
ety of seaweeds and filamentous algae and there is a huge impacts (Carpenter et al., 2008). The nature of how the
biodiversity of bacteria, fungi, sponges, sea anemones, reefs develop means that once they become degraded or
worms, starfish and fish. removed, it will take a very long time to replace them. In
The abyssal zone is the coldest and darkest area with addition to climate change, reefs face threats from over-
water temperature around 3°C. It has a low nutrient fishing, pollution and invasive species.
content and is under high pressure. Despite this, many
species of fish and invertebrates have adapted to life here.
10.5.1.3 Estuaries
Plant life cannot be sustained in the abyssal zone due to
the lack of light. Instead chemosynthetic bacteria, which Estuaries are transition zones where the freshwater of the
are found near hydrothermal vents on the sea floor, are rivers meets the salt water of the oceans (see Chapter 22).
able to convert hydrogen sulfide into energy and it is these This creates a range of changing habitats that support a
bacteria that the fish and invertebrates eat (see Box 3.4 in wide variety of organisms. These habitats include oyster
Chapter 3). reefs, kelp forests, coastal marshes, mud flats, mangrove
forests and deep water swamps. Organisms that are
adapted to survive rapidly changing salt concentrations
10.5.1.2 Coral reefs
in water are known as euryhaline species. Plants, which
Found in tropical and sub-tropical oceans, coral reefs cannot generally move to avoid the fluctuations, have
form in shallow water covering approximately 1% of often evolved special structures to cope with the salin-
the ocean floor (Figure 10.19). Despite their small area, ity changes. Spartina alterniflora (cord grass) has filters
they have high biodiversity, accounting for over a quarter on its roots to remove salts from the water and can also
of the oceans’ total species biodiversity (Plaisance expel salt from its leaves. Animals have also adapted to
et al., 2011). Individual corals from the order Scleractinia the changing conditions. For example, bivalves (mussels
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Chapter 10 The biosphere
Figure 10.19 The location of major coral reefs. Most occur between 30oN and 30oS. (Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)
and clams) close their shells during low tide, when there 10.5.2 Freshwater regions
are low saline conditions, and switch to anaerobic (with-
Freshwater ecosystems are dealt with in detail in
out oxygen) respiration. With high tide, high salinity
Chapter 12. Therefore only a brief overview is provided
conditions return, so they open their shells, start to feed
below of freshwater biomes. Freshwater can be separated
and switch back to aerobic respiration. Estuaries are
into three distinct regions: streams and rivers, ponds and
extremely important areas for supporting nesting birds
lakes, and wetlands.
and juvenile fish, and so have been termed ‘nurseries of
the ocean’. Gadus morhua (cod) is one fish species whose As with other water bodies, streams and rivers are
juveniles find shelter in these habitats (Seitz et al., 2013). zoned vertically and organisms are found throughout
Like many other species, it requires estuarine habitats the zones, with special adaptations to that layer. Rivers
to be protected to boost species numbers as they battle are often rich in phytoplankton or rooted aquatic plants,
decline caused by factors such as overfishing elsewhere. though many fish and invertebrates will also feed on ter-
Estuaries are also incredibly important for birds. The restrial vegetation growing into the river. Runoff from
Severn Estuary, one of the largest in the UK, had a mean agriculture and industry pollutes these environments and
peak bird population of 93 986 (excluding gulls) between can kill many of the organisms found there. Rivers and
1991/92 and 1995/96 (Stroud et al., 2001), which had streams are also under threat from dams and flooding con-
reduced to 66 022 between 2002/03 and 2006/07 (Austin et trol, which can affect their functioning and the environ-
al., 2008). This decline has been linked to climate change ment for native species.
(Burton et al., 2010). Ponds and lakes can range in size from a square metre
Many of the world’s largest cities are built on estuaries. to thousands of square kilometres. Some may only exist
Such development has been detrimental to estuaries envi- seasonally, and others have been present for thousands of
ronmentally, with impacts of overfishing, dams, pollutants years. Often lakes can be isolated from other water bodies,
and the introduction of invasive species. The degradation which has led to many species being endemic to a particu-
of these habitats has meant that they can no longer fulfil lar lake. Nutrition in lakes can vary greatly and the biodi-
the nursery, feeding and reproductive functions with which versity they support also varies. The top zone of the lake,
they have been associated (Beck et al., 2011). In other or that close to shore, the littoral zone, can support a range
areas, conflicts with cockle and mussel fisheries have had of rooted and floating aquatic plants, as light levels are
impacts on bird species such as oystercatchers (Burton high enough for photosynthesis to take place. Where light
et al., 2010). can penetrate there will be a variety of phytoplankton and
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10.6 Summary
cyanobacteria. Depending on the size of lake or pond and invertebrates, amphibians, reptiles and birds. Many wet-
the nutrient content, a range of zooplankton will graze on lands have been destroyed throughout the world over the
the phytoplankton, and fish and invertebrates are found last 200 years, through drainage for agriculture and devel-
in all zones including the deeper profundal zone which opment and the diversion of water. In some areas, efforts
lacks enough light for photosynthesis. As with rivers and are being made to re-establish wetlands, particularly as
streams, pollution from agriculture and industry can be a they often support water purification and flood reduction
huge threat to lake ecosystems, along with climate change. (Acreman and Holden, 2013). However, wetlands are still
Unlike for terrestrial habitats, cold-adapted species cannot under threat from invasive species and climate change.
easily migrate from lakes.
Wetlands are areas which have standing water for at
least some of the year. Marshes, swamps, bogs and fens
Reflective questions
are all considered wetlands and these may form in hol-
lows or large basins (or even on very wet gently sloping ➤ What is the key difference between marine and freshwa-
ground where there is poor drainage), along the edge of ter biomes?
a river which is periodically flooded or the edges of lakes
➤ Which is the most productive aquatic biome and what are
or oceans which may be flooded by tides, or rising water
the reasons for this?
levels. Those flooded by seas such as salt marshes are
classed as marine environments. Wetlands are one of the ➤ Why is it difficult to recreate damaged or destroyed
most productive and biodiverse of all ecosystems. Plants coral reefs?
are adapted to the wet conditions and support a variety of
10.6 Summary in temperate areas, with species numbers declining still further
towards the poles. The higher rates of primary productivity which
The biosphere is the part of the Earth where all life exists and this occur in the tropics are likely to be at least partly responsible for
chapter has attempted to explain its main features. However, with this latitudinal gradient in species diversity. Terrestrial biomes can
only 14% of the Earth’s 8.7 million eukaryotic species identified be mapped based on climatic factors, predominately mean annual
there is clearly still much to learn. Ecologists, in trying to under- temperature and precipitation. Biomes have characteristic veg-
stand the complexity of the biosphere, study it across different etation and the plants and animals that are found in them have
hierarchical tiers ranging from individual organisms, through adapted to the environmental conditions. Just as environmental
populations and communities to ecosystems, biomes and finally conditions do not generally change abruptly, but change along a
at the level of the whole biosphere. Species, groups of individu- gradient, there are transitional zones between different biomes
als with the potential to interbreed in nature and produce fertile known as ecotones. Aquatic biomes account for approximately
offspring, are the unit commonly used when studying biological 75% of the Earth’s surface and are divided into freshwater and
diversity, although biodiversity also covers genetic diversity within marine biomes.
species and the diversity of ecosystems. When measuring the bio- All biomes, whether aquatic or terrestrial, are under threat
diversity of an area it is important to consider the evenness of the from human actions including habitat destruction and fragmen-
species (or other taxonomic group) as well as the richness. tation due to urban or agricultural expansion. Invasive species,
Species are found within a range of environmental variables climate change, over-exploitation and pollution are other impacts
they are able to tolerate and where interactions with other spe- which the biosphere as a whole has to adapt to. Understanding
cies and local history enable them to exist. There are general the important patterns and functions within the biosphere and
patterns to biological diversity with more species being found how they are changing is key if the impacts of global change and
in large areas and more species found near the equator than predictions for the future are to be accurately made.
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Chapter 10 The biosphere
Further reading This is a good overview of biodiversity, with some interesting
case studies, which would serve well as a short introduction to
the subject at an undergraduate level.
Allison M., Doak, D.F. and Angert, A.L. (2015) Where and Lomolino, M.V., Riddle, B.R., Whittaker, R. and Brown, J.H.
when do species interactions set range limits? Trends in Ecology (2010) Biogeography, 4th edition. Sinauer Associates,
and Evolution, 30, 780–792. Sunderland, MA.
A good review of the theory that abiotic forces set species range This book provides an excellent summary of all disciplines
limits at high altitude and latitude and species interactions set that are categorized as biogeography including the distribu-
range limits in less hostile regions. A good paper to read to tion of species and communities, biodiversity and island
enhance your understanding of species distributions. biogeography.
Cox, B., Ladle, R.J. and Moore, P.D. (2016) Biogeography:
Reece, J.B., Urry, L.A., Cain, M.L., Wasserman, S.A.,
An ecological and evolutionary approach, 9th edition.
Minorsky, P.V. and Jackson, R.B. (2011) Campbell biology,
Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester.
Global Edition, 9th edition. Pearson Education, Harlow.
A good undergraduate text covering all aspects of biogeogra-
This book gives an excellent overview on all aspects of biosci-
phy. The book has a greater emphasis on marine life than most
ence at undergraduate level. Chapters 52 to 56 are particularly
books covering the subject.
relevant to the study of the biosphere. I recommend the Global
Gaston, K.J. and Spicer, J.I. (2004) Biodiversity: An introduc- Edition unless you want your focus to be predominately the
tion, 2nd edition. Blackwell, Malden, MA. USA and Canada.
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C H A PTER 1 1
Ecosystem processes
Julie Peacock
School of Geography, University of Leeds
Learning objectives Ecosystem processes are the major foci for scientists
working on ecosystems. This research requires an under-
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
standing of factors external to the ecosystem such as cli-
mate, topography and the underlying geological material
➤ summarise what is meant by the terms ‘ecosystem’ and ‘ecosys-
as these will all affect the processes within the ecosystem.
tem processes’
In addition, the factors and interactions within the ecosys-
tem, which will both affect the processes and be affected
➤ explain how energy and nutrients transfer through the ecosystem
by them, must be understood. These internal factors
➤ classify the effects of different biotic interactions on organisms include the biotic community and the community dynam-
➤ describe temporal processes in ecosystems ics, the human influence, disturbance regime, and resource
➤ explain the main human impacts on ecosystem processes availability (Figure 11.1). Understanding ecosystem pro-
cesses will permit accurate predictions of the responses of
ecosystems to global climate change and to other human
11.1 Introduction impacts. In addition, conservation effort will be more suc-
cessful if the processes within ecosystems are understood.
An ecosystem consists of all of the organisms within an Finally, humans rely on ecosystem processes for survival;
area and their interactions with the physical and chemi- from the provision of food and water, to the regulation of
cal environment in which they are located. Ecosystem disease pathogens, flood mitigation and for well-being,
processes involve the transfer of substances between the these are all linked to ecosystem processes. Understanding
different components, both living and non-living, within how best to preserve and utilise these services that ecosys-
the ecosystem. These substances include resources needed tems provide even in exceptionally modified environments
for life such as carbon, water, nitrogen, phosphorus and can only be of benefit to people throughout the world.
also pollutants from agriculture, industry or roads. The This chapter will start by considering the flow of
processes include, among others, primary production, energy and resources through an ecosystem. It will cover
decomposition, soil formation and nutrient mineralization ecological thermodynamics and the impacts this has
(Currie, 2011). on food webs, as well as the cycling of major nutrient
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Chapter 11 Ecosystem processes
Climate Time producers. The total amount of energy produced (as
biomass) in a given time and area is called the gross primary
Disturbance
regime productivity (GPP).
Human
Micro-environment activities Photosynthesis produces a store of energy in the form
of sugar, while respiration transfers the energy into forms
Ecosystem suitable for growth and other metabolic processes, with
Topography processes
some energy given off as heat. All living things undergo
respiration. The chemical process for respiration results
Resources Biotic
community
in the combination of sugar and oxygen producing CO2,
water and energy. Much of the energy produced by pho-
tosynthesis is used to maintain plant functioning. The
Parent Potential remaining fraction of GPP is stored in plant tissue and
material biota
this is called the net primary productivity (NPP) of an area.
Figure 11.1 The relationship between the external conditions, which The NPP of an ecosystem is important as it represents the
are independent of the ecosystem (outside the circle), and the interac- amount of energy available as food to other organisms, the
tive controls (words inside the circle), which affect and are affected by
consumers, within the ecosystem. A low NPP value would
ecosystem processes. These effects are mediated by feedback systems
(internal arrows). (Source: Chapin III et al., 2002) mean there was only a small amount of food available and
few organisms could be supported. Conversely, a high NPP
value represents a lot of food available for other organ-
isms, so greater numbers can be supported.
resources. These cycles are impacted by different organ- Conditions for photosynthesis are improved when there
isms and the different types of biological interactions will are warm temperatures, good light availability and plenty
be discussed. Changes to ecosystems over time, with a of water. In ecosystems with these conditions (e.g. a tropi-
focus on succession will be covered, as well as the impacts cal rainforest) NPP will be higher. In ecosystems where one
humans have had on ecosystems. Here we will also con- or more of these factors are limited (e.g. tundra) the rate
sider the most rapidly expanding ecosystem at present – of photosynthesis will be reduced and therefore net pri-
the urban ecosystem, an ecosystem where alteration of all mary productivity will be reduced as well.
parts of the biosphere, the atmosphere, oceans and land
have been most obviously manipulated by humans, yet
a place where ecological processes continue regardless.
11.2.2 Ecological thermodynamics
Finally, conservation efforts and how ecological science When considering the flows of energy and nutrients
can aid these efforts will be addressed. through an ecosystem it is important to remember that
the laws of physics and chemistry apply: knowledge of
these helps to explain some basic concepts in ecosystem
11.2 The flow of energy and resources
dynamics. The first law of thermodynamics, also known as
the law of conservation of energy, states that energy is not
11.2.1 Energy entering an ecosystem
created or destroyed but may be transformed from one
The majority of energy received by the biosphere is from type to another. Therefore, energy inflow to an ecosystem
solar energy which plants and photosynthetic bacteria must be balanced by energy storage plus energy outflow.
and archaea use to convert carbon dioxide (CO2) and The second law states that as energy is transformed from
water into carbon sugars, through photosynthesis (see one form to another there is a dispersion of energy into
Section 13.2.1 in Chapter 13). In the deep oceans and unavailable forms. It will, for example, dissipate as heat.
other places where light cannot penetrate, some bacteria The law of conservation of mass states that matter cannot
can produce sugars utilizing the energy from chemical be created or destroyed. Therefore, in chemical reactions
reactions using hydrogen sulfide, sulfide or methane. the mass of an element at the beginning of a reaction
This is called chemosynthesis and is particularly impor- will be the same as the mass of that element at the end of
tant around hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor (see the reaction. All living things are composed of elements:
Box 3.4 in Chapter 3). Organisms which can produce organisms obtain them and then use them before disposing
food from inorganic compounds and energy are known of them. The main elements important for life are calcium,
as autotrophs and they are ‘self-feeders’ and primary carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and phosphorus and
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11.2 The flow of energy and resources
these cycle through the biosphere. Ecosystems are not also referred to as the primary (or first-order) consumer.
closed systems and some elements will be lost from them The ladybird, also a heterotroph is at the third trophic
through moving water or wind-blown materials and oth- level and is the secondary (second-order) consumer. The
ers will escape as gas to the atmosphere. The principle of rodent that eats the ladybird is at the fourth trophic level
conservation of mass can be used to calculate all inputs and is the tertiary (third-order) consumer and finally the
into and outputs from an ecosystem to determine whether hawk is at the fifth trophic level and is the quaternary
it is a source or a sink for a given element. For example, (fourth-order) consumer. This is an example of a graz-
much recent research has focused on understanding which ing food chain as the primary consumer feeds on a living
ecosystems are storing or emitting net amounts of carbon, plant. In a detritus food chain the primary consumer, a
which is important for climate change. decomposer, feeds on dead plant matter. Decomposers
may be detritivores which ingest material before breaking
it down or saprovores which secrete chemicals to break-
11.2.3 Trophic levels and food webs
down the material extracellularly, before absorbing them:
In an ecosystem, an aphid may feed on a plant. The aphid these are usually fungi or bacteria. Decomposers enable
in turn may be eaten by a ladybird, the ladybird eaten the cycling of material through an ecosystem, making the
by a small rodent which may be eaten by a hawk. In this nutrients available again to other organisms. How a detri-
simple food chain, the plant is the primary producer and tus food chain and a grazing food chain interacts can be
represents the first trophic level. The aphid is at the second seen in Figure 11.2.
trophic level in the chain. It is a heterotroph, or consumer, Food chains are limited in length usually to four or five
as it does not produce its own food, but feeds on organic trophic levels. This is due to the laws of thermodynam-
material. It is at the second level of the food chain and is ics as energy is lost from the food chain at each trophic
Producers Primary consumers Secondary consumers Tertiary consumers
Grasshopper
Lizard
Grazing food chain
Hawk
Rabbit
Mouse Shrew
Vegetation Snake
Dead organic matter
Fly
Detritus food chain
maggot
Bacteria
Dermestid beetle
Ant
Dung beetle
Toadstool Millipede Bacteria Bacteria
Figure 11.2 A simplified example of nutrient flows within a temperate ecosystem, indicating trophic levels and interactions between a grazing food
chain and a detritus food chain.
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Terrestrial ecosystem
by zooplankton there is never very much available in the
rodent
ecosystem. In terrestrial ecosystems, however, much of
ladybirds
the vegetation is never consumed by grazers. The pyramid
aphids of net production in marine environments, however, does
tree conform to a true pyramid as energy is still lost from the
system as described above.
Clearly, in nature, energy and nutrients are not passed
dolphin through ecosystems in simple chains, but rather in com-
Marine ecosystem
sardines plex food webs, such as the one shown in Figure 11.4. In
these webs it is clear that some animals operate at more
zooplankton
than one trophic level. For example, a mouse would be
phytoplankton
classed as operating on the second trophic level when eat-
Pyramids of biomass Pyramids of energy ing seeds and the third trophic level when eating insects.
Figure 11.3 A representation of a typical pyramid of biomass and a pyra-
mid of energy transfer through a terrestrial and a marine ecosystem.
11.2.4 Biogeochemical cycles
Although ecosystems receive solar energy as an ongoing
level. Typically only 10% of energy from one trophic level supply, elements needed for growth are limited in their
is passed to the next, although trophic efficiencies have availability and therefore need to be recycled in ecosys-
been calculated to range between 5 and 20% depending tems. The term biogeochemical cycles refers to the fact that
on the ecosystem. This transfer of energy is often repre- biological, geological and chemical factors are involved in
sented by a pyramid of net production (Figure 11.3), with the recycling of matter. Approximately 10 major nutrients
the net production at each trophic level represented by a are vital to the survival of plants and animals, but the
band proportional to the size of net production. The band four most important cycles for life are the water, carbon,
for the first tropic level is always large but by the fourth phosphorus and nitrogen cycles. Some of these will cycle
trophic level the band will be very small. Net production locally within the ecosystem, others will cycle more glob-
pyramids in terrestrial systems are mirrored by pyramids ally. For example, phosphorus is consumed at the different
of biomass at each tropical level; the biomass of the trophic levels and then decomposers will return it to the
primary producers is much greater than the biomass of soil. In the soil it will be available for plants to take up
each consumer level. In some marine systems, however, again, thereby resulting in local cycling. However, some
the biomass pyramid may be inverted as the life cycle of phosphorus may be washed out of the ecosystem in water,
phytoplankton is very rapid and consumed so quickly and move on its journey in a more globalized cycle. There
Tertiary Foxes
carnivores
Secondary King Road-runners Quail
carnivores snakes
Primary Raccoons Gopher snakes
carnivores
Insects
Deer mice
Herbivores Pocket mice
Pack rats Insects
Plants
Woody plants
Figure 11.4 The complexity of a typical food web. This example is from the chaparral scrub of California. The various trophic levels indicate the animals
of different groups and it is noticeable that not all animals are confined to one trophic level. Raccoons, for example, are both herbivores and carnivores.
However, they are ultimately dependent on the plants.
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Table 11.1 The different interactions between species and their effect
on the two species involved
Species 1 Species 2 Interaction
Animal
skeletons + + Mutualism
Phosphate + - Herbivory/parasitism/predation
within rocks Nutrition
Animal for animals + 0 Commensalism
detritus
- 0 Amensalism
0 0 Neutralism*
Nutrition for
vegetation - - Competition
Geological
weathering Water-soluble *Neutralism could theoretically exist, but it is not thought that an association
phosphate in between two species would have zero impact on either.
soil water
Intraspecific interactions take place between individu-
Figure 11.5 The phosphate cycle, as an example of a biogeochemical cycle. als of the same species. Interspecific interactions take place
between individuals from different species. Interactions
between species (Table 11.1) are known as a symbiosis,
may be points in the cycle where phosphorous is stored which is the long-term interaction of individuals of two
and accumulates for long periods, such as in ocean sedi- different species. Symbiosis has previously been limited
ments, before the cycle continues. The main components in its definition to an interaction between two species in
of the phosphate form of the phosphorus cycle are shown which both species gain from the interaction (mutualism).
in Figure 11.5. The phosphorus cycle does not have a gas However, the term is now usually used in the wider sense,
phase to its cycle and it cycles slowly, but water, carbon regardless of whether the outcome of the interaction is
and nitrogen all have gas phases. positive or negative for the species involved. Symbiosis can
shape whole ecosystems as well as the evolution of the
species within them. Symbioses are classified in terms of
where the interaction takes place. Ectosymbiosis describes
Reflective questions one species living on another, whereas endosymbiosis is
➤ Why are food chains usually limited to five trophic levels? the term used when one species lives within the tissues of
another species.
➤ What is the net primary productivity of an ecosystem and As well as direct species interactions being important
why is this value important? in ecological communities, indirect interactions also play
➤ What are the definitions of autotrophs, heterotrophs, an important role. Sanders and van Veen (2012) showed
detritivores and saprovores? through experiments that extinctions of Aphidius ervi,
one species of parasitoid wasp, led to the extinction of
Lysiphlebus fabarumand, another species of parasitoid
wasp. This was despite there being no direct connections
11.3 Biotic interactions between them – in fact they were four trophic levels apart.
The wasps lay eggs inside aphids and when the wasp larvae
In ecology it is necessary to try to understand biotic inter- hatch they feed on the aphid. The wasps only use certain
actions, as these will have a major impact on the processes aphid species as hosts. A. ervi only lays eggs in Acyrtho-
within an ecosystem and in turn the processes which will siphon pisum (the pea aphid) while L. fabarum only uses
affect them. The interactions take place at many levels, Aphis fabae (the black bean aphid) as a host. Sanders and
within a population and between individuals from differ- van Veen (2012) set up cages with broad bean plants, the
ent populations. Some interactions are transitory (brief). two species of aphid and the two species of parasitoid
Others last for the lifetime of the organisms involved. wasp. With this food chain set up all the species survived.
Some, but certainly not all, are obligate, which means the In cages without L. fabarum, A. ervi populations contin-
individuals need the interaction to survive. ued to survive. Yet in cages without A. ervi, L. fabarum
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populations crashed and went extinct in about six weeks. C
This is caused by competition between the aphids.
A. pisum outcompetes A. fabae, therefore when A. ervi
Hyphae
is not present the A. pisum population rapidly increases Vesicles
and the A. fabae population crashes. Without A. fabae to
host its eggs L. fabarum populations become extinct too. 5 mm
This shows that it is key when studying ecosystems and
Figure 11.6 A cross section of a plant root (Ceratocarpus arenarius)
modelling extinctions to consider the ecosystem as a whole
under a microscope showing arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi stained blue
because individual extinctions can have huge implications inside the root. The fungi create vesicles and thin hyphae as part of their
for other species. structure. (Source: Zhang et al., 2012, under Creative Commons
Attribution License)
11.3.1 Mutualism
critical in the evolution of plants on to land, with associa-
Birds eating berries are good examples of mutualism. The tions of moss-like plants occurring before the evolution of
birds benefit by gaining food from the plants and, in turn, higher plants and plant roots (Brundrett, 2002). There is
the plants benefit because the seeds inside the berries are evidence for these associations from 400 million year old
dispersed away from the plant. Lichens are a mutualistic fossils (Remy et al., 1994), showing their importance in
symbiosis between a photoautotropic partner, known as a plant evolution. The predominant role of the arbuscular
photobiont and lichen forming fungi, called a mycobiont. mycorrhiza was until recently thought to be phosphate
The photobiont is usually a green algae or a cyanobacte- uptake. However, more recently it has been shown that
ria. The fungi provide the photobiont with nutrients and the fungi are also important in plant nitrogen uptake.
will often anchor the lichen to the substrate, such as a tree Given that nitrogen is a key limiting nutrient in terrestrial
or rock. In turn, the mycobiont benefits from receiving car- ecosystems, a symbiosis with such fungi would give the
bon sugars. Most lichen partners are facultative so when plant a competitive advantage (Hodge and Storer, 2015).
a symbiosis forms, the morphology, along with the bio- Arbuscular mycorrhiza are an example of obligate symbi-
chemistry and physiology, is very different from either of onts because they could not survive without the host plant
the photobionts or mycobiont when they are not forming providing carbon sugars.
a symbiosis. This symbiosis is considered to be ancient,
although there is little fossil evidence. There have been
11.3.2 Herbivory, predation and parasitism
415 million-year-old fossil cyanobacterial and algal lichens
in rocks in Wales that have been identified (Honegger et Herbivory, predation and parasitism are all interactions,
al., 2013), although it is likely that these mutualistic symbi- which are positive for one individual and negative for the
oses formed much earlier. Lichens are important colonisers other. Predation differs from parasitism and herbivory
of new surfaces. Lichens, which can withstand extremes of because with predation the negative impact is death of the
cold and aridity, are found in their crustose form in deserts individual. However, with parasitism and herbivory the
and the Polar Regions. In more moist areas, many lichens individual often survives, albeit with reduced fitness.
have a foliose or sheet-like structure, whilst others have a Plants have adapted to herbivory in different ways. Spe-
fruticose structure, meaning it is branched and either erect cies in the Poaceae (grass) family have their apical meris-
or hanging. In urban areas, lichens are regularly found tems from which primary growth of the plant originates,
growing on the sides of buildings and trees, and on grave- near the base of the plant. As such it is protected from
stones and pavements. Attempts to remove lichens and to grazing. Other plants use defence mechanisms such as
prevent regrowth often fail. spines and thorns, which make it difficult or uncomforta-
Another fungi–photoautotropic mutualistic relation- ble for grazing or browsing animals to eat them. Some spe-
ship is formed between mycorrhizal fungi and land plants, cies are toxic or taste bitter, so that herbivores avoid them.
with arbuscular mycorrhiza being the most common type A parasite reduces the fitness of a host organism by
of mycorrhizal fungi (Figure 11.6). It forms associations consuming nutrients from it, so the parasite benefits and
with around two thirds of all land plant species. The fungi its host is negatively impacted. Parasites may live inside
exchange nutrients from the soil for carbon sugars, which their hosts and are known as endoparasites. These include,
are photosynthetically fixed by the plant. This provides for example, tapeworms, protozoa, and flukes. Other
energy for the fungi. It is thought that this symbiosis was parasites stay on the outside of their hosts including ticks
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11.3 Biotic interactions
and lice, plants, protozoa, bacteria and fungi. Animals Prey species have adapted to avoid being eaten, perhaps
and plants are usually the hosts. Species in the genus through camouflage or defensive spines. Some species are
Rafflesia are very unusual plants. They produce no leaves, brightly coloured to show they are toxic, while others use
stems or roots, but obtain all of their nutrition from the colour to imitate toxic species to avoid being eaten. Oth-
Tetrastigma vine on which it is parasitic (Beaman et al., ers, such as Aglais io (peacock butterfly), have false eyes
1988). Rafflesia produces threadlike growths which pen- on their wings, which must appear threatening to its avian
etrate the tissues of the vine and become embedded into predators. Likewise, predators have adapted to catch their
its xylem and phloem, where water and nutrients are trans- prey, evolving acute senses, claws, sharp teeth or venom.
ported (Rubiales and Heide-Jørgensen, 2011). The first They usually catch their prey by pursuing them, so bursts
time the Rafflesia species can be seen is when it is ready of speed have evolved, or by ambushing them, and species
to reproduce and a bud bursts through the host’s bark. have adapted by becoming camouflaged.
After around nine months the flower opens, and it can Although the majority of predators are animals, car-
be over a metre in diameter and weigh more than 10 kg nivorous plants, as the name suggests, are predatory as
(Figure 11.7). Most species of Rafflesia smell of rotting well. These plants get nutrients, mostly nitrogen, by trap-
flesh. This odour attracts flies to pollinate it. The fitness ping insects and in some cases frogs and small mammals.
of the vine on which it is parasitic is dramatically reduced. Most plants absorb nitrogen from the soil through their
Predation, which occurs when an individual, a preda- roots, but carnivorous plants are most commonly found in
tor, kills and eats another individual, its prey, usually bogs and fens where soil nitrogen concentrations are very
takes place interspecifically, although intraspecific preda- low and they absorb the nitrogen from the prey through
tion (cannibalism) does take place as well, usually when their leaves. These plants evolved numerous times and are
resources are very low. Cannibalism can occur across a an example of convergent evolution. Less well known per-
broad range of taxa and will ultimately benefit the sur- haps are the 200 species of predatory fungi, which use spe-
vival of the population, as not only does this provide a cial adaptations to trap nematodes from which they then
food source but there will also be reduced intraspecific absorb nutrients (Pramer, 1964).
competition for scarce resources. There is some evidence Predators are often central to maintaining the com-
that certain species, such as Ursus maritimus (polar bear) munity structure of which they are part and those that do
(Amstrup et al., 2006) and Larus glaucescens (glaucous- hold the community together are termed keystone species,
winged gulls) (Haywood et al., 2014) are becoming an idea first conceived by Paine (1966). Paine (1969)
cannibalistic in response to climate change as resources showed experimentally that removing Pisaster ochraceus
become scarce. (ochre starfish) from a rocky intertidal ecosystem had a
The ecology and evolution of the predator species and dramatic effect on the habitat. The starfish were the main
the prey species are closely linked. To survive and repro- predator, selectively feeding on mussels. Without the
duce, individuals must both feed and avoid being eaten. starfish the mussels were able to outcompete other spe-
cies and took over the area. In under a year of removing
the starfish, species diversity in the area had significantly
reduced from 15 to 8 species. Another example is pro-
vided by the grey wolf of Yellowstone National Park as
outlined in Box 11.1.
The term keystone species is also sometimes applied
to species which are not predators, such as species of the
Trochilidae (hummingbird) family. They are important in
the survival of several plant species through pollination.
As both the plant species and the hummingbird species
benefit then they are termed keystone mutualists.
11.3.3 Commensalism
Commensalism is when one species benefits from an interac-
Figure 11.7 Rafflesia flower, Sumatra, Indonesia. These flowers are the
largest in the world and the individual flower can weigh 1 kg. tion and the other is unaffected. It is likely that commen-
(Source: Alexander Mazurkevich / Shutterstock.com) salism began very early in evolution. The earliest example
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Wolves as keystone species in hunting livestock, programmes to elimi- the whole ecosystem was threatened.
Yellowstone nate the wolves began. By 1924 there Attitudes towards C. lupus changed and
were no wolves remaining in Yellowstone it was added to the Endangered Species
At the end of the nineteenth century National Park. list in the United States in 1966. In 1995
there were between three and four hun- The population of C. elaphus exploded C. lupus was reintroduced to Yellowstone
dred Canis lupus (grey wolf) individuals in once C. lupus was eradicated, which led National Park (Bangs and Fritts, 1996) and
the Yellowstone National Park. The prey to overgrazing. This caused a decline in a population became established over the
of C. lupus is predominately Bison spe- many plant species including Salix (wil- next 10 years (Smith, 2005). The popula-
cies and Cervis elaphus (elk), which were low), which in turn led to loss of habitat tion of C. elaphus declined and vegetation
also hunted by human settlers (Beck and for other species and a degradation of communities have started to re-establish.
Meier, 2004). As C. lupus and humans the environment, including increased Song bird populations have also started to
were in competition and with the addi- stream erosion (Ripple and Beschta, increase, suggesting that the ecosystem
tional concern that the wolves may start 2004). By removing the keystone species as a whole may be gradually recovering.
BOX 11.1
of commensalism found in the fossil record to date is from although some argue that there is a cost to the plant in
the Cambrian, series 3, Burgess Shale (about 500 million producing these chemicals and consider it to be a form of
years ago). This was Nisusia burgessensis, a Brachiopod, competition.
which is a marine animal with shell on its upper and lower
surfaces, attached to a species of Wiwaxia, a soft-bodied
11.3.5 Competition
marine animal covered in scales and spines (Topper et
al., 2014). This is thought to be an example of commen- Competition can be both interspecific and intraspecific
salism as the sessile Nisusia burgessensis benefits from and occurs when a particular resource is limited, such as
being attached to the mobile Wiwaxia species, with the food, water, shelter, or in the case of intraspecific competi-
result that it might have been carried to a more favourable tion, mates. When competition takes place both individu-
habitat. als will suffer. If two species have a very similar set of
Contemporary examples of commensalism include requirements, a similar niche, they will not be able to exist
species of the genus Arctium (burdock) whose seed in the same area as one will outcompete the other. This
heads, known as burs, are prickly and attach easily to is known as the Competitive Exclusion Principle and was
fur of passing animals. In this example, the seeds of developed by Gause (1932, 1934). Gause demonstrated
the Arctium species are dispersed and the animal is not the principle in experimental studies using Paramecium
affected. species, a single-celled protozoa. As shown in Figure 11.8,
when the two species are grown separately both popula-
tions establish and stabilise. When grown together,
11.3.4 Amensalism
Paramecium Aurelia population grows more slowly, due
Amensalism is where one species is unaffected and the to competition with Paramecium caudatum, but it is
other species is negatively affected. An obvious example P. caudatum which is outcompeted and does not survive.
of this is when animals trample vegetation. The vegeta- To co-exist, one species would need to evolve so that its
tion being crushed is negatively affected, but the animals requirements were not exactly the same as the other’s and
are not impacted. Allelopathy, the phenomenon whereby it would therefore have a different ecological niche. This
plants release chemicals that have a negative impact adaption for many species could involve altering the feed-
on other plants, but do not have a positive or negative ing time, changing the main food source, or moving repro-
effect on themselves is another example of amensalism, duction earlier or later.
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P. caudatum alone
60
30 P. caudatum in mixed culture
Volume of population
0
P. aurelia alone
80
40 P. aurelia in mixed culture
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Days
Figure 11.8 The impact of competition on population densities of P. caudatum and P. Aurelia. Solid lines show population growth rate when species are
grown individually; dotted lines when they are grown in a mixed culture. It is clear that the growth rate of both species is reduced, and P. caudatum goes
extinct within 18 days in a laboratory culture experiment. (Source: Gause, 1934)
processes of the ecosystems they occupy. In addition, some
Reflective questions individuals have lived for thousands of years. A Pinus
longaeva (Great Basin bristlecone pine) in Wheeler Peak,
➤ What are the terms used for biotic interactions that have Nevada has been recorded at over 4800 years old and
a positive effect on organisms? several Sequoiadendron giganteum (giant sequoia) trees
➤ Why are keystone species so important for the function- in Sierra Nevada, California have been recorded at over
ing of an ecosystem? 3000 years old (Brown, 1996). The condition of the eco-
system they germinated in may be very different to those
➤ What is the difference between intraspecific competition occurring now; and the trees themselves may have played
and interspecific competition? a role in changing local ecosystem processes. Understand-
ing how ecosystem processes respond over time to cyclical
➤ Why would cannibalism be beneficial to a population?
and one off changes is important if predictions regarding
impacts of global change are to be made accurately.
11.4 Temporal change in ecosystems
11.4.1 Short-term changes
Ecosystem processes in an area cannot be studied at one Annual cycles within an ecosystem cause great fluxes in
point in time and then thought to be understood. The ecosystem processes over the year. For example, if primary
processes are affected by past events as well as respond- productivity in temperate areas was measured in winter it
ing to current changes in the environment. The change would give a very different value than if it was measured in
may be short term, such as annual variation in weather summer. For other ecosystems the annual cycle may vary
or variation in population size at different trophic levels. between dry and wet seasons. Migration is another factor
Changes may also be longer term. For example, some spe- which causes ecosystem processes to fluctuate through the
cies are still advancing towards higher latitudes in response year and as ecosystems have evolved with these fluctuations
to continental ice sheet melt more than 10 000 years ago. they play an important role in the normal functioning of
Hence these slow species movements will slowly alter the those areas. Climate change is already affecting annual
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cycles (see Chapter 13) with many species of plants flower-
ing earlier in the UK than fifty years ago (Fitter and Fitter,
2002) and migratory birds are altering the timing of their
Species numbers
autumn migration (Jenni and Kéry, 2003). These changes 1 Disturbance event
will occur over longer periods and will change ecosystem
processes profoundly as pollinators and flowering times are
2 Disturbance event
no longer in sync or predator–prey cycles alter.
Ecosystem processes within a habitat should not just be
considered on a yearly scale though, as some cycles which
affect them will occur on an inter-annual basis. Some Time
of these factors will be predictable such as fluctuations Figure 11.9 Effects of repeated disturbance on species numbers.
in herbivore populations which in turn determine plant
biomass and nutrient cycling. For example, Olofsson
et al. (2012) showed that fluctuations in lemming and vole so intense that ecosystems cannot always recover (Folke
densities (grazers in the ecosystem), drove fluctuations in et al., 2004). In addition, if disturbance events occur in
plant biomass and these fluctuations occurred on three quick succession it may be harder for an ecosystem to
yearly cycles. Other predictable inter-annual events which recover, as is shown in Figure 11.9.
will cause changes in ecosystem processes include El Niño
events, which cause drought and flooding recurring every
11.4.3 Succession
2 to 10 years (see Chapters 6 and 8), and these inter-annual
events are part of the ecosystem processes in these areas. After a disturbance event, which leads to the sudden loss of
biomass and/or structure of an area, ecological succession
will occur. Succession is the sequential change in species
11.4.2 Disturbance and resilience
over time following a disturbance event. Succession is an
Disturbance in ecosystems is caused by a distinct event important concept in ecology and has been debated and dis-
which changes the usual functioning and processes of the cussed for over one hundred years (Walker and del Moral,
ecosystem. Disturbances may be small scale, such as a sin- 2003). Succession does not consider seasonal changes in veg-
gle tree fall within a forest or much larger events such as a etation and similar regular disruptions, nor does it address
landslide, volcano or fire. Natural disturbance is integral change on a long-term, palaeoecological scale. However, an
to the processes of most ecosystems, but disturbance may understanding of succession can aid in the prediction and
also be caused by humans, for example, by felling trees or interpretation of disturbance responses of ecosystems as a
overgrazing with domestic animals. In either situation, dis- result of increased human interference and global change
turbance often leads to a sudden decline in biomass. Natu- and aid conservation efforts to recreate habitats.
ral disturbance is key to maintaining high biodiversity in Two types of succession are recognized: primary and
an ecosystem where competition would otherwise exclude secondary succession. Primary succession starts in areas
some species. Ecosystems with an intermediate distur- that are completely devoid of life such as after a volcano
bance regime are likely to have highest biodiversity. eruption or glacier retreat. There is no soil – species must
Ecological resilience was first defined by Holling (1973) colonise the area from the outside and soil must slowly
and is the ability of an ecosystem to withstand distur- develop. Secondary succession takes place after less dra-
bance by resisting change. High biodiversity is thought matic disturbances, such as after a forest fire or the aban-
to increase ecosystem resilience, as with greater diversity donment of agricultural fields. After these events soil is
there are more options for that ecosystem to recover. present, though probably degraded, but there will be seeds
Therefore, disturbance and resilience are intertwined as present in the soil, ready to germinate and there may be
disturbance maintains higher biodiversity and high bio- plant shoots or roots which can resprout. Secondary suc-
diversity is needed to recover from disturbance. Human cession can therefore progress much quicker than primary
activities can reduce resilience as humans often try to con- succession.
trol variability in ecosystems. For example, reducing the In the field, succession has been studied using long-
frequency of natural fires in an ecosystem often leads to term study sites and by studying chronosequences, which
more occasional but extremely severe fires as combustible are similar sites where disturbance took place at different
material builds up and once the fire occurs it can become points in the past (Figure 11.10). In chronosequences the
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11.4 Temporal change in ecosystems
(a) (c)
(b) (d)
Figure 11.10 Different stages of succession of a Panamanian forest after clearance by humans. (a) Cattle pasture, the forest has been recently
cleared and grasses predominate. The seedling trees in the foreground are around two months old and farmers cut these to maintain the pasture,
some remnant mature trees survive. (b) A forest that has been recovering from clearance for three years. (c) A forest 26 years since it was cleared.
(d) A mature forest. The differences between these forests can be studied and researchers can gain an understanding of the successional processes.
(Source: Sarah Batterman, University of Leeds)
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sites are at different successional stages and the study uses early pioneer tree species (see Box 11.2) will be replaced
space as a substitute for time. Succession has also been by slow growing species. This final community is termed
studied by manipulating sites experimentally (Wardle the climax community and is considered to be quite stable.
et al., 1999) and using theoretical models of succession. Some ecosystems will never reach a climax community if
Succession has been classified into stages: pioneer, early, the time between disturbances is less than the time needed
mid and late. In the example of a forest developing after to reach a climax state. Natural grazing and fire regimes
glacial retreat, the pioneer community is made up may prevent a climax from being reached, as may human
of lichens and mosses and other autotrophic species which disturbances.
do not require soil, but can cling to the rock. These species Mechanisms that enable change through the succes-
provide food for grazers and decomposers which will then sional stages are still being understood and proposals
colonise the site. Gradually soil builds up as decompos- include facilitation, random colonization, competition
ers break down dead plant and animal matter. The soil and inhibition. Facilitation, where one successional stage
and organisms retain water in the ecosystem. Eventually ‘paves the way’ for species typical of the next successional
vascular plants will invade the area once the soil is suit- stage by altering the environment, such as light or water
able. These will create more litter for the developing soil availability, or changing the soil, is the most common
and more resources for grazing species and decomposers. mechanism proposed to explain succession. For example,
Pioneer species may be gradually replaced. With a lot more Alnus species (alder) are abundant in an intermediate stage
time, conditions will become suitable for woody plants of glacial succession. As they drop their leaves they lower
to become established. Woody plants generally require the soil pH. The change in pH facilitates the entry of Picea
more soil and are slow growing so their establishment is species (spruce), which require acidic soil. Using the same
delayed. Their establishment also relies on seeds dispers- example can show how species might inhibit the next suc-
ing to the area. The further away species are from the cessional stage. Alnus species increase light competition
disturbed area the longer this succession can take. Eventu- and reduce the germination success of Picea species and in
ally, enough trees will grow to produce a forest canopy and doing so inhibit the next stage of succession.
Life history trade-offs the species lives. In environments where offspring is most likely to result in repro-
disturbance is likely and many individuals ductive success. Individuals with these
In evolutionary terms an individual is suc-
will not survive to reproductive maturity, characteristics are known as K-selected or
cessful if it reproduces and has offspring
producing a lot of offspring will increase climax species and a full list of typical traits
that successfully reproduce themselves. the chances of one surviving and produc- is shown in Table 11.2. K-selected species
The strategies to increase an individual’s ing offspring of their own. The trade-off is will only be found in communities which
chance of survival, reproduction and the that limited resources can be put into that are reaching, or at, their climax. In these
successful reproduction of its offspring, offspring: a plant would produce a lot of communities there will be strong competi-
are its life-history strategies. Putting a lot small seeds, animals may be of small size tion for resources and the extra energy
of energy into a large number of offspring and gain little or no care from parents. put into each offspring will give it an
would clearly increase the success of an Species which display these characteris- advantage. Examples of K-selected species
individual, yet this is not possible as the tics are known as r-selected or pioneer include large mammals and slow growing
cost to the individual in terms of resources species and will be the first to colonise trees such as Quercus species (oak).
and energy needed to do this would be an area after a disturbance event. Typical The terms r and K are taken from
too high. Instead there is a trade-off. For r-selected species include rodents and mathematical models used to predict
example, an organism will produce either ‘weedy’ plant species. population growth and size. In these mod-
a few, ‘high cost’ offspring, or a lot of ‘low If, however, the environment is stable els, r represents the population growth
cost’ ones. The strategy that has evolved and the majority of individuals reach repro- and K the carrying capacity (the number
depends on the environment in which ductive age, greater investment in each of individuals an area can support based
Box 11.2 ➤
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11.5 Human impact
➤
Table 11.2 The characteristics of extreme r-selected species and extreme K-selected species
Characteristic r-selected (pioneer) species K-selected (climax) species
Environment Unstable Stable
Energy required to make Low (in flowering plants this would be reflected High (in flowering plants this would be reflected in a
an individual in low seed size, which need few resources to large seed, which use a lot of resources to produce,
produce) but will provide a lot of energy for the new plant)
Size Small size Large size
Survivorship Most of the individuals die within a short time but Most individuals live to near the maximum life span
a few live much longer
Maturation Early Late
Reproductive episodes One Multiple
Number of offspring Many Few
Life expectancy Short Long
on resources available) of a habitat. An and there is not the potential for popula- of one or other. For example, Sequoia-
r-selected species means that it is one tions to grow further. dendron giganteum is a large tree which
where the population is growing and In reality, there is a continuum between lives a very long time and takes decades
there are plenty of resources available. A r-selected and K-selected species with to reach maturity. However, it produces
K-selected species is one which is found some species displaying some characteris- thousands of tiny seeds and suffers high
when the habitat is at carrying capacity tics of each strategy, or moderate versions pre-reproductive mortality.
Box 11.2
change, alien invasions, fragmentation, pollution and
Reflective questions over-harvesting of plant and animal species are all major
threats to ecosystems. Global climate change is altering
➤ What is the definition of ecosystem resilience? ecosystems world-wide and Chapter 13 focuses on that
➤ Why can disturbance be beneficial to ecosystems? topic, so it will not be considered further here.
➤ Why might a climax community never be reached by an
ecosystem? 11.5.1 Degrading ecosystems
11.5.1.1 Overharvesting
11.5 Human impact Overharvesting, or over exploitation, occurs in natu-
ral populations when the rate of harvest of individuals
Understanding human impacts and being able to predict from a population is greater than the rate of replace-
the consequences to ecosystem processes is one of the most ment. This leads to a decline in the population size of
fundamental issues faced by ecologists today (Murphy that species. If overharvesting continues, that species will
and Romanuk, 2014), primarily because human life is eventually become locally extinct. Species with a low
dependent on the functioning of ecosystems (Millennium reproductive rate, such as old growth trees, elephants and
Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). H abitat destruction clearly whales, are particularly prone to over harvesting, due to
has the most detrimental impact on ecosystems, but the long time period it takes to replace the individuals
remaining ecosystems are degraded through our actions, taken and the age at which replacement individuals reach
often resulting in a loss of biodiversity. Global climate reproductive maturity.
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Chapter 11 Ecosystem processes
Logging and fishing are typical industries which can abrupt. The edge of the remnant patch will be impacted
cause problems with overharvesting and studies have by the environmental conditions of the newly created eco-
shown that it is not just individual species that are suffer- systems and changes in biotic interactions as a result of
ing from their impacts. Muler et al. (2014) studied Euterpe this. If a forest is fragmented, often the adjacent area may
edulis (juçara palm), which is selectively logged be agriculture or roads where light levels will be higher,
for palm heart harvesting. They found that after harvesting temperature will fluctuate more and moisture levels will
of E. edulis individuals, seed density of light dependent be altered. At the boundary of the patch there will be a
climbers, pioneer tree species and bamboo increased. This gradient between the environmental conditions, so that
may be an expected result of a disturbance event. However, the environment at the edge of the patch will be quite dif-
the species richness of the seed rain (seeds falling from ferent from that of the interior. In the short term this will
canopy) had declined by half in a five-year period, particu- lead to leaf flush in the edge vegetation, which may attract
larly of animal dispersed species, suggesting a significant additional herbivores and predatory animals and birds.
alteration of the ecosystem dynamics, rather than it just In the longer term, different tree species may be favoured
being the population of E. edulis that had been impacted. again, altering the species dynamics within the ecosystem.
Selective logging has additional environmental impacts as In addition, the external biota will interact with species
tracks are made into the forest to reach the trees, which if from the fragment along the fragment edge. These may
not done carefully can cause soil compaction and fragmen- be domestic predators such as cats entering the edge of
tation of the forest. the forest, or pests from crop species. There may also be
problems with invasive species entering the fragment along
11.5.1.2 Fragmentation its edge. Patch size and shape determines how much of the
fragment is impacted by edge effects, with smaller patches
Habitat fragmentation occurs when a continuous eco- and long thin patches more greatly impacted as is shown
system is separated into patches, due to the destruction in Figure 11.11.
of some of the habitat, perhaps by road building, con- Habitat corridors can, to some extent, overcome some of
version to agriculture or other development. Although the impacts of fragmentation. Habitat corridors, such as
only a small area of the original ecosystem may have a hedge on a field margin running between two woodland
been destroyed, the remaining patches are usually badly patches, connect patches of an ecosystem. The hedge pro-
degraded and respond with a rapid reduction in species vides a route where species can migrate along, there can
richness. Quammen (1996) used the analogy of a Persian be mixing of separate populations and animals can look
carpet, if you cut the original into squares, you are not left for food in both patches. Other corridors include the
with something of equal value, but unravelling rags. provision of tunnels under major roads joining two habi-
Degradation through fragmentation is caused firstly tats and even rope bridges connecting the canopy of forest
because there is some reduction in size of the overall habi- fragments to enable arboreal species, such as monkeys, to
tat. Mobile species may have been able to move to another cross roads.
surviving patch but this can cause an increase in competi-
tion for the remaining resources. Immobile (sessile) organ-
11.5.1.3 Alien invaders
isms will have been destroyed. Secondly, the remaining
patches may have been degraded during the fragmenta- Species that have been introduced to ecosystems outside
tion. In addition, the patches are effectively islands and their natural range and are not only naturalized (consist-
following island biogeography theory (Box 11.3) a smaller ently reproducing) but increasing their range are termed,
island can support fewer species. Some species which can invasive, alien or exotic species. Some species have been
move between patches, such as bird species, may not be introduced deliberately, perhaps as horticultural speci-
affected as much by fragmentation. Other species which mens, such as Impatiens glandulifera (Himalayan bal-
cannot move between patches and have a large range size, sam), Heracleum mantegazzianum (giant hogweed) and
may struggle to find enough food to survive. Divided Fallopia japonica (Japanese knotweed), which were all
populations may also be too small to remain viable and introduced in the UK in the nineteenth century as garden
may die out. ornamentals (Coombe, 1956; Beerling et al., 1994; Tiley
Fragmentation can also lead to increased edge effects. et al., 1996). Others were introduced as biological con-
When fragmentation takes place the boundary between trol. For example, Rhinella marina (cane toad), which
the remaining patch and the destroyed habitat can be is native to Central and South America, was introduced
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11.5 Human impact
Edge
Edge
Edge
Interior habitat
Interior habitat
Interior habitat
(a)
Interior habitat
(b) Edge Interior habitat
Figure 11.11 Edge effects: (a) edge effect on patches of a similar size but different shape; (b) edge effects have a greater impact on smaller areas.
Island biogeography theory surrounded by urban development. Island islands of the Sunda group, in the Malay
biogeography theory can be applied to archipelago, increases with an increase in
MacArthur and Wilson (1963) first pro-
these areas as well and the theory has island size. Larger islands would probably
posed the theory of island biogeography therefore become important for conserva- have more resources and different habitats
as a predictor of species richness on tion and the creation of reserves. for species to occupy. These findings have
islands. They developed the theory based MacArthur and Wilson (1963) were been repeated many times by different
on oceanic islands, although islands in able to show that larger islands had a researchers and for different groups of
ecology are not always surrounded by greater species richness than smaller ones, species.
water, but can be a habitat surrounded and that there was a consistent relation- MacArthur and Wilson also proposed
by a very different area, such as a forest ship between island size and number of that distance to the island from the
fragment surrounded by arable fields, species. Figure 11.12 shows how the spe- mainland was a factor. They proposed
or ponds, mountain tops and grasslands cies richness of bird species on the various that species richness of the island was
Box 11.3 ➤
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Chapter 11 Ecosystem processes
➤
1000
100
Number of species
10
10 100 1000 10000 100000
Area in square miles
Figure 11.12 The numbers of land and freshwater bird species on various islands of the Sunda group, together with
the Phillipines and New Guinea. The islands and grouped close to one another and to the Asian continent and the
Greater Sunda group, where most of the species live. (Source: after MacArthur and Wilson, 1963).
composed of species able to migrate to survive on the island until competition for greater change of a species arriving there,
the island from the mainland. For islands resources led to extinction of some spe- than to a small island. Therefore, large
closer to the mainland, species are more cies. The balance between migration from islands close to the mainland will have
likely to migrate there by chance. The fur- the mainland and extinction represents much greater species richness than small
ther away from the mainland an island is the species richness equilibrium for that islands a long way from the mainland.
the less likely migration to it will be. More island (Figure 11.13). The rate of migration Not all islands, however, are newly
species could continue to migrate and to a large island will be higher, as there is a formed volcanic islands to be colonized
Imm ge Isl
Imm ar Isl
(La
(ne
Rate of extinction or immigration
Rate of extinction or immigration
Rate of extinction or immigration
r
igr and)
igr and)
ds
an
ati
atio
Ne
isl
ar
on
n
all
Im ar Is
isl
Isla n
)
Sm
an
all ctio
nd
mi lan
(f
d
gr
(Sm xtin
ion
at d)
Im all
ion
ct
E
(S
Far
tin
mi Isl
m
isla nds
Ex
gr an
Isl n
d)
nd
ge ctio
isla
at d)
an
s ge
ion
(L Extin
Lar
ar
Small Island Large Island Far Island Near Island
a) Number of species on island b) Number of species on island c) Number of species on island
Figure 11.13 Species richness at equilibrium based on island biogeography theory. Where immigration and extinction intersect will be the
species equilibrium for the island: (a) the point of equilibrium will be different for large and small islands, with lower species richness on small
islands; (b) species equilibrium is different for islands close to the mainland compared to those further away, due to different rates for immigra-
tion; (c) considering island size and distance from the mainland together, species equilibrium is lowest for small islands far from the mainland,
and largest for large islands, close to the mainland.
Box 11.3 ➤
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11.5 Human impact
➤
by species migrating from the mainland. These islands will already have a number resources available. Therefore, continen-
Some islands will previously have been of species on them. However, as a result of tal islands are likely to undergo a period
connected to the mainland and a rise in becoming an island they may no longer be of extinctions before their equilibrium is
sea-level has cut them off resulting in able to sustain as many species because reached.
what is known as a continental island. the limited size of the island reduces the
Box 11.3
to Queensland, Australia in 1935 in an attempt to con- 2004) (Table 11.3). Unfortunately, it is unclear if it actu-
trol the beetles Dermolepida albohirtum and L epidiota ally helped reduce crop damage caused by sugar beetles.
frenchi (Phillips et al., 2007). It rapidly expanded its range Finally, some species will have been transported acci-
and is now found in over one million square kilometres dentally in different ways including as seeds and micro-
of subtropical and tropical Australia (Phillips and Shine, organisms in soil, either around plants or on footwear;
Table 11.3 Case studies of the invasive species Heracleum mantegazzianum, Rhinella marina, Dreissena polymorpha
Species name Heracleum mantegazzianum Rhinella marina Dreissena polymorpha
Common name Giant hogweed Cane toad Zebra mussel
Description A large plant with stems that can grow to These are large amphibians with average- Zebra mussels are small animals, 10–40
more than 2 m high. It has an umbrella- sized adults measuring 100–150 mm mm long at maturity and have D-shaped
shaped flowering head which can be up long and weighing around 1.5 kg shells with yellow and brown coloured
to 600 mm in diameter stripes
Natural range Southern Russia and Georgia Central and South America Eastern Europe and southern Russia
Invasive Europe, North America and Canada Australia North America originally in the Great
location Lakes, they have also spread to the Gulf
of Mexico and southern Canada
How Introduced into Britain via the Royal Introduction as a biological control agent Accidently introduced in the ballast
introduced Botanic Gardens Kew as a horticultural of pest beetles in the sugar cane industry water of ships
plant in the early 19th century in 1935
Reproduction Each plant can produce 1500 to 100 000 They are reproductively very successful. Female zebra mussels can produce 1
seeds per year Females lay 8000 to 35 000 eggs at a to 5 million eggs in their life time and
time and may produce two clutches a around 100 000 offspring will reach
year. Although only around 0.5% of cane reproductive maturity
toad individuals that hatch from eggs
survive to reach sexual maturity and
reproduce, this can still lead to a dramatic
increase in population size
Problems The plants form dense stands, outcom- Poisonous throughout its life cycle, which They filter feed on plankton, reduc-
caused peting native species through vigorous can lead to the death of predators. ing the availability of food for fish and
growth and shading and reduce the native mussels. As fish numbers reduce,
It is rapidly extending its range in Aus-
biodiversity of plant and animal species this can have implications for the rest
tralia. It has been linked to decline in
locally. of the food web. They can also smother
predators as they extend into new native mussels by attaching to them.
Additionally, furanocoumarins in the sap ranges, but there is also evidence that
cause extreme photosensitivity which predators are adapting behaviourally and The reduction in phytoplankton results
leads to severe blistering of the skin. The physiologically to avoid poisoning. They in clearer water, which can increase
hollow nature of the stem is tempting for are insectivorous and have impacted the the growth of aquatic vegetation. They
unsuspecting children to blow through, populations of native insect species, in cause problems by blocking water
causing severe blistering in the mouth addition to outcompeting native insec- intakes for power plants and residential
and around lips tivores for food. They also outcompete properties
native toads for shelter.
There are also no natural predators or
diseases in Australia to limit numbers
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Chapter 11 Ecosystem processes
invertebrates in packing crates; and aquatic species in Although increased native biodiversity in cities would be a
the ballast water of ships. Dreissena polymorpha (zebra positive step, retaining endemic species is hugely important.
mussel) is native to the Black and Caspian Seas and was Urban ecology originally focused on showing how
introduced to the North American Great Lakes, released urban environments differ in ecology from non-urban
as larvae in ship ballast water (Hebert et al., 1989). It has areas (McPhearson et al., 2016). The tools it uses are those
now increased its range to several major rivers and inland of the ecology of rural areas, applied to green spaces in
lakes of eastern North America (Table 11.3). cities. This has been useful in understanding the biodiver-
Invasive species can alter ecosystem processes by alter- sity of cities and helping develop the conservation of wild-
ing species interactions, such as through competition. life within cities. However, an approach was needed that
Hemidactylus frenatus, an invasive gecko throughout the took urban ecology further and there was a shift in ecolog-
Pacific, has been shown experimentally to outcompete ical studies to recognize that the city is an ecosystem and
Lepidodactylus lugubris, the native gecko species (Petren the processes of this ecosystem are strongly influenced by
and Case, 1996). Invasive plant species can also alter soil humans and the social, political and economic pressures
chemistry and nutrient dynamics by having different leaf that drive human actions (Grimm et al., 2000; McPhearson
tissue chemistry and phenology (Ehrenfeld, 2003) and dif- et al., 2016). Hence, an interdisciplinary approach is
ferent root morphology can lead to soil erosion. In addi- needed when studying urban ecology (Figure 11.14). Urban
tion, ecosystem processes can be altered by invasive plants ecology is therefore at the interface between human deci-
changing fire regimes as they have different fuel properties sion making and ecological processes and the feedbacks
to native ones (Brooks et al., 2004) and if an invasive spe- and complex interaction between the two. It is a topic
cies establishes after a disturbance event then the natural which is probably best studied using an interdisciplinary
progress of succession will be altered. approach, with expertise in social sciences as well as the
Although many species introduced to an area will not sciences; a social ecology. However, urban ecosystem pro-
survive, or will become naturalized in low densities, in 2013 cesses are still poorly understood (Elmqvist, 2015).
there were 751 species in a global database of invasive trees The ecology of the urban area can bring many benefits
and shrubs (Rejmánek and Richardson, 2013) and it is likely both to the functioning of a city and also to the wellbeing
there will be many more added. While trees and shrubs and of people who live and work there. These include a reduc-
their ranges are well documented for much of the world, it tion in job stress (Stigsdotter et al., 2007), a reduction in the
will be much harder for some groups of organisms, particu- urban temperatures caused by pollution (Gill et al., 2007),
larly microbes, to put together such a list of invasive species. and reducing the toxicity of runoff from roads (Spromberg
et al., 2015). These benefits are termed ecosystem services
(Box 11.4). Science and policy are often considered at a
11.5.2 Urban ecology
national or perhaps international scale, but planning and
Recently, there has been increasing interest in urban ecol- green infrastructure decisions are usually taken at a local
ogy, which is not surprising given that since 2010 over half level. Scientists and local planners need to work carefully
of the world’s population lives in cities rather than rural together to ensure that biodiversity and ecological benefits
areas (United Nations, 2011). Although cities only account are enhanced when developing our urban spaces. Small dif-
for 3% of the Earth’s terrestrial surface (Schneider, 2010), ferences in a local urban ecosystem when upscaled globally
this is where the majority of people experience ecology on may have a huge difference on the impacts of global change
a daily basis. The ecology of these created environments is and on the species richness of the Earth as a whole.
fascinating. Urban habitats are, unlike many others, rap-
idly expanding.
11.5.3 Conservation
Cities tend to coincide with areas that originally had
high biodiversity (Cincotta et al., 2000; Luck, 2007). By Dasmann (1968) first introduced the concept of con-
conserving the biodiversity of urban areas, global biodiver- servation biology. As a discipline it is concerned with
sity could be greatly preserved. A global study by Aronson developing practical approaches to protecting species and
et al. (2014), showed that species richness was drastically ecosystems. Often conservation policies put in place are
reduced in cities, with only 25% of native plant species and static, focusing on an ecosystem at a particular point in
8% of native bird species found compared to non-urban time. However, as has been discussed through this chap-
environments. Despite this, urban areas retained endemic ter, ecosystems are not static but fluctuate in space and
native species, thus maintaining regional biodiversity. time, responding to changes in, for example, climate,
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ES
CITI
UR
BA
N
ND
GY I
ESI
LO
GN
ECO
GO
VER
NA
NC
E NCES
SCIE
IAL
SOC
COMPLEXITY ECOLOGY
OF CITIES
G
ANNIN
N PL
URBA
ST
EW
AR
DS
HI
P
SYSTEMS THINKING
Figure 11.14 The ecology of cities approach incorporates several disciplines, interdisciplinary collaborations and interactions
with other ecosystems. (Source: from McPhearson et al., 2016)
Ecosystem services categories – provisioning, cultural, regulat- on). In 2011, countries committed to the
ing and support as shown in Figure 11.15 Convention of Biological Diversity signed
Ecosystem services can be defined as
(Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). a new plan until 2020, there are currently
‘the direct and indirect contributions of
Ecosystem services concepts have 196 parties signed up to the Convention.
ecosystems to human well-being’ (Braat been adopted as tools for conservation This included a commitment to stop biodi-
and de Groot, 2012; TEEB, 2012). This and have become a very popular in recent versity loss and ensure healthy ecosystems
definition is widely cited and had evolved years. Often it is possible to show (in providing services for people. The EU in
from the 1980s when the concept was financial terms) what value an ecosystem response to this set up a project map-
introduced for conservation (Ehrlich and has to society in its ability to reduce flood ping and assessing ecosystems and their
Mooney, 1983). Since that time the term risk, absorb carbon, provide clean water, services across Europe and committed
has been redefined and a framework for provide food and so on. This can therefore themselves to the, ‘better protection of
ecosystem services was set out by the help policy-makers invest in ecosystem ecosystems and the services they provide’
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment which protection where they can see it is more (European Commission, 2011). Despite this
took place between 2001 and 2005. cost effective to do so for society as a adoption, there are difficult issues about
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment whole rather than pay for the costs of how to measure conservation success
involved 1,360 experts from 95 countries damage caused by a degraded ecosystem using ecosystem services. Mace (2014)
and it split ecosystem services into four (more flooding, poor water quality and so pointed out that contradictory messages
Box 11.4 ➤
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Chapter 11 Ecosystem processes
Regulating
Benefits
water, erosion, air quality, climate, disease
Cultural Provisioning
Non-material benefits ECOSYSTEM Products
spiritual, aesthetic, recreation, knowledge, social SERVICES food, fuel, fibre, pharmaceuticals, genetic resources
Supporting
Services
photosynthesis, nutrient cycling, water cycling, soil formation
Figure 11.15 Categories of ecosystem services.
may occur. High biodiversity is accepted to ecosystem services, Carpenter et al. (2009) also been considered not just services. In
be important for the functioning of natural suggested that the ecosystems services agriculture these disservices include crop
ecosystems, yet ecosystem service pro- concept is too utilitarian and there should pests, such as herbivores and pathogens,
visioning food for the world’s population be a move away from what nature can and weed competition, both of which
have usually resulted in monocultures. This provide for people towards people and decrease productivity and potentially lead
may result in confusing goals for policy. nature together, a move towards a socio- to crop failure. Disservices may also include
In addition to problems with measuring ecological system. Glaves and Egan (2010) the hosting of pathogens and pests and
the success of conservation based around stated that ecosystem disservices should restricting human mobility.
Box 11.4
if left, would through succession, develop into scrub and
Reflective questions then woodland. If conservation of the fen is important
for the high biodiversity of plant and animal species, then
➤ What species are particularly susceptible to management may sometimes be needed to halt succession.
overharvesting? Climax communities often have lower biodiversity than
➤ What is an edge effect? intermediate communities, as intermediate communities
have a mixture of pioneer and climax vegetation and a
➤ How can alien species affect ecosystem processes? greater variety of habitats for animals. If high biodiversity
is the aim of the conservation effort then an understanding
of succession in that community is needed.
disturbance and biotic interactions. A conservation plan Some ecosystem processes are altering because of
will not succeed in the long term unless ecosystem pro- large-scale external forcing. Climate change will result
cesses are considered in conjunction with other measures in changes in species composition in many areas: some
(Bennett et al., 2009). The methods for managing different species will be lost but others will replace them. The
ecosystem processes will vary depending on what is being connectedness of reserves or intact habitat becomes
conserved. A conservation plan for a peatland or a rare crucial to enable migration and dispersal to new areas.
insect will need to be very different because their response Planning of suitable habitat corridors is therefore
to changes in ecosystem processes will vary greatly. essential to mitigate climate change effects. In addi-
Early conservation approaches typically involved creat- tion, the consideration of island biogeography theory
ing a reserve to prevent human intervention. Even if these and the understanding that ‘islands’ closer together
reserves were planned with knowledge of edge effects on or closer to the ‘mainland’ are likely to have higher
fragments it is may be that this conservation effort would rates of immigration is important to consider during
not be successful in the long term. Some fens, for example, conservation planning.
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Further reading
11.6 Summary environmental conditions change. Sinks and sources of carbon
have been particularly keenly studied.
Ecosystem processes include how energy flows through an Exactly how energy and nutrients move through an ecosystem
ecosystem, the biogeochemical cycling within the system, the will be determined by biological interactions between species
community dynamics and responses to disturbance events. called symbioses. Symbioses can be positive, where species ben-
In the majority of ecosystems, primary producers use solar efit from the interaction, or negative, and can strongly influence
energy to convert CO2 and water into carbon sugars through ecosystem processes. Mycorrhizal symbioses will, for example,
photosynthesis. Where conditions for photosynthesis are good increase the availability of phosphate and nitrogen to plants,
(high temperature, light and water availability) the net primary increasing plant growth, and net primary productivity, thereby
productivity of an ecosystem will be higher and the ecosystem increasing the number of organisms the ecosystem can support.
therefore has the potential to support more organisms. The If competition for resources is too strong then species will be
energy produced through photosynthesis moves through the eliminated from an area.
trophic levels of the ecosystem food web as organisms in turn Ecosystems are not static in time, but fluctuate in response
are eaten. As energy dissipates as heat at each level, follow- to internal and external environmental conditions. These may be
ing the laws of thermodynamics, less energy is available to the predictable changes over an annual or inter-annual cycle or may
next trophic level. This limits food webs to around five trophic be responses to one off disturbance events. Many ecosystems
levels, although, it can be slightly higher in aquatic ecosystems. have evolved with disturbances as part of their natural cycle and
Organic detritus is broken down by detritivores and in this disturbance regimes can help maintain high biodiversity within
way nutrients are made available again in the soil for primary an ecosystem. Severe disturbance events, such as lava flow,
producers to take up. Some elements and molecules will cycle fires or landslides may lead to succession. Through this process
locally within the ecosystem. Others will enter the global bio- ecosystems reform slowly until a climax community is reached or
geochemical cycles leaving the particular ecosystem in water, another disturbance event occurs.
dust or as gas. Some ecosystems will be a net store of certain Human actions are impacting significantly on ecosystem pro-
elements and are known as sinks, and others will be a net emit- cesses. As humans are reliant for survival on the services provided
ter of them and so be a source of that element. To understand by ecosystems it is vital that the processes underpinning them are
global climate change and to make predictions about the future, fully understood. There is an increasing realization that working with
ecologists are trying to determine which ecosystems are sinks ecosystem processes and enhancing them, even in the human-dom-
and sources of different elements and how this changes as inated urban ecosystem, can bring advantages to human well-being.
Further reading A good undergraduate text introducing biogeography,
covering both the background and more contemporary
research in this area.
Currie, W.S. (2011) Units of nature or processes across
Begon, M., Howarth, R.W. and Townsend C.R. (2014) Essen-
scales? The ecosystem concept at age 75. New Phytologist,
tials of ecology, 4th Edition. Wiley, Chichester.
190, 21–34.
A clear undergraduate introduction to ecology.
A paper exploring the ecosystem concept and processes and the
Chapin, F.S. III, Matson, P.A. and Vitousek, P.M. (2011) Principles scales at which these should be considered.
of terrestrial ecosystem ecology, 2nd edition. Springer, New York.
Mace, G.M., Norris, K. and Fitter, A.H. (2012) Biodiversity
An easily accessible undergraduate book providing detailed
and ecosystem services: a multilayered relationship. Trends in
coverage of the main concepts in ecology.
Ecology and Evolution, 27, 19–26.
Cox B., Moore, P.D. and Ladle, R.J. (2016) Biogeography: an A paper exploring the relationship between biodiversity and
ecological and evolutionary approach, 9th edition. Wiley- ecosystem services. There are clear explanations throughout on
Blackwell, Oxford. the concepts covered.
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C H A PTER 1 2
Freshwater ecosystems
Lee E. Brown
School of Geography, University of Leeds
Learning objectives groups being the insects, crustaceans, molluscs and mites.
Other well-studied groups of freshwater organisms include
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
amphibians, mammals, birds, macrophytes (plants)
and algae (e.g. diatoms, phytoplankton) (Figure 12.1).
➤ understand some of the key scientific concepts underpinning the
A diverse assemblage of bacteria, fungi, protozoa and
study of life in rivers and lakes
rotifers is also found. However, knowledge of freshwater
diversity remains incomplete and new species are identified
➤ recognize some of the major groups of freshwater plants and
every year.
animals
Organisms inhabiting freshwaters can be grouped
➤ appreciate the major differences between flowing and still water according to their role within aquatic food webs. For
ecosystems example, producers or autotrophs are the plants and
➤ describe some of the ways in which freshwater ecosystems have algae that synthesize biomass from inorganic compounds
been altered by human environmental change and light. Producers can be attached to surfaces such as
rocks or other plants (e.g. filamentous algae or macro-
phytes), be rooted in loose sediments (macrophytes), or
12.1 Introduction be free living in the water column (e.g. phytoplankton).
Those species that exist within the aquatic ecosystem
Although rivers and lakes constitute only an estimated and directly provide energy to the aquatic food web are
0.01% of the world’s water resources and cover approxi- termed autochthonous producers. Heterotrophs are organ-
mately 0.8% of the Earth’s surface, these habitats have a isms that obtain organic matter by consuming auto-
disproportionately high diversity of plants and animals trophs, other heterotrophs or detritus. Members of this
with at least 6% (or 7100 000) of known species esti- group can be considered either as herbivores (consumers
mated to be found in freshwaters (Dudgeon et al., 2006). of attached algae, plants and phytoplankton), detritivores
Over 10 000 fish species are known from freshwaters with (consumers of dead organic matter) or predators (con-
some 90 000 species of invertebrates described, the richest sumers of living heterotrophs), although some organisms
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12.1 Introduction
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e)
(f)
(g)
(h) (i)
(j)
Figure 12.1 Some examples of the diverse life forms associated with aquatic ecosystems: (a) insect larvae (blackfly); (b) juvenile fish (dolly varden);
(c) insect larva (cranefly); (d) amphibian (pyrenean brook newt); (e) adult aquatic insect (mayfly); (f) filamentous algae; (g) frog; (h) single-celled algae
(diatoms) magnified 100x; (i) macrophytes (water lilies); ( j) fish (tench). (Source: photo (d) Mark Ledger, University of Birmingham; photo (h) Jubal
Harshaw)
are omnivorous, feeding on a variety of resources. The Resources originating externally to the river are termed
diets of many aquatic heterotrophs are also subsi- allochthonous.
dized with organic materials from adjacent terrestrial Further grouping of freshwater organisms can be
ecosystems (e.g. leaf litter from trees, terrestrial insects). made based on where they spend the majority of their
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Chapter 12 Freshwater ecosystems
existence. Benthic organisms (or the benthos) are those remote and apparently pristine river environments will
living on, in, or near the bed sediments of rivers or lakes. have undergone some degree of alteration due to the
Nektonic organisms (or the nekton) are known collectively effects of atmospheric pollution (Moss, 2017).
as organisms that can actively move around within the
water column, in contrast to planktonic organisms that are
12.2.1 River ecosystem geomorphological units
suspended and passively float or drift around in the water
column. A fourth group exists predominantly on, or just A widely used spatial framework used to aid understand-
beneath, the surface of water bodies and these organisms ing of nested river ecosystem units is that of hierarchical
are collectively termed the neuston. organization (Frissell et al., 1986). Spatial units include
The focus of this chapter is river and lake freshwater the whole catchment, river segments, river reaches, meso-
ecosystems. Wetlands (areas where the water table reaches habitats and patches (or microhabitats) (Figure 12.2). The
the surface and persists long enough to support aquatic environment varies considerably at all of these scales,
plants) can also be considered as freshwater ecosystems with larger units exerting significant influence over those
(see Dobson and Frid, 2009) but these systems are not con- at smaller spatial scales. This variability is reflected in
sidered in this chapter (see Chapter 10). The study of any the plants and animals that inhabit these different spatial
ecosystem unavoidably requires some knowledge of both units. The most influential environmental variables at each
the living organisms and their effective environment (see spatial scale can be considered as ‘filters’, for which spe-
Chapter 11). Where necessary, this chapter makes refer- cies must possess appropriate biological traits enabling
ence to the aquatic environment to place understanding of them to disperse to, and exist in, that unit (see Box 12.1 for
the biota into relevant context, but the reader is directed further details). For example, at the catchment scale geol-
to Chapters 15 to 20 for more detailed information on ogy and vegetation are generally important natural factors
hillslope processes, sediments, catchment hydrology, fluvial influencing which organisms are present. With respect to
geomorphology and solutes. vegetation, dense forest cover is likely to restrict the pres-
ence of in-stream producers and their consumers but can
be beneficial to detritivores. In individual river segments,
12.2 Running waters: rivers and streams water quality variables such as stream temperature, or the
flood or low-flow disturbance regime, may be important
The terms stream and river are often used interchange- determinants of species distribution.
ably when referring to flowing waters, because in real- Closer examination of river segments reveals distinctly
ity there is no obvious distinction and the latter term different reaches at the scale of tens of metres. For exam-
is typically used when describing a ‘larger’ running ple, a river may flow through a relatively narrow, deep,
watercourse. Some authors use the term lotic to describe slower section (e.g. Figure 12.2c) before entering a wider
running water systems of any size. The term ‘river’ is reach where the wetted channel is separated from the bor-
used for consistency in this chapter. Rivers are extremely dering riparian vegetation by deposits of sediment (e.g.
diverse in their geomorphological form and physico- Figure 12.2d). Consequently, there may be reach-scale
chemical characteristics, which in turn influences the differences in shading affecting the level of primary pro-
remarkable diversity of organisms that we find in flowing duction, for example. Each reach is typically composed
water ecosystems. Describing the characteristics of an of smaller units known as mesohabitats, including deeper,
individual river ecosystem can be difficult owing to this flatter, slower-flowing pools with lower dissolved oxygen
diversity of characteristics. However, it is helpful to learn and finer sediment accumulations compared with shal-
about river ecosystems based upon: (i) their hierarchical low, steeper, faster-flowing riffle sections (Table 12.1).
organization, which considers the nested scales at which Within mesohabitats there are clear differences in habitat
components of river ecosystems can be observed; (ii) the at the patch (microhabitat) scale, which can play important
interactive pathways, or spatial dimensions, of interest, roles in the temporal dynamics of stream communities
including upstream–downstream changes, land–water (Townsend, 1989), often by providing refugia from flow
interfaces and surface–subterranean water mixing zones; disturbances. Differences in flow velocity or bed sediments
and (iii) the temporal scale over which observations are lead to small-scale variability in accumulations of detritus
made. Human influences have had a major effect on river or algal growth, which in turn can influence the abundance
ecosystem structure and functioning. In many environ- of heterotrophs. Alternatively, small-scale differences in
ments, such changes are obvious, but even the most flow velocity may influence the abundance of aquatic
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(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
Glide
Riffle
Pool
Run
(i)
(g) (h)
Figure 12.2 The hierarchical organization of river ecosystems, showing features at nested spatial scales: (a) the catchment (1000 m+ ) is composed of
(b) various river segments (100 m). Each segment is composed of (c and d) different reaches (10 m). Closer inspection at the reach scale reveals (e) dif-
ferent mesohabitats (1 m). Mesohabitats are themselves composed of patch-scale (0.1 m) components, for example (f) collections of leaf litter and algal
tufts on an individual boulder, (g) sand–silt film over cobbles, (h) a thin algal covering on a partially exposed rock and (i) moss attached to a small rock.
(Source: photo (e) Sandy Milner, University of Birmingham)
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Chapter 12 Freshwater ecosystems
Table 12.1 Mesohabitat types and defining features as typically found in (a)
rivers with pool–riffle sequences
Mesohabitat Features
Riffle Sloping bed, shallow depth, poorly defined thalweg
(i.e. line of greatest water depth)
Run 7 Depth but 6 slope compared with riffles. Thal-
weg often well defined
Pool Deep, surface slope almost zero, often located at
the outside of meander bends
Glide Located immediately downstream of pools, where
the stream bed slopes to become progressively
shallower
(b)
invertebrates depending on, for example, their ability to
adhere to the sediment or their morphology (e.g. whether
streamlined or not).
It is obvious from these examples that river habitat can
be extremely varied. Therefore, there are major differences
in both the abundance of individual species as well as the
composition of the stream biotic community depending on
the level of examination across these nested spatial scales.
The variability that can be observed across even the small-
est spatial scales is important for scientists to consider
when studying river ecosystems or attempting to manage
degraded systems. Multiple patch-scale samples will be
necessary to characterize the local species pool of just one
mesohabitat. River ecologists often have to accept some
level of sampling error as a consequence of the exceptional
level of habitat variability, although careful sampling can
ensure comparable data sets for different river sites. For
example, if the aim was to identify changes along an entire
river segment, a typical approach for sampling aquatic
invertebrates would be to focus on riffle mesohabitats at
several points along the upstream–downstream gradient.
Sampling may then be undertaken using a device such as a
Surber sampler (Figure 12.3a), or a composite sample may
be collected from several patches over a fixed time period
by taking a kick sample (Figure 12.3b).
Figure 12.3 Collection of river benthic macroinvertebrates. (a) A Surber
net. The operator places the quadrat onto the bed of the stream and uses
12.2.2 Spatial variability of river ecosystems a hand to disturb a small patch of stream bed in a fixed area (in this case
0.1 m2). Water is directed into the net by the orange side panels.
The concept of hierarchical organization in river ecosys- Typically between five and ten samples are collected from each stream
tems recognizes that stream habitats, and the biota they reach using this method. (b) A kick net. The operator places the net onto
support, are strongly influenced by the surrounding catch- the bed of the stream and then disturbs the sediments immediately
ment (Hynes, 1975). When considering the importance upstream of the net with one foot. The operator typically moves to a dif-
ferent part of the stream reach or mesohabitat every 30 seconds,
of these spatial perspectives on river ecosystem pattern
sampling for a total of three minutes per site. Nets for both sampling
and processes, it is also important to acknowledge three methods typically have mesh size of between 250 mm and 1 mm.
interactive spatial pathways, or dimensions (Ward, 1989): (Source: (a) Jonathan Carrivick, University of Leeds)
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12.2 Running waters: rivers and streams
Biological Traits assemblages with comparable biologi- Alternatively, taxa may possess resistance
cal trait attributes, even for two water (ability to withstand the disturbance)
and Environmental Filters
bodies in different regions of the world, traits such as clinging habit, streamlined
Biological traits are variants of a pheno- because traits respond to environmental or flattened body shapes or life-cycle
typic character (e.g. size, shape, life-history selection regimes regardless of biogeo- forms such as egg stages or diapause and
attributes, dispersal mechanism and diet) graphic boundaries (e.g. Townsend and life stages outside the river.
that may be inherited or environmentally Hildrew, 1994). Freshwater species can be A knowledge of species traits allows
determined (or both). Biological traits grouped on the basis of numerous traits researchers to consider the selective envi-
have been used to classify organisms since broadly categorized as follows: (i) life ronmental forces operating at different
the early twentieth century when the history, (ii) mobility, (iii) morphology and spatial scales (region to patch), each of
Saprobian system was developed to assess (iv) ecology (Table 12.2). Individual traits which acts as a ‘filter’ reducing the total
the extent of organic pollution of rivers can be related to habitat gradients; for species pool of a region to the different
based on species’ oxygen requirements example, species inhabiting frequently assemblages found in habitat patches
(see Statzner and Bêche, 2010). Cummins disturbed habitats will often possess (Figure 12.4). For example, consider a
(1973) later developed a classification of traits that confer resilience (i.e. an ability regional species pool containing 100 dif-
river invertebrates based on their domi- to recover quickly from the disturbance) ferent species. Natural factors such as bar-
nant mode of feeding, so-called functional such as early age at reproduction, short riers to dispersal (e.g. waterfalls, prevailing
feeding groups (FFGs). The concept of reproductive cycles (multivoltine), wind direction) may restrict 20 species
FFGs was subsequently adopted by Van- high adult mobility and high fecundity. from establishing in a given catchment
note et al. (1980), forming the theoretical
foundations of the hugely influential river
continuum concept. More recently, fresh- Natural ‘filters’ REGIONAL SPECIES POOL Anthropogenic ‘filters’
water ecologists have developed methods
based on characterizing multiple biological Immigration, extinctions, Climate change,
Catchment
or ecological traits of species, which can climate, geology acidification
potentially be used to better understand
how assemblages vary across environ-
mental gradients compared with more
Water quality, thermal
traditional taxonomic approaches. Traits River Dams, land use
regime, vegetation
can also be used to generate estimates
of functional diversity (i.e. the diversity of
roles played by organisms in ecosystems)
in addition to standard measurements of Shading, substratum, Road construction, mine
Reach drainage, gravel mining,
taxonomic diversity. These approaches predators
industrial discharges
can then be used to test theoretical ideas
about how communities assemble or break
apart (Brown and Milner, 2012). Moss, algae,
detritus, interstices, Patch Fishing, local tree
While predicting the abundance of
flow velocity cutting
species as a function of environmental
features has been a long-standing goal in
river ecology, the complexities associated PATCH SCALE SPECIES POOL
with spatial habitat variability and fre-
Figure 12.4 Examples of some natural and anthropogenic ‘filters’ at hierarchical spatial
quent disturbance episodes (particularly
scales, which act upon species traits. Filters operating at the catchment scale restrict the
in rivers) mean this has proven difficult
occurrence or abundance of traits at smaller spatial scales, and so on. As river ecosystems
to achieve (Poff, 1997). However, fresh- are dynamic, the ways in which the environmental filters restrict the species pool can
water habitats with similar environmental change in space and time. (Source: modified from Malmqvist, 2002)
features should theoretically have species
Box 12.1 ➤
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Chapter 12 Freshwater ecosystems
➤
Table 12.2 Some indicative traits of invertebrates and fish because they lack the necessary traits for
dispersal to that catchment. Within that
catchment, if we sampled an individual
Trait category Indicative biological traits
river in its entirety then we might find only
40 of the 80 species, perhaps due to a
Life history Voltinism (e.g. number of generations per year)
cool thermal regime selecting against spe-
Maximum age (e.g. fish) cies preferring warm water. Within an indi-
Development (e.g. seasonal, non-seasonal for insects) vidual reach, only 20 of the 40 species may
be able to colonize because shading by
Synchronization of adult insect emergence
(e.g. none, poor, good) riparian vegetation means there is too little
algal production to support grazing inver-
Adult life span (e.g. days, weeks, months)
tebrates. Finally, an individual habitat patch
Fish reproductive strategy (migratory, broadcaster, simple nester, may then have only 10 of the remaining
complex nester–guarder and bearer) 20 species because the high flow velocity
Resistance forms (e.g. eggs, diapauses) selects against species without stream-
lined bodies. In addition to natural factors,
Fecundity (number of eggs laid)
researchers also have to consider the
Egg type (single or multiple batches) effect of habitat filters imposed by the
Mobility Adult insect dispersal distance actions of human interference which are
widespread in river systems, and which
Adult insect flying strength
themselves operate across different spatial
Travel distance (drift, crawling, swimming, flight) scales (Figure 12.4).
Swimming ability (strong, weak, none) The concept of environmental filtering
is based on the idea that the species pool
Locomotion (cruisers, accelerators, maneuverers, benthic high-velocity
huggers, benthic low-velocity creepers) at each spatial scale is filtered by the envi-
ronment. It is important to realize that the
Morphology Shape (streamlined or not for invertebrates; torpedo, arrow, disc,
arched, teardrop, elongate for fish) actual species pool at each scale is also
influenced by dispersal constraints, such
Morphometric characteristics of fish (e.g. body length/depth, height
that some species may be absent even
of caudal fin, head width)
though the habitat is suitable for their
Mode of respiration (gills, tegument, plastron, spiracle) existence. Biotic interactions should also
Size at maturity (body length or biomass) be taken into account, because a given
species may be absent due to a lack of
Ecology Habitat (e.g. erosional, depositional, sediment types, mesohabitat (fish))
food or the existence of a predator, even if
Thermal preference (cold, cool, warm) the abiotic environment is suitable.
Invertebrate habit (e.g. burrower, clinger, swimmer)
Fish stream size preference (expressed in m)
Feeding behaviour (e.g. FFGs for invertebrates; herbivores, detritivores,
planktivores, invertivores and carnivores for fish)
Trophic classification (e.g. mouth position, teeth, gut size for fish)
Water body type (river, lake, wetland, estuary)
Elevation distribution
Salinity tolerance
Oxygen requirements
pH tolerance
Box 12.1
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12.2 Running waters: rivers and streams
(i) the upstream–downstream continuum, or longitudinal (i.e. respiration 7 production). Heavy shading by trees
dimension; (ii) exchanges of matter between the river limits light and thus instream primary production. Coarse
channel and the riparian zone/floodplain, or the lateral particulate organic matter (CPOM; predominantly leaf
dimension; and (iii) interactions between the channel and litter but also small pieces of wood 7 1 mm) from decidu-
groundwater, or the vertical dimension. ous trees and plants acts as a main source of energy for
aquatic food webs. Leaf litter is colonized by microbes and
fungi making it more palatable for aquatic invertebrates.
12.2.2.1 Longitudinal dimension
The physical action of the river’s current and movement of
The longitudinal (upstream–downstream) dimension is sediment can also break leaf litter into smaller pieces. This
the best studied of the three spatial dimensions in rivers. organic matter is consumed by invertebrates classified into
At the largest scale, river biota change markedly with dis- a functional feeding group called shredders, which includes
tance downstream from the headwaters linked to changes organisms such as freshwater shrimp (Gammaridae),
in physical properties such as increased river size (width/ water louse (Asellidae), some stoneflies (e.g. Leuctridae)
depth), lower gradient, downstream fining of river bed and some caddis fly larvae (e.g. Limnephilidae). The
sediments and a typically warmer, less variable thermal processes of shredding and instream physical breakdown
regime. One of the most influential research ideas in break the coarse material into fine particulate organic
the history of river ecology is the river continuum con- matter (FPOM; 6 1 mm).
cept (RCC; Vannote et al., 1980), which generalized the FPOM easily washes downstream, thus serving as an
changes in basal resource supply, the functioning of stream upstream–downstream connection in the aquatic food
acroinvertebrates, with reference to their functional feed-
m web, hence the use of the term ‘continuum’. Fine particu-
ing groups (FFGs; Table 12.3) and fish communities that lates are considered to be a particularly important food
are typical in temperate forested river systems from head- source in the mid reaches of rivers. FPOM can be collected
water streams downstream to larger rivers (Figure 12.5). from the water column by organisms such as blackfly
In headwater or upland reaches, the river continuum larvae (Simuliidae) which possess filter-feeding adapta-
concept considers rivers to be net heterotrophic tions (collector–filterers) or gathered from deposits on the
Table 12.3 Functional feeding groups (FFGs), their feeding mechanisms, food sources (FPOM/CPOM 5 fine/coarse particulate organic matter, respec-
tively) and typical size range of particles ingested
FFG Feeding mechanism Main food source Particle size
range (mm)
Collector–filterer Suspension feeders – filtering particles from the FPOM, detritus, algae, bacteria, fungi 0.01–1.0
water column
Collector–gatherer Deposit feeders – collecting deposited particles FPOM, detritus, algae, bacteria, fungi 0.05–1.0
of FPOM or sediment
Grazer Graze surfaces of rocks, plants and wood Producers such as attached algae, and 0.01–1.0
associated detritus, bacteria and fungi
Predator Capture prey and either engulf whole or pierce Living animals 7 0.5
and ingest body fluids
Shredder Chewing CPOM or live plant tissue 7 1.0
Parasite Microparasites absorb nutrients often living Producers and consumers Not applicable
within host cells
Macroparasites are visible with the naked eye
and spend only part of their life cycle within a
host digesting host tissue or gut nutrients.
Endoparasites attach to and absorb nutrients
from host gut or tissues. Ectoparasites feed on
host blood or tissues (e.g. gills)
(Source: modified from Merritt et al., 2008)
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River
Predators
width (m) Coarse particulate
Grazers
organic matter
Microbes
1–2
Trout
Shredders
Grayling
Collectors
Periphyton
4–6
UPLAND REACHES
FP
O
M
Grazers
Microbes
Barbel
Periphyton
Collector s
50–75
FP
Perch
OM
Predators Shredders
MIDDLE REACHES
Vascular
plants
Predators Bream
Tench
Phytoplankton
Microbes
Collectors
500+ Zooplankton LOWLAND
REACHES
Figure 12.5 Diagrammatical representation of the river continuum concept, showing the proposed relationship between river size and the downstream
changes in structural and functional attributes of the river ecosystem. (Source: after Vannote et al., 1980)
riverbed by collector–gatherers. However, the increasing Therefore, more light can reach the stream allowing for an
width of the river channel means that shading of the river increase in primary production and a shift to net produc-
by riparian vegetation is largely restricted to the margins. tion. Abundant algal growth supports a greater abundance
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of grazers or scrapers (e.g. snails, some mayflies) which of human modification (e.g. deforestation, dam building,
directly consume producers growing on surfaces. In the channelization; see Section 12.2.4) meaning that the down-
deeper, wide, slow-flowing lowland reaches of rivers, light stream changes predicted by the RCC no longer apply.
may be unable to penetrate to the river bed due to the
high level of suspended sediment and organic material
12.2.2.2 Lateral dimension
transported from the upper reaches of the river system.
Therefore, primary production falls and these reaches will As the RCC suggests, river-dwelling organisms and the
be net heterotrophic. FPOM washed from upstream is a adjacent terrestrial ecosystem (or riparian zone) can be
dominant food source, and the community will be almost linked through the consumption of leaf litter by shred-
exclusively composed of collectors. Throughout, the whole ders. However, the diet of aquatic predators such as fish
river, shredders, collectors and grazers are themselves con- and some invertebrates can also be supported by inputs
sumed by predators such as invertebrates (e.g. some stone- of terrestrial invertebrates (e.g. ants, beetles, caterpillars)
flies; Perlidae), fish and amphibians. which fall into the water and are washed downstream. In
There is also a major microbial component to aquatic this sense it can be said that the terrestrial ecosystem feeds,
food webs throughout a river’s length, fuelled largely or subsidizes, the aquatic ecosystem (Nakano et al., 1999).
by dissolved organic carbon (DOC) sourced from the Inputs of terrestrial invertebrates to rivers vary season-
decomposition of organic matter in soils and the stream ally, with peaks typically occurring from spring to early
(Meyer, 1994). Carbon and other nutrients in river water autumn in temperate zones. Some studies have shown that
can be absorbed and assimilated by plants and microbes the diet of river-dwelling fish can be made up of 750%
or adsorbed to sediments. When these nutrients are even- terrestrial invertebrates (Baxter et al., 2005).
tually released back to the water, some may be recycled The flow of resources and energy between the ter-
immediately into the biota but most move some distance restrial and aquatic systems is not, however, a one-way
downstream with the flow. The combined action of nutri- process. Recent research indicates that there are subsidies
ent cycling and downstream movement can be concep- from the river back to the terrestrial ecosystem (Baxter
tualized as a spiral. This idea forms the basis of another et al., 2005). Aquatic insects develop in the stream as lar-
important piece of work that is built around the longitu- vae (nymphs) but towards the end of their life cycle they
dinal dimension of rivers, the nutrient spiralling concept emerge as adult flies with a terrestrial aerial stage. The
(Newbold et al., 1982). number of flies emerging from rivers varies widely but in
It should be realized that some organisms cannot be some studies 7150 000 per m2 have been measured. The
easily placed into functional feeding groups as diet can emergence of adult aquatic insects is typically concen-
vary with life stage and body size, while some species trated into a small part of the year in temperate regions
are omnivorous, consuming a variety of different food (peaking in early summer) whereas in tropical areas it may
resources. It is also important to appreciate that the RCC occur year round. These insects provide food for many dif-
describes only an idealized sequence of ecosystem change ferent terrestrial organisms including spiders, bats, birds,
along undisturbed, temperate forested rivers. The down- amphibians and beetles. High abundances of these preda-
stream sequence of changes is not ‘continual’ and can be tory organisms can be found along some river channels at
interrupted by tributaries which deliver water, sediment, times of peak aquatic insect emergence.
food sources and organisms, and alter the geomorphology. Terrestrial animals can also benefit from fish popula-
Riparian forest clearings also allow reaches of high pri- tions in rivers. In the Pacific north-west region of North
mary production in otherwise net heterotrophic sections America, for example, the annual salmon runs are often
of river. The RCC cannot be applied to rivers which natu- characterized by thousands of fish moving upstream in
rally lack abundant forest cover, such as those in Arctic each river to their spawning grounds. During and after
or alpine regions (see Box 12.2, for example), and it is not this migration, the salmon die leading to accumula-
considered applicable to streams in New Zealand due to tions of carcasses in the stream, entangled in bankside
an absence of shredders, because many streams are unsta- vegetation and washed up on river banks. These salmon
ble due to the frequent overriding influence of rainfall and provide abundant food resources for insects, scavenging
snowmelt-induced flood disturbances, and because many birds and mammals including bears. Bears also actively
streams lie above the treeline (Winterbourn et al., 1981). predate live fish, as the many TV documentaries attest.
Additionally, the natural characteristics of many rivers Bear p opulations can be up to 80 times denser in areas
and their catchments have been altered by a long history where salmon are abundant compared with fishless rivers
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(Gende et al., 2002). Nutrients from salmon carcasses may (see Chapter 18), which can influence the behaviour of
also fertilize terrestrial vegetation such that growth may be macroinvertebrates, causing them to move down into bed
increased significantly in areas where bears deposit carcass sediments to avoid higher flow velocities, or to migrate
remains and excrete waste. downstream as drifting individuals. At longer timescales
there are seasonal changes in the composition of river
ecosystems due to life-cycle progression and migrations
12.2.2.3 Vertical dimension
to avoid/take advantage of wet or dry seasons. At inter-
Rivers were traditionally viewed as components of the annual timescales, researchers have found evidence that the
landscape where water was flowing over the surface. abundance and diversity of fish and invertebrates respond
However, river scientists now understand that the spatial to climatic cycles associated with phenomena such as the El
extent of rivers does not cease at the upper surface of Niño Southern Oscillation and the North Atlantic Oscillation
the river bed. At small scales (up to metres), river water (Hurrell et al., 2003; see also Chapters 6 and 7). Long-term
flows within the openings of river bed sediments (called changes have also been documented in some river ecosys-
interstices). These spaces are important habitats for inver- tems as a consequence of climate warming and the retreat
tebrate and fish eggs and larvae, offering refuge from of glaciers (Box 12.2).
swift-flowing surface currents and some predatory organ- Less predictable or stochastic disturbances in river
isms. The slower flow of water through the interstices, ecosystems are typically associated with floods (the most
compared with the water column, is important for nutri- common form of disturbance in rivers) or droughts,
ent cycling and organic matter respiration by microbial although major changes to river ecosystems can also result
organisms because it results in greater sediment–water from disturbances associated with freezing, landslides,
contact times. At larger spatial scales (up to kilometres) high winds depositing large numbers of trees into rivers,
river ecosystems can extend downwards and outwards or even anthropogenic pollution events. High-flow events
where subsurface and river bank sediments are permeable may be devastating for the biota of small, steep upland
and surface water interacts with subsurface groundwater streams owing to large sections of river being affected by
(Ward et al., 2002). The boundary between the river water sediment erosion and deposition. In lowland rivers, floods
and groundwater, known as the hyporheic zone, can have can be beneficial because of the potential for floodwater
steep physical, chemical and biological gradients and to expand across the floodplain and transfer energy and
is considered to be particularly important for nutrient nutrients between the terrestrial and aquatic systems,
cycling, a permanent habitat for some species and as a ref- whilst providing slower-flowing refuge areas for mobile
uge from disturbance for organisms that typically inhabit biota (Junk et al., 1989). During droughts, the contraction
the upper layers of the stream bed. of wetted area can lead to river biota becoming concen-
trated in pools and short reaches, increasing the risk of
predation. Extreme climate events (e.g. high rainfall, heat
12.2.3 Temporal variability of river ecosystems
waves and prolonged droughts) are expected to occur with
In addition to the three spatial dimensions discussed higher frequency and magnitude and/or timing outside
above, a fourth dimension, time, exerts significant influ- of their historic range in coming decades due to climate
ence on river ecosystems (Ward, 1989). It is useful to con- change, and more research is needed to understand the
sider temporal river ecosystem dynamics either as those effects and allow river managers to plan for these changes
that are relatively regular and predictable allowing the (Jones et al., 2013)
biota to adapt or persist, or those that are discrete distur-
bances, defined as ‘an event in time that is characterized
12.2.4 Human alterations to river ecosystems
by a frequency, intensity and magnitude that is outside a
predictable range and that disrupts ecosystem, community Humans have severely changed river ecosystems through
or population structure’ (Resh et al., 1988, p. 433). hydrological (e.g. water abstraction and dams), geomor-
Predictable changes in river ecosystems occur over phological (e.g. channelization, culverts, dams and gravel
diurnal timescales, where there can be, for example, extraction), water quality (e.g. acidification, organic
significant changes in water temperature due to solar pollution, nutrients and thermal pollution) and biologi-
radiation receipt, causing fish to migrate temporarily to cal alterations (e.g. introduced species; see Vörösmarty
cooler reaches. In mountain rivers fed by snow and ice et al., 2010). These anthropogenic alterations span the
there are usually diurnal discharge variations due to melt range of river ecosystem spatial scales (see Box 12.1 and
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12.2 Running waters: rivers and streams
River Ecosystem Response to most dynamic on seasonal to inter-annual significant, widespread consequences for
Glacier Retreat scales because of strong interconnec- plants and animals of alpine stream eco-
tions between atmospheric forcing, systems which are strongly influenced by
Glaciers are distributed worldwide, not snowpacks, glacier mass balance (see river channel stability and water
only at high latitudes but at lower latitudes Chapter 23), stream flow, water quality temperature, two variables determined
where they are located in mountainous and fluvial geomorphology and river biota by the amount of meltwater contribution
areas (e.g. the Himalayas and the equato- (Milner et al., 2009). and valley geomorphology (Brown
rial Andes). Glacier melt contributes sig- Glacier retreat is frequently attributed et al., 2003). The non-biting midge larvae
nificantly to river flow and water resources to a warmer climate and will lead to major (Chironomidae) genus Diamesa typically
across the globe, and rivers with glacial shifts in water sourcing of Arctic and dominates European glacier-fed rivers
meltwater inputs provide habitat for fish- alpine rivers, with glacier and snowmelt where maximum water temperature is
eries and a number of rare and endemic reductions and changes in river hydro- 62 °C and river channel stability is low
aquatic invertebrate species. Glacier-fed logical and geomorphological dynam- (Figure 12.6). Further downstream from
rivers are considered to be among the ics. These changes are likely to have glacier margins, river channels become
Glacier
Diamesinae
Tmax625C
Low channel
stability
Tipulidae
Tmax645C Baetidae
Heptageniidae
Simuliidae
Tmax665C
Tmax685C
Rhyacophilidae
Taeniopterygidae
Limnephilidae
Tmax6105C
High channel
stability
Figure 12.6 Diagram outlining the likely first appearance of macroinvertebrate taxa along a longitudinal continuum from the
ice margin for European glacier-fed rivers. (Source: based on data from Milner et al., 2001)
BOX 12.2 ➤
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➤
more stable and water temperature macroinvertebrate colonizers (Milner et al., Further loss of snow and ice masses in
increases allowing mayfly, stonefly and cad- 2008). In 1978, when catchment glacial the future will alter the spatial and tempo-
disfly larvae to become increasingly domi- cover was ∼70%, just five taxa (all Chi- ral dynamics of river basin runoff through
nant along with blackfly (Simuliidae) and ronomidae of the subfamilies Diamesinae changes in the relative proportion of snow-
other groups of chironomid larvae. and Orthocladiinae) were found. The first melt, glacier melt, hillslope and groundwa-
In Glacier Bay, south-east Alaska, glacial mayflies and stoneflies were found at ter contributions. If the climate continues
retreat has been occurring since around ∼50960% glacier cover in 1986, the first to warm, glacial runoff may increase ini-
1750 (the end of the Little Ice Age), open- non-insect taxa (Oligochaete worms) at tially but eventually it will decrease in the
ing up vast areas of deglaciated terrain, and ∼30% in 1992, and Dytiscidae beetles and long term as the ice disappears. Seasonal
creating hundreds of kilometres of new Corixidae (pond skaters) in 2000 and 2003, discharge patterns will therefore shift,
rivers that subsequently undergo coloni- respectively, after ice masses had almost with earlier and higher spring peaks and
zation and primary succession by biotic vanished. More recently, these systems lower summer flows, and diurnal meltwater
communities. Stream ecosystem response have been impacted by extreme rainfall cycles may be reduced with day-to-day
to the loss of glacial ice masses has been events in 2005 and 2014, which have led variability increasing with a greater dis-
studied in detail since 1978 at Wolf Point to major reorganization of the ecological position to flooding. These hydrological
Creek. Progressive increases in stream communities (Milner et al., 2013). These changes will alter the habitat within which
temperature, riparian vegetation cover and kinds of extreme events are expected to freshwater organisms exist, necessitating
instream habitat complexity over time have impact rivers more frequently in future adaptation or potentially causing species
been accompanied by a diverse group of (Jones et al., 2013). losses (Jacobsen et al., 2012).
BOX 12.2
Mason, 2002). At the catchment scale and more widely, the conversion of forest to grassland or arable farmland
climate change is expected to drive changes in the thermal and the urbanization of catchments. Agricultural develop-
regime of freshwaters (Woodward et al., 2010b). Warming ment leads to increased diffuse nutrient fluxes to rivers (see
increases metabolic rates of ectothermic organisms (i.e. Chapter 20), potentially increasing primary production
those reliant on the environment to maintain their own which in turn may lead to changes in assemblages of inver-
body temperature), and above certain limits can induce tebrates and fish (Allan, 2004). Nutrient enrichment can
stress on physiological systems, leading to the loss of spe- alter rates of leaf litter breakdown by microbes and fungi,
cies. Thermal regime changes can also occur from affor- leading to changes in the metabolic balance of freshwaters.
estation or deforestation, as well as the release of heated Sediment eroded from bare agricultural fields can smother
effluent from factories and power stations into streams river bed sediments, reducing algal production and, by
and rivers. Warmer waters hold less dissolved oxygen filling in the voids between larger sediments, affecting the
and this will consequently impact respiration. Climate spawning habitats of fish. Globally, regulation of rivers by
change effects on river ecosystems may also be indirect, flow control structures (typically dams) has caused major
with changes in precipitation leading to more frequent negative impacts on aquatic biodiversity by changing river
and severe droughts in some areas but more severe and flow regimes, altering habitat and impeding the migra-
unpredictable flooding in others. Many organisms have tion of organisms. In the United States alone, there are an
adapted their life cycles and morphological traits to the estimated 2.5 million structures controlling river flow, and
natural flow regime over long timescales. Changes to the only 2% of rivers are considered to have no impacts from
magnitude, timing, frequency, predictability or duration flow control structures (Lytle and Poff, 2004).
of extreme flow events are therefore likely to induce major There is a long history of humans discharging waste
changes in river ecosystems (Lytle and Poff, 2004). There- products to rivers from industrial processes and sew-
fore, increasing numbers of reservoirs are being used to age treatment works via point source pipes or culverts
generate artificial floods in attempts to mimic the natural (Figure 12.7). Sewage works were historically associated
cycles of floods and lower flows (Gillespie et al., 2015). with inputs of organically rich effluent which led to severe
At the scale of individual river systems, major altera- oxygen decreases in affected river reaches downstream
tions can occur following land-use changes, in particular of the outlets (Mason, 2002). The severe lack of oxygen
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12.2 Running waters: rivers and streams
(a) (b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 12.7 Examples of point source discharge of sewer effluent to rivers.
caused by organic enrichment typically leads to losses of developed female characteristics in many UK rivers due
most invertebrates and fish with the exception of a few to steroidal estrogens and chemicals that mimic estrogens
tolerant groups such as worms and some midge larvae. reaching the river in sewage effluent (Tyler and Jobling,
However, in the last two decades there have been major 2008). The ecological effects of the many hundreds of
improvements in river water quality (particularly in the other synthetic chemicals released into rivers remain to
UK) linked to investment in enhanced sewage treatment be studied.
technologies. Some problems still remain, though, owing While many rivers have been physically or chemi-
to the inadequacies of sewage treatment processes in cally altered by humans, there are also biological changes
removing the active compounds contained in human phar- caused by the intentional or accidental introduction
maceuticals, recreational drugs and personal care products of ‘exotic’ species. The rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus
such as toothpaste, shower gels and shampoo (Hughes mykiss), for example, originates from North America,
et al., 2013). Research in the last couple of decades has, but has been spread intentionally across the world for the
for example, found that male roach (Rutilus rutilus) have purposes of sport angling and as a food source. When
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Chapter 12 Freshwater ecosystems
individuals escape they can compete for food and habitat although some may be more isolated in the landscape
with other species of fish, often to the detriment of the and fed by rain, groundwater seepage/springs or inunda-
native species (Allan and Castillo, 2007). Similarly, intro- tion during times of flooding (Dobson and Frid, 2009).
duction of the brown trout (Salmo trutta) to New Zealand Similar to rivers, the study of lakes cannot be undertaken
has led to dramatic declines in populations of native gal- without considering the effects that humans have had on
axiids (McIntosh et al., 2010). Another example of biolog- many of these systems. Describing the characteristics of
ical change in rivers concerns the American signal crayfish an individual lake ecosystem can be difficult owing to the
(Pacifastacus leniusculus), which was brought to the UK diversity of morphological and physicochemical charac-
because it is much larger than the native white-clawed teristics. However, it is helpful to learn about lake ecosys-
crayfish (Austropotamobius pallipes), and was therefore tems based upon: (i) their geomorphological origin, and
more appealing as a species to farm for food supply. While (ii) the tendency or otherwise to stratify, either thermally
the signal crayfish was initially introduced to selected fish or chemically. Within individual lakes it is then possible to
farms, some individuals escaped into river systems and identify (iii) spatially discrete habitat zones. Each of these
over time these have bred and expanded their range. The classification systems is detailed below.
signal crayfish are better competitors for food and habitat,
and they carry a fungus which causes mortality among the
white-clawed crayfish, meaning they are at risk of being 12.3.1 Classification of lake ecosystems
lost from the few rivers where they still exist (Dunn et al.,
2009). Chapter 11 contains more on alien species. 12.3.1.1 Geomorphology and processes of formation
Seventy-six types of lakes were classified by Hutchinson
(1957) and the list has been extended to over 100 lake
types in the intervening period. However, 10 distinct
Reflective questions
groups can be recognized (Table 12.4), with the most com-
➤ What are the key features controlling the spatial and tem- mon being formed by glacial activity (Figure 12.8). The
poral variability of river ecosystems? geomorphological characteristics of lakes and their sur-
rounding landscape are particularly diverse. These char-
➤ In what ways have the activities of humans altered the
acteristics control the nature of a lake’s drainage, nutrient
spatial dimensions of river ecosystems?
inputs and residence time, which in turn have strong influ-
➤ How might the modification of a river by damming the ences on physical, chemical and biological characteristics
headwaters alter the upstream–downstream continuum (Wetzel, 2001).
of food sources and macroinvertebrate functional feeding
groups?
12.3.1.2 Stratification of lake ecosystems
Some lakes, such as those that are shallow and strongly
influenced by the actions of the wind, are well mixed. In
12.3 Still waters: lakes and ponds contrast, many lakes become subject to stratification at
certain times of the year, when water that is not readily
Lakes and ponds are distinct bodies of ‘still’ water that mixed forms layers with distinct physical and chemical
form in geomorphological settings with outflows small rel- properties (in particular, differences in water temperature).
ative to the size of the water body. These water bodies are The absorption of solar radiation from the Sun decreases
not completely still, with currents driven by wind, thermal exponentially with water depth (Moss, 1998) and, as a
currents and the slow movement of water from the inflow result, there should theoretically be an associated tem-
to outflow. However, they have relatively longer residence perature decrease. However, the effect of wind at the lake
times than rivers, and some authors use the term lentic surface is to mix the water and, if this mixing is insuffi-
rather than referring interchangeably to still waters, ponds cient to reach the bed of the lake (i.e. because it is too deep
or lakes. The term ‘lake’ is used for consistency in this relative to the mixing depth), then a warmer upper layer
chapter because most of the examples refer to larger bod- of water (termed the epilimnion) can form. Where distinct
ies of water. Lakes and ponds are typically fed by rivers, layers occur and temperatures drop rapidly the ‘boundary’
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Table 12.4 Groups of lakes, with a brief description of processes by which they were formed
Group Typical processes of formation Example
Tectonic basins Depressions formed by movement of the Earth’s crust that infill with Lake Baikal, eastern Siberia. Covers
water. The major types are caused by faulting of the crust 31 500 km2 with a maximum depth of 1620 m
Also lakes in the rift valley of East Africa
Volcanic Depressions and cavities in cooling magma may collect water and Lake Toba, North Sumatra;
form lakes. Crater lakes are often found occupying inactive volca- 100 km long * 30 km wide, maximum depth
noes. Small depressions where magma has been ejected and overly- of 505 m
ing material has collapsed. Caldera lakes form where the rook of
partially emptied magmatic chamber collapse. Lava flows may create
basins or block existing rivers
Landslides Sudden movements of unconsolidated material form new depres- Hunza River, north-west Pakistan, formed in
sions or block existing rivers. Many lakes formed in this way are tran- January 2010 following a massive landslide
sitory, lasting for only a few weeks or months because the dams are
usually susceptible to erosion and failure
Glacial These are the most numerous type of lake. Gradual erosional and Windermere, Lake District, England. Main fish
depositional activities of glacial ice create depressions. With the species include trout, char, pike and perch.
retreat of the last Pleistocene glaciers (see Chapter 4) many small Much of the pioneering research into lake
lakes were formed. Lakes can also form in, on or under ice masses, ecology was undertaken here by the Freshwa-
or behind terminal moraines in river valleys where glaciers still exist ter Biological Association
Solution lakes Slow chemical weathering of soluble rock creates depressions. Com- Many lakes in Florida, USA, lie on limestone
monly found on limestone terrain. Typically very circular and conical and have formed by dissolution
River activity Plunge pool lakes – excavated at the foot of waterfalls along previ- Grand Coulee plunge pool system, Washington
ous river channels State, USA
Lateral lakes form where mainstem rivers deposit large amounts of Lake Chicot, Arkansas, USA, is the largest
sediment overbank, blocking tributaries oxbow lake in North America and was origi-
nally part of the Mississippi River system
Several types of floodplain lakes form where rivers inundate the
riparian zone
Oxbow lakes form where river meanders become isolated from the
main channel (see Chapter 19)
Wind-formed Form in arid regions where wind-blown sediments form dunes that Common in dry regions such as inner Aus-
block rivers tralia, South Africa and arid regions of the USA
Deflation basins form where sediments are blown away and depres-
sions form
Shoreline activity Longshore currents can deposit marine sediments across the mouth Slapton Ley, England
of bays, separating the bay from the sea (see Chapter 22)
Biological origin Lakes formed by the damming action of plant growth or detritus
build up. Can also include beaver dams (see Figure 5.16)
Human Reservoirs formed behind dams
(Source: after Wetzel, 2001)
is referred to as the thermocline. Lakes can also stratify in these lakes are characteristically found at high latitudes or
winter when ice cover develops at the surface, resulting in altitudes where surface ice cover persists year-round and
a warming with depth and a reverse thermocline close to prevents wind from mixing the water. Meromictic lakes mix
the surface. incompletely and form where lakes are either very deep,
The classification system proposed by Hutchinson preventing complete turnover, or where inflows are denser
(1957) is still used today to describe differences in lake than lake water owing to high solute concentrations, caus-
stratification. Lakes that never stratify are termed amictic; ing them to sink to the lake bottom. A third group of
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(a) (b)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 12.8 Four contrasting glacially formed lakes: (a) Latnajaura, near Abisko, Sweden, a lake formed by glacial scour, and which is frozen for up
to 10 months per year; (b) a small cirque lake in south-east Alaska, in the depression formed at the head of a former glacier; (c) Lake Wakatipu, near
Queenstown, New Zealand, a moraine dammed lake; and (d) kettle lakes, formed through the melting of ice blocks deposited in unconsolidated sediment
by retreating glaciers.
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12.3 Still waters: lakes and ponds
(a) Temp
stratified except for when irregular storms induce mixing.
During stratification, the upper layer is typically referred
to as the epilimnion and the lower layer the hypolimnion. The
Depth
zone characterized by the thermocline (zone of rapid tem-
(b)
perature change) is the metalimnion. It is important to bear
in mind that these general patterns may be altered by, for
example, local variations in climate, lake geomorphology
and water movement.
(c)
12.3.1.3 Nutrient status
Lakes are often described on the basis of their nutrient
status with two common descriptions being oligotrophic
(d)
and eutrophic, although there are various other trophic
states (e.g. dystrophic, mesotrophic and hypertrophic).
Various methods exist for determining the trophic status
of lakes, and although there are no universally accepted
definitions, some quantitative differences have been pro-
Figure 12.9 Annual cycle of stratification for a cold temperate dimicitic posed (Table 12.5). These include taking measurements of
lake. Circular arrows denote zones of mixing. Panels to the right show total phosphorus concentration, phytoplankton biomass
the temperature changes that occur with increasing distance from the
or chlorophyll-a concentration in a water sample, primary
surface. (a) In spring, there is complete mixing, whereas (b) in summer a
thermocline develops. (c) The thermocline breaks down in autumn and production rate measured as the uptake of carbon, and
the lake becomes thoroughly mixed, until (d) in winter stratification can water transparency measured using a device called a Secchi
occur for a second time due to surface ice cover resulting in a reverse disc (Figure 12.10).
thermocline at the surface. (Source: modified from Dobson and
Frid, 2009)
12.3.2 Spatial variability of lake ecosystems
lakes are holomictic, and these mix completely. Holomictic
12.3.2.1 Edges and bottom
lakes can be subdivided into: (i) monomictic lakes which
have a single season of mixing, or overturn (e.g. warm, Lake habitats can be considered within a simple frame-
temperate lakes, or some tropical lakes that have large work (Figure 12.11). The littoral zone is the part of a lake
temporal changes in depth); (ii) dimictic lakes which stratify nearest the shore. It is the zone of both shallow and deep
in the summer and winter (e.g. cold temperate lakes, lakes where light can penetrate to the bed allowing the
Figure 12.9); (iii) polymictic lakes, such as warm tropi- growth of diverse macrophytes (plants) and benthic algae
cal lakes which may stratify as often as each day, albeit assemblages. Primary producers can dominate the energy
slightly; and (iv) oligomictic lakes, which may be continually base of aquatic food webs in these areas. In small and
Table 12.5 Approximate values for four parameters used to categorize the trophic status of lakes
Total phosphorus Maximum Primary production Maximum
(Mg L −1) chlorophyll-a (Mg L −1) (mg C m −2 day −1) Secchi depth (m)
Ultra-oligotrophic 6 4 6 2.5 6 30 7 6
Oligotrophic 4–10 2.5–8 30–100 3–6
Mesotrophic 10–35 8–25 100–300 1.5–3
Eutrophic 35–100 25–75 300–3000 0.7–1.5
Hypertrophic 7 100 7 75 7 3000 6 0.7
(Source: modified from Dobson and Frid, 2009)
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Chapter 12 Freshwater ecosystems
shallow lakes, the littoral zone may constitute a major hab-
itat due to its areal dominance. The edges and bottom of
lakes are considered to be relatively productive and diverse
perhaps because of the light penetration, combined with
abundant sediment nutrient stores and the spatial hetero-
geneity of these habitats (Moss, 2017).
The shallow edges and bottom in the littoral zone
have an assortment of sediment sizes supporting a diverse
assemblage of organisms. Waves act to regularly disturb
the lake bed and create a mosaic of sediments (ranging
from silts and mud in calmer waters, to bare rock and
gravel where wave action is intense) which in turn deter-
mine the composition of biotic communities. Wave dis-
turbance is a major factor influencing the distribution of
benthic organisms in the littoral zone, with wave-impacted
rocky shorelines only covered with attached algae, bac-
teria, limpets and occasional caddisfly or mayfly larvae.
More sheltered areas of the shoreline may have gravel
deposits but this moves readily and therefore has only a
small permanent community. Where wave action is less
considerable, finer sand deposits can build up and be colo-
nized by aquatic plants and diverse communities of bac-
teria, protozoa or epipelic (living on, or in, fine sediment)
algae. There may also be an array of emergent, submerged
and floating plants, fish, invertebrates, and both herbivo-
Figure 12.10 Measurement of water transparency using a Secchi disc.
The disc is 20 cm in diameter with quarters painted black and white. The
rous and piscivorous birds and mammals (Moss, 1998).
operator lowers the disc into the water until it is no longer visible. The calm waters around these plants can be particularly
The Secchi depth is then recorded from the attached tape measure. beneficial for the larval development of nuisance species
(Source: Mel Bickerton) such as mosquitoes (Box 12.3).
High
Littoral
ation
t coloniz
hig her plan commu
nities
Limit of minated Euphoti
yte do
d bryoph c depth
Algal an
Light availability
Profundal
Profund
al benth ion
os in silt
s ypolimn
and mud vel of h
s Upper le
Low/none
d
ygenate
en deox
s lacking wh
Bentho
Figure 12.11 A general scheme of littoral and profundal habitats in a freshwater lake. (Source: modified from Moss, 1998)
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12.3 Still waters: lakes and ponds
Mosquitoes and Infectious mouth brushes that are used for feeding typically causes a red itchy spot in most
Diseases on phytoplankton and suspended bacteria. people that subsides quickly. However,
The larva’s body is segmented and lacking mosquitoes pose major health hazards
Mosquitoes are familiar as the small flying legs but has a distinctive eighth abdominal in many tropical and subtropical areas
insects which can deliver painful bites. The segment called a spiracle, through which it because they are vectors for several life-
name mosquito does not refer to one indi- breathes. To breathe, it must hang beneath threatening diseases.
vidual species; in fact, there are more than the water surface with the spiracle pierc- The most commonly known mosquito-
3500 known species of mosquito from ing the surface film. When disturbed, the borne disease is malaria which is spread
around the world. Many species are found larvae swim to depth by undulating the to humans by mosquitoes of the genus
only in tropical and subtropical regions but body or using hairs around the mouth Anopheles. Malaria is caused when
some have adapted to life in temperate for propulsion. Following the larval stage, humans become infected by parasitic pro-
and subarctic regions. While these insects each individual forms a pupa which also tists of the genus Plasmodium which are
spend the majority of their life cycle as breathes from the water surface but it carried by the mosquito. These parasites
adult flies (between 4 and 8 weeks), three does not feed and is far less active than have a complex life cycle, partly in the
of their four life-cycle stages (egg, larvae the larvae. After a few days the adult fly mosquito and partly in vertebrate ani-
and pupa) are completely reliant on fresh- emerges from the pupal cocoon. mals. When a mosquito bites an infected
water (with the exception of a few species During the adult stage of the life cycle person, malarial parasites can pass into
which can develop in salt marshes). Adult (Figure 12.12b) both male and female the mosquito with the blood. These para-
females lay their eggs in still waters such mosquitoes feed on plant nectar. However, sites then develop in the mosquito over
as ponds, lakes and wetlands and also the female flies of most mosquito species a period of about one week until they are
water butts, buckets, or water-filled hol- also require a blood meal which provides subsequently injected into another victim
lows of plants. These eggs develop into the protein and iron required for the with the mosquito’s anti-coagulant saliva.
larvae and subsequently pupae over a development of egg masses. When these The Plasmodium parasites then develop in
period of up to two weeks depending on blood meals are obtained from humans, the human liver over a period of at least
the environmental temperature and food the mosquito can deliver a painful bite as two weeks before they start to multiply
availability. its proboscis pierces the skin and injects and malarial symptoms arise. Symptoms
In the larval stage (Figure 12.12a), the anti-coagulant saliva to prevent localized of malaria can include severe fever and
mosquito has a well-developed head with blood clotting while it feeds. The bite itself headache as well as hallucinations, coma
(b)
(a)
Figure 12.12 Mosquitos: (a) larvae; (b) adult female mosquito feeding on blood with the distinctive proboscis used to pierce the flesh of its prey.
(Source: (a) Svetoslav Radkov, (b) anat chant, Shutterstock.com)
Box 12.3 ➤
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Chapter 12 Freshwater ecosystems
➤
and even death if left untreated. While malaria. Additionally, some species of mos- River fever, West Nile virus and Japanese
a variety of anti-malarial drugs are avail- quito carry a parasitic worm that causes encephalitis. An estimated 700 million
able these are not accessible to many of elephantiasis (severe swelling of different people worldwide are affected by
the world’s poorest people, particularly in body parts). The mosquito species Aedes mosquito-transmitted diseases each year,
developing countries. Consequently there aegypti spreads the viral diseases yellow and the scale of the problem is expected
are thought to be more than a million fever, dengue fever and Chikungunya, to increase, with northward shifts of the
deaths per year across the world due to whilst other mosquitoes spread Ross disease projected due to climate change.
Box 12.3
The zone where light penetrates the water column is moving boats to filter larger volumes of water, or which
known as the euphotic zone. Below this is the profundal can be lowered from the side of a vessel and then slowly
zone and here the lack of light prevents photosynthesis. pulled upwards.
Thus, any organisms inhabiting this area permanently Rotifers, protozoa and crustaceans such as the cla-
are dependent on detritus (dead organic matter) as a food doceran Daphnia form the major groups of freshwater
source, either supplied from the overlying water column zooplankton, an assortment of organisms which com-
or washed from the littoral zone. The profundal zone prises heterotrophs feeding on phytoplankton, sus-
typically supports a lower diversity of organisms than the pended organic particles and sometimes other smaller
littoral zone, and is often characterized by simple commu-
nities of bacteria (including Cyanobacteria or blue–green
algae), protozoa, invertebrates and fish (Moss, 1998).
Often the zone below the hypolimnion will become deoxy-
genated, restricting the biotic community to anaerobic
bacteria and protozoa.
12.3.2.2 Open water
The region of open water above the profundal and out
from the littoral is called the pelagic zone. The open-water
habitat of lakes contains a complex assortment of organ-
isms, although in reality many of these are invisible to the
naked eye except for where they form immense colonies, or
blooms. The planktonic organisms that are primary pro-
ducers are collectively known as phytoplankton, and range
in size from 1 mm (picoplankton), 65 mm (ultraplankton),
5960 mm (nanoplankton) and 760 mm (net plankton).
This group includes a hugely diverse array of bacteria,
green, yellow–green and golden-yellow algae, diatoms,
cryptophytes, euglenoids and dinoflagellates (Moss, 1998).
The growth of phytoplankton is strongly influenced by
light and dissolved nutrients such as nitrogen and phos-
phorus. Phytoplankton can be sampled by collecting water
samples (usually 1 L) from the water surface, from depth
using a pump and hose, or by deploying sealed bottles
which are submerged to the required depth before being
Figure 12.13 Sampling of lake plankton from a small boat. The fine mesh
opened remotely. Alternative methods include the use of net is lowered into the water column to the desired depth then pulled up
plankton nets (Figure 12.13), which can be towed behind to the surface to sample a column of water. (Source: Mel Bickerton)
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12.3 Still waters: lakes and ponds
zooplankton. Other less common constituents of the omnivorous (feeding on both plants and animals) and their
zooplankton include freshwater jellyfish, some flatworms diet changes as they develop from larvae to fry to adults.
and mites (Moss, 1998). Some groups of zooplankton such Fish have different spawning needs and thermal tolerances
as the Cladocera are much more active than the phyto- but being highly mobile they are able to move between dif-
plankton, being able to move actively through the water ferent areas of lakes.
column, form shoals and undertake migrations through
the water column either in response to diurnal cycles or to
12.3.3 Human influences on lake ecosystems
avoid predators. Larger, faster-moving zooplankton groups
include shrimp-like mysids (up to 2 cm in length) which Lakes suffer from many of the same problems as rivers (see
are predators of other zooplankton. Sampling zooplank- Section 12.2.4 and Mason, 2002), particularly those related
ton can be tricky due to their spatial aggregation and abil- to hydrological, water quality and biological alterations.
ity to move actively. Plankton nets are the favoured method The hydrological behaviour of many lakes throughout the
because bottle samples of lake water are unlikely to cap- world has been modified by human abstractions for water
ture many individuals. supply and irrigation. Some lakes have been modified mor-
A familiar third group of open-water-dwelling organ- phologically by the construction of dams to raise the water
isms, with major socio-economic importance, is the fishes. level (e.g. Malham Tarn, UK) which alters the configura-
Over 10 000 species, or ∼40% of the world’s known tion of the shoreline and littoral zone. Diffuse pollutants
fishes, are from freshwaters (Dudgeon et al., 2006). Most from the wider catchment, and point source pollutants
freshwater fish species are found in the tropics, perhaps as entering either directly through wastewater pipes or indi-
result of shorter generation times in warmer waters per- rectly via inflowing streams and rivers, are particularly
mitting faster evolution, coupled with the long history of major problems. In many lakes around the world, nutri-
permanent water bodies in these regions (Moss, 1998). The ents (nitrogen and phosphorus in particular) contained in
fishes have particularly diverse morphological, behavioural diffuse runoff from surrounding agricultural land as well
and ecological traits, meaning that they inhabit a range of as point source discharges have led to major changes in the
lake habitats as well as the open water, and they have con- trophic status of lakes, leading to the widespread problem
siderable dietary differences with some being herbivorous of eutrophication (see Box 12.4 and Moss, 2017). Some
or detritivorous, whilst others are predatory. Many fish are lakes are used as direct disposal routes for sewage effluent
Anthropogenic (Moss, 1998). The accumulation of phos- The problem of eutrophication is rec-
Eutrophication phorus and nitrogen in previously oligo- ognizable by increased growth of aquatic
trophic (low-nutrient, low-productivity) plants and phytoplankton. Occasionally
While eutrophic lakes (high nutrients, high lakes can cause a dramatic shift along these blooms contain species of blue–
productivity) can occur naturally, the term the nutrient and productivity spectrum green algae that produce substances
eutrophication is more synonymous with towards a eutrophic state. The problem toxic to mammals, in particular affecting
the problem of anthropogenic eutrophi- was particularly prevalent in the 1960s cattle using the lake margins as a source
cation. Anthropogenic eutrophication is to 1970s when the water quality and of drinking water or dogs swimming in the
caused by an increase in nutrient con- fisheries of many lakes across Europe and water. Algal blooms also clog filters where
centrations (nitrogen and phosphorus) North America deteriorated as a conse- water is extracted from lakes for human
in lakes, usually from treated sewage quence of massive algal blooms associ- consumption, increasing the cost of treat-
effluent, raw sewage (from sewer over- ated with eutrophication. Eutrophication ment and sometimes altering the taste
flows, farm runoff or fish farm effluent), is now increasing in countries such as of the water (Moss, 1998). In extreme
and by leaching of fertilizers from arable China which are undergoing major eco- cases the high densities of algae can
farmland in the surrounding catchment nomic development. lead to deoxygenation of lakes because
BOX 12.4 ➤
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Chapter 12 Freshwater ecosystems
➤
night-time algal respiration, coupled with
the decomposition of detritus originating
from the increased phytoplankton bloom,
consumes dissolved oxygen from the
water column more quickly than it can be
replaced by diffusion from the atmosphere.
Consequently, there can be major losses
of fishes and other aquatic organisms
during these deoxygenation episodes.
If the hypolimnion becomes deoxygen-
ated, sulfides can be released from bed
sediments causing further water quality
problems for water supply companies and
aquatic ecosystems.
Solving the problem of eutrophication
can involve treating the symptoms, by
either physically removing aquatic plants
and phytoplankton or altering the mixing
regime of lakes. However, these interven-
tions can be costly in the long term and do
nothing to address the root cause of the
problem. Laboratory studies carried out
in the 1960s and 1970s suggested that
phosphorus, nitrogen and carbon were all
responsible for eutrophication. However,
experimental studies in lakes showed that
the problem could be controlled success-
fully by restricting the input of phosphorus
alone. In a series of experiments, scientists
from the Canadian Fisheries and Marine
Service manipulated the nutrient con- Figure 12.14 Lake 226 on 4 September 1973. The yellow line is the top of a vinyl curtain rein-
tent of lakes in north-western Ontario. forced with nylon, which was sealed into the lake bed sediments and fastened to the lakeside
Figure 12.14 shows an image of Lake bedrock. The lower part of the lake (north-east basin) received additions of phosphorus and
226, which has two basins of similar size quickly developed a bloom of blue–green algae as can be seen from the light green colour of
the water. (Source: Fisheries & Oceans, Canada: E. Debruyn)
separated by a narrow constriction (Schin-
dler, 1974). The constriction provided an
opportunity to physically separate the
basins using a barrier. Both basins were community of the adjacent basin did not (either by phosphate stripping or by
treated with nitrogen and carbon through- differ from the pre-treatment period. The reducing phosphorus in household and
out the year but only the north-east findings of this and other experiments industrial detergents), control the applica-
basin received additions of phosphorus. led to a realization that the problems of tion of phosphorus to farmland, reduce
The north-east basin quickly developed a eutrophication could be mitigated by mak- livestock densities in vulnerable lake
major bloom of the blue–green alga Ana- ing efforts to: reduce phosphorus loads catchments, or manipulate the aquatic
baena spiroides whilst the phytoplankton in sewage treatment effluent discharges food web (Scheffer et al., 1993).
BOX 12.4
which can cause problems related to nutrient enrichment, and while these remove a large component of the potential
organic pollution and the introduction of pharmaceuti- pollutant and nutrient load, some pollutants remain in the
cals. For example, Windermere, England’s largest natural effluent. Additionally, releases of untreated waste are com-
lake, receives effluent from two sewage treatment works mon from overflow pipes during heavy rain.
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12.4 Summary
northern Iran and southern Russia, but they were spread
to western Europe in the nineteenth century, North
America in the late 1980s, and to other parts of the world,
most likely in the ballast waters of cargo ships. Since being
introduced to North America they have spread quickly
across the Great Lakes and into Canada. Dispersal is rapid
because high numbers of larval offspring are produced by
each adult zebra mussel (e.g. Johnson and Carlton, 1996),
and these are distributed by lake currents. Adult mus-
sels are also transported between lakes attached to boats,
and their unrestricted spread has caused major problems
with the fouling of vessels, docks and blocking of water
supply pipes. Their mode of feeding by filtering detritus
and phytoplankton from the water column has also led to
Figure 12.15 Typical lake fish cages. (Source: Mikhail Olykainen increased clarity of lakes, meaning increased sunlight pen-
Shutterstock.com)
etration and algal growth with knock-on effects through-
out the lake food web.
One of the major ways in which lakes provide goods
and services to humans is through fisheries. In many
regions of the world, lake fisheries provide fish that
comprise the major dietary component. However, a typi-
Reflective questions
cal problem is overfishing, which in turn often leads to
the restocking of fish to replace those which have been ➤ Can you draw the typical zones of a lake ecosystem?
over-exploited. In some places commercial fish farms are
➤ Consider a lake that you have seen recently. By what
common on lakes, with fish being reared in large cages
process is it likely to have been formed and what clas-
(Figure 12.15). Inevitably, some fish escape and these can
sification might it be accorded based on the stratification
be particularly problematic if they are non-native spe-
process described by Hutchinson (1957)?
cies because they often out-compete native species. Other
invasive species that have caused major problems in lakes ➤ How have the activities of humans altered lake
are zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha). These bivalve ecosystems?
molluscs originate from the Caspian Sea which borders
12.4 Summary over timescales ranging from days to years. The river continuum
concept has been a very influential theory over the past three
This chapter has provided an introduction to some of the diverse decades and describes the aquatic zones within river systems
habitats and major biotic groups of plants and animals that from headwater streams downstream to larger rivers. Connec-
can be found in rivers and lakes, the differences between these tivity is provided by flowing water carrying, for example, fine
two types of freshwater system and some of the alterations particulate organic matter or nutrients as part of the freshwater
imposed by human activities. River systems can be examined at nutrient spiral. Some of the ways in which freshwater ecosystems
different scales and the chapter has introduced the concept of have been altered by human environmental change include the
longitudinal, lateral and vertical spatial dimensions as well as introduction of alien, invasive species, changes to chemical and
some of the important changes that occur in river ecosystems thermal characteristics through pollution, modification to flow
➤
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Chapter 12 Freshwater ecosystems
➤
regimes through river and lake control structures (e.g. dams), are particularly diverse ecosystems, and the ideas discussed
and climate change impacts (e.g. changes to glacial meltwater within this chapter for the most part provide general frame-
release, floods or drought). Lake ecosystem classification sys- works, rather than a blueprint for how individual river or lake
tems including geomorphological, stratification and nutrient systems can be expected to work. The reader is encouraged to
status have been outlined. An individual lake ecosystem can be consult the recommended further reading, key research papers,
described by a simple conceptual framework of zones depend- references and weblinks on the Companion Website to build up
ent on physical and chemical characteristics which interact with a more detailed understanding and knowledge of freshwater
biota. However, it is important to remember that rivers and lakes ecosystems.
Further reading Scheffer, M., Hosper, S.H., Meijer, M.L., Moss, B. and
Jeppesen, E. (1993) Alternative equilibria in shallow lakes.
Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 8, 275–279.
Steady states and thresholds of change in lake systems.
Allan, D.J. and Castillo, M.M. (2007) Stream ecology: Structure
and function of running waters. Springer, Dordrecht, Netherlands. Vannote, R.L., Minshall, G.W., Cummins, K.W., Sedell,
This is a very thorough text providing a detailed review of J.R. and Cushing, C.E. (1980) The river continuum concept.
research studies on the subject of stream ecology. It is suitable Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 37,
for more advanced undergraduate study but also has introduc- 130–137.
tory information on stream hydrology, water chemistry and This is the paper that proposed the highly influential concept in
human modifications of river systems. river ecosystem studies.
Moss, B. (2017) Ecology of freshwaters: Earth’s bloodstream. Ward, J.V., Tockner, K., Arscott, D.B. and Claret, C. (2002)
Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester. Riverine landscape diversity. Freshwater Biology, 47,
A comprehensive book covering lakes and wetlands but includ- 517–540.
ing some chapters on streams and rivers. The book provides a An excellent review of landscape features in river corridors,
detailed overview and is aimed at students who wish to gain an landscape evolution, ecological succession, connectivity and
integrated view of freshwaters. biodiversity.
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C H A PTER 1 3
Vegetation and environmental change
John Grace
School of GeoSciences, University of Edinburgh
Learning objectives and whole civilizations. In modern times, the study of the
relationship between plant life and the climate falls within
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
several scientific disciplines. Plant physiology is concerned with
understanding the functioning of plants, and this includes the
➤ understand the way vegetation responds to climatological variables,
response of plants to their environment and the acquisition
and appreciate some of the underlying mechanisms of this response
of resources by plants. From plant physiology we learn how
species have different environmental requirements as a result
➤ outline the evidence that shows how temperature and water supply
of differing structural and biochemical make-up. Agronomy,
have a leading role in determining the global patterns in vegetation
horticulture and silviculture are applications of plant physi-
➤ appreciate how researchers are using models to predict future ology in the service of humankind to provide field crops,
vegetation patterns garden plants and wood products. Ecology, on the other
➤ discuss how human activities interact with climatic impacts, in hand, looks more broadly at vegetation, and has a focus on
both ‘good’ and ‘bad’ ways plant distribution; here we learn that plant distribution is not
➤ understand the relationship between climate models, vegetation only constrained by climate and soil, but also influenced by
models and observations, and realize that much remains to be factors such as competition, herbivory, fire and disturbance
understood about the impact of climate on vegetation and vice versa (Chapters 10 and 11). Palaeoecology is about ancient distribu-
tions (see Chapters 4 and 5), often inferred from deposits of
pollen in a few places where material is well preserved, such
13.1 Introduction as peat bogs and lake sediments. Every year, the surface of
the peat or the bed of a lake is added to by a ‘rain’ of pollen
Vegetation responds to a large number of factors in the grains. Cores can be extracted from the material, and slices
physical environment, such as temperature, the available can be acid-digested to remove organic debris leaving pol-
solar energy, and the supply of nutrients and water via the len grains. The temporal patterns (with some assumptions)
soil. Humans have been discovering the nature and extent can be correlated with changes in temperature. Likewise,
of this response for a very long time, at least since biblical patterns of growth over long periods can also be measured
times when people first began to grow crops. The impact in some organisms, such as corals and trees. Dendrochronol-
of drought, for example, is woven into the history of tribes ogy is the study of climate patterns from the annual growth
M13 An Introduction to Physical Ge 83575.indd 323 24/05/2017 18:46
Chapter 13 Vegetation and environmental change
rings of trees, and the related dendroecology is the study of Green leaves achieve this by capturing photons (energy
tree rings to investigate ecological processes. In old trees these as light from the Sun) with a set of pigments, of which
growth records extend over hundreds of years, and by joining the most important are the chlorophylls (green pigments);
together the records of past generations of trees, for example then they use the captured energy to drive a series of
using trees found preserved in bogs or the timbers of ancient chemical reactions that result in CO2 being absorbed from
buildings, it is possible to obtain a record over thousands of the atmosphere and converted into simple sugars, such as
years. Finally, phenology is the study of the annual variations glucose. Subsequently, glucose is made into storage com-
in the timing of key events in the life cycle of plants, such as pounds, the most common being starch, and structural
the date when specific tree species open their leaves, the date compounds such as cellulose (of which cell walls of leaves
when flowers appear, or the date of autumn colouring when and roots are made) and lignin (a component of the cell
leaves lose their chlorophyll and photosynthesis ceases. There walls of woody stems). From this discussion, it is clear
are long-term records of these phenological events, and they that green plants need light, and that the more light they
can be related to trends in the climate. have, the more growth can be expected. It is worth point-
In this chapter, we will draw upon work from all these ing out that the process of photosynthesis has been going
disciplines, noting at the same time that to synthesize knowl- on for nearly 4 billion years, and that the by-product of
edge over a range of disciplines often requires some kind photosynthesis, oxygen, enables all aerobic life including
of mathematical model that incorporates knowledge and our own.
understanding, and that can be run from historical climate From a biochemical perspective, different types of pho-
data or from data generated by climate models. In fact, we tosynthesis are recognized. The majority of plant species
use predictions of what the climate may be in the future to are found to fix CO2 into 3-carbon compounds, triose
estimate how the vegetation may change in the future. phosphates. However, some other species have a differ-
We may also note in passing that there is an inevita- ent enzyme system and they make a 4-carbon compound
ble relation between climate and the native vegetation, instead, oxaloacetic acid. The former condition is known
as discussed in the classic work by Wladimir Köppen, a as C3 photosynthesis and the latter as C4 photosynthesis.
German climatologist, in a 1931 paper (see Chapter 8), and C4 plants are relatively recent. We see them in the fos-
Holdridge, an ecologist, in 1947. We emphasize ‘native’ veg- sil record only 20–25 million years ago and they spread
etation, because much of the world’s vegetation is affected remarkably only 8 million years ago. Most of them are
by humans and transformed or removed so that the land grasses, some are sedges, a few are herbs and shrubs, and
can be used for agriculture and forestry. It turns out that for very few of them are trees. When they evolved from C3
the native vegetation, the most important variables deter- ancestors, fire was on the increase because of a drying
mining distribution on a global basis are average annual and climate, and browsing increased with the evolution and
monthly temperatures, and precipitation (see Figure 10.7 in spread of large mammals in the Oligocene and Miocene.
Chapter 10). Here, the land cover is represented as ‘biomes’, Only a few per cent of species are currently C4 but they
each biome occupying a particular region of climate space. can utilize high levels of solar radiation more effectively
From such relationships we see how a warmer world might and may account for as much as 30% of global photosyn-
shift particular locations from one biome to another. thesis, mostly in the tropics and mainly in savannas (see
Chapter 10). There are many differences between C3 and
C4 but here we need note only a few of them. C4 plants
13.2 Fundamentals of how plants
utilize water more efficiently and so they tolerate peri-
respond to climatic variations
ods without rain. C4 photosynthesis works best in warm
climates, and so we can reasonably expect C4 plants to
13.2.1 Light
be favoured in the future, warmer climate (Figures 13.1
About 50% of the dry weight of plants is carbon, and 13.2). They are among the faster growing crops of
which has been accumulated through the process the world, including maize, sorghum, millet and sugar-
of photosynthesis (from the Greek phos = light and cane. They dominate some of the most productive natural
synthesis = combination) summarized as follows: cosystems in the world, from the floodplains in Brazil
e
6CO2(gas) + 12H2O(liquid) + photons S C6H12O6(aqueous) + 6O2(gas) + 6H2O(liquid)
carbon dioxide + water + light energy S glucose + oxygen + water(13.1)
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13.2 Fundamentals of how plants respond to climatic variations
0–30% C4 30–60% C4 60–100% C4
Figure 13.1 Grasslands of the world, showing the percentage of the grasses that are C4. (Source: from Ehleringer et al., 2005)
(a) (b) (c)
50
40 C4 grass
C4 grass
C4 grass
CO2 uptake (omol m-2 s-1)
30
C3 grass C3 grass
C3 grass
20
10 C3 tree C3 tree C3 tree
500 1000 1500 2000 10 20 30 40 50 Days without rain
Light (omol photons m-2 s-1) Temperature (5C) (arbitrary units)
Figure 13.2 Environmental responses of photosynthetic CO2 uptake by leaves of three hypothetical species: a C4 grass, a C3 grass and a C3 tree.
(a) Under different amounts of light, the C4 grass has higher rates of CO2 uptake and is able to continue to exploit the incident solar energy even in
bright sunlight; C3 grasses and herbs often have a higher rate of photosynthesis than C3 trees. (b) The performance of the three species at high tem-
perature; we see how the C4 grass has a higher optimum temperature for photosynthesis. (c) How the hypothetical species might respond to a period
with no rain: C4 species have a higher water use efficiency than C3 species (they lose only 250–300 g of water for every gram of CO2 fixed, while C3
lose 400–500 g water per g CO2); grasses have near-surface roots and they die down in drought but trees often have deep roots and can exploit stored
water more effectively (grasses will regrow leaves when the rain comes).
where we find a C4 aquatic grass Echinochloa polystachya in tropical savannas, where they co-exist with C3 trees.
to the lakes in Africa where mono-specific stands of Cype- A third type of photosynthesis, first discovered in the plant
rus papyrus occur, the sedge used by ancient civilizations family Crassulaceae, is associated with leaves that are
to make ‘papyrus’. They are widespread as the C4 grasses fleshy and accumulate malic acid during the night. This
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Chapter 13 Vegetation and environmental change
Figure 13.3 Cyperus papyrus plants on a lake – an example of a tropical C4 sedge. (Source: C. Jansuebsri/Shutterstock.com)
condition is termed crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM). small thick leaves and special organs to store water. Plants
In contrast to all other plants, CAM plants keep their sto- with adaptations to dry conditions are called xerophytes,
mata closed in the day and hence avoid water loss; but they and are found especially in deserts. Changes in water sup-
open them at night using a different enzyme system to cap- ply are expected as a component of climate change: as we
ture CO2 and form malic acid. Then, during the day the saw in Chapter 7 we expect some regions to become wetter
malic acid is broken down to yield CO2 which is fixed into and others to be drier; we may therefore expect vegetation
glucose in the same way as we find in C3 plants. As well as to change in some places and patterns of food produc-
members of the Crassulaceae, CAM is found in cacti, the tion to alter. For example, it has been predicted that the
pineapple family (Bromeliaceae) and orchids. Amazon rainforest will be replaced by a more xerophytic
vegetation within 100 years as El Niño events become more
extreme and possibly more frequent (Cramer et al., 2001).
13.2.2 Water
Inside the plant cell, water is the medium in which all
13.2.3 Temperature
the important biochemistry takes place. For land plants
water is additionally important as they are mechanically The biochemical reactions involved in photosynthesis and
supported by the water pressure inside them. Take away growth all require warmth. Most plants photosynthesize
water from a plant and it becomes flaccid (it wilts). So, and grow best between 10 and 30 °C, although there are
rain (strictly, the supply of water) is an important variable important variations. Some organisms can even thrive in
in controlling the distribution of plants, and determining the extreme conditions of hot springs and others live in
their growth rates. Only a few plants can survive desicca- the coldest places on Earth. But these extremophiles are
tion. These are the so-called resurrection plants that can mostly bacteria, not vascular plants. Much of the planet’s
disassemble the photosynthetic machinery when drought surface is too cold for many plant species, and the long
comes and then reassemble it later when water is abundant. winters of the boreal zone limit photosynthesis and prevent
Almost all land plants benefit from an extra supply of cell division. As climate warms we expect northern and
water, but species vary hugely in how well they can tolerate mountain regions to become greener, to photosynthesize
dry periods. Some tolerate drought by shedding leaves or more rapidly and to grow faster. Indeed, there is evidence
by having special characteristics such as a thick and water- from historical photography and satellite imagery that this
proof coating (cuticle) on their leaf surfaces, or by having is already happening (Fraser et al., 2014). We expect that in
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13.3 Observational studies: how we know for sure that vegetation responds to a changing climate
the north especially, there will be widespread changes in the are acting as a carbon sink. So far, there is just one experi-
distribution of plants, as the length of the ‘growing season’ ment on mature trees, and a few on trees enclosed in large
increases. For example some of the boreal forests in the chambers. Consequently we conclude that the extent of
southern parts of the taiga biome may die back (browning the stimulation of photosynthesis by CO2 is one of the
of the forest) to be replaced by grasslands. There is evidence unknowns in global models of vegetation.
that this shift has already begun (Buermann et al., 2014).
13.2.5 Other climatic variables
13.2.4 Carbon dioxide concentration
Other climatic variables are important too, especially on
The atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) a local basis. Photosynthesis responds strongly to changes
has risen from 270 parts per million (ppm) before industri- in humidity, as leaves tend to close their stomata in dry air.
alization to over 390 ppm today. As photosynthesis involves Wind is an important factor also. It plays a direct role in
the diffusion of CO2 molecules from the atmosphere some regions of the world, where it may limit the extent
through the stomatal pores to the active sites inside the leaf to which forest or woodland can develop. In all environ-
where photosynthetic fixation occurs, it is to be expected ments wind is important because it determines the relation
that any increase in the external concentration of CO2 between the climate and the microclimate at the surface of
will increase photosynthesis. This is because, according to leaves. In this regard, the influence of wind on heat trans-
Fick’s law, the rate of diffusion increases in proportion to fer between leaves and the atmosphere determines surface
the concentration gradient. The increase in photosynthesis temperatures, and plants that are sheltered are generally a
might also increase the growth rate and final yield of the few degrees warmer by day than those that are exposed in
plants. In fact, commercial growers have often used high the same location. Wind may also convey adverse materi-
CO2 concentrations in greenhouses to speed up the pro- als, including salt spray and pollutants.
duction of crops like tomato and lettuce. The increase in
photosynthesis may not be as clear as expected, however,
because plants raised at high CO2 develop fewer stomata
and their stomata become somewhat closed at high CO2. Reflective questions
Moreover, the products of photosynthesis may not be read- ➤ What are the key climate variables determining vegetation
ily translated into growth and yield. For example, there distribution and growth rates?
may be a shortage of a vital nutrient such as nitrogen, or
the temperature may be too low for cell division to occur. ➤ Should we take into account extremes of climatological
The extent to which these expectations about the effect variables or do we work merely with mean values?
of high CO2 are true can be tested using a type of experi- ➤ Is the temperature of a leaf the same as the temperature
mentation called FACE (Free Air enriChment Experiment). of the air?
In FACE, a set of supply tubes surrounds a small circular
field in which crops, small trees or other plants are being
raised. Then, CO2 is fed through the tubes to enrich the
atmosphere. Sensors measure the concentration and adjust 13.3 Observational studies: how we know
the supply rate. Usually the experiment is aimed at dou- for sure that vegetation responds to a
bling the CO2 concentration, to try to predict what may changing climate
happen in a future high CO2 world. The results of such
experiments show that the increase in photosynthesis, In this section, we review examples of field observations
productivity and yield is rather smaller than people have that show how natural vegetation frequently changes as a
imagined. A doubling of external CO2 will almost dou- result of climate change.
ble the diffusion gradient, so in a simple physical system
we might expect this to translate into a near doubling of
13.3.1 The forest/savanna boundary in southern
CO2 uptake. However, in a review of experimental data,
Amazonia
Leakey et al. (2009) reported a mean stimulation in biologi-
cal production of 17% and in yield of only 16%. This type The Amazon rainforest occupies about 6 million km2 and
of experimentation cannot easily be done on major biomes holds around one-third of the global biodiversity. However,
such as the tropical and boreal forest, which collectively the world’s most famous rainforest may not have been as
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Chapter 13 Vegetation and environmental change
extensive just a few thousand years ago. Records obtained pollen of the families Moracaceae and Urticaceae, which
from lake sediments in Bolivia in the southern part of contain predominantly trees. There is also a signal from
Amazonia suggest that the boundary with the savanna Cecropia, a tree genus. Grass pollen from members of the
may have undergone substantial changes over the past Poaceae is relatively uncommon, and so are Mauritia and
few thousands of years (Mayle et al., 2000). The results Mauritiella, both palms of wet places.
are presented as a pollen diagram (Figure 13.4), in which However, just 4000 years ago the situation was very dif-
we see the fluctuations of some major groups of plants ferent. The site was evidently much drier. We can tell the
found as pollen from a 3 m core taken from the sediment water level in the lake must have been much lower because
at the bottom of a deep lake. In such studies, the age of we see pollen of Isoetes (quillwort), a plant that lives in the
the samples is determined by the 14C dating (see Box 5.1 shallows at lake margins (Figure 13.4). Most significantly,
in Chapter 5) of the strata from which the samples have there is a strong component of grass pollen and relatively
been taken. At present, the lake is surrounded by rainfor- little tree pollen, showing this area to have been savanna
est and the pollen ‘rain’ into the lake is dominated by at the time. There is also charcoal, an indication of dry
ae
e ric la
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Po lla au
BP
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( 14
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es
ig
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20
1650 ; 40
40 2740 ; 50
3220 ; 40
60 7980 ; 70
80 9380 ; 70
100 9590 ; 70
120 9720 ; 60
9820 ; 70
11030 ; 80
Depth (cm)
140 38 600 ; 1000
46 000 ; 2900
160
180
41 400 ; 1500
200 43 900 ; 1900
220
240
43 700 ; 2000
260
280 750 850
0 20 0 20 40 0 0 0 0 20 40 0 20 40 60 80
Organic mud Sand Clay Clay/sand
Figure 13.4 Vegetational history of southern Amazonia seen in the pollen record. (Source: Mayle et al., 2000, from F.E. Mayle, R. Burbridge & T.J. Killeen,
Millennial-scale dynamics of Southern Amazonian rain forests, Science, 290: 2291–2294, 2000. Reprinted with permission from AAAS.)
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13.3 Observational studies: how we know for sure that vegetation responds to a changing climate
conditions and human presence. The conclusion, that rain- view. In some places it is possible to obtain photographic evi-
forest in the area is quite recent, and preceded by grassland dence of shifts in vegetation, either by repeatedly revisiting
vegetation, can be supported by other evidence. Mayle et the same place, comparing aerial or satellite photographs, or
al. (2000) point to a regional increase in rainfall at the time simply using photographs taken by ecologists and naturalists
tree pollen began to be common: it is known that the water on the ground. Higgins et al. (2016) showed using satellite
level in Lake Titicaca (located in the Andes on the border data globally that biomes with tall vegetation and minimal
of Peru and Bolivia) rose after 3200 BP, reaching modern vegetation activity in the cold season shifted to higher pro-
levels by 2100 BP. This change in climate was not anthro- ductivity biome states between 1981 and 2012. Frost and
pogenic, although the savannas were probably occupied Epstein (2014) studied shrub and tree advance in S iberian
and fire was used as a tool, but rather the consequence of tundra. At their 11 study regions, spread across A rctic
a southward shift in the intertropical convergence zone (see Siberia, ranging in size from 34 to 78 km2 each with more
Chapters 6 and 8), itself triggered by Milankovitch forcing than 40 years of data, they found shrub and tree expansion
(see Chapter 4). A few similar studies have been conducted had occurred since the 1960s in both lowland and upland
at other tropical and subtropical regions. For example, the areas (Figure 13.5). Some spatial differences (e.g. some
Sahara Desert was formerly much wetter and vegetated, decreases in tree cover at some locations) were related to dis-
with a considerable human population (see Chapter 5). turbance due to permafrost melt and more active floodplains
The work is relevant to ideas of how tropical vegeta- (Figure 13.5). Similar changes in tree line species have been
tion will change in the future. Some climate models pre- recorded in other parts of the world too including sub-Arctic
dict substantial drying in Amazonia and elsewhere, and spruce–tundra in northern Québec, Canada (Gamache and
it is thought likely that part of the region will revert to Payette, 2004) and Pinus sylvestris populations in Sweden
savanna. Today, the changes might well be accelerated by where there have been strong increases in growth and repro-
humans who are inclined to use fire for clearing. When the duction and a decrease in winter damage (Kullman, 2005).
forest is dry there can be large-scale destruction of forests
by fire as we have seen in many parts of the world in recent
13.3.3 Upward march of vegetation in mountains
years. This removal of forest by fire is one of the mecha-
nisms by which savanna replaces forest. Even away from high latitudes observations have shown an
upwards expansion of shrubs and trees. One such case is
the Montseny Mountains of Catalonia in north-east Spain
13.3.2 The northern tree line
(Peñuelas and Boada, 2003), where ground-based images
Trees are excluded from cold places. In most older texts it were available from 1945. In these mountains the beech for-
is claimed that trees are absent from sites wherever the tem- est has moved up the slope by 70 m at the highest altitudes.
perature of the warmest month is less than 10 °C, following At medium altitudes the existing beech forest is becoming
a line of thinking by Köppen. This is not entirely true: for degraded, partially defoliated and is not regenerating itself
some Andean sites the tree line coincides with a maximum as it formerly did. Nearby, heathland is being replaced by
summer temperature of only 6 °C. However, there is a con- the more drought and heat-tolerant holm oak. Changes
sensus that summer temperatures are important and that like this have been reported in Japan (Nakashizuka et
they must be sufficient for adequate rates of photosynthesis al., 2016) and from the European Alps as well. There,
and cell division. The consequence of this is the existence the existence of many small alpine species is threatened
of a phytogeographical boundary where trees give way to with local extinction as their particular habitat declines
dwarf shrubs, found at northern latitudes and on mountains in area as a result of global warming (Pauli et al., 2007).
all over the world. Around the boundary, known as the tree This general phenomenon, first recognized three decades
line, the trees grow slowly and are often stunted with con- ago, has prompted the establishment of long-term sample
torted stems. The German word to describe the woodland plots, which are revisited every few years for enumeration
composed of these trees is krummholz (crooked wood). of the plants. The project has established a global network
Climate warming has so far been more rapid in the of sites in mountain regions, known as GLORIA (Global
extreme northern regions than elsewhere, and so it is in the Observation Research Initiative in Alpine Environments,
north that we might expect to see a sign of warming in the www.gloria.ac.at). They have shown, for example, from
vegetation, for example, increases in the rates of growth, 867 vegetation samples above the treeline from 60 summit
and northerly advances in the distribution of trees. In fact, sites in all major E
uropean mountain systems, that ongo-
observations from several regions of the world support this ing climate change is gradually transforming mountain
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Chapter 13 Vegetation and environmental change
22.0
10
Normalized expansion rate (% decade–1)
8
0
Kh O Tn Tz D L U P V Kh O Tn Tz D H L U Ko P Kh O Tn Tz H Ko P V Kh O Tn Tz D H Ko P V
–2
Upland Lowland
–4
Inactive floodplain Active floodplain
–6
–10.4 –13.4
Figure 13.5 Net change in shrub and tree cover at northern Siberian tundra ecotones since the 1960s across four landscape types. As the period of
data record is not the same for all regions, the percent change in cover is normalised to express the decadal rate of canopy cover change as a percent-
age of total canopy cover present at the beginning of the study period for each landscape. The letters refer to the names of the regions studied.
(Source: Frost and Epstein, 2014).
plant communities with a resultant compression of cold Sparks et al., 2000). In some countries, ‘phenological gar-
mountain habitats (Gottfried et al., 2012) dens’ have been established to monitor such things as the
date of bud-break every spring, the date of first flowering
and the date on which trees shed their leaves. For exam-
13.3.4 Changes in the timing of flowering
ple, there is a large network of phonological sites across
The recording of the annual cycle of growth and develop- Europe (see http://tinyurl.com/j3pdtnr) (e.g. Figure 13.6).
ment of plants has interested amateur naturalists and pro- The data sets generated by these gardens are a rich archive
fessional meteorologists for over 100 years (Jeffree, 1960; of information, linking biology and meteorology. In some
Figure 13.6 Johnstown Castle gardens in County Wexford, Ireland with some of the trees and shrubs in flower. The dates of plant development (e.g. first
flowering) are recorded each year for the various species in the garden contributing to the Irish and European phenology network databases.
(Source: Captblack76, Shutterstock.com)
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13.3 Observational studies: how we know for sure that vegetation responds to a changing climate
cases these records are very long ones, broken only by associated with an earlier date of onset. Nearly all pheno-
interruptions by war or failure of funding. In other cases, logical events occur earlier as a result of warming in the
they are the result of one person’s painstaking efforts over spring. Overall, the authors calculate that as a result of
a lifetime. One of the best examples is provided by the warming, spring in Europe is arriving 2.5 days earlier per
naturalist Richard Fitter, who recorded the data of first decade. A few events have positive correlations with tem-
flowering for a set of 557 wild plant species over a period perature, meaning that warming is associated with a later
of 47 years in south-central England (Fitter et al., 1995; occurrence of the event. For example, warm summers are
Fitter and Fitter, 2002). These authors found a very strong associated with later leaf colouring in the autumn.
dependency of first flowering date on temperature in the We may safely conclude that, at least for temperate
previous months. Only 24 out of the 243 species selected perennial plants, the life cycle is to a large extent set by the
showed no dependency. Menzel et al. (2006) completed an temperature, within certain limits. The cycle of growth
analysis of more than 100 000 time series of phenological and development may be advanced or retarded, and the
stages across Europe. They found that nearly all the phe- growth period shortened or prolonged, according to the
nological events, and also farmers’ activities, were related temperature pattern of a particular year.
to temperature (Figure 13.7). In Figure 13.7, the record- From such data, it is possible to model what might
ings represent the date of onset of the event. A negative happen with a few degrees of warming. To go further and
correlation coefficient therefore means that warming is to predict the ecological consequences is somewhat more
(a)
0.80
0.60
0.40
Correlation with temperature
0.20
Farmers’ activities Ear formation–agriculture
0 Flowering Ripeness–agriculture
-0.20 Leaf unfolding agriculture Fruit ripening–wild plants
-0.40 Leaf unfolding wild plants Leaf colouring
-0.60 Shooting
-0.80
-1.00
-1.20
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330
Mean date (day of year)
(b)
4
Regression with temperature (days 5C-1)
Corylus avellana F Robinia pseudoacacia F
-2
Tussilago farfara F Taraxacum officinalis F
Aesculus hippocastanum F Betula pendula LU
-4
Syringa vulgaris F Betula pendula LC
-6
-8
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330
Mean date (day of year)
Figure 13.7 The relationship between phenological events and temperature measured on different days of the year: (a) the correlation coefficient
( negative coefficient means high temperatures on that day of the year makes the event happen earlier); (b) the sensitivity of the bud opening to
temperature on that day of the year for a range of six trees and two perennial herbs. For example, a regression of –4 on day 120 means that one
degree of warming stimulates early bud-opening by 4 days. F = flowering, LU = leaf unfolding, LC = leaf colouring. (Source: from Menzel et al., 2006)
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Chapter 13 Vegetation and environmental change
difficult. If insect-pollinated plants flower early, for exam- this description should have a ‘meaning’ across several dis-
ple, they will not be fertilized unless the relevant insect ciplines, so that remotely sensed data on reflectance of the
pollinators are available at the same time. Also, if flower- land cover can be related to what ecologists can discern as
ing is too early there might be some increased risk of dam- a more or less homogeneous entity. To this end, and after
age by frost. Clearly, this work has enormous economic a number of international conferences on the subject, the
relevance and it assists growers to plan for the future and idea of plant functional types (PFTs) emerged.
also to evaluate risks. A PFT is a group of plants with similar traits and
Today, satellite sensors can be brought to bear on the which are similar in their association with environmen-
problem of relating climate change to the cycles of plant tal variables. Each PFT is defined by a variety of optical,
life, especially in relation to the greening up of the land in morphological and physiological parameters. At present
spring. However, satellites look at huge swathes of land- there is no real consensus beyond this, but in Table 13.1
scape and it is usually hard to disaggregate the signal of we show one set of PFT definitions from Woodward et al.
natural vegetation from the frequent changes in agricul- (2004). From this starting point we can make mathematical
tural practice. So, there remains a role for amateur phe- models of how vegetation responds to a changing climate.
nologists, and interest in phenological gardens is currently Most models keep track of the flow of carbon as well as
as high as it has ever been. the PFTs and biomes. The important processes which need
to be modelled in that case are as follows.
1. The rate of photosynthesis, and its dependency on
Reflective question environmental factors and the supply of nutrients. The
rate of photosynthesis on an ecosystem scale is termed
➤ What evidence is there that vegetation is responding to gross primary productivity (GPP); it is the CO2 uptake in the
climate change? daytime period, adjusted by an estimate of how much car-
bon is simultaneously lost by plant respiration.
2. Allocation patterns. The allocation of the carbon
acquired in photosynthesis to different plant parts (leaf,
13.4 Models for prediction stem and root) is required and so is the respiration rate
required to build complex molecules such as proteins and
In the preceding sections, we saw something of how plants
lignin from the simpler ones like glucose. If we know how
respond to climatic variables. There are substantial dif-
this process of allocation depends on environment, and
ferences between species: how long they live, their growth
we also know the rate of photosynthesis, then we can
rates and physiology, and this in general is why differ-
compute the growth rate. On an ecosystem scale this is
ent species occupy different regions of the land surface.
known as net primary productivity (NPP), related to GPP
In principle, it would be possible to determine a set of
as follows:
parameters for each species, and then to use a model to
determine where the species could possibly occur within GPP = NPP + Ra (13.2)
the world’s biomes. The task would be large, as even
closely related species respond differently to environmen- where Ra is the respiration that the plant expends, known
tal variables, and in any case there are important other as autotrophic respiration. There are some established
influences, to which we have already alluded, such as theoretical relationships that help us to find Ra. For exam-
competition between species and the tendency for domi- ple, the synthesis of cellulose requires the energy obtained
nant species to modify the conditions for other species from the breakdown of glucose as well as a supply of glu-
(Chapter 11). It would not be practical to screen the char- cose molecules, so the formation of 1 g cellulose is associ-
acteristics of all extant species of vascular plants, as there ated with the release of a specific quantity of respiratory
are about 400 000 of them. The size of this task is one of CO2. These are ‘classical’ issues in plant physiology, dis-
the bottlenecks in the development of predictive models. cussed by Amthor (2000).
The research community is still discussing the best way to 3. Birth, death and phenology. Plant parts are formed
link knowledge of species to knowledge of biomes; how- and they are shed, often on an annual cycle. Plants as a
ever, there is a consensus that some coarse classification whole are ‘born’ every time a seed germinates and they
of species is required so as to capture the essence of what eventually die. Some are annuals (programmed to die after
makes one vegetation type different from another. Ideally, a few weeks or months), others are biennials (the life cycle
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13.4 Models for prediction
Table 13.1 A plant functional type classification adopted by Woodward et al. (2004)
Classification Comment
Evergreen needleleaf forests Lands dominated by trees with a canopy cover of more than 60% and height exceeding 2 m. Almost all trees
remain green all year. Canopy is never without green foliage
Evergreen broadleaf forests Lands dominated by trees with a canopy cover of more than 60% and height exceeding 2 m. Almost all trees
remain green all year. Canopy is never without green foliage
Deciduous needleleaf forests Lands dominated by trees with a canopy cover of more than 60% and height exceeding 2 m. Consists
of seasonal needleleaf tree communities with an annual cycle of leaf-on and leaf-off periods
Deciduous broadleaf forests Lands dominated by trees with a canopy cover of more than 60% and height exceeding 2 m. Consists
of seasonal broadleaf tree communities with an annual cycle of leaf-on and leaf-off periods
Mixed forests Lands dominated by trees with a canopy cover of more than 60% and height exceeding 2 m. Consists of tree
communities with interspersed mixtures or mosaics of the other four forest cover types. None of the forest
types exceeds 60% of the landscape
Closed shrublands Lands with woody vegetation less than 2 m tall and with shrub canopy cover more than 60%. The shrub foliage
can be either evergreen or deciduous
Open shrublands Lands with woody vegetation less than 2 m tall and with shrub canopy cover between 10 and 60%. The shrub
foliage can be either evergreen or deciduous
Woody savannas Lands with herbaceous and other understorey systems, and with forest canopy cover of between 30 and 60%.
The forest cover height exceeds 2 m
Savannas Lands with herbaceous and other understorey systems, and with forest canopy cover between 10 and 30%.
The forest cover height exceeds 2 m
Grassland Lands with herbaceous types of cover. Tree and shrub cover is less than 10%
(Source: Woodward et al., 2004)
takes two years, sometimes a little longer) and perennials colonize the land and develop towards an equilibrium
(most grasses and all trees are good examples). Generally, or near-equilibrium state. To do this, the attributes
in global models we have to provide some ‘rules’ for each of each PFT are needed, and some further rules are
PFT. As in all models, we have to ignore the exceptions required to determine in what circumstances one species
and abide by simple rules. For conifer trees, for example, succeeds another.
leaves are retained for several years whereas for deciduous
trees they are shed on an annual cycle. The resulting ‘lit- Models are run using a sequence of climatological data,
ter’ from shedding and death is incorporated into the soil, in time steps that vary from months to minutes, accord-
and decomposed by microbes. The microbial respiration ing to the scheme of Figure 13.8. How good are such
gives rise to further efflux of CO2 from the ecosystem, Rh, models? They can be tested in several ways: (i) by examin-
known as heterotrophic respiration. The resulting net flux ing whether the model calculations can reproduce today’s
of CO2 between the ecosystem and the environment is the vegetation by running the models from historical climate
net ecosystem production (NEP), related to the previous data; (ii) by investigating whether they produce the carbon
terms as: fluxes that are measured in field studies; and (iii) by com-
paring them with other models, developed in other labora-
GPP = NEP + Ra + Rh (13.3)
tories more of less independently.
In a world with a constant environment, all the GPP would An important comparison of six models was reported
be respired by plants or microbes and so NEP would be by Cramer et al. (2001). They computed the ‘expected’
zero. In the real world there are additional losses of carbon vegetation on the basis of a world divided into regions
caused by natural and human influences. To take these into of 3.75° longitude and 2.5° latitude, given the climatic
account we would need to insert a new carbon loss, the scenario. In this scenario of climate change, temperature
disturbance flux Rd. increases by 4.5 °C over the next 100 years, and the CO2
4. Population-level processes. Models need to rep- concentration rises from 380 to 800 ppm by the end of
resent the process of plant succession, whereby species the century. Although the six models do not all agree in
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Chapter 13 Vegetation and environmental change
Atmosphere
CO2
CO2
CO2
Leaves Stem CO2
CO2 CH4
Root
CO2 CH4
Soil River Ocean
Figure 13.8 Structure of a very basic model of the carbon flows associated with photosynthesis, respiration, growth and storage of carbon. ‘Losses’ of
CO2 from leaves, stems and roots (autotrophic respiration) are associated with maintenance and growth of the plant tissues; losses from the soil are
either from microbial respiration (heterotrophic respiration) or in the drainage water. Such a model might be configured for an individual plant or for a
set of PFTs in an ecosystem. More advanced models include flows of water and nutrients, and their interaction with carbon flows.
detail, and although they do not faithfully reproduce the Large though Rh is, it is more than offset by photosyn-
current vegetation, there is a general consensus on how thetic production, so the NEP is positive. In other words
vegetation change will occur (Figure 13.9). The principal the terrestrial ecosystems are collectively a ‘sink’ for car-
changes are: bon. In fact, the current terrestrial sink strength of 1–2 Gt
C yr-1 is predicted to rise for a few decades before taking a
• Transitions from forest to savanna. Such transitions are
downward turn as the effect of temperature on respiration
predicted to occur in the Amazon, the central part of
is increasingly felt. There is a substantial predicted down-
the American continent and in South-East Asia.
turn in NEP so that by 2100 the sink has diminished and,
• Evergreen forest will replace ‘grassland’ in parts of
in one of the models, has turned into a source.
North America and north Europe.
The most significant weakness of these models is that
• Parts of the Mediterranean grasslands will become
they are not coupled to a model of the climate system,
savannas.
so the CO2 effect of a vegetational source or sink on the
As for the carbon balance, the models produce an inter- temperature is not apparent. In the ‘real world’ the atmos-
esting trend, and there is some agreement between models. pheric CO2 and therefore the global warming rate would
The NPP is stimulated by warmer conditions (felt espe- be influenced by the vegetation. Such feedbacks may well
cially in the cold northern regions) and also by the elevated be important. In recent years, simple vegetation models
CO2 (Figure 13.10). However, the heterotrophic respira- have, however, been coupled to global circulation models
tion is increased by warming to an even larger extent, and (GCMs) in an attempt to capture the essential feedbacks.
the consequence is a large rise in global respiration over Here, we refer to a synthesis study (Friedlingstein et al.,
several decades. It is interesting to put these numbers into 2006) in which 11 models were compared. The results are
perspective as follows. The heterotrophic respiration from quite variable and the models do not all show the same
all the microbes (heterotrophic respiration of all terrestrial general trend (Figure 13.11). They clearly differ in their
ecosystems) is currently around 50–60 gigatonnes of car- sensitivity to climate change. The most sensitive result of
bon per year (Gt C yr-1), which completely dwarfs the fos- all is shown by the Hadley Centre Model where the vegeta-
sil fuel emissions of about 6.5 Gt C yr-1. tion becomes a progressively weakening carbon sink in the
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13.4 Models for prediction
(a)
100
HYBRID NPP (1015 g Cyr-1)
IBIS
90
LPJ
SDGVM
80 TRIFFID
VECODE
70
60
50
2000
40
(b)
100
Rh (1015 g Cyr-1)
90
80
70
2100 60
50
40
(c)
10
NEP (1015 g Cyr-1)
2100 + 100
Desert Savanna Mixed forest
0
Grassland Deciduous forest Evergreen
Figure 13.9 The predicted distribution of biomes as a result of climate
change and elevated CO2 according to Cramer et al. (2001). The models
stopped simulating climate and CO2 change in 2100. Therefore, changes -5
1900 1950 2000 2050 2100 2100+50 2100+100
from the middle to bottom panel are related to vegetation dynamics as
the system equilibrates. See text for further interpretation. (Source: from Figure 13.10 Predicting the carbon balance of terrestrial vegetation for
Cramer et al., 2001) the next century by means of six models: (a) the net primary productivity
(NPP); (b) the heterotrophic respiration (Rh microbes and animals); (c) the
overall carbon flux made by subtracting Rh from NPP. Each line is a differ-
next few decades and then moves into carbon deficit rather ent model, as shown in (a). (Source: from Cramer et al., 2001)
in the same way as the uncoupled models discussed in the
previous paragraph. For the other models in the Friedling-
stein study, there is a weakening of the sink except in one are the ones that are recognized, monitored and increased
case where the sink continues to intensify. Further work is largely as a result of applying science. In modern UK
clearly needed before we can make further estimates of the agriculture, for example, the agriculture has become more
future based on models. intensive since the Second World War, and has enjoyed
One of the more difficult aspects of predicting the substantial government subsidies, yet a recent study
future from models is that humans interact with climate showed widespread recent carbon losses from the soil in
change and this interaction is hard to predict. In truly England and Wales, thus contributing inadvertently to
managed ecosystems, the economically relevant outputs global warming.
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Chapter 13 Vegetation and environmental change
1000 13.5 The complex interaction between
900
human activities and climate change
800 13.5.1 Does atmospheric pollution sometimes
Atmospheric CO2 (ppm)
benefit plants?
700
As a result of human activities, notably agriculture and
600 the driving of motor vehicles, much more nitrogen in a
chemically active form (ammonium and nitrate especially)
500 is deposited to the land surface than hitherto (Box 13.1).
If there is too much N-deposition, ecosystems may show
400
signs of ‘nitrogen saturation’, a condition whereby the
300 land surface may ‘leak’ nitrogen to the drainage water and
give off nitrous oxide, another greenhouse gas. If, on the
12.0 other hand, the deposition rate is below a certain thresh-
10.0 old level, there may be a fertilizer effect for many ecosys-
8.0 tems, especially those that are otherwise N-deficient. This
would be seen as a stimulation of photosynthesis and
Land uptake (Gt C yr-1)
6.0
possibly an increase in growth rates and a strengthening
4.0 of the carbon sink. Indeed, many model calculations of
2.0 the impact of environmental change on global vegeta-
tion contain a term to allow for this. The N-effect and
0.0
climate change interact in ways that are not understood
-2.0 very well, as highlighted by Magnani et al. (2007). Data
-4.0 on the C-fluxes over forests in Europe and North America
-6.0
were collected, and attempts were made to relate the GPP
and Rh to temperature. In fact, both showed a remark-
1850 1900 1950 2000 2050 2100
Year able linear relation with temperature; but the NEP (i.e.
GPP - Reco, where Reco is the total ecosystem respiration)
Figure 13.11 Carbon uptake from the atmosphere by terrestrial
ecosystems (units: Gt = gigatonnes 5109 tonnes 5 1 billion tonnes). is rather a weak function of temperature (Figure 13.12).
The calculations are made after coupling several GCMs to simple mod- However, NEP is strongly related to the deposition of
els of the terrestrial biosphere. Each line is the result from a different anthropogenic nitrogen from the atmosphere. Hence,
model. The current terrestrial carbon ‘sink’ is somewhere between
we may suggest that pollution of the atmosphere with
0 and 4 Gt of carbon per year. Some models predict that the land sink
will become a source. (Source: from Friedlingstein et al., 2006) nitrogen (principally from vehicles, agricultural systems)
is at a level that stimulates production. This is of course
a somewhat controversial claim, as most people link
N-deposition to nitrogen saturation of ecosystems or,
worse, with the production of acid rain that has deleteri-
Reflective questions
ous impacts on forests.
➤ Models are only as good as the understanding built into
them. What are the gaps in our understanding of vegeta-
tion–climate models?
13.5.2 How does fire interact with climate
change?
➤ How well have the vegetation models been tested?
Many predictions regarding climate change suggest that
➤ What is a plant functional type? some areas of the tropics will become dryer as a result of
an increased frequency and harshness of El Niño events.
➤ What important processes need to be modelled in PFT,
As we saw above, this increase in drought is one of the
biome and carbon flow vegetation models?
causes of the expected conversion from forest to savanna.
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13.5 The complex interaction between human activities and climate change
(a) (b)
20 20
y = 0.52x + 6.97 y = 0.71x + 7.86
R 2 = 0.92 R 2 = 0.92
Average GPP (tC ha-1 yr-1)
Average Reco(tC ha-1 yr-1)
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
-10 0 10 20 -10 0 10 20
Mean annual temperature (5C) Mean annual temperature (5C)
(c) (d)
6 6
R 2 = 0.41 R 2 = 0.97
Average NEP (tC ha-1 yr-1)
Average NEP (tC ha-1 yr-1)
4 4
2 2
0 0
-10 0 10 20 0 3 6 9 12
Mean annual temperature (5C) N wet deposition (kgNha-1 yr-1 )
Figure 13.12 Measured carbon fluxes over 18 forests in Europe and North America: (a) ecosystem respiration, Reco; (b) gross primary productivity,
GPP; (c) and (d) the overall carbon flux as directly measured as NEP, showing a carbon sink of between 0 and 5 t C ha - 1 yr - 1. Note that the
overall carbon flux NEP is a fairly weak function of temperature but a strong function of the deposition of nitrogen from the atmosphere.
(Source: Magnani et al., 2007, reprinted by permission of Macmillan Publishers Ltd: NATURE, F. Magnani, M. Mencuccini, M. Borghetti, P. Berbigier,
F. Berninger, S. Delzon, A. Grelle, P. Hari, P.G. Jarvis, P. Kolari, A.S. Kowalski, H. Lankreijer, B.E. Law, A. Lindroth, D. Loustau, G. Manca, J.B. Moncrieff,
M. Rayment, V. Tedeschi, R. Valentini, J. Grace, The human footprint in the carbon cycle of temperate and boreal forests, vol. 447: 848–850.
Copyright 2007)
The nitrogen cycle and and N2O, all present in trace concentra- more important than lightning as an
anthropogenic perturbations tions. The main ions, found in soils and agent of nitrogen fixation: bacteria liv-
water, are ammonium NH4+ , nitrate NO3 - ing in the soil fix N2 to make the reac-
Nitrogen is an important constituent and nitrite NO2 - ions (see Chapter 17). tive forms ammonium NH4+ , and nitrate
of proteins and nucleic acids, and so is Two natural processes convert nitrogen NO3 - which can be used by plants. Some
essential for life. Nitrogen exists primar- to reactive forms that can be taken up of these nitrogen-fixing bacteria are
ily as an unreactive gas in the atmos- by the roots of plants: lightning and free-living, but others form symbiotic
phere as dinitrogen, N2. It constitutes biological nitrogen fixation (BNF). Very relationships with plants, especially
79% of the air we breathe. Very impor- small amounts of N2 are reacted with O2 those of the pea family Leguminosae.
tant reactive forms of nitrogen also during lightning, to form the gas nitric Many members of this family are used
exist as gases and ions. The gases are oxide, NO, which eventually reaches the in agricultural systems as a ‘free’ source
ammonia (NH3) and the oxides NO, NO2 ground as nitrate. BNF is quantitatively of nitrogen fertilizer (examples are
Box 13.1 ➤
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Chapter 13 Vegetation and environmental change
Nitrogen in
atmosphere (N2)
Plants
Assimilation
Denitrifying
bacteria
Nitrogen-fixing
bacteria in
root nodules Nitrates (NO3-)
of legumes Decomposers
(aerobic and anaerobic
bacteria and fungi) Nitrifying
bacteria
Ammonification
Nitrification
Ammonium (NH4+) Nitrites (NO2-)
Nitrogen-fixing Nitrifying
soil bacteria bacteria
Figure 13.13 The nitrogen cycle.
clover, lucerne, groundnuts, soybeans, fixation of N2 was developed in 1909 by The consequence of increased for-
alfalfa and lupins). Such plants have Haber and Bosch, and provides a supply mation of NH3 and oxides of nitrogen
root nodules containing populations of nitrogen fertilizer, estimated to be 78 is an enhanced rate of ammonium and
of the nitrogen-fixing bacteria. As a Gt N yr - 1. This is applied to the soil, but nitrate deposition to land and waters.
consequence of the free-living nitrogen- much of it is released to the atmosphere Nitrogen deposition rates are now much
fixers and the symbiotic nitrogen-fixers, as nitrous oxide N2O, a greenhouse higher in populous regions of the world
130–330 Gt N yr - 1 are made available gas. Some of it enters drainage water, than they were in pre-industrial times
in the soil solution as ammonium NH4+ and causes excessive growth of algae (Figure 13.14). This deposition occurs
and nitrate NO3 - and can thus be taken in streams and rivers. There are other as dry deposition of the gases them-
up by plants to make protein and other anthropogenic sources of nitrogen. The selves, and also as nitric acid (HNO3), a
biochemical constituents. Herbivorous internal combustion engine and some contributor to acid rain. The growth of
animals obtain their protein by consum- other fuel-burning devices are responsi- plants is generally limited by the avail-
ing plant material in prodigious quanti- ble for emissions of oxides of nitrogen to ability of nitrogen in the soil, and so the
ties. Dead plants and animals decompose the atmosphere, through the combina- enhanced deposition may be increas-
in the soil, and some of the nitrogen tion of atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen ing plant growth, and contributing to a
is acted upon by denitrifying bacteria. inside the combustion chamber. Moreo- widespread increase in the rate at which
Nitrogen is thereby returned to the ver, cultivation and disturbance of the trees grow. On the other hand, in some
atmosphere as N2 or N2O. The process is land results in emissions of nitrous oxide. areas, the imbalance in nutrients in acid
thus cyclic (Figure 13.13). Finally, animal rearing is associated with rain may cause damage to forests.
Humans perturb the nitrogen cycle the emission of NH3, produced by the
in fundamental ways. The industrial decomposition of urine and faeces.
Box 13.1 ➤
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13.5 The complex interaction between human activities and climate change
➤
(a)
905N
605N
305N
05
305S
605S
905S
1805 1205W 605W 05 605E 1205E 1805
0 2 10 20 50 250
(b)
905N
605N
305N
EQ
305S
605S
905S
1805 1205W 605W 05 605E 1205E 1805
0 2 10 20 50 250
Figure 13.14 Deposition of reactive nitrogen to the Earth’s surface (in mmol N m - 2 yr - 1): (a) pre-industrial levels;
(b) current atmospheric deposition. Note the enhanced deposition in densely populated areas.
(Source: after Galloway et al., 1995)
Box 13.1
However, as humans encroach upon the rainforest, some humidities and daytime temperatures that are usually
researchers believe the effect will be amplified by the crea- lower than those measured at the top of the canopy. At
tion of forest edges in a fragmented forest, and the use forest edges the situation is different, with free horizontal
of fire (Laurance and Williamson, 2001). Dense forests ventilation and mixing of canopy air with air from out-
have a microclimate characterized, for example, by high side. When drought occurs, relatively dry air penetrates the
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Chapter 13 Vegetation and environmental change
Deforestation Forest fragmentation Less evapotranspiration
Pastures + regrowth
Greater fire
Logging vulnerability
More smoke
Less rainfall
+
higher surface
More
temperatures
fires
ENSO droughts
?
Global warming
Figure 13.15 The Laurance–Williamson model of how droughts and human impacts combine to degrade and destroy rainforests.
(Source: Laurance and Williamson, 2001)
canopy, and reductions in humidity and increases in plant 13.6 Loss of biodiversity
mortality have been measured at up to 100 m from the
canopy’s edge. Humans light fires, and these fires are likely Biodiversity is defined as the number and variety of spe-
to ignite more easily and spread more rapidly in the dry cies in ecological systems, at local, regional and global
conditions of the forest edge. Hence, the forest is damaged scales (see Chapter 10). There is concern that both human
and possibly destroyed at a faster rate to what would occur activities and climate change are causing a decline in the
in the absence of humans. The processes involved are quite number of species. Given global warming, the importance
complex and collectively amount to a positive feedback of climate change is likely to become progressively more
(Figure 13.15). In the Laurance–Williamson model, defor- important, as pointed out in the recent report by the IPCC
estation causes less evaporation, which in turn leads to less (IPCC, 2014).
rainfall and hence droughts are exacerbated. Logging can There are at least two reasons why we may expect bio-
also be important as it thins the canopy and increases vul- diversity to alter under climate change. In the first place,
nerability to combustion. the pattern of land use will change as the demand for
agricultural land and biofuel increases. Thus, species-rich
habitats such as rainforest and savanna in the tropics will
decline and at some critical point the species they contain
will be lost. The second, and more subtle, reason for loss
Reflective questions of biodiversity is that species differ greatly in their sensi-
tivity to warming and to water supply. Thus, particular
➤ How might atmospheric pollution benefit plants?
species in an ecosystem may migrate, leaving a functional
➤ How much N-deposition is required before N-saturation void in their original location. In the new ecosystems that
occurs? (Research the literature and see what you can they come to occupy, they are ‘invasive species’ and may
find.) be strong competitors, ousting some of the more delicate
species. Thus, ecosystems which are more or less in a
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13.7 Agriculture and food security
species equilibrium may be destabilized with unknown
consequences. Reflective question
Although it is impossible to know the total number
of species in the world (only 1.5 million are known but ➤ Why is biodiversity important?
many are yet undiscovered), extinctions themselves are
generally well documented. Since 1600, a minimum of
490 plant and 580 animal species have become extinct.
Some groups, such as mammals and birds, have suffered 13.7 Agriculture and food security
more than others. In geological time there have of course
been catastrophic mass extinctions. The natural or back- Native vegetation has largely been replaced by agriculture.
ground extinction rate can be estimated from the fossil Some 40% of the land surface is used to produce food for
record. For example, in mammals the background rate is 7.3 billion people, which is around the size of a soccer pitch
about one in 400 years, but this is much lower than the per person (8200 m2, to be exact). But the human popula-
observed rate. The number of species that are threatened tion of the planet is set to increase, albeit at a lower rate
far exceeds our capacity to protect those species, and so than in the past. The land available for agriculture cannot
conservationists have identified ‘hot spots’ where con- increase much, except at the expense of regions which
servation effort and resources should be greatest (Myers are currently of high conservation value. Moreover, the
et al., 2000). It is particularly important to protect areas increasing use of biofuels will take out significant areas of
with a high degree of endemism (an endemic species is land which are now under agriculture. How then, will cli-
one restricted to a particular region). When this exercise mate change impact upon the increasing need for food pro-
was carried out there were some surprises, as shown in duction? The question is not a simple one, as the answer
Box 13.2. For example, the natural vegetation of the trop- depends to a large extent on location. Northern lands will
ical Andes heads the list. Its vegetation has been reduced benefit from warming because the length of the growing
to 25% of its original extent, yet it contains 6.7% of season will increase, and so agricultural production in the
all plant species in the world and 5.7% of all vertebrate boreal zone is likely to increase. However, areas like the
animals. Mediterranean are expected to become drier and warmer,
Hot spots and climate Over the next century there will be spiders are voracious predators, required
change further extinctions, and climate change to control populations of small flying
will be an important driver, along with insects, which often carry disease. When
Myers et al. (2000) reported that 44% of land-use change. Everyone agrees that keystones are removed the ecosystem is
all species of vascular plants are confined species should be protected, and that in trouble.
to 25 hot spots constituting only 1.4% of natural environments have an inherent At the moment there is a plethora of
the land surface. The authors urged these value. Indeed, the idea that humans are the international agreements to protect spe-
to be singled out for the attention of con- guardians of nature is deeply embedded in cies and habitats and many individuals
servationists, to attempt to protect them. many religions. There is also much folklore subscribe to organizations such as Friends
The Myers et al. (2000) map of hot spots that evokes the conservation ethic. The of the Earth or Greenpeace. The challenge
is reproduced here, along with projections author’s grandmother used to say: for nature conservation is to protect natu-
of temperatures from the IPCC (2007b) ral ecosystems but traditional conservation
if you wish to live and thrive let a spider
4th Assessment Report (Figure 13.16). and protection against human encroach-
run alive.
Figure 13.16b shows the warming predicted ment is clearly not sufficient: it does not
from the A2 scenario (see Chapter 7). Note: This appears to be a reference to a protect species and ecosystems from the
all hot spots will be warmer. ‘keystone species’ (see Chapter 11), as impact of human-made climate change.
Box 13.2 ➤
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Chapter 13 Vegetation and environmental change
➤
(a)
Caucasus Philippines
Mediterranean South-Central
California Basin China
Floristic Caribbean
Province Eastern Arc Indo-Burma
and Coastal Polynesia/
Mesoamerica Forests of Micronesia
Brazil’s Tanzania/Kenya
Cerrado Western
Choco/ W. African Ghats and
Tropical
Darién/ Forests Sri Lanka
Polynesia/ Andes
Western Wallacea
Micronesia Sundaland
Ecuador
New
Brazil’s Caledonia
Atlantic Succulent
Central
Forest Karoo Southwest
Chile
Madagascar Australia
Cape Floristic New Zealand
Province
(b)
2030 2100
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5
(5C)
Figure 13.16 (a) Twenty-five biodiversity hot spots identified where 44% of all species of vascular plants and 35% of all species in
four invertebrate groups are confined to the hot spots comprising only 1.4% of the land surface of the Earth. (b) Projected tempera-
ture increases for 2030 and 2100 from model scenario A2. (Source: (a) from Myers et al., 2000, reprinted by permission of Macmil-
lan Publishers Ltd: NATURE, Norman Myers, Russell A. Mittermeier, Christina G. Mittermeier, Gustaro A.B. da Fonseca & Jennifer Kent,
Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities, vol. 403: 853–858: Copyright 2000; (b) from IPCC, 2007a)
BOx 13.2
and agriculture will need to adapt over several decades. fertilization, and reminded us that weeds too will benefit
Plants everywhere are expected to benefit from rising CO2, from CO2 fertilization. Moreover, crop production sys-
but this benefit may be offset by other factors. Porter et al. tems, and consequently food prices, are very sensitive to
(2014), writing for the IPCC, considered that the damag- extreme events. As these increase we may expect shortages
ing effects of elevated tropospheric ozone will offset CO2 of certain foods and instability in the human food chain.
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Further reading
Although there is little scope for increasing the area of
agriculture, its efficiency in most parts of the world can Reflective question
increase. Organic farmers have claimed that one person
can obtain a full (vegetarian) diet from 100 m2 of land, ➤ How might climate change affect food production in the
rather than the 8200 m2 which prevails currently. area of the world where you live?
13.8 Summary carbon cycle and the climate system. Specifically, regions of the
world such as the humid tropics, which are now believed to be
Plant growth is influenced by climatological variables, especially a carbon sink, may become a source; conversely, cold northern
light, temperature and moisture. For natural vegetation it is pre- regions will become warmer and therefore more favourable for
dominantly temperature and moisture that determine the type of the growth of plants and especially for trees. They may become
land cover on a global scale. Both temperature and moisture are a sink for carbon. Predictions are, however, based on state-of-
changing and they are expected to change rapidly in the next 100 the-art model calculations, and there are still many uncertainties.
years. Observations in the field, and use of satellite data over the One of the largest unknowns in the system is the behaviour of
last few decades, support the general view that the vegetation is humans. Their behaviour determines the rate of global warming
changing in response to global climate change. Over the next cen- and the nature of the land cover, and also modifies the response
tury, it is likely that substantial changes in vegetation will result, of vegetation on a global scale through the use of agents such as
and that these are likely to be so important as to impact upon the cultivation, fertilizers and fire.
Further reading Malhi, Y. and Phillips, O. (2005) Tropical forests and global
atmospheric change. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
A research-level enquiry into one of the most important issues
raised in this chapter.
Cleland, E.E., Chuine, I., Menzel, A. et al. (2007) Shifting plant
phenology in response to global change. Trends in Ecology and Porter, J.R., L. Xie, A.J. Challinor, K. Cochrane, S.M. Howden,
Evolution, 22, 357–365. M.M. Iqbal, D.B. Lobell, and M.I. Travasso (2014) Food security
Interesting review of data and approaches from different fields. and food production systems. In: Climate change 2014: Impacts,
adaptation, and vulnerability. Part A: Global and sectoral aspects.
Leakey, A.D.B., Ainsworth, E.A., Bernacchi, C.J., Rogers, A.,
Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment
Long, S.P. and Ort, D.R. (2009) Elevated CO2 effects on plant
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Field,
carbon, nitrogen and water relations: six important lessons
C.B., V.R. Barros, D.J. Dokken, K.J. Mach, M.D. Mastrandrea,
from FACE. Journal of Experimental Botany, 60, 2859–2876.
T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. Ebi, Y.O. Estrada, R.C. Genova, B.
Useful review of experimentation.
Girma, E.S. Kissel, A.N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P.R. Mastrandrea,
Lovejoy, T.E. and Hannah, L. (2005) Climate change and biodi- and L.L. White (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
versity. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 485–533.
A good overview book. The IPCC’s scientific overview of climate change and agriculture.
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PA RT V
Geomorphology and hydrology
Figure PV While tectonics drives global landform development, the Part contents
actions of water, ice, gravity and wind combine with biotic and chemi-
cal processes to alter those landforms and to create new landforms at ➤ Chapter 14: Weathering
large and small scales. Understanding the interactions between these
➤ Chapter 15: Slope processes and landform evolution
processes is the key to geomorphology.
➤ Chapter 16: Sediments and sedimentation
➤ Chapter 17: Soils
➤ Chapter 18: Catchment hydrology
➤ Chapter 19: Fluvial geomorphology and river management
➤ Chapter 20: Solutes and water quality
➤ Chapter 21: Drylands
➤ Chapter 22: Coasts
➤ Chapter 23: Glaciers and ice sheets
➤ Chapter 24: Permafrost and periglaciation
M14 An Introduction to Physical Ge 83575.indd 345 24/05/2017 13:05
Part V Geomorphology and hydrology
Scope with issues of form–process relationships in relation to slope profiles
and landscape evolution. However, the landform itself is not simply
This part of the textbook deals with those processes that mould
a product of geomorphological or hydrological processes: the pro-
and shape landscapes. Geomorphologists are interested in trying to
cesses themselves will be influenced by the landform. In addition,
ascertain the processes and mechanisms that interact with, and cre-
landscapes may incorporate a legacy from the operation of geomor-
ate, the form of the landscapes we study. Often, while most processes
phological processes under past climatic regimes such as dryland
may be operating on all land environments, the dominating processes
and post-glacial environments. Therefore contemporary processes
depend on the regional climate characteristics or tectonic context.
and landscapes are likely to be linked to historic processes and land-
Tectonic processes were dealt with in Part II of this textbook and so
scapes and there may be time lags in landscape response. Change
Part V focuses on other geomorphological themes and how the pro-
through time in hillslope form is covered in Chapter 15 ranging from
cesses (including tectonic ones) come together in different places at
slow creep processes to fast, hazardous landslides. Sediments trans-
different times to produce distinctive Earth features.
ported by erosion processes can also form landscapes elsewhere and
On a rudimentary level, it is the Earth’s attempt to create some
the nature of sediments and sedimentary landforms is covered by
kind of balance of inputs and outputs of energy that leads to the
Chapter 16.
internal reorganization of sediment and materials, resulting in
The products of weathering and sediment movement often help
the changing shape of landscapes. A common theme in Part V is
to form soils. The soil acts as the interface between the atmosphere,
one of ‘budgets’ in which inputs and outputs of water, ice, sedi-
lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere in which we exist. It performs
ment or energy are calculated and used as a framework for study-
a wide range of essential functions that sustain life. The properties of
ing dynamic system adjustments. It is through uplift, erosion and
soils are determined by the processes that maintain the inputs and
sedimentation that landscape forms are maintained. Erosion and
outputs of material through the soil system. Soil can be degraded,
sedimentation are dependent upon the physical agent exchanging
lost and improved by natural or human activities. An appreciation of
the energy in the system, which is most commonly a transporting
these issues is imperative if we want to preserve our soil in a healthy
fluid (water, wind or ice), although gravity also plays a significant
state. Chapter 17 attempts to provide such a basis.
role. Although erosion and sedimentation are contrasting pro-
This part of the book also deals with the nature of water (espe-
cesses, they are inextricably linked and the same sediments can
cially Chapters 18, 19, 20 and 22), solutes (Chapter 20) and ice move-
be reworked many times. The chapters in this part of the book
ments (especially Chapters 23 and 24) in a range of environments
highlight that it is often the relative abundance of the various pro-
including drylands (Chapter 21), spectacular coastal environments
cesses, and the balance between the process rates, that determines
(Chapter 22), glacial landscapes (Chapter 23), and periglacial envi-
the nature of the landforms in different environments. The first
ronments (Chapter 24). It describes motions of energy and mass
seven chapters of this part (Chapters 14–20) detail processes that
on the hillslope, in the floodplain, within channels dominated by
can occur on any landscape on Earth whereas the remaining four
water and ice, and in coastal zones. The focus is an understanding of
chapters describe the processes and nature of particular Earth
processes so that as physical geographers we can explain different
environments (Chapters 21–24).
landforms and how they are likely to change in the future. We also
The processes of weathering are considered in Chapter 14 and
seek to understand hazards such as landslides, flooding, sea-level
the discussion includes consideration of weathering under differ-
rise, changes in river channels, water pollution, coastal erosion and
ent environmental conditions including in the urban environment.
subsidence caused by permafrost melt. In each chapter in Part V, spe-
Weathered materials are transported by erosion. Chapter 15 consid-
cial consideration is given to the influence of humans on landscape
ers erosion processes and deals with the interactions between the
processes and how understanding of the processes can result in
shape of the landscape and erosion processes. Chapter 15 deals
improved management strategies.
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C H A PTER 1 4
Weathering
Bernard J. Smith
Late of School of Geography, Archaeology and Palaeoecology, Queen’s University Belfast
Learning objectives chemistry of geomaterials and a decrease in their struc-
tural integrity.
After reading this chapter you should be able to: This chapter will examine one of the most crucial
Earth surface processes. Without weathering there
➤ describe the main weathering processes would be no soils (Chapter 17), and thus no plants and
no people. Without weathering there would also be a
➤ explain the role of water in weathering
dramatic reduction in global erosion and deposition
➤ understand the importance of multiple weathering processes (Chapters 15 and 16). Weathering directly provides the
operating in combination or sequence solute load of rivers (Chapter 20) and is an essential
➤ describe the climatological and geological controls on weathering precursor that unlocks the transport of sediment by all
at different scales but the most energetic of geomorphological processes
➤ outline the main factors associated with building stone (Chapter 16).
weathering The changes involved in weathering are often indi-
vidually very small, gradual and to a large extent hidden
from view either inside rock or within and beneath a
14.1 Introduction blanket of soil. The physical measurement of weather-
ing effects is challenging, time consuming and requires
This chapter will deal with how geomaterials (rocks and long-term observation using specialist equipment before
regoliths) react when exposed to weather. Studies of weath- any noticeable change can be recorded. This is not to say,
ering are studies of change or ‘metamorphism’, in which however, that over geological time the gradual changes
materials that were typically formed under conditions of brought about by weathering cannot be just as effec-
high temperature and/or pressure within the Earth’s crust tive in shaping the Earth at the landscape scale as, for
interact with the highly variable and often rapidly fluctuat- example, large floods which might be dramatic, but
ing low-temperature, low-pressure and chemically com- infrequent. What weathering lacks in terms of magnitude
plex conditions at and near its surface. In most cases this it more than makes up for in terms of persistence and
involves a progressive simplification of the mineralogy and pervasiveness. While there are some processes that act
M14 An Introduction to Physical Ge 83575.indd 347 24/05/2017 13:05
Chapter 14 Weathering
in isolation, it is much more common to find weathering (Figure 14.2). Their origins may have followed different
processes operating in combination or in sequence to the pathways, but their final appearance often differs only in
extent that some processes may act as essential precursors terms of the detailed morphology of the individual gran-
to the operation of others. This chapter explores these ite blocks. This convergence of shape or form is partly
processes and the outcomes of these processes on the in response to a strong, but largely passive, lithological
materials around us. control on weathering conditioned by the characteristic
mineralogy of granites. However, it also owes much to
active structural controls that are a response to the release
14.2 Environmental and material of physical stresses contained within the rock that in turn
controls on weathering result in the formation of distinctive patterns of joints and
fractures.
The controls on weathering processes represent a competi-
The shape of the surface is important since there are
tion between the environment and the material. It is often
multiple feedbacks in the weathering system (Figure 14.1).
considered that the environment is the main driving force
As weathering progresses it often develops complex sur-
of weathering (Figure 14.1). Hence there is often a desire
face morphologies such as variously sized hollows. This
to classify weathering on the basis of climate into, for
topography can then influence how processes operate.
example, categories such as tropical and periglacial. How-
This might, for example, be through the modification of
ever, the consequences of the exposure of geomaterials
surface temperature by the creation of shade, by allowing
to different environmental conditions are strongly influ-
water to accumulate, by allowing salt to accumulate in
enced by material properties. Where these properties are
hollows protected from rainwash on vertical surfaces and
particularly distinctive they may overtake environmental
by creating micro-environments in which organisms can
influences in terms of their significance. Hence distinctive
flourish. These are positive feedbacks that encourage fur-
features and landscapes can be recognized that are asso-
ther growth of the hollow.
ciated with the weathering characteristics and controls
The atmosphere is an important environmental con-
exerted by, for example, granitic rocks and limestones (e.g.
trol on weathering. It provides oxygen required for many
see Box 14.5).
weathering processes. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is also
There are no weathering processes that can be uniquely
very important because when it mixes with water (e.g.
ascribed to a particular climatic zone. Hence a weathering
in rainfall) it forms carbonic acid which dissolves rocks
classification based on climate alone may be problematic.
such as limestones. Weathering processes, which charac-
For example, in the case of ‘tropical weathering’, we are
teristically operate at the scale of individual grains and
not referring to a set of unique processes found only in
crystals, are controlled on a day-to-day basis by micro
these regions, but rather to particular combinations and
climates at the rock–atmosphere interface and within
intensities of generic weathering processes related to a
the pores of fresh rock and weathered regolith and the
specific climatic regime. This in turn results in distinc-
soils above them (see Chapter 17). At the micro-scale, it
tive weathering products and, in limited cases, suppos-
is temperature and moisture that mainly control patterns
edly definitive landforms. Such ‘climatic landforms’ are,
and rates of weathering. In the case of temperature, sea-
however, not always what they appear to be. For example,
sonal and diurnal cycles together with erratic variations
granite tors that are found in many textbooks on tropical
in surface temperature driven by, for example, variations
environments are in fact a feature of most climatic regimes
in cloud cover and wind speed, interact to create patterns
of temperature change over time. These parameters are
particularly significant for a wide range of near-surface
Process physical weathering processes, both directly through
influencing responses such as thermal expansion of min-
erals and indirectly through their influence on variables
such as relative humidity and moisture uptake, movement
Environment
and evaporation. Overall, however, the moisture balance
within these materials is driven primarily by the avail-
Materials Form
ability of precipitation across different spatial and tem-
poral scales. ‘Deep wetting’ of materials is, for example,
Figure 14.1 The weathering system. most likely to reflect seasonal rainfall patterns, whereas
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14.2 Environmental and material controls on weathering
(a) (b)
Figure 14.2 (a) A granite tor in the Guadarrama Mountains near Madrid, Spain composed of joint bounded boulders. (b) Section in a road cutting near
to the tor in (a) showing an ‘incipient’ tor shaped by differential subsurface weathering controlled by the joint system within the granite. If the weath-
ered regolith were to be removed by erosion the tor would then be revealed.
near-surface wetting and drying within a few centime- variety of mechanisms associated with the process of salt
tres of the surface is more likely to be ‘event related’ weathering (Goudie and Viles, 1997). The most potent
and controlled by factors such as the amount, duration, of these salts is generally considered to be gypsum (cal-
intensity and frequency of individual storms. Included in cium sulfate, CaSO4 # 2H2O), formed most commonly
these factors is wind direction and velocity, which studies by the reaction of sulfuric acid with stone containing
have shown to be crucial in determining the efficiency of calcium carbonate, although it can be deposited directly
driven rain in the wetting of rock (Ashurst and Dimes, onto building stone where gases have reacted in the
1998). Scientists are still trying to understand how indi- atmosphere with carbonate-rich combustion particles
vidual wetting events contribute over time to longer-term, (particulate deposition). In this way, and through reac-
deeper wetting and drying and what role some processes tions with carbonate mortars, it is possible for all stone
such as direct condensation of water onto rock play in types to be ‘contaminated’ with complex salts, even if
weathering. they themselves contain no carbonate fraction. Because
The most complex reactions between geomaterials of this the urban environment not only ranks alongside
and the atmosphere are most likely to occur in the course deserts and coasts as an environment particularly prone
of urban stone decay. This is primarily the result of the to salt weathering, but is for much of the world’s popu-
addition to the atmosphere of gases such as sulfur diox- lation the environment in which they are most likely to
ide (SO2) and various oxides of nitrogen (NOx) from encounter readily identifiable evidence of weathering. In
the burning of fossil fuels. Through a combination of fact, it could be argued that the built environment rep-
photochemical oxidation and reaction with moisture in the resents a well-constructed ‘weathering experiment’, in
atmosphere this results in the formation of a chemical which friendly architects simultaneously expose different
cocktail that includes naturally occurring carbonic acid combinations of stone types to the same environmental
as well as sulfuric and nitric acids and which falls as ‘acid conditions, conveniently align structures to permit evalu-
rain’. Total ‘acid deposition’ is, however, more complex ation and comparison of meteorological effects and often
than this as acids can be produced directly through the provide the researcher with a considerably greater knowl-
reaction of gases with moist stone surfaces (dry deposi- edge of the physical characteristics and stress histories
tion) or precipitated onto surfaces from fog and conden- of the stone than is normally available for natural rock
sation (occult deposition). While such deposition is, like outcrops.
naturally occurring carbonic acid in the atmosphere, very The following sections explore the salient points
effective in dissolving carbonate rocks such as limestone, raised above by trying, as far as is possible, to link
it plays a much more significant role when it reacts with weathering processes to the environmental and material
building materials to produce soluble salts. These are factors that control them and the features and products
responsible for widespread damage to stone through a they produce.
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Chapter 14 Weathering
ions is extremely low at only one-tenth of a millionth of
Reflective question a gram per litre of water. To bring the figures into a more
manageable range, the concentration is expressed as pH
➤ Why is it inappropriate to classify weathering only on the with a neutral water solution of pH 7 (see Chapter 17 for
basis of regional climate? an explanation of pH). Any solution with a greater con-
centration of hydrogen ions is acidic and has a lower pH
value, while those with a lower concentration have a higher
value and are considered to be alkaline. In turn, any sub-
14.3 Weathering and the role of water stance which, when added to the water, increases the pro-
ton concentration is therefore said to be acidic or a proton
Alteration of geomaterials occurs in two realms. There donor. In contrast, substances that are proton acceptors
are complex changes that take place relatively deep within are said to be alkaline and are referred to as bases. As an
the Earth’s crust, generally in the absence of oxygen, in example, adding a base such as sodium hydroxide to water
response to reactions with heated and chemically com- results in the dissociation of an aqueous sodium ion (Na+)
plex gases and liquids. Often referred to as hydrothermal and an aqueous hydroxyl ion (OH - ), which will then
alteration, these processes are enormously important in, combine with any free hydrogen ions.
for example, the mobilization and concentration of spe- In nature, perhaps the most common proton donor is
cific elements or weathering products into zones that can carbonic acid, formed by the reaction of atmospheric CO2
be then economically mined or quarried. This includes with water. When this dissolves in water it dissociates to
extensive deposits of the clay mineral kaolinite formed form hydrogen and bicarbonate ions:
through the hydrothermal alteration of granites in areas
H2O + CO2 S H2CO3 S H+ + HCO3 - (14.1)
such as the south-west of Britain, and which form the
basis of that region’s ‘china clay’ industry. In this chapter, The importance of proton donation for weathering is that
however, we are primarily concerned with weathering that these protons can react with minerals such as many com-
takes place at or near the Earth’s surface under mainly monly occurring aluminium silicates (e.g. feldspars) and
sub-aerial conditions where they are in close contact with replace positively charged metal cations (e.g. Na, K+ and
the atmosphere. In these surface environments the most Ca2+ ) in their crystal lattices through a process known as
important control on chemical alteration is the presence hydrolysis. This leaves behind weathering products made
of water. This is both as a potential reagent and as the up mostly of ‘hydrated aluminium silicate minerals’ or
principal means by which the products of weathering are clays.
removed and weathering allowed to continue. The precise In addition, pH is a key control on the solubility of
role of water, especially in chemical alteration, depends on substances, especially weathering products such as metal
a number of key properties. oxides and hydroxides. The importance of pH in influenc-
Water molecules are surprisingly complex. They con- ing relative solubility is indicated in Figure 14.3.
sist of one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms, but exist as A further key property of water that controls chemical
a covalent bond in which electrons are shared between reactions and determines solubility is its redox poten-
atoms. In water, this bond is uneven and the oxygen atom tial, or Eh. This is the ability of a chemical species to
attracts electrons more strongly than the hydrogen ones. bring about an oxidation or a reduction reaction. Eh is
This creates polar molecules with an asymmetric charge explained in Chapter 20. In terms of rock weathering the
distribution and partial negative and positive charges at most common oxidation or reduction reactions are those
the ends of each molecule. It is this polarity that allows associated with iron oxides. Iron commonly exists in two
water to separate other polar solute molecules and valent forms, either as oxidized, trivalent ferric iron (Fe3+ )
explains why water is such an effective solvent (see Chap- or divalent, reduced ferrous iron (Fe2+). Ferrous iron is
ter 20). On its own, water can undergo self-ionization, therefore typically found under saturated conditions and
in which one of the bonds of the liquid water molecules most commonly in its hydrated form as minerals such as
breaks to create positively charged aqueous hydrogen ions limonite (FeO(OH) # nH2O) and goethite (FeO(OH)) that
or protons (H+) and negatively charged hydroxyl ions give soils such as gleys (see Chapter 17) their distinctive
(OH - ). In pure water the free hydrogen ions react with yellowish green colour. When exposed to the atmosphere
other water molecules to produce H3O+. At a normal these minerals oxidize (rust), most typically into the min-
temperature (25 °C) the concentration of free hydrogen eral haematite (Fe2O3) that is responsible for the reddish
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14.3 Weathering and the role of water
8 For example, the strong hydrogen bonds in water molecules
Al2O3
TiO2
Fe2O3
Al2O3
FeO
MgO
give water a high cohesiveness and consequently a high sur-
face tension, adhesion and capillarity (see Chapters 17 and
18). Within large pores the majority of the water is held by
6
a combination of surface tension and capillarity, but very
Solubility (millimoles/litre)
close to particle surfaces the water is bonded in its ionic
state by much stronger forces of electrochemical adsorption.
4 This creates a very thin film of water bound very strongly
to the underlying material. The different states at which
water is held exert a major influence on processes such as
SiO2
the evaporation of water held within porous materials and
2
explains why initial drying may be quite rapid, whereas
thorough drying requires considerably more time and
energy. In nature, it is unlikely that all adsorbed moisture
0 will be completely removed and so even in dry deserts
0 2 4 6 8 10
adsorbed water is found around solid particles.
pH
The same tension and electrochemical forces act to
Normal range of soil pH attract moisture into dry materials by exerting a ‘suction
potential’. Finer pores exert a greater suction and attract
Extreme range of soil pH
and hold moisture and any dissolved substances for longer.
Figure 14.3 Solubility of metal oxides plotted against pH for some
Therefore porosity and the pore structure have a consider-
common products of chemical weathering. (Source: modified from
Douglas, 1979) able influence on many weathering processes. Adsorption
and capillary attraction are not the only ways in which
water can be held and it can also be absorbed into the
colour of many iron-rich soils. Another important dis- structure of a material. The so-called mineral hydration
tinction between these two valent forms is their relative occurs when hydroxyl and hydrogen ions are absorbed
solubility. From Figure 14.3 it can be seen that the reduced into a substance, leaving the non-water component chemi-
form of iron is relatively soluble under typical Earth sur- cally unchanged. The most common reactions of this type
face conditions, so that it can, for example, be mobilized involve salts and results in the creation of new minerals or
and concentrated under saturated conditions. If it is hydrates. The reaction is reversible and on drying the salt
allowed to oxidize, however, it will become fixed under reverts to its original form. The other area where water
all but the most acid of conditions. When associated with absorption is important is in clay minerals (see Box 17.3
repeated wetting and drying this switch from ferrous to in Chapter 17), and there is an important group of these
ferric states can lead to the progressive concentration of minerals known as smectites that can absorb water into
iron as, for example, nodules within a soil profile or more their crystal lattice. These swelling clays, of which mont-
uniformly in distinct soil horizons. morillonite is the best known, form a major soil group,
The difference in solubility of iron in relation to its but when found within rocks the potential swelling and
oxidized or reduced states shows how solubility in natural contraction associated with wetting and drying could be a
environments is dependent on both pH and Eh, which contributory factor in their eventual physical breakdown.
are, in turn, influenced by temperature. The relationships Indeed wetting and drying, or slaking, is recognized by
between pH and Eh are typically shown in the form of many as a weathering process in its own right, to which
‘Pourbaix diagrams’ for individual elements to establish the certain rock types such as basalts are particularly prone
range of conditions under which mobilization and fixation because of the presence of secondary minerals that hydrate
are likely to occur. The phase diagram for iron in water is and dehydrate.
shown in Figure 20.1 (see Chapter 20), indicating its vari- Finally, water also has a unique property of having a
ous states in relation to combinations of Eh and pH. ‘triple point’ that allows it to freely change between liquid,
As well as the chemical properties of water that are gaseous and solid states under normal Earth surface con-
significant for weathering, water also possesses a range of ditions. This facilitates not only wetting and drying, but
physical properties that strongly influence both weathering also the best known of all volume changes, the expansion
environments and the processes that operate within them. which occurs when water becomes ice.
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Chapter 14 Weathering
14.4 Chemical weathering biotite (K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2) that are found particu-
larly in igneous rocks. During the course of hydrolysis the
The processes by which geomaterials weather are normally metal cations are selectively replaced within the crystal lat-
grouped into three categories: physical, chemical and bio- tice by a process known as congruent dissolution. Typically
logical. In reality all three interact with each other and it is the first to go are the most mobile, monovalent cations such
equally valid for the physical and chemical consequences as sodium and potassium, followed by divalent ones such
of biological activity to be split and considered under the as calcium and magnesium and finally by the least mobile
other two headings. Here we cover biological processes polyvalent ions such as iron and aluminium. Through this
under the two main headings. process, these minerals are progressively altered into clay
Most weathering scientists consider there to be five minerals that are themselves phyllosilicates, together with
main chemical processes that act individually and in com- soluble oxides that are usually lost from the system. A typi-
bination to alter geomaterials, all of which involve water. cal, simplified, reaction is that for orthoclase:
These are described below. 2KAlSi3O8 + 2(H+OH - ) S Al2Sl2O5(OH4) +
K2O + 4SiO2 (14.2)
14.4.1 Hydrolysis
or orthoclase feldspar + ionized water gives
Hydrolysis is the chemical reaction between a mineral kaolinite + soluble potassium oxide + soluble silica.
and water that is slightly acidic. Aluminium silicates, of
which the best known are the feldspars, typically combine
14.4.2 Carbonation
a metal with silica, aluminium and oxygen atoms. Within
the feldspars these range from calcium feldspar or anorthite Pure water does not exist in nature, mainly because rain-
(CaAl2Si2O8) and sodium feldspar or albite (NaAlSi3O8), water reacts with CO2 in the atmosphere to form a weak
both of which belong to the plagioclase group, to potas- solution of carbonic acid (H2CO3) and it is this acidified
sium feldspar or orthoclase (KAlSi3O8). Other com- water that reacts with minerals through carbonation and
monly occurring minerals which are weathered include hydrolysis. The best-known example of this sequence of
groups of metal silicates, most notably ferromagnesian reactions is that involving the calcium carbonate that com-
minerals containing iron and magnesium such as olivine prises most limestones, which produces soluble calcium
((Mg,Fe)2SiO4), and phyllosilicate or sheet minerals such as bicarbonate that is then lost in solution (Box 14.1).
Carbonation equations Ca2+ + CO3 2 - + H+ + or orthoclase + carbonic acid gives
HCO3 - S Ca2+ + 2(HCO3 - ) (14.5) kaolinite + soluble silicic acid + soluble
The carbon dissolution process is impor-
potassium bicarbonate.
tant in the formation of karst landforms or calcium carbonate + carbonic acid
Carbonation is also effective for ferro-
(see Box 14.5). It is also referred to as gives soluble calcium bicarbonate.
magnesian minerals such as olivine:
incongruent dissolution, on the basis that Carbonation is not restricted to car-
any clay minerals found are derived from bonate minerals. Carbonation and hydroly- Mg2SiO4 + 4CO2 + 4H2O S
impurities within the original limestone sis are also effective in the weathering of 2Mg2+ + 4HCO3 - +
rather than the alteration of the rock itself. silicate minerals such as orthoclase: H4SiO4 (14.7)
The precise sequence is: or olivene + carbon dioxide + water
2KAlSi3O8 + 2H2CO3 +
CO2 + H2O S H2CO3 (14.3) 9H2O S Al2Si2O5(OH)4 + gives soluble magnesium carbonate
4H4SiO4 + 2K+ + 2HCO3 - (14.6) +soluble silicic acid.
H2CO3 S H+ + HCO3 - (14.4)
Box 14.1
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14.4 Chemical weathering
Box 14.1 shows that the carbonation process is highly of CO2 produced by the respiration of microorganisms and
dependent on the continued presence of CO2 in solution, the breakdown (humification) of organic matter within
which in turn is initially dependent upon its concentration soils, both of which considerably enhance the carbonation
in the atmosphere. Beneath a soil cover, however, the relative process. Certain bacteria may also produce oxygen, which
concentration (partial pressure) of CO2 in soil air, and also can lead to the formation of inorganic acids. In particular,
cave air, is typically greater than that in the open atmosphere oxygen from bacteria is central to the nitrification process
(see Chapter 17, Section 17.2.4). This can lead to a higher in soils in which ammonium is converted into nitrate, with
content of dissolved CO2 in soil moisture and helps to explain the release of two hydrogen ions (protons) leading to the
how limestone is often dissolved more rapidly beneath a soil acidification of the soil. As well as inorganic acids, the
cover than when exposed to the atmosphere. It also helps biodegradation of organic matter produces organic acids,
explain how limestone can be precipitated from solution (i.e. which react directly with and alter the mineral constituents
a solid form produced from a dissolved form) as water flows of soils. These are typically complex mixtures of acids con-
out from under the ground and CO2 is lost to the atmosphere. taining carboxyl and phenolate groups, the most common
An interesting anomaly arises from the partial pressure of groupings being dark brown humic acids that are soluble
CO2 being inversely related to temperature. It falls by approx- only above pH2 and yellower fulvic acids that are soluble in
imately 50% between 0 and 20°C. This has led some scientists water under all commonly occurring pH conditions. One
to suggest that karst solution (see Section 14.7 below) should, of the most important roles within soils of organic acids
unlike almost all other chemical weathering, be most rapid in is that they act as effective chelating agents. Chelation is the
areas with cold climates. This ignores, however, a number of process by which metal ions, in particular, are kept in solu-
key factors, especially in relation to the elevated level of CO2 tion and prevented from precipitating within, for example,
within soils that derives primarily from biological processes plant roots. Chelation is, however, also the process by which
that would be inhibited under cold conditions. It also fails to these cations can be complexed and removed from the
consider the relative aridity of cold regions or the effective surfaces of fine mineral soil particles and colloids by ion
aridity associated with the prolonged freezing of what water exchange, in which they are typically replaced by hydrogen
is available. ions. Such ‘cation exchange’ (see Chapter 17) is a major
route by which plants obtain nutrients, but also a mecha-
nism by which mineral soils are weathered and, importantly,
14.4.3 Solution
progressively acidified. Organic acids are not the only
Water is a highly effective solvent. There are many natu- available chelating agents and microorganisms, especially
rally occurring minerals that are highly soluble in water. bacteria, secrete a range of ‘siderophores’ or ‘iron-carrying’
The degree of solubility is highly dependent on factors compounds which are equally effective in chelating a range
such as the pH and Eh of the water solvent. One impor- of other metals including aluminium, copper, zinc and man-
tant factor is that the rate of dissolution can be rapidly ganese. In a weathering context, siderophores are especially
curtailed if there is no water flow and the water that is important in scavenging iron from minerals in wet environ-
static above a surface becomes saturated with the solute. ments where it can then be removed in solution.
As well as their role in weathering and soil forma-
tion, there is growing interest in the role that organisms,
14.4.4 Oxidation and reduction
particularly bacteria, fungi and algae, play in the surface
Oxidation and reduction have already been dealt with in weathering of rock (e.g. Allsopp et al., 2004). When exam-
Section 14.3.1, where they are seen to be the controlling ined microscopically, all exposed rock surfaces on Earth
factors in the transformation of substances through either are found to be colonized by microorganisms. Bacteria, in
the addition or removal of oxygen. In transforming sub- particular, are able to survive extreme environments. Some
stances, oxidation and reduction also exert considerable of these organisms also penetrate pores and cracks and live
control on the mobility of substances in solution. successfully, especially where light is still able to penetrate
through translucent grains and crystals.
These microorganisms do not make a major contribu-
14.4.5 Biologically related chemical weathering
tion to landscape evolution, but they can be locally impor-
There are numerous ways in which organisms act to initi- tant and result in a range of micro-scale phenomena that
ate and enhance rock breakdown and alteration. The most are often diagnostic of certain environmental conditions.
obvious chemical process is related to the large quantities There are three main types of bacteria based on where they
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Chapter 14 Weathering
obtain their nutrients. Heterotrophic bacteria obtain nutri- oxygen-producing algae. The presence of lichens on the
ents from organic compounds, autotrophic from inorganic surface of a rock is often seen as an indicator of stabil-
compounds and mixotrophic from both. In addition to ity and age. However, they are also linked to chemical
these there is an important sub-group of chemolithotrophic and physical weathering processes. Some lichens may be
bacteria, which are capable of oxidizing metals from min- considered to be bioprotectors shielding the surface from
erals with the aid of an enzyme. These have been used the actions of other processes and others may be con-
extensively on a commercial basis to leach metals such as sidered more likely to promote weathering (Lisci et al.,
copper from ores. They have also been linked to the extrac- 2003). Lichens can excrete humic and other organic acids
tion of manganese, which can then be precipitated on rock (so-called lichen acids) that are thought to promote both
surfaces as a black crust or ‘rock varnish’ especially in arid hydrolysis and chelation. At the same time, lichens also
and semi-arid environments where a soil cover is absent and produce oxalic acid which, on limestones, can produce a
there is limited surface water. A further grouping of bacte- coating of relatively insoluble calcium oxalate that could
ria is cyanobacteria or blue-green algae, which obtain their protect the underlying surface from carbonate dissolution.
energy through photosynthesis. Colonial forms of these In the past, builders were known to have coated limestone
bacteria can often be found living in depressions on rock surfaces with a variety of organic substances, including
surfaces and they are commonly associated with locally urine and eggs, to create a surface oxalate crust or patina of
concentrated weathering and erosion. On sandstones, for ‘case-hardened’ limestone.
example, it has been suggested that photosynthesis by endo-
lithic bacteria can result in more alkaline conditions which
14.4.6 Products of chemical weathering
could be responsible for the weakening of inter granular
cements through the dissolution of silica leading to grain Although the underlying chemistry of weathering is rela-
loss. Conversely, it is also proposed that some cyanobacteria tively well researched and understood, there is often uncer-
are able to mobilize manganese from superficial dust on tainty in how weathering has operated at a site or what
rock surfaces, which, when precipitated, provides an alter- might happen in the future. This is because of complex
native mechanism of rock varnish formation (Dorn, 1998). combinations of materials and varied environmental con-
Lichens (Figure 14.4) are not an individual plant, ditions. As a starting point the following section attempts
but are interdependent communities of fungi and to introduce a degree of order by establishing some broad
categories of weathering products derived from primary
rock-forming minerals. Broadly speaking, these come
under four headings as shown in Figure 14.5.
14.4.6.1 Resistates
Resistates are unaltered primary minerals that are effectively
immune to a specific process. At any one stage during the
weathering of a rock it might include minerals that survive
for longer because they are more resistant to alteration
than others, even though in the fullness of time and with
continued weathering they would also disappear. The
most commonly referred to of these minerals is quartz
(Figure 14.6), which survives as recognizable crystals
within the weathered residues of rocks such as granite,
long after the other minerals, typically feldspars and
micas, have turned to clay.
14.4.6.2 Secondary minerals
Secondary minerals are the weathering products of primary
Figure 14.4 Lichens growing on the surface of granite in
the Namib Desert. When they dry and lift from the sur- minerals. The most common alteration is of silicate and
face they can ‘pluck’ away loosened grains as dust. aluminium silicate minerals into clay minerals through
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14.4 Chemical weathering
Primary minerals
Chemical alteration
Resistates Solutions Flocculation Gels Ageing Secondary minerals
Unaltered Colloidal Aluminosilicate 2:1 Clays: illites, chlorites,
dehydration
primary minerals ionic Fe3+ oxyhydroxide vermiculites, smectites,
interstratified clays
Ion exchange
Loss of cations, silica
1:1 Clays: kaolinites,
halloysites
Loss of silica
Al oxyhydroxides
Lost from system Fe3+ oxyhydroxides
Figure 14.5 Processes and products of chemical weathering. (Source: from Fookes et al., 1988)
are less rigidly attached and allow water to penetrate and
the minerals to swell. Continued or more intense weather-
ing can, however, lead to the loss of one of the silica sheets
(desilicification) of 2 : 1 clays, and the formation of a 1 : 1
lattice clay, the best known of which is kaolinite. Under
extreme weathering conditions the second silica sheet may
also be lost, to leave only aluminium or iron oxyhydrox-
ides, such as the aluminium hydroxide, gibbsite (Al(OH)3),
which is one of the main constituents in the aluminium
ore bauxite. The fact that bauxite is commonly associ-
ated with highly weathered tropical soils has encouraged
researchers to establish links between certain clay mineral
assemblages and different climatic regimes and different
intensities of weathering (Bland and Rolls, 1998). How-
ever, there are likely to be significant variations in weath-
Figure 14.6 Large quartz crystals. (Source: Stefano Cavoretto
Shutterstock.com) ering intensity related to factors such as local drainage
conditions.
hydrolysis. The precise composition of the clay mineral
depends on the initial mineral and the intensity and/or 14.4.6.3 Solutions
duration of weathering. The most complex clay miner-
als (and therefore those found in less intensely weathered During the course of chemical weathering it is normal for
environments) are so-called 2 : 1 lattice clays made up of metal cations, in particular, to be oxidized or transformed
two sheets of corner-sharing SiO4 tetrahedra, sandwiching into salts and lost in solution. This is normally in the form
a sheet of AlO4 octahedra. Different groups of 2 : 1 clays of ionic solutions (e.g. NaCl(s) S Na(aq)+ + Cl(aq) - ),
can be distinguished by the presence of, for example, inter- but they can also be in the form of colloidal solutions
layer potassium (illite) or the substitution of magnesium, which contain extremely fine particles between 1 and 1000
iron, nickel and manganese within the sheets (chlorite). nanometres in diameter (a nanometer is a thousandth of
These additions give the clays a rigid, non-swelling struc- a millionth of a metre). Typically, these solutes are lost to
ture. The sheets in other 2 : 1 groups such as the smectites the weathered material, although they may be precipitated
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nearby if environmental conditions (e.g. pH, Eh, tempera-
ture or the partial pressure of a gas) change, and they are
the source of most terrestrial geochemical sediments.
14.4.6.4 Gels
The final category of weathering products is gels. These
are solid, jelly-like substances ranging from soft and mal-
leable to hard and tough. In a weathering context, perhaps
the best studied are silica gels that can be formed by the
evaporation of aqueous silicate solutions in surface and
shallow subsurface waters, themselves the product of, for
example, the hydrolysis of primary minerals.
14.5 Physical weathering
Physical weathering is the physical breakdown of mate-
rial though either the application of an external stress or
the release of an accumulated internal stress, without the
involvement of any chemical alteration. In this way, mate-
rial can be reduced in strength and size to a point where it
Figure 14.7 Curved sheet jointing generated by dilatation in
becomes susceptible to movement by a process of erosion. granite, Yosemite National Park, California.
Where there is an existing relative topography, material
can be lost directly through gravitational collapse (see
Chapter 15). In addition, the creation of fracture networks
creates pathways for moisture penetration and biological
colonization that facilitate chemical weathering, as well
as greatly increasing the available surface area over which
chemical reactions can occur. Fracturing can be brought
about through a number of different mechanisms, but
all of them are ultimately linked to some form of expan-
sion or contraction. This volume change is either of the
material itself or of an alien material created within it or
absorbed during the process of weathering.
14.5.1 Dilatation – pressure release Figure 14.8 Half Dome, Yosemite National Park, California, demonstrating
the structural control of curvilinear sheet joints on the shape of the dome
The most common form of dilatation is that associated
prior to its truncation by glacial erosion that exploited vertical joint sets
with the release of pressure when intrusive igneous rocks within the batholith. (Source: Topseller / Shutterstock.com)
(see Chapter 2) such as granite are exposed through the
erosion and removal of the overlying rock into which Such joints are common in newly exposed intrusions
they were intruded. At this point, the stresses accumu- and help to give the characteristic dome shape to many
lated during cooling at high pressure are released and granite hills (Figure 14.8). They are also particularly
result in the physical expansion of the rock. At the mar- useful in the quarrying of granite as they provide an
gins of an intrusion this expansion is greatest towards initial set of joints that can then be exploited to break
the surface. Therefore, there are internal shear stresses the stone into manageable blocks. The fact that they are
parallel to the surface. This in turn results in characteris- ‘pressure release’ features is demonstrated by so-called
tic curvilinear ‘sheet joints’ parallel to the curved surface A-Tent structures. These are formed where an isolated
of the cooling granite intrusion or batholith (Figure 14.7). sheet of granite arches upwards from the surface of the
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14.5 Physical weathering
Figure 14.9 An A-Tent structure on a granite batholith, South Australia. The granite slabs are larger than the hole from which they sprang demonstrating
the expansion associated with pressure release.
granite mass (Figure 14.9). Measurement of the sheets
always shows them to be longer than the hole from which
they came, indicating not only their original compres-
sive loading, but also their expansion once this pressure
is removed. Deeper within the intrusion the stresses are
resolved into sets of joints at right angles to each other
that define large-scale rectangular blocks. These joints
provide the pathways along which moisture and ulti-
mately chemical weathering can penetrate (Figure 14.2b).
The density of these joints is highly variable, depending
on the structure of the intrusion, and on a large scale can
result in the so-called compartmentalization of the land-
scape as areas with a high joint density are weathered
and eroded more rapidly than those with a low joint den- (a)
sity. Such processes are often cited as central to the for-
mation of isolated granitic hills characterized by widely
spaced joint systems.
As well as the development of joints and fractures
spaced over metres or tens of metres, pressure release is
also operates at the scale of millimetres and less. In this
way it can lead to the development of dense networks of
microfractures around and through individual crystals as
minerals with different physical characteristics expand at
different rates following pressure release. Depending on
the minerals present, these fractures represent a second-
ary porosity along which moisture and chemical altera-
tion can penetrate leading to the formation of a clay-rich
(b)
or ‘argillaceous’ weathered regolith (Figure 14.10a).
Alternatively, if the minerals present are less susceptible Figure 14.10 Granite weathering through microfracturing: (a) weathered
granite in which all of the feldspars have been weathered by hydrolysis
to chemical weathering a sandier or ‘arenaceous’ regolith
into white kaolinite; (b) an arenaceous regolith or grus in Montana, USA.
can develop in which the original minerals and structures (Source: (a) BORTEL Pavel - Pavelmidi / Shutterstock.com (b) Dr. Marli
of the rock are retained, it becomes so fragmented that it Miller, VISUALS UNLIMITED / Science Photo Library)
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Chapter 14 Weathering
can be dug out by hand (Figure 14.10b). In granites these surface temperatures can occur at the same time as low
sandy regoliths are sometimes referred to as ‘grus’ after air temperatures, resulting in a very rapid fall in surface
the term coined by quarry workers in the south-west of temperature when clouds or shade appear. It is most likely,
England, where spreads of sandy material derived from however, that the mechanical stresses associated with any
the disaggregation of arenaceous regoliths are a common such temperature change will be restricted to a very shal-
feature. low, near-surface zone.
Adjacent crystals of different minerals heat up and
expand at different rates in response to differences of ther-
14.5.2 Thermoclasty
mal characteristics such as albedo, thermal conductivity,
Temperature change always works in conjunction with heat storage capacity and coefficient of thermal expansion
other weathering factors. Even in the driest desert mois- as well as in some cases the orientations of their crystal
ture plays a role in weathering. Hence understanding the lattices along which expansion can be concentrated. This,
role of temperature in weathering has been tricky. To get in turn, sets up stresses at crystal boundaries that can be
over these problems researchers have attempted to isolate translated into stresses across adjacent crystals.
thermal effects under laboratory conditions. One of the Thermal shock effects are now considered to operate
earliest of these experiments was carried out by Griggs at small scales, as compared with earlier ideas about the
(1936), who repeatedly heated a block of granite in front splitting of large boulders. It is also recognized that the
of an electric fire and allowed it to cool in a dry cellar. forces generated are most effective where the expansion
The upshot of the experiment was that despite heating is constrained in some way by surrounding crystals or
the block many times and far beyond any temperature to rock (because they have something to push against). This
be found in nature, he observed no physical change until constraint effect has increasing practical significance
he gave up and started to cool the block by pouring water as architects use more and more stone as thin claddings
on it. Since this experiment, laboratory tests have become on buildings and are faced with replacing bowed and
much more sophisticated and now employ, for example, cracked panels put in place with inadequate expansion
programmable climatic cabinets that can mimic tem- joints.
perature and humidity conditions from a wide range of The alternative to thermal shock as a mechanism for
climates. However, these experiments have had compara- rock breakdown is that of ‘fatigue failure’. This is where
tively little success in inducing breakdown that is uniquely breakdown occurs through the repeated application of
attributable to thermoclasty. a low-magnitude stress, which on its own is insufficient
In designing these experiments, researchers normally to initiate a fracture, but cumulatively can weaken the
choose to study one of two potential thermal processes. rock to the point where it becomes susceptible to even a
The first of these is what Yatsu (1988) described as ‘ther- low-magnitude stress. This is in much the same way as if
mal shock’. This is where temperature change is so rapid you were asked to snap the handle of a metal spoon: you
that the stresses generated by expansion or contraction of would not attempt it in one go, but instead would bend
the rock cannot be accommodated by the required defor- it backwards and forwards many times until it eventually
mation. The most obvious example of thermal shock is broke. Fatigue failure is seen by many as a more viable
that experienced during a fire, and there are many obser- contributory mechanism to rock weathering not least
vations of cracked boulders after the passage of bush because there is no need to invoke extreme and abnormal
and forest fires. It seems reasonable to suppose that over temperatures. However, fatigue failure is difficult to test
time thermal shock could play an important role in the in the laboratory or in nature as it is extremely difficult to
breakdown of debris in, for example, Mediterranean and isolate and test the effect. In the laboratory, for example,
savanna environments prone to such fires. Other than this many weathering tests seek to accelerate the process under
special case, it is difficult to imagine how natural cycles of study, but any attempt either to speed up the heating and
heating and cooling could generate a sufficient shock to cooling process or increase the temperature range would
fracture fresh rock. Recently, however, there has been inter- invalidate any link with the fatigue effect. Any such tests
est in the potential role of short-term, near-surface reduc- would therefore have to run in real time and are thus com-
tions in rock temperature triggered by, for example, the pletely impractical. In nature, meanwhile, the fact that
spread of cloud cover over a surface previously exposed to fatigue effects only manifest themselves over very long
bright sunlight (Smith, 2009). This is particularly the case time periods makes it difficult to untangle them from the
in polar and high mountain environments where high rock contributions of other weathering mechanisms.
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14.5 Physical weathering
14.5.3 Freeze–thaw (frost weathering) and growth might also be capable of fracturing stronger
rocks, especially where pre-existing microfractures can be
Of all weathering processes, freeze–thaw is the one that
exploited and extended. Unlike volumetric expansion, the
the majority of people can most easily comprehend, in
conditions required for ice segregation are not especially
part because of its clear link to an easily recognizable envi-
exceptional and ice can continue to grow under conditions
ronmental condition (water freezing), but also because it
of relatively slow freezing associated with sustained low
is perceived to involve a relatively straightforward mecha-
temperatures. Experimental and field observations also
nism – water expanding on freezing. However, a number
suggest that disruption associated with ice lens formation
of researchers question some of the long-held assumptions
could be a much more deep-seated process than volumetric
about its effectiveness. For example, there has been an
expansion, especially because it can be enhanced by pro-
assumed relationship between freeze–thaw and the pro-
longed freezing leading to ‘slow ice separation’ at depth.
duction of angular rock fragments. In reality, however, the
This could in turn lead to fracturing at greater depths
conditions required for freeze–thaw to generate significant
within rock formations and potentially the production and
stresses within a stone are much more complicated and
release of larger and bigger quantities of rock debris.
rare than a simple drop in temperature below 0°C and
Debris produced by freeze–thaw seems to be both fine
the freezing of water already in the pores of a stone. For
and coarse. Microgélivation is considered to occur where ice
example, the maximum expansion associated with the
crystallizes within pores and microfractures at the grain
transition of water into ice occurs at - 22°C. If this point
and crystal scale, and is responsible for the creation of fine
is actually reached, the pressure generated, theoretically
debris. It is also considered by some to be responsible for
207 MPa, is more than enough to fracture most rocks. As
the rounding of larger debris and rock surfaces. This con-
temperatures drop, however, a number of factors combine
trasts with macrogélivation, which is principally the exploi-
to inhibit freezing and also to relieve any pressure gener-
tation of fractures and potential lines of weakness within
ated by ice that has formed within pores. For example,
larger rock masses to produce coarse, angular debris or
when ice begins to form within pores the pressure on the
clasts (Figure 14.11).
remaining water increases. This lowers the freezing point
and slows down further freezing. The presence of impuri-
ties in the water such as salts will also lower the freezing 14.5.4 Salt weathering
point, and in an unsaturated, open-textured stone the pres-
Traditionally salt weathering has been seen as something
sures generated by freezing and expansion might be partly
that is important in coastal and desert environments where
absorbed by the compression of air within the pores and
salt is available in abundance, but largely irrelevant outside
feasibly by displacement and possible expulsion of water
of these areas. However, it is possibly the most important
via any exposed surface. For this reason the rock should
cause of rock breakdown in built environments. Build-
ideally be at or near saturation and frozen from all sides
ing owners across the world will testify, irrespective of
if freeze–thaw is to be most pronounced. The process is
climate, to the effectiveness of salt, from sources such as
accentuated by rapid freezing and so is considered to be
most effective at or near the rock surface, leading to the
preferential release of individual grains and fine rock frag-
ments. If the expulsion of water is particularly rapid or
the surrounding porosity relatively low, the pressure of the
displaced water may itself lead to breakdown of the rock
by a process known as ‘hydrofracture’.
Ice segregation is the process whereby water is gradu-
ally attracted towards areas of ice formation by a suction
gradient established in adjacent pores as the ice forms
(see Chapter 24). In this way, lenses of ice are created that
can theoretically continue to grow against a constraining
pressure. Such phenomena have been recognized for many
years in soils and result in the fracturing and heaving of
these and other fine-grained, weak materials, but recent
Figure 14.11 Frost weathering resulting in coarsely cracked granite rock,
experimental studies have suggested that ice segregation
Iceland. (Source: MyImages – Micha Shutterstock.com)
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rising groundwater, in weathering stone. Salt weathering
also occurs in polar and mountain environments that are
% Volumetric expansion from 205C to indicated temperature
themselves often arid. Unlike freeze–thaw, salt weathering NaCl
5
is not constrained to the precise coming together of a lim-
ited and very specific set of environmental parameters for
its operation. 4 KCl
Salt weathering is a physical weathering process asso- NaNO3
ciated with the growth or expansion of salt crystals in
pores and fractures. Of course, the processes driving this 3
expansion are predominantly chemical and relate either
BaSO4
directly to crystal growth out of solution or to the absorp- 2
tion of moisture (hydration) by salts that have previously
crystallized within the rock. Theoretically, crystal growth Granite
alone could result in rock breakdown as, provided that the 1
solution remains supersaturated and a thin liquid film is CaCO3
maintained at the boundary between the crystal tip and (Calcite)
the adjoining pore or crack wall, crystals will continue to 0
0 100 200 300 400
grow against any confining pressure. The stresses gener- Temperature (5C)
ated within an individual pore are unlikely to be sufficient
Figure 14.12 The thermal expansion of salts linked to salt weathering,
to cause failure as they act on too small an area (Smith and compared with that of granite. (Source: from Cooke and Smalley, 1968)
McGreevy, 1988). Instead, it is the ability of salts to spread
and accumulate throughout a zone within the rock that
allows them to generate sufficient stress to cause failure by that may in turn be linked to natural diurnal cycles, but
interacting with larger structural flaws that ultimately con- may also be event driven in relation to individual storms.
trol rock strength. The exception to this might be at the It is in this context that hydration and dehydration take
rock surface, where individual grains and crystals are only on special significance, in that, depending on the salt,
partially confined. The effectiveness of salt crystallization these processes can occur when specific combinations of
in causing breakdown is also closely linked to the nature temperature and relative humidity are crossed without
of the pores and it has been suggested that the controlling the presence of liquid water. For some salts these thresh-
factor is the presence of micropores (less than 5 millionths olds could potentially be crossed several times during the
of a metre in diameter) that have the suction potential to course of a day as temperature and relative humidity rise
absorb moisture and are readily bridged by salt crystals. and fall. The hydration pressures generated can be consid-
Such a process is more difficult to accomplish in larger erable, and theoretically could exceed the tensile strengths
pores. The growth of clearly defined, pore-bridging crys- of many common rocks.
tals may not be essential for salt weathering as hydration The relative significance of crystallization, hydration
could be favoured where pores become completely filled and differential thermal expansion is still unclear but it
with microcrystalline salt. The same might be said of is most likely that all three mechanisms work together. It
differential thermal expansion as a possible weathering should be stressed, however, that not all salts hydrate or
mechanism, where salts are present with coefficients of dehydrate under commonly experienced environmental
thermal expansion greater than that of the enclosing rock conditions (e.g. sodium chloride), and many commonly
(Figure 14.12). For further details on salt weathering pro- occurring salts (e.g. calcium sulfate) can have a low solu-
cesses and hazards, see Goudie and Viles (1997). bility that makes it difficult for them to penetrate far into
As with other processes linked to physical breakdown, the rock. This is where having a mix of salts can be impor-
the importance of salt weathering lies not so much in the tant. The presence of sodium chloride is known to increase
shock effect of one-off crystal growth, but in the fatigue the solubility of calcium sulfate, and together they are
effect associated with regular and frequent volume changes considerably more effective in causing decay. A mix of salts
linked to repeated solution and recrystallization, hydration could also increase the number of hydration and dehydra-
and dehydration, and possibly differential thermal expan- tion cycles that occur within a rock. Some salts such as
sion and contraction. These changes are largely controlled sodium chloride can also absorb moisture from the atmos-
by alternating heating and cooling and wetting and drying phere (deliquesce) and promote the operation of other
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chemical weathering processes. Salinity is also known to
enhance the solubility of certain elements, most notably
silica. While this is unlikely to play an important role in
dissolving the rock mass as a whole, it could be significant
in some sandstones where crystalline quartz grains (with
a generally very low solubility) are held together by amor-
phous silica cements with a somewhat higher solubility.
In this situation there may be preferential removal of the
cement enhancing the susceptibility of the stone to more
classic salt weathering, as well as other mechanical weath-
ering processes.
For urban stone decay, one of the diagnostic traits of
salt weathering is so-called sanding, whereby running
one’s hand over, say, a sandstone block removes a layer
(a)
of loose material, which would otherwise collect as the
small piles of sand that are often seen along the bottoms
of walls (Figure 14.13a). Larger grains may form from
salt weathering of other rock types (e.g. granite shown in
Figure 14.13b). This process occurring on stone is referred
to as granular disaggregation. It is generally agreed that this
disaggregation is associated with a near-surface or surface
accumulation of salt (efflorescence) and both laboratory
experimentation and field observations from innumer-
able buildings have linked this to the slow evaporation of
salts brought to the surface in solution, a process that is
enhanced if the salt itself has a high solubility. The com-
plementary process to surface salt accumulation is thought
to occur when rock surfaces are rapidly heated, especially
in conjunction with a surface air flow. Under these condi-
(b)
tions, rapid evaporation dries out the immediate subsur-
face zone more rapidly than moisture can be drawn out Figure 14.13 Granular disintegration: (a) small pile of sand accumulating
from the interior. In this way the water connectivity with at the bottom of a wall near a road in an urban area after disintegration
of the stones above; (b) granite, arid southern Namibia.
the surface is broken and the only way that moisture can
be lost is as vapour, causing salt to crystallize at depth.
This concentration is clearly enhanced if the salt itself has
a relatively low solubility. Repeated many times, this pro-
cess allows salt to accumulate in a subsurface zone, close
to a frequent wetting depth, and eventually results in
contour scaling, in which a complete surface layer up to sev-
eral centimetres in thickness can first blister before falling
away (Figure 14.14). This can sometimes reveal a subsur-
face accumulation of crystallized salt. Box 14.2 discusses
an alternative mechanism for salt weathering.
Granular disaggregation and contour scaling cannot
be claimed as uniquely salt weathering in origin, being
the possible end points of a range of linked processes,
including thermal expansion and contraction that can
establish stresses either between grains or between the
rock surface and its interior. However, a more defini-
tive indicator of the operation of salt weathering is the Figure 14.14 Surface scaling of granite, arid southern Namibia.
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Salt weathering by ion from a zone of high concentration to one diffusion and subsequent corrosion of iron
diffusion with a low concentration without any flow reinforcing rods is a major source of struc-
of the solution itself. The process could be tural failure as the iron expands. Therefore
Recently attention has been drawn to ion important in areas where rock is saturated new ways of designing concrete have to be
diffusion as an alternative mode of salt for long periods by rising groundwater, or developed including making layers of con-
weathering (e.g. McCabe et al., 2013). In possibly during long periods of wet-season crete with different mixtures for the same
this process salts can migrate through saturation that could penetrate deep into building structure to ensure that chloride
stone to concentrate in certain areas. This a rock. One specialist area of weathering diffusion cannot simply occur from the
is where the individual ions (e.g. Na + and where this process is especially impor- outside inwards towards iron reinforce-
Cl - ) migrate through a saturated rock tant is that of concrete, where chloride ments (Zeng and Song, 2013).
Box 14.2
occurrence of cavernous weathering at a variety of scales
indicative of the tendency for salt weathering to create
hollows protected from rainwash, in which salts are then
preferentially retained. The hollows also establish their
own microclimates that are typically cooler and moister
than adjacent exposed surfaces, which in turn enhance
the direct precipitation of moisture, its retention and the
deeper absorption of salt in solution. They thus create a
positive feedback that promotes further weathering and
the growth of the cavern. Two scales of hollow are gener-
ally recognized: honeycombs of the order of a few mil-
limetres to a few centimetres wide and deep (Figure 14.15);
and tafoni that can be measured in tens of centimetres to
metres (Figure 14.16).
The location of these hollows may reflect an initial,
localized variation in weathering susceptibility across
a rock surface, perhaps related to porosity, grain size,
mineralogy or degree of cementation (Turkington, 1998).
Sometimes these structural controls are easily recognized
as lines of hollows that pick out a particular horizon
within a rock, but in other cases the controls may be very
subtle and the distribution may appear to be random.
As honeycombs grow and begin to intersect each other
to cover a surface they can appear to take on a strange
degree of uniformity. In other situations it is possible to
identify a degree of environmental control so that in hot Figure 14.15 Honeycomb weathering of a carbonate cemented quartz
sandstone in a salt-rich coastal environment, Yehliu, north-east Taiwan.
desert environments, for example, basal tafoni can be Weathering of the less consolidated sand beneath the carbonate-rich
found in cliff-foot locations where groundwater seepage is nodule has produced a ‘pedestal rock’, which is also a common feature of
concentrated. salt weathering in many rocks.
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Figure 14.16 Cavernous hollows or tafoni in sandstone, in Writing-On-Stone Provincial Park, Alberta, Canada. (Source: National Geographic Creative /
Alamy Stock Photo)
Cavernous hollows of all types are particularly com-
mon in coastal and desert locations but their widespread
occurrence in urban environments suggests that it is the
presence of salt, rather than any specific environmental
control, that is the key to their formation. It should also
be remembered that salt weathering is not the only process
that favours warm, humid and sheltered environments
and the formation of hollows is also associated with vari-
ous forms of biological weathering in which, for example,
bacterial and algal communities create their own micro-
environments in otherwise harsh locations.
14.5.5 Biologically related physical weathering
The most visual link between biological processes and the
physical breakdown of rocks is when the growth of tree
roots is seen to split and prise apart rocks (Figure 14.17).
As in Figure 14.17, the penetration of the root is greatly
aided by the pre-existing presence of a network of joints
and a degree of prior granular disaggregation. At a smaller
scale, it has been suggested that processes such as grain
release can be facilitated through the generation of tensile
stresses as fungi grow along micro-cracks. It is also pro-
posed that the expansion of both fungi and lichens as they
rehydrate after a dry period can exert significant stresses
through exertion of ‘turgor’ pressure (the pressure of
water against cell walls). Some authors have suggested that
Figure 14.17 The growth of a tree root within a sandstone outcrop,
the volume expansion of some species could be close to enlarging the joints, Valaam Island, Russia. (Source: Denis Iamshchikov)
4000% on rehydration. Shutterstock.com
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not occur. This is because many weathering processes,
Reflective questions such as salt weathering and microbial activity, require very
little water for their operation and they can be adept at
➤ Why is water important for weathering? obtaining this water directly from the atmosphere or from
➤ What are the key chemical weathering processes? groundwater.
In his famous diagram, Strakhov (1967) attempted a
➤ What are the key physical weathering processes? broad linkage between climate, weathering depth and
the nature of weathering products (see Figure 17.11 in
Chapter 17). As a generalization this is undoubtedly justi-
fied, but it masks a raft of other factors. The underlying
14.6 Climatic controls on weathering assumption is that increased intensity of weathering is
associated with high temperatures and abundant all-year-
Most chemical reaction rates double with every 10°C rise round rainfall. However, global climates do not conform
in temperature and so the mean annual temperature of a to a perfect zonal model, and it is common, even within
region will be an important control on weathering rates. the tropics, to find a range of climatic types at any one
Of course such reactions are also likely to be influenced by latitude, including climates associated with, for example,
the availability of water and the nature of any biological mountain ranges (Chapter 9). Within each of these zones
activity, linked in turn to other factors such as available it is also the case that weathering processes and depths are
CO2. However, for processes such as freeze–thaw the links highly dependent on rock type. Within the humid trop-
with mean annual temperature become much weaker and ics this most probably means ancient, basement rocks in
there are many other more meaningful environmental stable shield areas that are likely to be granitic in character
parameters that control its operation and effectiveness. and have a propensity for deep weathering because of
These include absolute temperature below zero and the their combined physical and mineralogical characteris-
rate of freezing in relation to the number and duration tics. Under these circumstances it might also be the case
of frost events and the depth of frost penetration. Thus it that profiles are deep, not only because of the intensity
is possible to envisage constraints on freeze–thaw activ- of processes such as hydrolysis, but because the profiles
ity controlled not just by conditions that are too warm are old and the rate of surface erosion under a protective
to freeze, but also too cold to thaw and too dry for ice to forest cover is relatively slow. That is, we can substitute
form. stability and longevity for weathering intensity. There are
For moisture it is not necessarily the absolute amount many areas of the humid tropics in steep, tectonically
of rainfall that is significant but the balance between active, weathering-resistant rocks that have relatively thin
rainfall and potential evapotranspiration which provides a soils. Conversely, it is also possible to find deep weather-
better measure of moisture availability. It is also the case ing profiles outside of the tropics. In many cases this
that rainfall distribution can exert a considerable influence reflects a long-term climatic inheritance. For example,
on patterns of weathering. In savanna environments, for pre-Quaternary deep weathering profiles have been found
example, alternate wetting and drying linked to the rise in areas such as Scotland and Scandinavia and this has
and fall of the water table might favour cycles of leaching questioned the power of cold-based ice sheets in particular
and precipitation of certain minerals within soils (espe- to reshape the landscape (Migoń and Bergstrom, 2001;
cially iron) and ultimately the formation of duricrusts such Olvmo et al., 2005).
as ferricretes or laterites. Continually wet conditions under Like Strakhov (1967), others have attempted the same
rainforests, together with the rapid recycling of organic climate zoning exercise using the occurrence of specific clay
matter, could favour continuous leaching of soils and minerals. This is based on the assumption that weathering
weathered regoliths (see Chapter 17). Such assumptions intensity increases with increased temperature and rainfall
apply specifically to patterns of deep wetting and associ- and that increased weathering intensity is in turn reflected
ated deep weathering. In terms of weathering closer to a in the progressive simplification of clay minerals from 2 : 1
rock surface, weathering is much more likely to be related lattice clays, to 1 : 1 clays, to iron and aluminium oxides
to the characteristics (duration, frequency, intensity and and hydroxides. While such sequences do occur it is also
total amount) of individual rainfall events linked to pat- true that specific weathering processes (e.g. the carbona-
terns of evaporation immediately following them. There is tion of orthoclase) are capable of bypassing this sequence
no minimum annual rainfall below which weathering does to directly produce clays such as kaolinite. Likewise, recent
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100
Percentage clay in soil Gibbsite
(bauxitic minerals)
Kaolinite
Smectite
0
0 2000 4500
Annual rainfall (mm)
Figure 14.18 Influence of climate on clay mineralogy under a perennially wet climate in Hawaii in which high rainfall and rapid leaching cause the prefer-
ential removal of silica and metal cations. (Source: after Sherman, 1952)
studies from countries such as Thailand (Hermann et al., study of basalt weathering from Hawaii (Figure 14.18).
2007) have suggested that gibbsite, which is usually thought Sherman’s (1952) study on Hawaii is frequently used to
of as the end product of weathering under wet tropical demonstrate climatic controls on weathering and clay for-
conditions, can appear as an early and direct transforma- mation, but given that it is a study of one small island it
tion from micas and feldspars in rocks such as granite could more accurately be thought of as a demonstration of
and gneiss without any intermediates. The key variable in variability within one broad climatic zone based upon local
this case appears to be freely draining soil conditions and conditions. Such variability has also been demonstrated in
high leaching rates, a control previously emphasized in a many other studies from the tropics (Box 14.3).
Deep weathering In Rio in the same area by Smith and Sanchez slopes underlain by the clay-rich regoliths
(1992) also demonstrated how, under the are much more likely to fail catastrophi-
Despite the widespread assumption that
same climatic conditions and with the cally through mudflows and slides (Fig-
the humid tropics are underlain by a uni-
same climatic history, subtle variations in ure 14.20), whilst the arenaceous profiles
formly thick blanket of deeply rotted rock
mineralogy could drastically affect weath- are more likely to experience erosion by
reduced mainly to simple clay minerals,
ering response. Granitic rocks containing surface wash. Active erosion also means
research has emphasized that there is con-
predominantly potassium (orthoclase that, particularly on steep slopes, deep
siderable local variability. A study of deep
feldspars) weathered to produce a deep, weathering profiles are replaced either
weathering around Rio de Janeiro by Power
but predominantly sandy, arenaceous by thin soils that are prone to ‘slip’ off
and Smith (1994) showed that soils on
regolith. Adjacent rocks rich in calcium the underlying bedrock after prolonged
well-drained crests, subject to enhanced
and sodium feldspars (plagioclase), which rainfall, or by large boulders held in place
cation and silicate removal, were domi-
are more prone to chemical alteration, by surrounding finer debris (Figure 14.19).
nated by gibbsite and kaolinite, whereas
produced equally deep, but clay-rich, These boulders are themselves prone to
complex clays such as montmorillonite
argillaceous regoliths (Figure 14.19). rolling downslope, with great destructive
were more common in poorly drained foot
One important consequence of this in potential, if the supporting material is
slopes and valley floor locations. A study
terms of potential slope hazard is that washed away.
BOX 14.3 ➤
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➤
(a) (b)
Forest/scrub Deep, clay-rich Forest/scrub Deep, sand-rich
Shallow organic horizon weathering Shallow organic horizon profiles with less
profiles with well-developed
Yellow bleached horizon Yellow bleached horizon
red-yellow red-yellow podzolic
Red, clay-rich horizon, kaolinite podzolic soils Red, clay-rich horizon, kaolinite soils. Common on
clays formed in situ underlie much of clays formed in situ structurally
Ú30 m Deeply weathered bedrock, high the countryside Ú30 m Deeply weathered bedrock, very high deformed
clay content, most feldspars in the north of sand content of quartz and unweathered augen gneiss in
altered to kaolinite or gibbsite. the area feldspars, clays often 610% mainly kaolinite. south-west of area
Quartz remains as angular, Still has appearance of bedrock but
coarse sand grains can be dug out
Occasional corestones Corestones rare
Weathering front Weathering front
Crystalline bedrock Crystalline bedrock
Figure 14.19 Schematic diagrams of (a) clay-rich and (b) sandy deep weathering profiles on granitic rocks in the Rio de Janeiro region of Brazil.
Sandy profiles tend to form on rocks comparatively rich in potassium feldspars.
Figure 14.20 Slope failure at Niteroi, Brazil in May 2010 resulting from the saturation of deeply weathered,
clay-rich weathered granite regolith.
BOX 14.3
It is important that global models of climatic controls of their exclusivity or their universal effectiveness. The
on weathering are recognized for what they are, namely danger comes if one seeks to employ the relationships they
generalizations, and only the broadest of starting points imply to the interpretation of weathering and weathering
to any understanding of weathering. Thus, while they products at the landform scale. At this scale it is essential
indicate that the occurrence of certain processes may be that attention is focused appropriately on the scale at
favoured in particular climatic zones this is no guarantee which the processes in question operate.
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formation. This ranking was later picked up by Goldich
Reflective questions (1938) who, on the basis that the Earth’s surface is a low-
temperature environment, used the listing as an indication
➤ What are the key climatic controls on weathering? of relative weathering susceptibility under near-surface
➤ Why are global generalizations of weathering depth or conditions, with the most stable and therefore resistant at
clay mineral form in relation to climate zone problematic? the bottom of the list (Figure 14.21b). In reality, patterns
and rates of decay will vary considerably in response to
localized variations in the weathering environment and
there is no guarantee that the stability sequence could not
14.7 Geological controls on weathering be reversed under certain circumstances.
The techniques described in Box 14.4 can assess sus-
The composition and structure of the rock, combined with ceptibility to weathering rather than providing any insight
its age and exposure to weathering are important geologi- to the actual nature of rock breakdown. The physical
cal controls on weathering. Researchers have produced breakdown of rocks tends to result from the application
lists of different rocks and their relative susceptibility to of three main stress types applied either generally across
weathering. The most widely quoted of these is based on a rock mass or at specific points right down to the micro-
the Bowen reaction series (Figure 14.21a), created in the scale. The first of these is compressive stress, in which an
early twentieth century, which ranked common minerals axial ‘pushing force’ is applied to a material that crushes it
found in igneous rocks in terms of their temperature of once the compressive strength of the material is exceeded.
Early
crystallization
Ferromagnesian Non-ferromagnesian
minerals minerals (feldspar)
Least
stable
Olivene Calcium-rich
Calcium
Olivene
Pyroxene High temperature plagioclase
(14005C)
Plagioclase
Mixed
Amphibole Augite
plagioclase
Biotite mica Sodium-rich Sodium
Hornblende
plagioclase
Orthoclase
(potassium feldspar) Biotite
Muscovite mica Potassium feldspar
(orthoclase)
Quartz Muscovite
Low temperature Quartz
(8005C)
Late Most
crystallization stable
(a) (b)
Figure 14.21 (a) The Bowen reaction series of igneous minerals and (b) the weathering series of Goldich (1938).
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Measuring rock hardness
There are a variety of forces to which materials might be
subject, to which the same material will have a varying
degree of resistance. Included in these are scratch hard-
ness, indentation hardness and rebound hardness.
‘Moh’s hardness scale’ (scratch hardness), is used by geolo-
gists as an aid to mineral identification (Table 14.1). It tests
the ability of one mineral to scratch another mineral. It
does not provide any great insight into weathering in itself,
although it might give an indication of abrasion resistance
during erosion.
Rebound hardness has received some attention in
recent years thanks to the use of the ‘Schmidt hammer’
(Figure 14.22). This was initially developed to test the hard-
ness of concrete, and fires a spring-loaded metal bolt at the
surface to measure its rebound. While of debatable use on
rough and weathered surfaces, where it tends to compress
the material rather than rebound, it has had some success
in, for example, discriminating between rocks that are more
or less susceptible to different types of karst formation
(Day, 1981). Recently, the development of similar looking,
Table 14.1 Moh’s scratch hardness scale
Scratch hardness Example mineral
1 Talc
2 Gypsum
3 Calcite
4 Fluorite
5 Apatite Figure 14.22 A Schmidt hammer in use. The hammer punches the rock
6 Orthoclase feldspar with a metal core and the rebound distance of the core can be measured.
7 Quartz
8 Topaz but more sensitive rebound instruments, such as the ‘equotip
portable hardness tester’ has offered greater potential for the
9 Corundum
characterization of weathered material in a non-destructive man-
10 Diamond ner (see Viles et al., 2010).
Box 14.4
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14.7 Geological controls on weathering
This contrasts with tensile stress, in which an axial ‘pull- are, for example, more ‘ductile’ than others and have a
ing force’ is applied, which results in the distortion of greater ability to deform under an applied stress, although
the material, followed by its rupture or fracture once the this property is in turn affected by other factors such as
tensile strength is exceeded. Between these two are shear temperature and a material typically becomes more ductile
stresses, in which offset forces induce a sliding failure when heated. In contrast, other materials (e.g. glass) may
parallel to the direction of the force once shear strength be brittle in character and have little if any capacity for
is exceeded. Resistance to these stresses is by no means deformation, and instead will tend to fracture under the
uniform and the same material will invariably respond application of a well-directed stress. Therein, however, lie
differently and more or less readily to the different stress a number of contradictions, in that brittle materials can
types. The nature of this response can be shown in the often be considered as hard and are particularly resistant
form of a stress–strain curve in which the applied stress is to, for example, abrasion forces. Likewise there is often
plotted against the distortion of the material. Figure 14.23 confusion over the difference between weak and strong, in
shows a representative stress–strain curve for material that it is often perceived that materials that bend are weak,
under tensile stress, in which strain is expressed as the and that those that do not are strong. Many materials that
ratio of the increase in length of the sample compared to experience significant elastic and plastic deformation are
its original length. From the curve it can be seen that there in fact capable of surviving stresses that would fracture
is an initially linear increase in strain, during which the more brittle materials. In the context of weathering, one
material behaves elastically, and will return to its original further complication is that the nature of materials can
dimensions once the stress is removed. The gradient of be altered by their surroundings. Thus, when a rock in
this straight line is known as the Young’s modulus for the the form of a pebble is unconstrained it can expand and
material. Following this, the material may enter a phase contract elastically in response to, say, heating and cooling
of plastic deformation, having surpassed its elastic limit, and absorb the stresses generated. In contrast, the same
which is characterized by non-reversible shape change. If material, when constrained within a larger rock mass,
the stress continues, eventually a point is reached at which cannot absorb stress through expansion and will behave
the material fractures or ruptures. This final failure could inelastically, making it more susceptible to the develop-
be an eventual response to the gradual development of ment of, for example, micro fractures and ultimately brit-
networks of micro fractures developed during repeated tle fracture.
plastic deformation, and it is this process that lies at the The chemical and physical properties described above
heart of fatigue failure. Obviously, the precise nature of this can be broadly thought of as lithological in character,
curve will differ greatly between materials. Some materials relating as they do to intrinsic properties within the mate-
rial. As we will see in the following section dealing with
stone in the urban environment, however, by the time that
Brittle fracture when
t ion most geomaterials are subject to weathering they will have
deformation is still rma Ultimate
efo experienced complex stress and deformation histories.
elastic cd failure
asti
Pl point A common result is the compartmentalization of the rock
mass into structural units ranging in dimension from sub
Elastic limit millimetres to spacings measured in kilometres. These are
defined by joints and fractures, some of which are ‘real’
and others that are ‘incipient’ and only revealed when
Gradient (rate of change)
Stress
exploited by subsequent weathering. As indicated earlier
n
= Young’s modulus
o
ati
in this chapter, the three-dimensional distribution of these
rm
fo
L l structural properties exerts major controls on both the
dec
sti
Tensile stress Material Tensile stress operation of weathering processes and the morphology
Ela
under stress
of subsequent landforms. Nowhere is this combination of
lithological and structural control better illustrated than
Strain l/L in the case of the hard, non-porous, well-jointed lime-
L = original length l = increase in length stones that form the distinctive karst topographies of the
Figure 14.23 Idealized stress–strain curve.
world (Box 14.5).
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Karst landforms
Where rocks are highly soluble, so that
most of their mass can be removed in
solution, a set of distinctive, or ‘karst’,
landforms may be formed. Karst occurs
most commonly in limestone, but may
also occur in other soluble rocks, such as
gypsum. Some comparable forms can also
be generated through melting of ice to
form ‘thermokarst’. Where the rocks are
strong, water flow and solution is concen-
trated along joints and other porous areas,
enlarging them in a complex network of
passages, many of them underground,
Figure 14.24 Karst cavern system, Planina cave, Postojna, Slovenia. Inside
although generally with some connections
this large karst Cave is a confluence of two underground rivers, Pivka and
with the surface (Figure 14.24). These pas- Rak Rivers. (Source: Ralf Siemieniec Shutterstock.com)
sages may evolve over very long periods,
and some become enlarged into caves
some of which can be hundreds of metres
in extent and form networks over many
kilometres.
Joint passages evolve most rapidly
where there is most water flow, so that
they tend to be formed mainly above the
water table, although this can alter over
time through climate or base-level change.
This also means that caves frequently
develop along the lines of stream valleys,
because the streams have the largest and
most continuous water flow. Streams, in
this way, can progressively bring about
their own demise, as more and more of
the water sinks into the bed and follows Figure 14.25 Towering karst pinnacles covered in trees, rural Guilin,
underground passages, which may only Guangxi, China. (Source: Sean Pavone Shutterstock.com)
emerge at the boundaries of the soluble
rock mass.
Other factors that increase the rate of Rapid karst development lowers the
solution are the presence of soil organic hills until they intersect the water table,
matter and cold temperatures, because so that they eventually form towers rising
CO2 is more soluble in the cold. The com- out of an almost level plain (Figure 14.25).
bination of these factors with the flow In temperate areas, karst usually develops
means that karst development is most more slowly, so that cave systems are
rapid in humid tropical areas, and slowest formed beneath a surface topography of
in hot deserts. hills and valleys. Where the landscape has
BOX 14.5 ➤
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14.8 Urban stone decay and lessons for rock weathering
➤
been glaciated, as in northern Britain, the
rock is, in many places, initially smoothed
by glacial abrasion. The action of solu-
tion and joint enlargement only gradually
destroys the initial smooth surface, leav-
ing a very characteristic surface of clints
and grikes (Figure 14.26). In unglaciated
landscapes, no visible trace of the original
surface is left, and a landscape of pin-
nacles, bounded by joint planes, is equally
characteristic (Figure 14.25).
Figure 14.26 Clints (higher rock) and grikes (gaps between) formed in
limestone in the Yorkshire Dales, northern England.
BOX 14.5
complete facades, turned black by the inclusion of soot
Reflective questions and other particles (Figure 14.27). Where levels of pollu-
tion are lower or rainfall amounts higher, such black gyp-
➤ What are the main geological controls on weathering? sum crusts are largely restricted to areas sheltered from
➤ Under what main weathering controls do karst landforms
rainwash, where they form primarily as a result of dry
dominate?
gaseous and occult deposition. While it is the presence of
such crusts that drives many owners to expensively clean
their buildings, the potential longer-term significance lies
in the possibility that the gypsum can be washed into the
stone, sometimes during the course of cleaning. There
14.8 Urban stone decay and lessons it can join other salts (derived from atmospheric pollu-
for rock weathering tion, rising groundwater, marine aerosols, road salt and
other sources) to cause breakdown through, for example,
Placing stone in a building does not immunize it from repeated crystallization and dissolution, hydration and
natural weathering processes (Smith et al., 2008). Outside dehydation and differential thermal expansion. This can
of the dissolution of limestone by acid rain, the princi- result in many of the patterns of decay, such as scaling,
pal cause of urban stone decay is salt weathering. Salts flaking, granular disaggregation and honeycombing, that
can derive either directly in the form of pollution parti- we have come to associate with salt weathering of natural
cles deposited on stone, or indirectly through reactions rock outcrops (Figure 14.28).
between different forms of acid deposition and stones Because of the financial costs involved in construc-
and mortars. This applies especially to limestones in tion, repair and replacement of stone in buildings there
sulfur-rich atmospheres and leads to the formation of cal- has been considerable research into the causes of urban
cium sulfate in the form of gypsum. In areas of elevated stone decay in recent years, but those involved face
atmospheric pollution, and where this reaction takes the same difficulties as rock weathering researchers in
place faster than the gypsum can be dissolved and washed terms of convincing building owners of the differences
away by rain, this can result in a uniform crust across between symptoms and causes, explaining the underlying
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Figure 14.27 Black encrusted façade on an Asian temple. The lower and central part has been cleaned. Note that the cleaning may not stop further
decay and may in many cases increase stone decay rates. (Source: Asian Images/Shutterstock.com)
(a) (b)
Figure 14.28 Honeycombing produced by salt weathering of sandstone used as: (a) building stone for Lindisfarne Priory and (b) a gravestone at Tyne-
mouth Priory, both on the north-east coast of England.
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complexities of the processes operating and demonstrat- 14.8.2 Rates of stone decay are unpredictable
ing the importance of accurate diagnosis for effective
Research into rates of urban stone decay, which go back to
conservation. Such a communication process is made even
the nineteenth century and the work of the famous Scot-
more difficult by the widespread public belief that stone
tish geologist Archibald Gieke on the erosion of dated
buildings should last forever, and that if they do not it
gravestones, has typically envisaged a gradual rate of
is because of some human failing rather than a natural
change. This is partly because of an emphasis on gradual
process of change. What follows therefore are some sug-
loss of material in solution, but also because of a desire to
gestions as to what building owners and architects might
justify the extrapolation of long-term rates of decay from
usefully understand about stone decay.
short-term observations. There are, however, numerous
problems with this approach. Environmental conditions
14.8.1 Stone decay is multifactorial are never stable, especially in urban environments where
patterns, types and levels of pollution are known to have
Urban stone decay derives from the superimposition of
varied greatly in historical and recent times. It is also the
anthropogenic factors on top of those associated with
case that many building stones, such as quartz sandstones,
natural change. There is a wider variety of salt types
are prone to decay in a very non-linear fashion. Typically
found within urban environments that can exploit an
they can show no surface evidence of decay for many
increased range of environmental thresholds in terms of
years, especially if this is also associated with case harden-
processes such as hydration and dehydration. This also
ing by, for example, near-surface iron cementation. Then
includes the consequences of the construction process
they can lose a complete outer layer almost instantane-
itself, in which, for example, constraining stone within
ously through the falling away of a contour scale. If the
hard impermeable mortars (especially Portland cement)
newly exposed subsurface layer has been sufficiently weak-
increases the likelihood of fracture development as
ened, perhaps by the outward migration of iron cements,
the stone attempts to expand against this restraint in
and if enough salt has penetrated deeply into the stone,
response to heating and cooling. At the same time, forc-
a set of positive feedbacks could be initiated that lead to
ing water to drain through the stone rather than through
rapid decay and complete loss of the stone block. Such a
the surrounding mortar can promote salt weathering that
process is possibly encouraged by the fact that as the stone
further exploits the micro-fracture network. The end
retreats it creates in front of it a humid, shaded environ-
result of this is a phenomenon known as boxworking in
ment in which more salt can accumulate. Conversely, if
which stones disappear to leave only the hard mortar as
there is only a shallow subsurface zone of weakening and
an empty framework (Figure 14.29).
limited salt penetration below the scale, its loss may be
followed by only limited granular disaggregation before a
negative feedback is initiated and the newly exposed sur-
face stabilizes. Stabilization can also be brought about if,
for example, a black gypsum crust is allowed to develop
following scaling. In fact, recent studies of clastic lime-
stones in the still highly polluted city of Budapest and the
once heavily polluted city of Oxford have identified mul-
tiple crust formation, where stone has gone through many
cycles of scaling and stabilization. Interestingly, there is
some evidence that a decrease in atmospheric sulfur and
particulates (which help to catalyze the rapid formation of
gypsum) resulting from clean air legislation could retard
this ‘scabbing over’ and might accelerate the decay of some
intrinsically weak stones in the longer term (Smith et al.,
2010a). This process of episodic decay is illustrated in Fig-
ure 14.30, which also highlights how effects such as scaling
and rapid surface loss may also be triggered by human
Figure 14.29 Boxworking resulting from the rapid weathering and erosion interference such as aggressive surface cleaning. What this
of soft oolitic limestone constrained within a hard cement mortar, Oxford,
England.
also illustrates is the danger and uncertainties associated
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Threshold 1 Threshold 2 Threshold 3 Threshold point
Scaling triggered by Breaching of Stone cleaning, removal of Negative feedbacks
extreme event, e.g. iron-rich crust black crust and surface layer operate
Salt severe frost Rapid
accumulation disaggregation Positive
Rapid Rapid
and biological of exposed feedbacks
disaggregation disaggregation
growth surface operate
Depth of stone
of iron-depleted of weakened
Formation of sublayer sub–crust zone
iron-rich outer
skin Growth of gypsum
black crust-salt Contour scaling
accumulation
Alternative 2 Regeneration
Alternative 1
Loss of cement of black Rapid disaggregation
Hollow develops at
and weakened Alternative 3 crust and multiple flaking of
site of scale, salts
zone below iron- Exposure of weakened stone leading
accumulate leading to
rich skin promotes leached zone rich to catastrophic decay
rapid disaggregation,
multiple flaking and tafoni develop- in salts promotes
tafoni development ment as in 1 tafoni develop-
ment as in 1
Time
Figure 14.30 Schematic diagram of potential decay sequence of a quartz sandstone used in construction in a polluted environment. (Source: from
Smith, 2003)
with any attempt to precisely predict the long-term perfor- and Viles, 2006). This could suggest that the factors con-
mance of stone, especially based on one-off observations trolling susceptibility to this type of mechanical decay are
or only short-term monitoring mainly related to differences in the physical characteristics
of individual blocks. In contrast, soiling by black gypsum
and biological crusts were associated with a higher aver-
14.8.3 Decay is spatially variable
age score for connectivity, suggesting that their formation
Casual observation of almost any ancient stone build- is controlled to a greater extent by localized environ-
ing or structure will reveal stones and groups of stones mental factors that override material differences between
that have experienced markedly different patterns and blocks.
rates of weathering and erosion (Figure 14.31). Given
that individual walls are likely to be constructed of stone
from the same source that was quarried at the same time,
the seemingly random distribution of decay shows how
subtle differences in mineralogy and structure can deter-
mine susceptibility to different processes and/or relative
resistance to the same one. Alternatively, on some walls
there does appear to be a degree of spatial organization
of decay. This could possibly be a response to environ-
mental factors, of which the most obvious is decay near
to ground level in response to salts derived from ground-
water. One way of examining this spatial dimension is to
study the degree of connectivity exhibited by particular
types of decay across a wall. This can be done by assign-
ing a principal decay type to each block, and counting the
number of sides that are adjacent to blocks demonstrating
the same type of decay. When this was done for quartz
Figure 14.31 Weathering of quartz sandstone at Bamburgh Castle, north-
sandstones in a polluted area of Belfast, this showed that east England illustrating the variable response of the same stone type
stones experiencing scaling and rapid retreat typically had based upon subtle differences in porosity, bedding, cementation and
a low level of connectivity, mainly zeros and ones (Smith other physical and chemical characteristics.
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14.9 Summary
14.8.4 Stress history is important that have loaded the stone with lime, often multiple fires
and a period of enhanced freeze–thaw activity associated
Following the successful implementation of clean air
with the Little Ice Age of the sixteenth to nineteenth cen-
legislation across much of western Europe, many build-
turies, which itself followed the Medieval Warm Period
ing owners believed that it was safe to clean buildings
(see Chapter 5). These changes are in addition to previ-
without the fear that they would rapidly resoil and safe in
ous campaigns of conservation including repointing. In
the knowledge that stone decay would effectively cease. It
an experiment to understand the effects of these different
came as something of a surprise that despite much cleaner
factors, samples of fresh sandstone were given complex
air many buildings continued to decay. In general this has
stress histories by subjecting them in the laboratory to dif-
been put down to a ‘memory effect’, but it is also a tacit
ferent combinations of freeze–thaw cycles, addition and
recognition that natural rock weathering processes also
removal of lime plaster and heating in a wood fire, after
have a role to play in urban stone decay.
which they were artificially salt weathered to replicate the
During the course of its lifetime, building stone, or any
ongoing stresses associated with their coastal l ocation
natural rock or rock outcrop for that matter, will experi-
(McCabe et al., 2007). The upshot of this was that dif-
ence a range of environmental conditions and be subject
ferent combinations produced very different patterns of
to a variety of forces. For building stone this could include
weight loss during the course of the salt weathering simu-
a number of pre-emplacement effects such as dilatation
lation, perhaps the most interesting being the pattern of
and associated micro fracturing during quarrying, as
loss associated with stones that had been heated by fire.
well as cutting and shaping before it is placed in a build-
In comparison with other stones, weight loss was initially
ing. Post-emplacement, it could be subject to many years
slow, perhaps because the heating made the stones water
of environmental cycling and physical stressing through
repellant for a period, but at a later stage the stones started
heating and cooling, wetting and drying, and freezing and
to rapidly fracture and decay. This possibly reflected the
thawing as well as potential chemical alteration and load-
exploitation of a deeper-seated network of microfractures
ing with a range of pollutants, including complex salts,
initiated during their rapid heating and cooling.
under changing environmental conditions. These factors
could enhance its susceptibility to future decay irrespec-
tive of whether atmospheric pollutants continue to be
available. The importance of these ‘complex histories’ has
been demonstrated in a recent study of coastal medieval Reflective question
sandstone churches in Ireland and Scotland. Over their
➤ What key lessons for rock weathering have we learned
lifetime these buildings have been subject to many changes,
from studying building stone decay?
including the application and removal of plaster renders
14.9 Summary that drive the weathering of geomaterials. These include chemi-
cal weathering processes of carbonation, solution, oxidation
Weathering is an essential precursor to almost all other geomor- and reduction and the enhancement of these processes by
phological processes. It is all around us and is happening all the biological action. Physical weathering processes include dila-
time. It is pervasive, persistent and can operate under normal tion, thermoclasty, freeze–thaw, salt weathering and increased
environmental circumstances. The shapes of features produced stresses caused by biological activity. In the above processes
by weathering have a feedback effect on weathering processes water plays an important role as it is an effective solvent and it
by influencing micro-environmental conditions. This chapter has has important physical properties related to surface tension and
introduced the key chemical, physical and biological processes adsorption.
➤
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Chapter 14 Weathering
➤
Rarely do weathering processes operate singly. Weathering millimetres and in minutes rather than years or even days. Like-
is the result of the interaction of two or more processes operat- wise, if salt and ice weather rock by exploiting pores and micro
ing together or in sequence and these combinations result in fractures the first thing we need to understand is what goes on in
the particular features and landforms that we see around us. All these spaces and what controls it. An implication of such a small-
geomaterials carry within them a stress history, even so-called scale approach is that eventually we have to upscale our under-
fresh rock will have embedded ‘memories’ of the conditions under standing to explain the formation of landforms and landscapes
which it was formed, as well as any subsequent tectonics and the over much longer timescales.
processes responsible for its exposure at the Earth’s surface. This For urban stone decay it is important to remember that many
stress history, especially where it is complicated by, for example, factors contribute to decay and so eradicating one will not neces-
numerous environmental changes over a long period of exposure, sarily prevent decay. Often the rates of stone decay are hard to
can have a major influence on subsequent rates and patterns of predict and can be spatially highly variable. Stress inheritance is
weathering. especially relevant in situations where decay is episodic in nature
Despite an historical tendency to classify weathering pro- and where it is the long-term accumulation of stress and mate-
cesses, forms and products on the basis of simplified large-scale rial weakening that typically brings rock close to the threshold
environmental controls, such as meteorological measures of beyond which it is subject to rapid and often catastrophic decay.
mean annual rainfall and mean annual temperature, the most As rock nears this strength–stress threshold it becomes more sus-
important environmental controls on weathering processes tend ceptible to damage from exceptional environmental conditions
to act at the meso- and micro-scales at the interface between and processes that did not necessarily contribute to its previous
materials and the environment. Therefore, to understand weath- weakening. Hence the common coincidence of weathering with
ering it is important to focus investigations on the temporal and extreme events has led to an over-emphasis of the effects of, for
spatial scales over which the responsible processes operate. example, extreme high and low temperatures to the detriment
Thus, if breakdown is through granular disaggregation one should and neglect of more mundane conditions and regular environ-
focus initially on understanding the behaviour of individual grains mental cycles that lay the foundations for much of the change
in response to environmental changes that operate over a few and decay that constitutes weathering.
Further reading An in-depth study of how salt weathering has turned out to be
one of the most pervasive weathering processes that has many
implications not just for natural landscapes, but particularly for
the durability of materials in the built environment.
Bland, W. and Rolls, D. (1998) Weathering: An introduction to
the scientific principles. Arnold, London. Hall, K. and Thorn, C. (2011) The historical legacy of spatial
This is an excellent book for the reader to explore the chemistry scales in freeze–thaw weathering: Misrepresentation and result-
of weathering in greater detail. ing misdirection. Geomorphology, 130, 83–90.
This paper challenges traditional assumptions about
Ford, D.C. and Williams, P. (2007) Karst hydrogeology and geo- freeze–thaw.
morphology. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester.
An excellent overview of karst processes and associated Yatsu, E. (1988) The nature of weathering: An introduction.
landforms. Sozosha, Tokyo.
One of the most detailed accounts of rock weathering.
Goudie, A.S. and Viles, H.A. (1997) Salt weathering hazards.
John Wiley & Sons, Chichester.
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C H A PTER 1 5
Slope processes and landform evolution
Mike Kirkby
School of Geography, University of Leeds
Learning objectives ‘critical zone’) is also the raw material from which soils
are developed (see Chapter 17). Land management such as
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
agricultural practice strongly affects the rate and types of
hillslope processes. The way in which farmland is managed
➤ describe differences in slope profiles
can dramatically influence whether soil erosion remains at
an acceptable level, or is increased to a rate which leads to
➤ describe the key processes of sediment and solute transport
long-term and often irreversible degradation of the soil.
across slopes
Terrestrial landscapes are dominated by erosion,
➤ explain how the balance and rate of processes influence the and the material removed is ultimately transported to
evolving form of hillslope profiles the oceans where it takes part in the continual slow
➤ use slope profiles to interpret the processes shaping them recycling of the Earth’s crust as tectonic plates spread
apart and collide to form new mountains (Chapter 2).
Geomorphological processes form an essential part of this
15.1 Introduction crustal recycling which periodically renews the surface of
our planet in episodes of orogeny, erosion and isostatic
Over 90% of landscapes that are currently not glaciated response. Water helps to break up rocks as part of the
consist of hillslopes, and the remainder consist of river process of weathering, and drives sediment transport
channels and their floodplains. Although hillslopes are processes that carry soil materials down to the ocean,
not generally the most active part of the landscape, they progressively eroding the land. This chapter reviews the
provide almost all of the material which eventually leaves various hillslope sediment processes, the factors which
a river catchment through the more active channelways. influence their rates and the ways in which the processes in
The processes by which parent material is broken down an area influence the form of the hillslopes. The balance
by weathering (see Chapter 14) and carried to the streams between process rates has a very strong influence on the
are therefore vital to an understanding of how the catch- form of both the landscape and its soils, and plays a large
ment works as a geomorphological machine. The weath- part in the distinctive appearance of landscapes in differ-
ered layers of debris on hillslopes (the regolith or the ent climatic regions of the Earth. Weathering and erosion
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Chapter 15 Slope processes and landform evolution
provide the raw material which rivers transport through
their valleys to the oceans. However, changes in hillslope
erosion rate may not be matched by similar changes in
river transporting capacity, resulting in either floodplain
aggradation and widening, or valley incision.
15.2 Slope profiles
The appearance of hillslopes around the world varies
considerably (Allen, 1997). Some of these differences
are related to the vegetation and soils on the hillslopes,
but there are also important differences in the form
of hillslope profiles. Most profiles are convex near the
divide (top of the slope) and concave near their base (a)
(Figure 15.1). The most significant differences between
them are in their total length, gradient and convexity.
15.2.1 Slope length
Slope profiles are generally surveyed along a straight line
(on a map) from the divide, following a line of steepest
descent, to the nearest point at their base (Figure 15.1),
which is usually in a river or floodplain, or, for coastal
slope profiles, directly into the sea. The length of inland
slope profiles is inversely linked to the drainage density (the
total length of channels per unit area) (see Chapter 19),
which varies, depending on gradients, climate and rock
type. In temperate areas such as Britain, slope profiles (b)
are typically almost a kilometre in length, whereas some Figure 15.2 Comparison of typical slope lengths in: (a) humid temperate
semi-arid areas have slopes that are less than 10 m long. zones (Yorkshire, England, with stone walls demarcating field boundaries)
and (b) semi-arid badlands (Badlands National Park, South Dakota, USA).
Drainage density therefore generally tends to be low
(Source: (b) Robert Cicchetti / Shutterstock.com)
(1–5 km km - 2) in humid areas such as north-west Europe,
and higher (10–500 km km - 2) in semi-arid areas, partic-
ularly where the soils are developed from impermeable
Divide
Average slope
rocks such as shales, clays or marls, on which intensely
gradient dissected badlands may occur (Figure 15.2).
Profile
Slope profile line
15.2.2 Slope steepness
Vertical distance
Convexity
Slope profiles also differ in their average gradients, from
Surveyed profile down
a line of steepest slope
steep cliffs to gentle slopes with almost imperceptible
in a catchment gradients. Figure 15.3 shows the four possible elements
of a profile, consisting of an upper convexity, a free face,
Concavity
a straight slope of almost constant gradient and a basal
concavity. Not all of these features are found in every slope
Horizontal distance profile, and some may be repeated more than once within
a profile. For example, many profiles do not have a free
Total slope length face at all, but grade smoothly from convexity to concav-
Figure 15.1 A typical hillslope profile. ity, as in Figure 15.1, whereas many steep profiles have a
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15.2 Slope profiles
number of free faces, each with a straight slope and/or found in humid areas, and is associated with the different
basal concavity below it. balance of processes. Comparing hillslopes of different
overall steepness, the proportion of different slope ele-
• Upper convexity: from the divide, there is generally a
ments changes, and the free face and/or straight slope are
convex slope of increasing gradient and with slopes
commonly absent on lower-gradient slopes. These differ-
from level (0°) to a maximum of up to 35° (although
ences are sketched in Figure 15.4, and this represents one
usually less).
of the very many possible evolutionary sequences over
• Free face: below the upper convexity there may be a cliff
time. On even steeper slopes, the basal concavity and/
of free face, usually consisting of bedrock at a slope of
or the straight slope may also disappear, so that the cliff
up to 70° (although exceptionally steeper and/or locally
plunges directly into a river as a gorge.
overhanging). The free face may be somewhat stepped
The slope steepness reflects the relationships between
if there are rock layers of different resistances.
the hillslope and conditions at the slope base. Where there
• Straight slope: there may also be a straight section of
is a river that is cutting rapidly downwards at the slope
almost uniform gradient. Below a free face this usually
base, then slopes are inevitably steeper than where the river
consists of a scree or talus slope, at 30° to 40°, with a
is stable. The most rapid downcutting is usually associated
surface of loose stones. In some cases the straight slope
with tectonic uplift, since the river is generally able to cut
is cut into bedrock, which is usually visible in patches
down almost as fast as the land is uplifted, while the upper
beneath a thin layer of loose stones, and is called a
part of the hillslopes is initially little affected. Steep slopes
boulder-controlled slope. Where the rock is layered, the
are also associated with coastal areas, owing to under-
sequence of free face and talus slope may be repeated
cutting by wave action (Chapter 22). Coastlines are some
several times. Straight slopes at 10° to 25°, in fine
of the commonest locations for good free face develop-
materials, are also commonly found in sands and clays,
ment. Cliffs are also common in formerly glaciated areas,
although not associated with a free face, but merging
where slopes have been steepened by glacial erosion, and
directly into the upper convexity.
post-glacial processes have not yet (after 10 000–15 000
• Basal concavity: at the foot of the slope there is usually
years) had time to eliminate them.
a basal concavity which leads down towards the val-
Over time, and in tectonically stable areas, slope
ley-bottom river and floodplain. This is usually in sand
processes progressively erode the landscape to produce
or finer materials.
more and more gentle slopes. The gentlest slopes are
Between these slope elements, there may be breaks in therefore found in tectonically stable shield areas, such as
slope (BiS in Figure 15.3), within which the slope gradient West Africa, central Australia and northern Canada and
changes relatively abruptly. There are commonly breaks in Eurasia. Where rocks are more easily eroded, slopes flatten
slope at the top of a free face, and between the free face more quickly, so that, in any area, the gentlest slopes
and the straight slope below it. In arid and semi-arid areas, are usually found on clays and shales. However, there
there is usually another break in slope between the straight are exceptions which include badland areas where the
slope and the basal concavity, although this is not normally dissection is severe, promoting steep gully sides.
Upper convexity
BiS
Upper convexities
Free face Free faces
BiS
Straight slope
BiS?
Straight slopes
Basal concavity
Lower concavities
Figure 15.3 Elements of a slope profile: upper convexity, free face,
straight slope and basal concavity. BiS is break in slope. Figure 15.4 Slope elements on steep and gentle gradient hillslopes.
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Chapter 15 Slope processes and landform evolution
‘skyline’ profile
‘steepest
descent’
profiles
Figure 15.5 Cliffs and gullies near Tabernas, SE Spain. Visually the skyline profile follows the divides between the concave gully thalwegs. However, true
slope profiles are from each local divide into the nearest channel, following a line of steepest descent.
15.2.3 Slope convexity 15.3 Hillslope transport processes
The amount of the hillside that is convex in profile is usu-
ally expressed as a proportion of the total slope length. Slope processes are of two very broad types: (i) weather-
Hillslopes vary from almost complete convexity (100% ing and (ii) transport of the regolith. Within each of these
convex) to a narrow convexity and a much broader concav- types, there are a number of separate processes, which may
ity, although most slopes are mainly convex. Where slopes be classified by their particular mechanisms into groups
appear to have long concavities, as in the ‘skyline’ profile (Table 15.1), although many of these processes occur in
shown in Figure 15.5, the profiles seen from a distance are combination. Most slope processes are greatly assisted
not the lines of steepest slope, but a line or a series of lines by the presence of water, which helps chemical reactions,
along the divides between channels. These divides follow makes masses slide more easily, carries debris as it flows
the concave profiles of the streams between them, whereas and supports the growth of plants and animals. For both
the true ‘steepest descent’ slope profiles run from the weathering and transport, the processes can conveniently
divides into the nearest stream and are convex, or convex be distinguished as chemical, physical and biological.
and straight. Landscapes evolve over time in response to the internal
The proportion of convexity is related to both the bal- redistribution of sediment, usually with some net removal
ance between slope processes and the relationship between of material to rivers or the ocean. The way in which land-
the slope and the river at its base. Where the river is cut- scapes and slopes evolve depends on their initial form,
ting down rapidly, or undercutting the base of the hillside, the slope processes operating and the boundary condi-
then slopes not only are steeper but also tend to be more tions which determine where and how much sediment is
convex. Similarly, where the streams are aggrading, more removed (Allen, 1997). These relationships between pro-
of the slope profile tends to become concave. cess and form are discussed later in this chapter. Weath-
ering is dealt with in Chapter 14 and so the subsequent
section deals with transport processes.
Where there is a plentiful supply of material, and the
Reflective questions
process which moves it can only move a limited amount
➤ Compare slope profiles you have seen or studied in different for a short distance, the rate of transport is limited by the
areas: how do they differ in the proportions of each slope transporting capacity of the process, which is defined as
component (Figures 15.3 and 15.4) – or are they all the same? the maximum amount of material which the process can
carry (Kirkby, 1971). A transport process of this kind, such
➤ Where might you typically expect to find the longest and
as rainsplash (see below), is described as transport limited.
the shortest average slopes?
Some other processes are limited, not by their capacity
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15.3 Hillslope transport processes
Table 15.1 Classification of the most important hillslope processes
Evapotranspiration
Rainfall (clean water)
Surface
Weathering Transport Type
processes processes (S/T) Overland flow (containing
Regolith
concentrated solute)
Solution of
Chemical Mineral weathering Leaching regolith material
Bedrock
Ionic diffusion T Percolation Shallow
Physical Freeze–thaw Mass movements: (with solutes) Subsurface flow subsurface flow
Recharge to in weathered rock (with solutes)
Salt weathering Landslides S groundwater at depth (with solutes)
Thermal shattering Debris avalanches S
Figure 15.6 Cycling of solutes in soil water and runoff.
Debris flows S
Soil creep T in solution rapidly too. In Figure 15.6, rain falls on the
Gelifluction T soil, where it picks up solutes from the regolith, in pro-
Particle movements: portion to the concentration of each constituent in the
Rockfall S regolith, and its solubility. As water in the rock gradually
Through-wash T
weathers the bedrock, solutes also diffuse out of the upper
layers of rock into the soil water. Some water is lost by
Rainsplash T
percolation, containing solutes carried, for example, into
Rainflow T
limestone cave systems. Some water is lost to evapotrans-
Rillwash T piration, and this carries little or no solutes, so that the
Biological Animal digestion Biological mixing T remaining overland flow and subsurface flow runoff have
Root growth (often included within an increased concentration of solutes. This concentration
soil creep)
effect is only marked in relatively arid climates, where the
Types: T = transport@limited; S = supply@limited removal (see text).
evapotranspiration is high.
In extreme cases, some of the soluble material reaches
to transport, but by the supply of suitable material to its maximum saturated concentration, and any further
t ransport, and are described as supply limited. For example, concentration leads to redeposition of the dissolved
rockfall (see below) from a cliff has a very large potential material near the surface. This occurs most commonly for
capacity to carry material, but is limited, fortunately, by a calcium, which is often found to form crusts of calcrete
shortage in supply of freshly weathered material. near the surface in arid and semi-arid areas. The concen-
There is not always a clear distinction between trans- tration of solutes is therefore generally highest in dry cli-
port- and supply-limited processes, but it is an important mates, but the total amounts removed in solution are much
distinction which has a substantial impact on the way in less than in more humid areas. Where a flow of water con-
which hillslopes evolve over geological time periods. Land- tains dissolved material, the rate at which the solutes are
scapes that are dominated by transport-limited removal carried away or advected is determined by their concen-
are generally covered by a good layer of soil and vegeta- tration in the runoff water. This is called advective solution
tion, and slope gradients tend to decline through time. or leaching, and is very effective at removing solutes from
Landscapes where removal of material is mainly supply regolith near to the surface, both in runoff and in percolat-
limited, however, tend to have sparse vegetation, thin soils ing waters. Once material is leached out, it generally trav-
and steep slopes which tend to remain steep throughout els far downstream, and its rate is supply limited. Leaching
most of their evolution (Carson and Kirkby, 2009). is not very effective, however, in removing material from
the bedrock–regolith boundary because little water usu-
ally flows across this boundary. However, there is a rapid
15.3.1 Chemical transport processes (solution)
change in solute concentration at this boundary as water
The process of solution is closely linked to chemical remains in contact with material of different composition
weathering, as rock and water interact. The chemical (see Chapter 20). Close to the bedrock, there is a high con-
reactions that are altering rock material in place are, at centration of solute ions in the water. Further above the
the same time, releasing the lost material dissolved in the bedrock, there is a lower concentration in the slightly more
water. Rocks that weather rapidly therefore lose material weathered regolith.
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Chapter 15 Slope processes and landform evolution
This difference in concentration results in a net upward down to the roots from decaying leaf litter deposited on
movement of ions, which means that there will be a the surface, and so completing the nutrient cycle of the
movement of solutes away from the bedrock towards the vegetation.
regolith, even though no water is moving. This is because
of ionic diffusion. Ions move about randomly over short dis-
15.3.2 Physical transport processes
tances and Figure 15.7 compares the number of downward
movements from the upper area of low concentration and When material is physically transported down a hillslope,
the number of upward movements from the lower area of it may travel as a mass or as independent particles. In a
high concentration. Even though the movements are ran- mass movement, a block of rock or soil moves as a sin-
dom, Figure 15.7 illustrates how random movements in all gle unit, although there may be some relative movement
directions cause a net diffusion of material from areas of within the block. The movement of the block is mainly
higher ion concentration to areas of lower concentration. determined by the forces on the block as a whole, and
Around the regolith–bedrock interface the concentration the individual rock or soil fragments within the block are
of ions is higher near the unweathered bedrock than in the in close contact, so that they are moved together, almost
partially weathered regolith, driving a net upward move- irrespective of the properties of the individual constituent
ment of ions, carrying solutes away from the bedrock, even grains. The alternative to a mass movement is a particle
though little water is moving. In this case the solute load movement, in which grains move one, or a few, at a time,
depends not on the flow of water but on the differences in and do not significantly interact with one another as they
concentration between the layers. This movement of solutes move. For a particle movement, forces act on each particle
by ionic diffusion is not as fast as by leaching where there is separately, and they move selectively, mainly depending on
appreciable water moving, but can be very important in the their sizes, but also on other factors such as shape and den-
early stages of rock weathering, when little water is able to sity (Selby, 1993). Some processes can behave in either way,
flow through the almost intact rock (Yatsu, 1988). Because according to the size of an individual event. For example,
material moves only a short distance by ionic diffusion, and in small rockfalls there is little interaction between the few
is not limited by the supply of suitable material, solution by blocks coming down the cliff face, but larger blocks may
ionic diffusion is a transport-limited process. break up into fragments which interact as they fall, giving
Leaching is generally the most important process in them some of the characteristics of a mass movement.
carrying solutes down the slope and into the rivers. Both Both mass movements and particle movements can
leaching and ionic diffusion, however, play an important occur at a range of rates. In general, however, movements
role in moving solutes vertically. One particularly signifi- driven by large flows of water tend to be more rapid than
cant role of vertical leaching is in carrying plant nutrients drier movements. The more rapid movements also tend to
carry material farther, and so tend to be supply limited,
whereas slower movements tend to be transport limited.
Low ion concentration
15.3.2.1 Force and resistance
Movement of material is decided by a balance of forces,
some of which promote movement and some of which
resist movement. For mass movements, the forces act on
the block of material which is about to move, and for
particle movement on each individual particle. The main
forces promoting movement are those of gravity and water
detachment. On a slope, there is always a component of
the weight of the material that tends to pull it downslope,
High ion concentration
and this applies equally to particle and mass movements.
Flowing water can detach fragments of rock or soil if
it passes over them rapidly. It can do this in three ways:
Figure 15.7 Net transport resulting from random diffusion. Because the
concentration is greater nearer the bottom of this figure than at the top
(i) flow of water over the surface picks up material from
then there will be more upward movements than downward movements the surface; (ii) raindrops strike at the surface at up to
and so the net transport will be upwards. 10 m s - 1 and jets of water from their impact can return at
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15.3 Hillslope transport processes
almost equal speed; and (iii) in a deposit which has enough If SF 7 1 then movement will not occur; if SF … 1
fine-grained material in it, water can also permeate the then movement will begin. As soon as movement begins,
entire deposit, and convert it into a mixture of water the resisting forces on the material usually decrease, as the
and sediment which moves as a thick slurry. This process moving material detaches itself from the bonds which
is called fluidization, and is able to carry large masses of originally held it in place. The moving material therefore
material in debris flows (see below). Friction and cohesion accelerates at first. Material slows down again only when
provide resistance to movement. Box 15.1 provides details the promoting forces also decrease. This usually happens
of such resistance processes and the balance of forces where the material comes down to lower gradients where
operating on hillsides. In simple terms, material begins the downslope component of the gravity force becomes
to move when the forces promoting its movement become less, or where the water flow carrying the material spreads
larger than the resistances holding it back. The ratio of out and moves more slowly, or drains out into the ground
these forces is known as the safety factor: or the surrounding area.
sum of forces resisting movement
Safety factor (SF) =
sum of forces promoting movement
(15.1)
Resistance and the resistance that can be exerted is a fixed component of the weight (mg sin b)
balance of forces proportion of the into-slope force. This exactly balances the frictional resistance
is called the coefficient of friction, m. (F = N tan f = mg cos b tan f) when
Resistance to movement is mainly due to Another way to express the coefficient of the slope angle, b, reaches the angle of
friction and, to a lesser extent, cohesion. friction is as the angle of friction, f. For a friction, f. The angle of friction is there-
When a particle, or a block of material, dry slope, the angle of friction is related to fore very easy to measure experimentally
rests on another, a component of its the coefficient of friction by the equation: (Figure 15.9), and, for coarse material, is
weight (together with the weight of any approximately equal to the angle of repose
other material on top of it) provides the m = tan f (15.2)
found in natural scree slopes, of 30–35°.
‘into-slope’ force shown in Figure 15.8. For In Figure 15.8, where there is no water In many kinds of partly weathered
given materials in contact, the frictional entrainment (E = 0), the downslope bedrock, the material consists of roughly
rectangular blocks, separated by joints or
bedding planes. The possibility of sliding
Upthrust due to submerged weight
in water of density rw: parallel to the surface along the zig-zag
Frictional resistance,
F = (N - U) tan f = p/6 U = p/6 rw g d 3 cos b
(r - rw) g d 3 cos b tan f Revolving
Downslope component
of weight = p/6 r g d 3 sin b drum
Flow
velo
city
=v
Fluid entrainment force
Into-slope for grain with friction Level
component factor f: Angle of
of weight, E = p/8 f rw d 2 v 2 repose
N = p/6 r g d 3 cos b
Water Scree surface
Slope Weight, for particle of Slope angle b
diameter d and density r:
Figure 15.9 A transparent drum is slowly
W = p/6 r g d 3
turned so that the angle of repose of a
scree material can be measured.
Figure 15.8 Forces acting on a particle resting on a slope in overland
flow. Box 15.1 ➤
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Chapter 15 Slope processes and landform evolution
➤
line indicated in Figure 15.10 is very much by the water within the material. If the those consolidated over geological time
hindered by the interlocking of the two material is saturated with water, then periods, have substantial cohesion. When
surfaces, and can begin only when the part of its weight is carried by the water, these compressed clays are brought up to
surfaces are lifted apart, or dilated in the following Archimedes’ principle that the the surface, however, weathering along
direction shown by the arrow, at an angle upthrust is equal to the weight of water fissures in the clay gradually reduces
to the slide direction, so that free sliding displaced. On a hillslope, the surface of the cohesion, so that, over a period of
only takes place along the surface after the flowing water is parallel to the sur- 50–100 years, the cohesion becomes very
the sliding mass has lifted clear of the face, and so this upthrust, or weight relief, small again.
main cliff. Under these conditions, which affects only the into-slope component of Material strength is made up of friction
are typical of most cliffs, the effective the weight and not the downslope com- and cohesion. Both of these are usually
angle of friction, 𝚽, is increased by the ponent. The effect of saturating the expressed as a stress, or force per unit
dilation angle, so that material is therefore to reduce the area, and measured in megapascals (equal
frictional resistance, which is proportional to millions of newtons per square metre)
Φ = f + u (15.3)
to the into-slope force. This is a very (see also Box 23.4 in Chapter 23). The total
It is for this reason that cliffs are com- important factor, and is able to reduce the strength, s, exerted to prevent sliding is
monly able to stand at angles of 75° or frictional force to roughly half its value expressed as a stress, or force per unit
more, made up of an angle of friction of under dry conditions. This means that a area:
35° plus a dilation angle of 40° or more. slope that becomes saturated from time
s = c + s tan f (15.4)
The frictional resistance to sliding of a to time can be stable only at slopes of
block of material is very strongly affected about half of the angle of friction. where c is the cohesion, s is the normal
In some materials, especially unweath- force (N) per unit area and f is the angle
ered rocks and some clays, there is still of friction. The angle of friction and the
some resistance to movement even when cohesion are essentially properties of the
Dilation there is little or no overburden weight. This material. Some typical values are summa-
angle, u
residual resistance is called the cohesion rized in Table 15.2. The general pattern in
of the material, and the total cohesive this table is that materials with a lot of clay
force is equal to the cohesion value for the minerals (clay, till and shale) have lower
material multiplied by the area of effective angles of friction than others, and heavily
contact. Cohesion is thought to develop consolidated materials (limestone, granite,
in materials that have been consolidated sandstone and shale) have higher cohe-
at depth. Hence clays formed close to sion than unconsolidated materials which
the surface, such as some tills, have little have been formed closer to the surface
cohesion, while older clays, particularly (sands, gravels, clay, till and chalk).
Table 15.2 Typical values for soil strength parameters in soil and rock materials
Figure 15.10 The stable slope angle Sand/ Glacial
for a cliff with interlocking joint blocks gravel Clay till Chalk Limestone Granite Sandstone Shale
and/or bedding planes. Blocks are only
released from the slope when they Cohesion (MPa
or million N m - 2) 0 0–10 0–10 10–20 100–400 100–400 10–30 10–40
are able to slide out at an angle to
the slope surface, the ‘dilation angle’ Angle of friction
(degrees) 30–40 5–20 15–35 30–35 30–35 30–35 30–35 10–25
shown, which may be 40° or more.
Box 15.1
15.3.2.2 Rapid mass movements essentially moves as a block, and flows, in which different
parts of the mass move over each other with differential
There are many names for different types of rapid and movement or shear. Figure 15.11 shows the difference
slow mass movements. In rapid mass movements, the cru- between velocity profiles for a slide and flow. It is usually
cial distinction is between slides, in which the moving mass
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15.3 Hillslope transport processes
(a) Slide Table 15.3 Rapid mass movements classified by water content
Surface Water Density
content (kg m − 3) Types of flow Sediment forms
More solids 2600 Slides Back-scar and toe
than water
1900 Debris flows Thixotropic forms
Uniform velocity 1700 Debris avalanche Marginal levees and
lobes
More water 1000 Fluvial sediment Mid-channel bars
Sharply defined than solids transport
slide surface
(b) Flow advanced over the previous surface. Slides may be more
or less planar when there are lines of weakness which
Surface follow geological structures or are parallel to the ground
surface. Cliffs with lines of weakness parallel to the face
often fail in this way, creating slab failures in which a flake
of rock collapses completely or partially (Figure 15.12a).
Sometimes the flake only partly separates and begins to
lean progressively outwards until it fails by toppling. Many
Varying velocity with low
rate of shear near surface low-angle (10–20°) clay slopes also fail in planar slides,
along surfaces near the base of the weathered regolith
Rapid basal shear but (Figure 15.12b). Planar slides are long (in the downslope
no sharp slide surface direction) relative to their depth (measured into the slope),
Figure 15.11 Velocity profiles of mass movement in idealized slides and
with length : depth ratios of 10 : 1 to 20 : 1 (Skempton and
flows. Shear is the differential movement between layers. In a slide, shear DeLory, 1957).
is concentrated at the slide surface. In a flow, shear is spread throughout Slides also occur deep within the mass of a slope.
the moving mass. In tills or consolidated clays, these rotational slides
(Figure 15.12c) move on surfaces 5–10 m deep, but in
found that flows occur in masses with more water mixed strong rock, the slides may be at depths of 50–250 m, in
into the moving mass, in proportion to the amount of proportion to the much greater cohesive strength of the
regolith or rock material. In a slide, water is often very rock compared to the clay (Table 15.3). Their length :
important in reducing the frictional resistance and allow- depth ratios are typically 3 : 1 to 6 : 1. The largest slides, in
ing movement to begin, but there is little water within the
(b)
moving mass. In a flow, there is usually almost at least as
Back-scar Length:depth = 10:1–20:1
much water as solids, and sometimes many times more.
(a)
Water and regolith materials can be mixed together in Rotated former
Collapsed
toe
almost any proportions if they are moving fast enough, surfaces
although coarse materials (sand, gravel and boulders) can (c)
only remain suspended through the mixture in the fastest Length/depth = 3:1–6:1
Back-scar
and largest flows. Table 15.3 shows a classification of mass
movements based on their water content, and the resulting
Collapsed
type of flow. toe
In a slide, the form of the original block can usually
still be seen, particularly at the upslope end, where the
back-scar is usually clear. The slide mass may show mul-
Figure 15.12 Types of rapid mass movement: (a) slab failure on a steep
tiple scars and cracks where it has moved. The down-
gradient; (b) low-gradient planar slide, length : depth = 10 : 1 to 20 : 1;
stream end, or toe, shows much more severe deformation (c) steep rotational failure, length : depth = 3 : 1 to 6 : 1. Red lines show
producing a hummocky topography where the mass has general path of moving mass.
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Chapter 15 Slope processes and landform evolution
flow, such as a river, debris is lifted into the flow by tur-
bulent eddies and settles to the bed again under its own
submerged weight. Material is deposited as a series of
bars within channels. As the concentration of solids is
increased, many of the moving grains strike other grains
before reaching the bottom, and are supported on a
bouncing layer of grain-to-grain collisions. The lift pro-
vided by these collisions, called the dispersive grain stress,
becomes more important than turbulence in a hyper-
concentrated flow, and is maintained by the power of the
flow. Along the edges of the flow, the water drains out
sideways, leaving a levee of material, while the centre of
the flow continues downslope. When the flow eventually
comes to a stop on gentler slopes, the levees are joined by a
loop of debris around the front edge of the flow. This kind
of flow is relatively common on steep mountain slopes,
and is generally known as a debris avalanche. However,
some lower-level debris avalanches have had a significant
impact. The destructive 2014 debris avalanche in north-
west Washington shown in Figure 15.14 covered about
Figure 15.13 The prehistoric Saidmarreh landslide, south-west Iran. 1.3 km2 and caused substantial loss of life and damage
Material from the 15 km wide source area was spread over 64 km2, over and dammed the river causing flooding. In many formerly
riding the ridge on the other side of the valley. (Source: Geology.com,
glaciated valleys, debris avalanches come down the steep
using Landsat Geo cover data provided by NASA)
side slopes, and their lobes spread over the gentler foot
slopes, each flow following the lowest path available over
rock, may therefore move entire mountain sides, and may the lobes of previous flows. Creation of the mixture which
be very destructive, such as the Hope and Turtle Mountain behaves as a hyper-concentrated flow is thought to occur
slides in the Canadian Rockies, the prehistoric Saidmarreh through small slides on gully sides which fall into a rapidly
slide in south-west Iran (Figure 15.13). flowing stream of water down the centre of the gully.
Where the slope material moves in a wetter mixture, Where there are sufficient fine-grained materials (silt
the mass movement becomes more like a flow. In a pure and clay) in the mixture, then a true debris flow can occur,
Figure 15.14 Large debris avalanche known as the ‘Oso landslide’, north-west Washington, March 2014. The event involved about 16 million tonnes of
material and caused the loss of 43 lives in the community of Steelhead Haven. Flooding can be seen in the image due to the damming of the river by the
sediment from the event. (Source: Mark Reid, USGS)
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15.3 Hillslope transport processes
with a still higher ratio of solids to water. Drainage at the loose, low-density material, which is particularly prone
edges of the flow is less evident, and grains are supported to debris flows, known as lahars. Flows may also be trig-
because they sink only slowly in the mixture, which is both gered by subsurface seepage of water into the bottom of
dense and viscous (sticky), so that the flow is much less an unstable human-made deposit, as occurred in the 1966
turbulent and even large rocks sink very slowly. The flow Aberfan slide in South Wales, where springs saturated a
may still move at dangerously high speeds, but also tends low-density mine spoil heap and coal waste flowed into a
to stop suddenly, as drainage lowers the water content to school and houses, causing many casualties.
a critical level, and the whole mass suddenly sets into a In steeplands, whole areas may be affected by swarms
rigid mass. As water drains out, the viscosity rises sharply of mass movements. These are usually triggered by rainfall
as grains are no longer separated by flowing water, but as it wets the soil and reduces the safety factor, but the
collide with one another and coagulate. This behaviour, in underlying cause may be exceptional storms, for example
which the viscosity decreases as the rate of shear (relative linked to hurricanes or typhoons, that lead to unprece-
movement) increases, is called thixotropic. This creates dented levels of soil saturation. Swarms of mass move-
more and more rapidly moving masses once the movement ment can also be caused by land-use change, for example
has been triggered, and very rapid solidification as the where logging removes the trees that help to transpire soil
movement slows down, through drainage and/or on lower water and add to the cohesion of the soil with their roots.
gradients. Debris flows can be triggered by landslides Earthquakes may also be responsible, shaking the ground,
during intense storms, particularly in semi-arid areas and so adding to the forces that promote movement and
where there is plenty of loose material and in steep moun- reducing the safety factor. Figure 15.15 shows swarms of
tain areas worldwide. After volcanic eruptions, freshly landslides and debris flows triggered by the April 2015
deposited ash commonly provides a plentiful supply of Nepal earthquake.
Figure 15.15 Multiple mass movements following an earthquake in Nepal in April 2015. The image shows an area around 40 km2 near the border
between Nepal and China, with some example landslides highlighted by red circles. (Source: Jesse Allen, USGS/NASA)
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Chapter 15 Slope processes and landform evolution
15.3.2.3 Slow mass movements The three main drivers for soil creep, wetting–drying,
freeze–thaw and biological mixing, can all be of similar
The essential characteristic of slow mass movements is that magnitudes, although one or other dominates in any par-
they do not involve movement bounded by a discrete slip ticular site (Selby, 1993). For example, in temperate decid-
surface. Failures occur between individual soil aggregates, uous forests, biological mixing may dominate, whereas in
and not over the whole of an area. Movements are usually upland areas, freeze–thaw is probably the most important.
driven either by ‘heaves’ of expansion or contraction, or Most measurements suggest that rates of near-surface
by apparently haphazard movements between aggregates. movement by soil creep are typically 1–5 mm per year,
Heaves are usually caused by freezing and thawing of soil dying away to nothing at depths of 300 mm. The total
water, or by wetting and drying of the soil. Haphazard sediment transport capacity, C, is usually estimated, from
or apparently random movements are usually caused by these measurements, as about:
biological activity which mixes the soil in all directions. In
all cases, these movements do not cause any net movement C = 10 * (tangent of the slope gradient) cm3 cm - 1 yr - 1
when they occur on level ground, but on a slope the steady (15.5)
action of gravity causes more downhill than uphill move- Because soil creep moves the regolith material, and only
ment, and there is a gradual transport of regolith material, operates when there is an ample soil cover, the process is
at a rate that increases with gradient (Figure 15.16). One considered to be transport limited, so that transport is
particular form of slow mass movement, which is inter- always at the transporting capacity.
mediate between slow and fast behaviour and is driven by An important anthropogenic process that behaves like
freeze–thaw activity, is g elifluction, which occurs in perigla- an accelerated soil creep is tillage erosion, which is the
cial areas (see Chapter 24). result of ploughing, either up- and downslope or along
Wetting or freezing of the regolith has been shown the contour. Each time the soil is turned over, there is a
experimentally to produce an expansion that is almost per- substantial movement of soil. Up- and downhill ploughing
pendicular to the soil surface. As the soil then dries (after produces a direct downhill component of movement as
wetting) or thaws (after freezing), it sinks back closer to the turned soil settles back. Contour ploughing can move
the vertical, under the influence of gravity on the more material either up or down, according to the direction in
open texture of the expanded soil (Figure 15.16). The rate which the plough turns the soil. Contour ploughing in
of movement is therefore thought to be roughly propor- which the soil is turned downhill moves approximately
tional to the slope gradient. At different times of year, the 1000 times as much material as soil creep. Contour
expansion penetrates to different depths, so that, totalling ploughing in both directions (soil turned uphill and then
over the year, the lateral movement of material is greatest downhill or vice versa) or ploughing up- or downhill pro-
close to the surface, and dies away gradually with depth. duces a smaller net movement, but the overall rate is still
Biological organisms (e.g. earthworms, rabbits and about 100 times greater than natural soil creep. Sediment
gophers) move material more or less randomly in all direc- transport is more rapid using modern heavy machinery
tions, but gravity again provides a bias which leads to net than with primitive ploughs, but it is clear that tillage ero-
downhill movement on a slope at a rate roughly propor- sion may have been responsible for more soil movement in
tional to gradient. some areas during the past few centuries than natural soil
creep during the whole of the last 10 000 years. The accu-
mulated effect is often apparent from the build-up of soil
S urf behind old field boundaries and from the infilling of hol-
ace
Expa
cont n d in lows within arable fields. Soil conservation measures seek
ract g and
ing l to reduce the effects of tillage erosion and often involve
U na ayer
ffect s
ed la
yers
having contoured buffers across large fields to trap sedi-
ment as shown in Figure 15.17.
Net
movement 15.3.2.4 Continuous creep
For several days or weeks, both before and after land-
Figure 15.16 Soil creep due to expansion and contraction in a sloping slides (Figure 15.18), the soil commonly moves slowly
regolith. The net movement is downslope. along the slide surface in a process which is intermediate
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15.3 Hillslope transport processes
Figure 15.17 Buffer terraces to reduce the effects
of tillage erosion on slopes in M
ontgomery County,
Iowa. (Source: Claus Meyer / Minden Pictures /
Getty Images)
between a landslide and soil creep. The rates may be
10 000 characteristic of soil creep, but the movement is concen-
Rate of movement (mm yr-1)
trated along a well-defined surface. In some clays, much
1 000 of the movement on a hillside seems to consist of this
continuous creep, which is usually shown up by occa-
100
sional tears in the vegetation cover, and by evidence of
more distinct landslides here and there (Figure 15.19).
In this type of movement, the main movement is a
10
downslope glide rather than an expansion and contrac-
SLIDE tion, but some sites show a combination of normal soil
1
0 1 2 3
creep and continuous creep, so that many combinations
Time (months) of heave and glide are possible.
Figure 15.18 Continuous soil creep before and after a slide.
Figure 15.19 An earthflow in
southern Italy, where continuous
creep is occurring over most of a
field.
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Chapter 15 Slope processes and landform evolution
15.3.3 Biological mixing generally much more rapid than any chemical processes,
so that the mineral soil shows only very small chemical dif-
Plant roots and burrowing by creatures of all sizes pro-
ferences. If weathering goes to depths beyond the reach of
duce an overall biological mixing. Because there is more
biological mixing, there is a clear distinction between the
material in dense soil than in uncompacted soil, there
homogenized mixed upper layers and an undisturbed sap-
is a net diffusion of material from denser to looser soil
rolite in which the detailed rock structures are preserved
(Figure 15.20). Small organisms such as bacteria are very
intact within the weathered regolith.
abundant, but generally move little material, as they are
much smaller than the soil aggregates. Larger organisms
such as rabbits may move large quantities of material, but
15.3.4 Particle movements
are much less abundant than earthworms. The greatest
total effect is generally due to creatures of moderate size, 15.3.4.1 Rockfall and screes
such as earthworms, termites and ants, which are just
large enough to move the aggregates. The rates of mixing Although cliffs may lose material in large slab failures,
are much lower when the soil environment is not suitable they more commonly lose smaller blocks, which fall as
for them due to waterlogging, cold, lack of nutrients and/ they are released from the cliff face by weathering along
or lack of air (usually at depth). However, in some areas, the joints and/or bedding planes around them (Terzaghi,
larger rodents, such as gophers and mountain beavers, 1962). These blocks often break into smaller fragments on
have the greatest impact. impact, and the pieces bounce and roll down the scree slope
The regolith is normally loosely packed near the sur- at the foot of the cliff, with little or no interaction between
face, and denser at depth, and this bulk density profile is a them (Figure 15.21). The scree slope is itself constructed by
result of two processes, both strongly driven by biological accumulation of the falling blocks as the cliff retreats. As it
mixing: (i) the balance between a net upward diffusion of retreats, the scree covers the base of the cliff, and protects
mineral material by biological mixing, and its settlement the base from further loss. In this way a bedrock core is
under the action of gravity, at a rate which is greatest established within the scree. This can occasionally be seen
where the bulk density is least; (ii) the balance between the in road-cuts, or where the loose scree is quarried away.
net downward mixing of low-density organic litter and The blocks falling onto a scree have a range of sizes, and
its decomposition to carbon dioxide. The combination the scree slope acts as a dynamic sieve which sorts the stones
of these two processes gives a bulk density which is very as they bounce, roll and slide down its length. Each time a
low at the surface, and gradually increases with depth to a block makes contact with the scree surface, it may come to a
constant value at 0.2–2.0 m according to conditions, where stop, or it may continue downhill. A small block landing on
the soil is deep enough (Figure 15.20). Within this layer of a surface of coarser blocks can readily be trapped between
biological mixing, the mechanical mixing processes are the blocks and stop, whereas a large block tends to slide over
the gaps between smaller blocks (Figures 15.21b and 15.22).
Density (kg m-3)
Small blocks therefore tend to stop near the top of the scree
1000 2000
slope, and larger blocks go farther down, creating a slight
0 down-scree coarsening of the grain size, which is main-
Organic tained as the scree continues to accumulate.
dominated
The broken blocks will, in time, also weather away. In
arid areas, the boulders are often covered in a tough, dark
30 desert varnish, which is produced as the interior of the
boulder weathers. When the varnish is broken, perhaps by
Depth (cm)
an impact, the weathered interior of the boulder breaks
Mineral down into sand, which is easily washed off the steep
60
dominated scree slope (Melton, 1965). The way in which the scree
slope develops depends on the ratio between the rates of
these two stages of weathering: (i) from intact bedrock
to boulders and (ii) from boulders to sand. Where the
90 second stage is very slow, the cliff is gradually buried in
Figure 15.20 A bulk density profile, showing the combined effects of its own detritus as the scree extends farther and farther
increasing pore space and increasing organic content towards the surface. up the cliff (Figure 15.23a). This is the normal pattern
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15.3 Hillslope transport processes
(a) Figure 15.21 Two scree slopes. (a) Boulder-
controlled slope in Nevada where cliff and scree
are dynamically retreating. (b) Static accumula-
tion on a scree in Yorkshire showing mixed sed-
iment sizes including large blocks that have slid
over smaller blocks. (Source: (a) Antony Blundell,
University of Leeds)
(b)
(a) (b)
Small block lodging between
larger blocks on surface Rockfall Rockfall
Large block sliding
over smaller blocks
Scree surface on surface
No weathering Weathering of scree
of scree blocks blocks to sand which
is washed away
Figure 15.23 Static and dynamic cliff and scree evolution: (a) static accu-
Figure 15.22 Relative roughness for movement of stones which are mulation of scree with burial of cliff; (b) continued dynamic retreat of cliff
smaller or larger than the scree surface. and boulder-controlled slope.
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Chapter 15 Slope processes and landform evolution
observed on cliffs in formerly glaciated areas, such as regolith. The pores between grains of equal size are much
Britain (Fisher, 1866). Beneath such a scree there is usually smaller than the grains themselves, so that grains can be
a convex parabolic rock core. Where the second stage is washed through textural pores only if they are at least 10
faster than the first, however, material is removed from the times smaller than the grains they are passing through.
scree as quickly as new material is added to it by rockfall. Through-wash is significant, therefore, only in washing
Here scree is only a thin veneer on a bedrock slope at the silt and clay out of clean sands (e.g. in the sandy layers
angle of repose of the scree material (30–40°), which is of podzolic soils), and in washing clays into and through
called a boulder-controlled slope (Bryan, 1922). The land- structural pores, such as cracks and root holes, which are
form, consisting of a cliff and boulder-controlled slope often lined with clay skins which have been deposited there
(Figures 15.21a and 15.23b), retreats across the landscape, in this way.
maintaining an almost constant ratio of total to scree The more important wash processes take place at
heights (equal to the weathering ratio described above). the surface. Material may be detached by two processes,
Such forms are also familiar from the American south- raindrop impact and flow traction, and transported either
west (e.g. Monument Valley), where cliff and scree have by jumping through the air or in a flow of water. Combi-
retreated until outliers are separated by a broad desert nations of these detachment and transport processes give
plain. Just below the base of the cliff, the bedrock core can rise to the three different processes: rainsplash, rainwash
often be seen, preserved at the angle of repose of the scree and rillwash, as indicated in Table 15.4. Raindrops detach
(Figures 15.21a and 15.24). material through the impact of drops on the surface. Drops
can be as large as 6 mm in diameter, and fall through the
air at a terminal velocity which is related to their size. For the
15.3.4.2 Wash processes
largest drops, the terminal velocity is about 10 m s - 1, but
Water is directly responsible for the other main processes they attain this only after falling through the air for about
of material transport as particles which move more or less 10 m. If their fall is interrupted by hitting the vegetation,
independently. The least significant process is through- drops hit the ground at a much lower speed, and have much
wash, in which regolith particles are moved through the less effect on impact. As drops hit the surface, their impact
creates a shock wave which dislodges grains of soil or small
aggregates up to 10 mm in diameter and projects them
into the air in all directions. The total rate of detachment
increases rapidly with the energy or momentum of the
raindrops, and thus with the rainfall intensity. As a work-
ing rule, the rate of detachment is roughly proportional
to the square of the rainfall intensity. Where the raindrops
fall into a layer of surface water which is more than about
6 mm thick, the impact of the drop on the soil surface is
largely lost. Impact through thinner films can still detach
aggregates into the water, and other detached grains jump
into flowing water films, which then transport grains which
they do not have the power to detach.
If water is flowing with sufficient force, it exerts a force
on the soil which is sufficient to overcome the frictional
and cohesion resistance of soil particles (Figure 15.8).
Table 15.4 Types of wash processes
Transportation style
Detachment by Through the air In overland flow
Raindrop impact Rainsplash Not applicable
Figure 15.24 Bedrock, at the angle of repose of scree material, exposed Overland flow traction Rainwash Rillwash
at the top of a boulder-controlled slope in Provence, southern France.
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15.3 Hillslope transport processes
This can be expressed by the safety factor (Box 15.2). depth of soil, and carries material together as a coherent
An important feature of all particle movements is that mass. Protection from raindrop impact, either by vegeta-
different grain sizes are carried selectively. For a surface tion or by stones, strongly suppresses rainsplash by reduc-
of mixed grain sizes, the safety factor is generally deter- ing the impact velocity of raindrops. Individual stones
mined by the average of the coarser grain sizes present, may be left capping miniature pillars of soil as shown in
as small grains hide behind and are protected by larger Figure 15.25, and microtopography, including tillage fea-
grains, and cannot easily be dislodged on their own. The tures, are gradually smoothed out as rainsplash redistrib-
coarsest material may also be only partially submerged in utes material, eroding high points and filling depressions.
a shallow flow, increasing its safety factor because the fluid
entrainment force and the upthrust (Figure 15.8) are both
reduced. The threshold is also influenced by the vegetation
cover, which absorbs some of the flow power. A dense
grass cover may, in practice, provide an extremely resistant
surface that is vulnerable only where there is a bare patch,
due, for example, to grazing pressure. At low flows, some
fines can be detached from between coarser grains, but at
higher flows, the whole surface begins to break up together
(‘equal mobility’), as coarse material releases trapped fines.
Once detached, fine grains generally travel farther, but, as
coarse grains settle, they again begin to trap fines in the
pockets they create. However, in general, travel distance in
an event, and therefore the contribution to total sediment
transport, decreases with increasing particle size.
Transportation through the air, in a series of hops, is
able to move material both up- and downslope, but there
is a very strong downslope bias on slopes of more than
about 5°. As a rough guide, the net rate of transportation
(downhill minus uphill) increases linearly with slope gra-
dient, and inversely with the grain size transported. The
gross rates of material transport, for rainsplash, are gen-
erally similar to those for soil creep. Rainsplash, however,
Figure 15.25 Stones protecting soil pillars from rainsplash. Columns of
is strongly particle size selective, and operates only on soil are left intact with a stone sitting on top of the pillar.
the surface, whereas soil creep operates over a significant (Source: PhotoDisc: Alan & Sandy Carey)
Balance of forces on a where ∆ = (rs - rW)/rW which is the forces are greater than the resistance, and
stone in water ratio of submerged grain density to water the particle may be detached by the flow
density and rs, rW are the grain and water traction. Corrections to this expression for
For a grain of diameter d, fully submerged densities, respectively. the safety factor are needed to allow for
in a flow of depth r on slope s, the safety The ratio ∆ has a value of about 1.65 the cohesion force between fine grains,
factor SF is: for mineral grains, but may be much lower which increases roughly as 1/d, and for
∇d for aggregates. If the safety factor falls the tendency for particles to roll on their
SF = (15.6) below a critical value, then the driving own down very steep slopes which are
rs
Box 15.2 ➤
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Chapter 15 Slope processes and landform evolution
➤
close to their angle of repose. With these
corrections 100
∆d(1 - s/tan f) + c/d
SF = (15.7)
rs
Relative resistance
where c is a constant, related to the cohe-
sion, with a value of 1–10 mm2. 10
The critical value of the safety factor is Cohesion, Frictional
greatest resistance,
also influenced by the effect of turbulence for fine greatest for
in the flow, so that the critical value for grains coarse grains
entrainment is not 1.0, but lies between 10
and 20 in experimental practice. The resis- 1
tance and therefore the safety factor has a 0.1 1 10 100
Grain size (mm)
minimum at around 1 mm for sand grains
in water, and has the general form shown Figure 15.26 Resistance to detachment by overland flow, showing
in Figure 15.26. The particular values of effects of cohesion and grain friction. Safety factor 5 resisting forces/
driving forces.
the safety factor will depend on a number
of other variables, particularly slope gradi-
ent (s) and flow depth (r). Once the safety
factor falls below the critical threshold, the
total rate of detachment is proportional to
the deficit below this threshold. Box 15.2
Where the surface is not protected from raindrop experiments on silt soils in Mississippi, for example, have
impact, either by overhanging vegetation or by coarse showed a 40-fold difference in total water flow between a
gravel, the impact of raindrops on soil aggregates leads bare crusted field (80% annual rainfall converted to run-
to crusting of the surface. As raindrops strike the surface, off) and a densely vegetated plantation (2% annual rainfall
some water is forced into aggregates, compressing air converted to runoff).
inside them, causing them to explode in a process known Once there is overland flow, material can be carried
as slaking, and breaking them down to their constituent in the flow, and some material can move much further
grains and smaller aggregates (Figures 15.27a and b). than through the air during rainsplash. The presence of
According to the grain sizes involved, these are then
washed into the pore spaces around intact aggregates, cre-
(a) (c)
ating an impermeable seal, which changes as each raindrop
strikes the surface. Where the soil is mainly silt sized, a
structural crust is formed at the surface (Figure 15.27c).
Where there is appreciable sand, or stable sand-sized (d)
aggregates, the crust forms below the surface (a sieving (b)
crust, Figure 15.27d). Often the fine broken-down material
washes into depressions and is redeposited in a layered
sedimentary crust (Figure 15.27e).
(e)
All of these types of crust create a relatively imperme-
able surface which strengthens the surface and severely
limits infiltration, so that runoff from subsequent storms
is increased. Vegetation cover protects the soil from direct
Figure 15.27 Processes of soil crusting: (a) original soil aggregates;
raindrop impact and so dramatically reduces this crust
(b) break-up of surface layer of aggregates into constituent grains under
formation, and, as a result, there is a very strong rela- raindrop impact; (c) structural crust at surface; (d) sieving crust below the
tionship between vegetation and runoff generation. Plot surface; and (e) sedimentary crust of in-washed and deposited fines.
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15.3 Hillslope transport processes
overland flow provides a thin layer of water on the soil
surface, generally distributed rather unevenly, following
the microtopography. This layer of water attenuates the
impact of raindrops, and significantly reduces detachment
when it is deeper than the raindrop diameter (6 mm). In
shallow flows, the combination of detachment by raindrop
impact and transport by the flowing water is the most
effective transport mechanism, and is known as rainflow.
This process provides a significant fraction of the material
carried into and along rills and larger channels.
When and where the flow is deeper than 6 mm, rain-
drop detachment becomes ineffective, and detachment is Rainsplash dominant
related to the tractive stress of the flowing water. Sediment Rainflow dominant
is detached when the downslope component of gravity and Rillwash dominant
the fluid entrainment forces overcome frictional and any
Figure 15.28 Domains of wash processes in a semi-arid microcatchment.
cohesive resistance in the soil (Figure 15.26). Detachment
increases with discharge and gradient, and decreases with
grain size except where cohesion is significant. Flows pow-
erful enough to detach material generally suppress rain-
drop detachment, and detached material is also carried by
the flow. This combination of processes is called rillwash,
and is responsible for most of the erosion by running
water in major storms. Much of the material exported
from an eroding field is the direct product of enlarging
these small rill channels during the storm, and almost all
of the material detached by raindrop impact also eventu-
ally leaves the area through these channels.
Combining the effects of these three wash processes
which are active during storms under a sparse vegeta-
tion cover, much of the area is subject only to rainsplash
(Figure 15.28), which feeds into areas, some spatially dis-
connected, with thin films of water where rainflow is dom-
inant. These areas in turn provide sediment to the eroding
channels where rillwash is actively detaching material and
enlarging the channels. In larger storms, the areas of rill-
wash and rainflow increase, and become better connected
to the channels. The runoff generated per unit area and
the area contributing runoff to the outlet both increase,
giving a greater than linear response of runoff to increased
storm rainfall. Because sediment transport also increases
more than linearly with discharge, the non-linearity of
the relationship between rainfall and sediment load is
even stronger, making the erosion pattern very sensitive
to topography at scales from the catchment to individual
soil clods.
Many sparsely vegetated areas develop temporary rills
and gullies which are channels formed during storms and
destroyed by infilling between storms (Figure 15.29). In
agricultural fields, infilling is generally through tillage,
sometimes deliberately after each storm and otherwise Figure 15.29 Rill development on an exposed slope.
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Chapter 15 Slope processes and landform evolution
following the annual cultivation calendar. In unculti- Some rocks, for example coarse sandstones and granites,
vated areas, natural processes of wetting and drying, or produce a discontinuous distribution of grain sizes in their
freezing and thawing, create a loose surface layer which weathering products, dominated by joint-block boulders
accumulates downslope along the depressed rill lines, and of weathered rock and the sand grains which are produced
gradually obliterates them. Rills are small channels, gen- as the boulders break down. On these bedrocks, desert
erally 5–10 cm deep, that are formed on a smooth hillside slopes often show a sharp break in slope at the base of
and are not associated with a depression. Over a series of steep hillsides, between straight slopes close to the angle
storms the rills reform in different locations, and gradually of rest and the basal concavity (Figure 15.3). If grain size
lower the whole hillside more or less evenly. Ephemeral is plotted against gradient for these slopes, the sharp break
gullies form along shallow depressions, and tend to reform in slope represents missing gradients which correspond to
along the same line in each storm, enlarging and deepening the gap in the grain size distribution.
the depression, while the infilling processes bring material
from the sides and gradually widen the depression.
15.3.5 The balance between erosion processes
In a particularly large storm, channels may form that
are too large to be refilled before the next event. These Process rates are affected by topography, particularly slope
channels then collect runoff in subsequent events, lead- gradient, and the collecting area for overland flow; by
ing to further enlargement, and may become permanent runoff generation and flow paths controlled by climate,
additions to the channel network. As material is exported, soil type and land use; and by the properties of parent
undercutting of the surface layer can lead to further rapid materials mediated by the regolith. Each of the processes
growth of a linear or branching gully system, which dis- discussed above in the sections on weathering and trans-
rupts agriculture and roads, and may be very difficult to port may be dominant under some circumstances, and
restore. in this section some qualitative comparisons are made
Selective transportation removes fine material from the between the rates of co-existing processes.
soil, leaving behind coarser material that ‘armours’ the Gradient is the strongest and most universal driver
surface. As the surface is lowered by erosion, the armour of hillslope processes, but processes respond to it very
layer consists of the coarsest fraction in the layer of soil differently (Figure 15.30). Solution rates are only slightly
that has been eroded, and so develops more and more affected by gradient, at least until slopes are so low that
over time. The coarse armour progressively begins to little water circulates through the regolith. Several pro-
protect the soil by reducing detachment rates, increasing cesses, including soil creep, gelifluction (see Chapter 24)
infiltration and providing an increased resistance to flow. and wash processes, increase almost linearly with gradient,
All of these effects reduce the rate of erosion until some although the rate begins to increase more rapidly as they
equilibrium is approached. In this equilibrium, local dif- approach the angle of stability (Carson and Kirkby, 2009).
ferences in sediment transport rate balance differences in Rapid mass movements, including landslides and many
armour grain size. One effect of this process, acting over a
period, is to establish a relationship between surface grain
size and gradient, with coarser material on steeper slopes.
The effects of selective transportation are only evident Rapid mass Soil creep,
where the regolith contains some coarse material. This movements gelifluction,
wash
usually consists of weathered bedrock, but may consist
of fragments of calcrete or other indurated soil horizons.
Process rate
However, erosion of soils that contain little or no coarse
material, for example deep loess deposits or some deeply
weathered tropical soils, cannot produce an armour layer,
so may continue unchecked to great depths, often allowing
the formation of extensive gully systems. On the other
Solution
hand, shallow, stony soils produced by weathering of the
bedrock show an enhanced effect of armouring because
erosion brings lower layers of the regolith to the surface, Gradient
containing less and less fines, and the end point of ero- Figure 15.30 Schematic relationships between process rates and slope
sion may be a rocky desert, with no prospect of recovery. gradient.
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15.3 Hillslope transport processes
debris flows, only begin to move above a fairly sharply 30
defined threshold gradient. Thus on the gentlest slopes, High
solution may be the dominant process, while the steepest
slopes are generally dominated by rapid mass movements.
However, the transition gradient from one process to 20
another depends on other factors, such as the regolith Rio de Janeiro
materials and climate. SE
Temperature (5C)
Spain
The effect of climate is closely linked to the role of
10
vegetation. Here only areas with near-natural vegeta- Low
tion are considered, and it should be remembered that
cultivation, fire and/or grazing can greatly modify these
relationships. A rainfall–temperature diagram can be used
0
to sketch the range of conditions. However, conditions
generally change through the year at any site, and pro-
cesses may therefore show a seasonal pattern, in which High
the vegetation cover responds to monthly changes with
-10
some delay. Removal in solution is primarily associated 0 500 1000 1500 2000
with the amount of subsurface runoff, and is greatest Precipitation (mm)
where rainfall is high and temperatures are cool, but Figure 15.32 Rates of wash erosion for uncultivated land in different
not frozen. The pattern of relative rates is sketched in climate regimes near Rio de Janeiro Brazil and south-east Spain.
Figure 15.31 on this basis, showing a maximum rate in
wet temperate climates. Annual climate loops for south- Removal by wash shows a more complex pattern, with
east Spain (Almeria) and south-east Brazil (Rio), showing two regions of high erosion potential (Figure 15.32), both
monthly mean values of precipitation and temperature for associated with sparse natural vegetation. One high is in
each month of the year, have been included for reference. areas that are too cold to support vegetation, but warm
Although deeply weathered soils are most widespread in enough to have at least seasonal runoff. The second high is
humid tropical areas, this distribution mainly reflects the in semi-arid climates, where sparse vegetation is combined
much longer time for development in tropical shield areas with intense rainfall. At a given temperature, there is an
(10–100 million years) than in recently glaciated temper- initial rise with rainfall as runoff increases while vegeta-
ate areas (10–20 000 years), more than differences in rates tion remains sparse. Beyond a maximum, erosion declines
of removal. as the increase in vegetation cover more than compen-
sates for the increase in rainfall. Although not shown in
30
Figure 15.32, there is some evidence for an eventual grad-
ual rise in erosion at very high rainfalls, under a closed
forest canopy which can provide no additional protection.
Low This pattern strongly reflects the relationship between cli-
20
mate and natural vegetation. The corresponding pattern
SE Spain
for a fixed vegetation cover such as the extreme of a bare
Rio de Janeiro
Temperature (5C)
surface shows a steady increase with rainfall, almost irre-
10 spective of temperature except under permanently frozen
High conditions. The difference between these two patterns
gives some measure of the effect of clearing natural vegeta-
0 tion for agriculture, and shows why forest clearance is par-
ticularly damaging in its erosional impact, both for wash
erosion and, as noted above, for mass movements.
Other processes show less interesting responses to cli-
-10
0 500 1000 1500 2000 mate. Despite the importance of moisture in driving rapid
Precipitation (mm) mass movements, storm events occur in most climatic
Figure 15.31 Rates of solution of igneous rocks in different climate regimes and are, with earthquakes, the most important
regimes near Rio de Janeiro, Brazil and south-east Spain. triggers of landslides and debris flows. Mass movements
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Chapter 15 Slope processes and landform evolution
therefore show relatively large increases with increasing responds to these factors in a distinctive manner, and
rainfall and for increasingly frost-prone climates. The therefore shows a characteristic distribution over an area,
contrast between processes in different climates therefore or down the length of a particular slope profile. These dif-
shows several features, although with many exceptions ferences gradually change the form of the hillslope profile
according to local conditions and histories: and, if the climate and tectonic regime remain reasonably
uniform, lead to a consistent relationship between profile
• on steep slopes, rapid mass movements are generally
form and the dominant processes acting. This section
dominant;
explores these relationships in order to understand the
• on very low slopes, solution is generally dominant;
principles that link process and form. Some simple models
• on moderate slopes, wash processes are favoured under
are examined that make use of these principles and show
semi-arid conditions and solution processes under
how they may be used to interpret real landscapes.
humid conditions.
Hillslopes dominated by wash processes typically show
sparse vegetation, thin stony soils, often with a surface
15.4.1 Concepts
armour and poor soil development with little organic The history of hillslopes is primarily one of erosion, and
matter. Hillslopes dominated by solution show deep soil land masses would eventually become rather flat plains
profiles with strong development of clay minerals, often close to sea level (after about 10–100 million years) if
encouraging mass movement. The soil is fine grained with there were no tectonic uplift. However, few, even cratonic,
high organic content and a dense vegetation cover. These areas ever reach this stage, partly because few areas are
soil and vegetation characteristics are also mirrored by absolutely stable relative to sea level, and because erosion
differences in hillslope form. is substantially (∼75%) compensated by isostatic uplift.
More commonly, areas reach an approximate balance,
or equilibrium, between erosion and tectonic uplift and
Reflective questions such landforms are relatively easy to analyze and under-
stand. The most useful single concept in understanding
➤ Can you summarize and explain the response of each
how hillslopes evolve is the principle of mass balance.
hillslope sediment transport process to slope gradient?
When sediment is transported, the loss from the source
➤ What processes would you expect to be dominant on area exactly balances the addition to the receiving area.
gentle slopes in North Africa and New England? In a few landscapes, a sequence of landforms can be seen
which represent either the linear progress of a process, or
➤ How would you expect the surface and subsurface
different process rates along a climatic gradient, and it
appearance of soils undergoing soil creep and rillwash to
is possible to substitute space for time (ergodic method),
differ? Consider their texture, sorting, organic matter con-
and interpret the spatial sequence as an evolutionary
tent and horizon development.
sequence over time. Where such simplifying assumptions
➤ Can you compare the processes you would expect to find can be made, even approximately, landscapes can be most
in (a) tectonically active mountains and (b) humid tropical readily interpreted. Often, however, quantitative models
shield areas? are required to understand how process and landform are
related to each other.
➤ How do wash processes depend on hillslope hydrological
processes?
15.4.1.1 Mass balance
➤ How do climate and vegetation influence the rate and
dominance of slope processes acting? The most general statement of mass balance is the storage
equation:
Input - output = net increase in storage (15.8)
15.4 Evolution of hillslope profiles This expression can be applied to the mass of any identi-
fiable component of a hydrological or geomorphological
Hillslope processes move material around the landscape, system. The component may be water, total Earth materi-
primarily, for each climatic zone, in response to gradient als, a chemical element or compound, a sediment fraction
and hydrological conditions. Each process discussed above defined by grain size or source rock, or a population of
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15.4 Evolution of hillslope profiles
tracers (e.g. radioactive or painted pebbles). Budgeting A strict equilibrium can generally be achieved only when
may be done in absolute terms, or with reference to a tectonic uplift is exactly equal to the rate of downcutting
chosen fixed datum. For example, Earth materials may be at every point in the landscape. In practice, both tectonic
budgeted with reference to sea level as a datum, and water uplift (in earthquakes) and erosion (in major storm events)
may be budgeted as deficit or surplus relative to saturation. are episodic, so that equilibrium can only be considered
Finally the physical space for which a budget is calculated by taking long-term averages, and most real landscapes
can be whatever is most convenient: it may, for example, be depart even more substantially from a true equilibrium
for a one-dimensional balance of vertical fluxes at a point; (see Chapter 1). Nevertheless, the concept of equilibrium
for a channel reach; for a particular catchment; or for the provides a powerful tool, as in many other branches of sci-
whole Earth surface. What is important is that inputs and ence, for simplifying the analysis of a complex system, and
outputs take full account of gains and losses for the com- offers important insights into the relationship between the
ponent system of interest, and include all transfers of mass set of processes acting and a corresponding characteristic
across the boundaries of the defined system. Examples of form for the hillslope profile.
mass balance approaches are given in Box 15.3. Three types of situations are of particular value in
approximating to recognized types of landscape behaviour,
and in simplifying the relationship between form and pro-
15.4.1.2 Equilibrium and other simple landforms
cess. The first is the constant downcutting form, in which
Although there is a complex interplay between landforms uplift exactly balances vertical downcutting. Such forms
and processes, some understanding of how processes are found in areas of strong tectonic uplift, in which slope
shape landforms is gained by considering simple land- gradients steepen until slopes and rivers carry away the
scapes in which there is an approximate balance between sediment as fast as uplift raises new material. The second
the rates of processes, and the shape of the hillslope is is parallel retreat, in which a hillslope profile migrates
either constant (Hack, 1960) or evolving in a simple way. laterally across the landscape as it erodes. Landscapes of
Mass Balance
One example of a mass balance is to
consider total sediment for a floodplain Input from
Hil
ls upstream
reach (Figure 15.33). Using the terms in inp lope
uts
the figure to expand the basic storage Floodplain storage
equation:
(Inputs from upstream +
hillslope inputs) - output
downstream = net In-channel
storage
increase in (in@channel
and floodplain) storage (15.9) do Out
wn pu
str t
By measuring or estimating the terms in Boundary ea
m
this expression, an estimate can be made of physical
system
of whether the floodplain is aggrading considered
or degrading, and a succession of mass
balances can provide an estimate of what
is happening in an entire catchment, and Figure 15.33 Components of a valley floor sediment budget. The physical system is
how long sediment spends in different bounded by the edges of the floodplain and the top and bottom of the reach.
Box 15.3 ➤
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Chapter 15 Slope processes and landform evolution
➤
parts of the catchment. This residence (SIN - SOUT)∆t = ∆Z ∆x (15.12) over time. Each short-term forecast of ero-
time is calculated as follows: sion or deposition changes the form of the
or
hillslope. Each change of the hillslope form
volume in storage
Residence time = ∆Z (SIN - SOUT) changes the rate of sediment transport as
average annual flux = (15.13)
∆t ∆x it responds to the topography.
(15.10) where SIN and SOUT are the rates of sedi- If the distances ∆z, ∆x and the time
In this case the volume is the total volume ment transport (per unit contour width). ∆t tend to zero in an appropriate way, the
of floodplain alluvium, and the average The left-hand side of equation (15.13) rep- equation becomes the partial differential
flux is the mean of the input and output resents the rate of change of elevation over equation:
rates. Estimates have shown that resi- time, or the rate of aggradation (negative
0z 0S
dence times are longest (10 000 years) if erosion). The right-hand side represents + (15.14)
0t 0x
within the hillslope soil layers, least in the current rate of change of sediment
small channels (10 years), and gradually transport with position. Thus the storage where S is the sediment transport. The
increase downstream (100–1000 years) equation converts the spatial pattern of change in sign from equation (15.13) is
(Dietrich and Dunne, 1978). The sediment erosion (the right-hand side) to a forecast due to the convention that the change
budget can be further subdivided, and in for the rate of change over time (erosion in S is taken in the sense of increasing
this example it may be relevant to sepa- or deposition on the left-hand side). This is downslope (i.e. as SOUT - SIN).
rate the budget into grain size fractions. the basis for modelling hillslope evolution
In this case, an additional input for each
separate size class is the breakdown from
coarser sizes, and an additional output is ¢x = horizontal
New surface
length of section
the breakdown into finer material. Old
For the hillslope, it is often convenient surface
Base of soil
to break the length of the slope profile into
equal sections (Figure 15.34), and examine
¢z = change in surface level
the sediment budget for each section. For
the section of interest, representing one
particular store, the storage equation is
Sediment in from Next section
Section of
upslope - sediment out upslope Next section
interest
to downslope = increase downslope
SIN = sediment
in section storage (15.11)
transported
from upslope
For a section of length ∆x over a short
SOUT = sediment
time period ∆t during which the surface
transported
elevation is increased by ∆z and there is to downslope
no addition of, for example, wind-blown
material, this storage equation can be put Figure 15.34 A sediment budget for a section of a slope profile.
into symbols in the form: Box 15.3
this general type are found in some semi-arid areas, where in areas of long tectonic stability, and more commonly
steep boulder-controlled slopes and cliffs are maintained described for humid than for arid areas.
in near-horizontal sedimentary rocks during the retreat Because of the relatively low density of continental
of escarpments across distances of several kilometres rocks and the flexibility of tectonic plates, the unloading
(Figure 15.21a). The third is slope decline, in which the of the mantle by erosion is partially or completely com-
landscape profiles remain the same in form, but become pensated by isostatic uplift, which replaces about 70%
increasingly muted in their vertical relief, and eventually of the loss by erosion, and is spread over an area which
decline to a horizontal plain. These forms are described depends on the rigidity of the slowly flexing plate.
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15.4 Evolution of hillslope profiles
Where erosion is occurring in a sequential fashion, in appropriate starting time; and (iii) the boundary condi-
the migration of a meander cutting into the valley wall, or tions, which define how the model slope interacts with the
where a spit grows along the coast progressively to protect rest of the landscape. In each case, simple assumptions can
cliffs behind from erosion (Chapter 22), then the spatial be used to show some aspects of slope development, but
sequence of visible profiles represents a sequence of pas- more complex conditions may be needed to match the evo-
sive slope recession over different periods since undercut- lutionary history of a particular hillside.
ting was active. Figure 15.35 shows an example of where The relationship between process rate and topography
this space–time substitution may be applicable. As the can be developed by summing the rates across the fre-
broad meander bend has migrated downstream from Y to quency distribution of storm or other events, linking the
X, the sequence of slope profiles from X to Y can be inter- long-term rates to detailed process mechanics. However,
preted as an evolutionary sequence showing the retreat in most slope models, this summation is taken for granted,
of a cliff by rockfall, with development of an angle of and results are quoted directly for the long-term average
repose slope below it. Although it is often possible to draw rates. The driving variable of discharge is represented by
slope profiles within an area and arrange them into such its topographic surrogate which is often the distance from
a sequence, it is not generally appropriate to do so except the divide (or the collecting area in a three-dimensional
in very particular circumstances such as those shown in landscape). Furthermore, assumptions are commonly
Figure 15.35. More generally, the profiles form a spatial made about whether removal is transport limited or supply
set representing the differences in process rates among the limited, and the discussion here will focus on the simpler
range of topographic (area and slope gradient) settings transport-limited case. With these assumptions, there
found within a catchment, and should not be reinterpreted have been many attempts to express sediment transport
as a time sequence. as an algebraic function of distance from the divide, x,
and local (tangent) gradient, g. Not all processes can be
readily put in this form, and for landslides and other rapid
15.4.2 Models
mass movements they have only very limited validity, but
The discussion of slope evolution can only be carried the expressions in Table 15.5 provide a useful and relevant
forward through the application of mathematical and basis for comparing form and process. In the literature,
numerical models (Culling, 1963; Kirkby, 1971; Kirkby there is some range of exponents which appear to give
et al., 1993). The cornerstone of these models is the mass acceptable results, and these values should be regarded
balance equation for a section of a slope, which converts only as indicative.
the spatial pattern of sediment transport into a forecast Creep, rainsplash and gelifluction are all driven pri-
for local rates of erosion or deposition. To create a model marily by slope gradient, operate even on gentle slopes
formally requires three other types of information: (i) the and are not driven by flow processes. They are generally
functional relationship between topography and sediment thought to be linearly dependent on gradient over the full
transport rates; (ii) the initial form of the profile at some range. Rainflow is similarly driven by a uniform detach-
ment, but with material carried by flow, which therefore
Narrow (a)
gorge
Table 15.5 Indicative long-term sediment transport functions, assuming
Sloping transport-limited removal
valley-side X 100 m
Cliff and
narrow Process Sediment transport function
scree
Cliff and Plateau
Y broad scree Creep, rainsplash, gelifluction ∼g
Tributary
Rainflow ∼x
(b)
X Y Rillwash ∼x2g2
Landslides ∼(g(g - g0)
, valid for g0 6 g 6 gT
(1 - g/gT)
Solution ∼x
Figure 15.35 The Rio de Aguas Gorge above Turre, south-east Spain,
showing space–time substitution: (a) sketch map; (b) schematic sequence x = distance from divide; g = local tangent gradient; g0, gT are
of cliff–scree sections from X to Y. constants.
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Chapter 15 Slope processes and landform evolution
increases with distance from the divide. Rillwash depends The lower boundary condition usually describes the con-
on detachment by the power of the flowing water, and nection of the profile with the stream or floodplain at its foot.
hence depends strongly on both gradient and distance In reality there are interesting and complex interactions at
(Schumm, 1956, 1964; Dunne and Aubry, 1986). Land- this point, but, for simplicity, it is often adequate to assume
slides only occur above a threshold gradient, g0, and the that the stream is a passive agent, removing all the sediment
distance moved by material increases strongly as the angle delivered to it at an unchanging position. Another simple
of repose, gT, is approached. These two threshold slopes alternative is to assume that the stream is downcutting at a
determine the rather complicated form of its dependence steady rate.
on gradient alone (Scheidegger, 1973). Solution is usually With these tools it is possible to create a numerical
described by a constant rate of denudation, with material model for the progress of slope evolution for a given
accumulating linearly with the collecting area. process or combination of processes. However, a good
Boundary conditions describe the spatial relationship qualitative idea of how slope form responds to process
of the profile with the remainder of the landscape. If the can be obtained by analyzing the constant downcutting
profile follows the line of steepest descent, there are no equilibrium form, in which erosion exactly balances
exchanges of material with neighbouring profiles, and the tectonic uplift at every point. For this and other equilib-
important boundaries are at the top and bottom of the rium assumptions, the unvarying slope form obtained is
profile. It is normally convenient to take the top of the independent of the initial form of the slope profile, greatly
profile as the divide, and this is defined by no sediment simplifying the range of possible outcomes. Box 15.4
crossing this line, or by considering the profile on the other gives an example of how this is done.
side of the divide to be a mirror image.
Modelling Equilibrium recalculated as the parabolic slope profile The same procedure can be followed to
Form Of Hillslope Profiles (Figure 15.36). work out the profiles associated with each
(a) g = T/A x of the separate processes in Table 15.5.
If the slope is eroding (and uplifting) at a Thus, for rillwash, Tx = Bx2g2 for some
constant rate T, then the sediment trans- constant B, which can be re-expressed as
ported past a point at distance x from g = (T/Bx). This expression shows that
the divide must be exactly Tx as this is the the gradient decreases steadily downslope,
Gradient, g
area between the new and old surface so that the profile is concave throughout.
levels. The form of the equilibrium slope This procedure can also be applied for
profile can then be derived directly from landslides, but gives an indeterminate
the sediment transport relationships in Distance from divide, x result for solution or rainflow.
Table 15.5. For example, for soil creep, the In practice, processes generally occur
(b) z = z0 - –12 T /A x 2
sediment transport can be expressed both together, and creep or rainsplash are gen-
Distance from divide, x
as Tx and through the process relationship z0 erally the most important processes near
as proportional to g, say equal to Ag for to the divide. The same procedure can be
a suitable constant A. Putting these two applied to a combination of processes, as
expressions equal to each other, Tx = Ag, is shown below for a combination of creep
Elevation, z
or the gradient g = Tx/A. In other words, and solution, and for rainsplash and rillwash.
the equilibrium slope is a convex parabolic Constant downcutting form for creep
shape in which gradient increases steadily plus solution:
and linearly downslope. The slope profile Figure 15.36 Constant downcutting equilib-
can be either expressed as a relation- rium profile for soil creep: (a) gradient against
• creep: S = Ag for constant A;
ship between gradient and distance, or distance; (b) elevation against distance. • solution: S = Cx for constant C;
Box 15.4 ➤
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15.4 Evolution of hillslope profiles
➤
• in equilibrium with uplift at rate 200
180 1 m Myr-1
T: Tx = Ag = Cx;
2 m Myr-1
• rearranging, g = (T = C)/Ax, which is 160
5 m Myr-1
140 10 m Myr-1
a uniform convex profile.
Elevation (m)
120 20 m Myr-1
Constant downcutting form for rainsplash 100 50 m Myr-1
and rillwash: Convexity
80
• rainsplash: S = Ag for constant A; 60
40
• rillwash: S = Bx2g2 for constant B;
20
• in equilibrium with uplift at rate 0
T: Tx = Ag + Bx2g2. 0 100 200 300 400 500
Horizontal distance (m)
When this is rearranged with g on the
left-hand side the equation becomes a Figure 15.37 Constant down-cutting profiles for rainsplash plus rillwash under different
rates of uplift (in m per million years). The width of the convexity is greatest where uplift is
quadratic equation:
slowest. The grey line indicates the transition from convex to concave slope profiles.
- A + 2(A2 + 4TBx3)
g = (15.15) and are generally steeper under higher relative rates of the rainsplash and rillwash
2Bx2
rates of uplift (and matching denudation), transport, it can also be seen that as rill-
Example results are shown in Figure 15.37 and the convexities tend to be narrower wash is increased (perhaps due to changed
for a combination of rainsplash and rill- for the steeper slopes. The form of these climate or land cover), the concavity
wash keeping the process rates (A and B) slopes depends on the values of the pro- becomes broader, and that the convex and
constant and varying the rate of uplift cess rate constants, which in turn depend concave sections of the slope correspond
(equal to denudation). The slope profiles on climate and soil controls, but these roughly to the zones where rainsplash and
developed are convexo-concave in profile general conclusions stand. By changing the rillwash are respectively dominant.
Box 15.4
A similar approach to that in Box 15.4 can be applied In progressively less exposed situations, the angle of the
to the parallel retreat of hillslopes at a constant horizontal cliff decreases. Inland, where there is little or no retreat,
rate. This can be applied most fruitfully to the combina- the same material forms low-angle slopes, with minimal
tion of creep and mass movements, to give the form of a impact of landslides. The model smoothes out the effect
steadily retreating hillslope. Figure 15.38 illustrates the
types of profile generated in this way, with the same slope
100
process rates, but with different rates of slope retreat.
Each profile shows a convex section at the top, of gradu-
80
ally increasing gradient, associated with the dominance
of creep processes. This convexity becomes sharper as the
Elevation (m)
60 mmyr-1
rate of retreat is increased. If retreat is sufficiently rapid 0.1
( 7 0.04 mm yr - 1 in this example), as in all the profiles 40
0.2
0.5
drawn, the convexity continues until the threshold for 1
landslides (g0 in Table 15.5: 22° or 40% in this example) 20 2
5
is crossed. From that point, the slope gradient increases 10
much more slowly downslope, and an increasing propor- 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
tion of the material is carried by landslides. The profiles Horizontal distance (m)
in Figure 15.38 can be visualized as a series of sea cliffs,
Figure 15.38 Modelled profiles for a 100 m high hillslope in equilibrium
with decreasing severity of wave attack going from left
with a constant rate of lateral retreat under creep and landslides. L egend
to right. The most aggressive wave attack produces the shows rates of retreat in mm yr - 1. In this example, the threshold gradient
steepest cliffs, dominated by frequent mass movements. for landslides is 40% (22°).
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Chapter 15 Slope processes and landform evolution
of individual landslides, which, in reality, create much less showing no trace of the initial form. There is a strong sim-
regular profiles, in which the form of individual slides ilarity between the final forms in Figures 15.38 and 15.39,
shows up as a series of steps and this effect is greatest on in both cases showing a hillslope dominated by creep
the steepest slopes. processes. However, the effect of landslides in Figure 15.38
Models can also be used to generate evolutionary produces much more uniform gradient on the steeper
sequences, for profile development over time from a slopes than under creep without slides in Figure 15.39.
given initial slope form (see the Companion Website Figure 15.40 shows, for the same initial conditions, devel-
for the book for simple slope models you can adjust). opment under rainsplash and rillwash together. Although
Figures 15.39 and 15.40 show two such sequences, both there is an initial rounding of the sharp plateau edge, the
starting from an initial form of a plateau with a stream effect of rillwash becomes increasingly evident over time,
vertically incised into it, and then remaining stable in with the development of a marked concavity in the lower
position. Figure 15.39 shows the uniform convexities asso- part of the profile. As with creep, the final forms show
ciated with soil creep, rainsplash or gelifluction processes, no trace of the initial form, and appear to be declining
and the eventual evolution to a uniform parabolic form smoothly towards a level plain. However, the combination
60
50
40
Elevation (m)
30
Initial 1000 yr
20
2000 yr 5000 yr
10 000 yr 20 000 yr
50 000 yr 1 00 000 yr
10
2 00 000 yr 5 00 000 yr
10 00 000 yr
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Distance (m)
Figure 15.39 Modelled slope evolution by soil creep.
60
50 Initial
500 yr
40 2000 yr
10 000 yr
Elevation (m)
50 000 yr
30
200 000 yr
500 000 yr
20 1 000 000 yr
Concavity
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Horizontal distance (m)
Figure 15.40 Modelled slope evolution by rainsplash and rillwash.
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15.4 Evolution of hillslope profiles
of convexity and concavity is characteristic of the pro- shallower and the slopes straighter, although often retain-
cesses acting in each case, and the convex and concave ing a more or less hummocky topography associated with
areas roughly correspond to the areas where the rainsplash individual slide blocks.
(or creep) and rillwash are respectively dominant. Smaller features are also important in interpreting
Thus models, both simple and complex, are able to process activity. The irregular hummocks that are the
make use of current understanding of process rates and remnants of landslide back-scars and toe areas are one
mechanisms, and show that these processes are able to example of features that can survive for thousands of
produce many of the features of observed landscapes. years in the landscape. Another important feature is the
Three-dimensional models (Ahnert, 1976; Willgoose et al., lines of accumulated sediment above contouring field
1991; Howard, 1994; Tucker et al., 2001) are also able boundaries, and equivalent erosion below them. These
to take account of the interactions between streams and may be the result of deliberate terracing, but, in many
hillslopes, which control the spacing or density of chan- cases, are accumulated over many centuries of agriculture
nels in the landscape. Some recent models are also able to by tillage erosion and/or wash processes. On a still finer
incorporate other aspects of hillslope profiles, including scale, active wash processes can produce small terraces
the development of soils, armour layers and vegetation behind each clump of vegetation, and erosional steps
patterns (e.g. Vanwalleghem et al., 2013). With improved a few centimetres high below plants or larger stones.
knowledge of the climatic drivers of process rates, and of Wash processes also sort and selectively transport surface
past climates, there is also scope to understand how land stones, leading to a concentration of stones and some
landscapes have evolved and how we are currently modify- sorting of surface material. Generally erosional winnow-
ing them through global changes in use and climate. ing of fines gives rise to a pattern of downslope fining,
while local patches deposition and the foot of talus slopes
may show downslope coarsening as fines are trapped by
15.4.3 Interpreting landscape form
coarser material.
The hillslopes themselves contain many clues to the pro- In some areas, stream head hollows give a good record
cesses that formed them, although, as erosional forms, of episodic erosional activity. They may fill with sedi-
they always tend to destroy rather than preserve the evi- ment from fast and slow mass movements over periods of
dence of their formation. The gross form of the profile thousands of years, and then empty catastrophically in a
is generally related to the processes that formed it and major event (Dietrich and Dunne, 1993). Similarly, large
partially reflects its history. Many authors once argued mass movements may bury former soil surfaces below their
about whether this history reflected periods of erosion toe deposits. Such sites therefore offer some prospect of
under tectonically stable conditions (Davis, 1954), the obtaining a stratigraphic record of slope history.
tectonic history (Penck, 1924) or a time-independent form Interpreting the form of real landscapes and under-
(Hack, 1960). Convex profiles are generally associated standing process mechanisms and rates are the two com-
with creep (Gilbert, 1909), rainsplash or gelifluction, but, plementary halves of geomorphology, which need to be
as Figure 15.38 illustrates, rapid incision can lead to ini- integrated within a broader view of environmental pro-
tial convexity almost irrespective of the process. Similarly, cesses and Earth history. Two of the most exciting areas
concave profiles are generally associated with rillwash of current research are into the quantitative relationships
or fluvial processes, yet rapid deposition can also lead to between landforms and climate, and between landforms
initial concavity irrespective of process. Mass movements and tectonics. It is clear that different climatic regions have
generally lead to more or less rectilinear slopes of uniform different assemblages of process and form. Humid areas
gradient except in situations of exceptional activity. Thus are generally dominated by creep, mass movements and
landslides produce a landscape with uniform slopes close solution under a dense vegetation cover and well-devel-
to and slightly above the threshold of sliding (g0 above), oped soils. Hillslopes are usually mainly convex, typically
and scree slopes form at angles close to their angle of with a low (1–5 km km - 2) drainage density. In contrast
repose. However, very active areas, such as actively retreat- semi-arid areas have stony, shallow soils with sparse veg-
ing coastal cliffs, are dominated by large rotational slides etation and surface armouring. These hillslopes evolve
with a much more complex topography of large back- under supply-limited conditions, with dominant wash pro-
tilted blocks and crumpled toe areas. Under less active cesses, low solution rates, concave slope profiles and high
erosion, as is generally found inland, the slides become (10–100 km km - 2) drainage densities.
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Chapter 15 Slope processes and landform evolution
Areas of rapid tectonic uplift also show distinctive
slope morphologies, dominated by steep slopes and the Reflective questions
mass movement processes which are most active on steep
slopes. Largely irrespective of climate, soils are thin and ➤ How would you estimate the components of a small
stony, and processes are limited by the weathering of fresh catchment sediment budget?
bedrock to a state where it can undergo mass movements, ➤ Why are deep soils most commonly found in the tropics
and by removal processes in largely bedrock-floored steep and subtropics?
mountain rivers. The rapid erosion fuelled by tectonics is
further enhanced by isostatic uplift – as erosion removes ➤ How well do familiar landscapes show a good relationship
mass from the land, the surrounding area gradually bulges between current processes and current landforms?
upwards in response, as the flexible continental plate floats
➤ What are the three types of valuable situations when
higher on the viscous mantle beneath. Erosion is most
approximating recognized types of landscape behaviour
rapid along the river valleys, while the neighbouring peaks,
and simplifying the relationship between form and
which erode more slowly, consequently become even higher
process?
due to the isostatic uplift. This process may be partially
limited by increased glacial erosion as the mountain peaks ➤ What can modelling approaches tell us about hillslope
rise, creating the characteristic alpine landscapes of high evolution?
mountain ranges worldwide.
15.5 Summary movements such as landslides and rockfall are rapid, while others
such as creep are slow. Although the different processes are all
Slopes can be described by the length, steepness and convexity, driven by water and gradient, they produce distinctive small-scale
features which result from the balance of processes operating in features in the landscape (e.g. rills, soil pillars, crusts and screes).
different environments. The transport of material across slopes Because processes depend differently on flow and gradient, they
can occur in dissolved form via leaching and ionic diffusion. also create different and distinctive larger-scale hillslope forms,
Mechanical processes, usually aided by water, transport sediment which can be analyzed through models. The shape of slopes can
downhill, in mass movements and surface wash. Some mass be analyzed to infer the processes acting.
Further reading Gregory, K.J. (2010) The Earth’s land surface. Sage, London.
A very well-written guide to key geomorphological themes.
Kirkby, M.J. (2011). Hydromorphology, erosion and sediment.
Allen, P.A. (1997) Earth surface processes. Blackwell Science, In: McDonnell, J. (ed.), Benchmark volumes in hydrology.
Oxford. IAHS Publications, Wallingford.
An excellent book on hillslope processes. It is moderately Another selection of classic papers in geomorphology in
demanding, and written from an earth science perspective. relation to hydrology.
Carson, M.A. and Kirkby, M.J. (2009) Hillslope form and Selby, M.J. (1993) Hillslope materials and processes,
process. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 2nd edition. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
A classic from 1972 reprinted again in 2009. An excellent introductory text.
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C H A PTER 1 6
Sediments and sedimentation
Kevin G. Taylor
School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Manchester
Learning objectives Sediments are collections of grains of pre-existing
rocks, fragments of dead organisms or minerals precipi-
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
tated directly from water at Earth surface temperatures.
In Earth surface environments these grains accumulate
➤ understand the origin, composition and classification of
(through the process of sedimentation) to form sediment
sediments
packages and sedimentary successions. Sediment is a term
restricted to loose, unconsolidated material (e.g. sand). If
➤ appreciate the products and patterns of sedimentation in surface
the sediment is buried and hardened, through the action
environments
of heat and pressure, to form a rock (a process that can
➤ understand the response of sedimentation to environmental take from tens to millions of years) it is then termed a sed-
change imentary rock, and the suffix ‘-stone’ is added (e.g. sand-
➤ be aware of the impacts of anthropogenic changes upon s ediment stone). Sediment classification is based on a combination
systems of the sediment’s constituents and the mode of origin of
the sediment. The three major types of sediment are ter-
rigenous clastic sediments (simply termed clastic sediments
16.1 Introduction throughout this chapter), biological sediments and chemical
sediments.
Sediments are an important component of the Earth’s sur- Clastic sediments are composed of particles (clasts)
face and their movement and deposition are key processes derived from pre-existing rocks (which may be igneous,
in environmental systems. In conjunction with weathering metamorphic or sedimentary in nature). These clasts are
and erosion (Chapters 14 and 15), sedimentation shapes the derived from the weathering and erosion of bedrock and
face of the Earth. Sedimentation creates floodplains, builds soil material and comprise both primary and secondary
coastlines and fills the ocean basins. Sediments have a major minerals. The material that is formed as a result of this
impact on natural and engineered systems. In this chapter, we weathering is transported away from the site by water,
will introduce the concepts of sediments and sedimentation, wind or ice and will ultimately settle out and accumu-
describe the features that sedimentation produces and assess late in a range of continental or marine environments.
the impact that sedimentation has on the environment. Biological sediments are derived from organic materials
M16 An Introduction to Physical Ge 83575.indd 407 24/05/2017 18:49
Chapter 16 Sediments and sedimentation
and can be either the remains of dead organisms (e.g. 16.2.1 Classification of clastic sediments
shells and plants) or build-ups of framework-building
The most widely used scheme for classifying clastic sedi-
organisms (e.g. coral reefs). Shell material and other
ments is based on the size of the clasts, or grains, within
skeletal fragments are commonly composed of calcium
the sediment. Three major grain size classes can be recog-
carbonate (CaCO3), in the form of either calcite or ara-
nized. Gravel refers to grains greater than 2 mm in size.
gonite. Biological sediment composed of such material
Sand refers to grains less than 2 mm but greater than
is often referred to as carbonate sediment. Sediments in
63 mm (1/16th of a millimetre) in size. Mud refers to grains
which organic material (e.g. plant remains) is a significant
less than 63 mm in size. These three major classes can be
component are commonly termed organic-rich biological
subdivided further using the Udden–Wentworth grain
sediments. For example, peat is an organic-rich biological
size scale (Figure 16.1). The Udden–Wentworth grain size
sediment composed of dead plant material accumulated in
scale is the scheme most widely used to classify the grain
wet environments. Chemical sediments are those that are
size of sediments. Each grain size class within the Udden–
produced by chemical processes and are formed predomi-
Wentworth scale is a factor of two larger than the previous
nantly as a result of precipitation of minerals directly from
one, and is therefore a logarithmic scale (logarithmic to
a water body. A good example of this is the precipitation
base 2). As can be seen from Figure 16.1, each of the three
of salt from evaporating seawater or an inland sea, as is
major classes is subdivided into smaller classes (e.g. very
happening in the Dead Sea today (Chapter 3).
fine sand, fine sand, medium sand, coarse sand and very
Sedimentation is the process by which sediment is
coarse sand). The Φ (pronounced ‘phi’) scale is a numerical
deposited, leading to its accumulation. The most common
representation of the Udden–Wentworth scale, based on
cause of deposition is the settling out of sediment from a
the logarithmic nature of the scale. The Φ value = - log2
transporting fluid (water, wind or ice). As such, sedimen-
grain size (in mm). This scale is mathematically more con-
tation is the opposite of erosion and transportation. While
venient to use than fractions of millimetres. Note that a
erosion removes material from a location, sedimentation
larger value of Φ represents a smaller grain size.
leaves material behind. Although they are contrasting pro-
Grain size on unconsolidated sediment is readily esti-
cesses, sedimentation and transportation are closely inter-
mated by observing the sediment through a hand lens or
connected processes. Many sediments can be sedimented
a binocular microscope. A more accurate determination
and then reworked and transported many times prior
of grain size can be made by sieving. Sediment is shaken
to the material permanently accumulating in sediment
through a stack of sieves of reducing mesh size and the
packages. Sedimentation is therefore a dynamic process,
which cannot be considered in isolation from erosion and
transportation. mm £ Class terms
Boulders
16.2 Clastic sediments 256 -8
Cobbles
128 -7
64 -6
As stated above, clastic sediments are composed of grains of 32 -5
rock, weathered and eroded from pre-existing bedrock mate- 16 -4 Pebbles
rial. The dominant grains present within clastic sediments 8 -3
4 -2
are quartz, feldspar, mica, clay minerals and iron oxides Granules
2 -1
(Nichols, 2009). In sediments those minerals which are most 1 0 Very coarse
resistant to weathering are concentrated relative to those 0.5 1 Coarse
that are less resistant. This is because more easily weathered 0.25 2 Sand Medium
0.125 3 Fine
material will be more likely to be dissolved into solution Very fine
0.0625 4
(see Chapters 14 and 20), remain in suspension or be trans- 0.0312 5 Coarse
ported well away from the source area. In general, sediment 0.0156 6 Silt
Medium
Fine
that accumulates near its bedrock source bears a greater 0.0078 7
Very fine
resemblance, compositionally, to the bedrock material than 0.0039 8
Clay
does sediment deposited a long way from its source. Quartz
dominates the composition of most clastic sediments as this Figure 16.1 The Udden–Wentworth grain size classification scheme for
mineral is most resistant to weathering and transport. sediment grains. The Φ value = - log2 grain size (in mm).
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16.2 Clastic sediments
percentage mass of sediment trapped at each sieve is In contrast, sediment grains in scree slopes (see Chapter 15
weighed and calculated. Determination of grain size by and below) are commonly very angular as they have under-
sieving has the benefit of allowing statistical calculations gone only limited transport.
to be made on the sediment (e.g. the mean and modal
grain size). In consolidated sedimentary rocks grain size
is commonly determined qualitatively by microscope 16.2.3 Sediment transport and sedimentation
examination.
With the exception of in situ organic build-ups, such as
reefs, and chemical precipitation of minerals directly from
16.2.2 Clastic sediment grain shape and texture water, virtually all sediments are deposited after some
element of transport. This is particularly true for clastic
A great deal of information about the origin, history,
sediments. Sediment transport can take place as a result of
source and environment of deposition of a sediment can
gravity, but more commonly transport is by water, wind or
be inferred by studying textural properties of the grains
ice. The density of the transport medium has a major con-
within a sediment. The sorting of a sediment is a measure
trol on the ability of the medium to carry sediment. The
of the degree to which the grains in the sediment are clus-
higher the density of the medium, the larger the grains
tered around one grain size (in other words, a measure of
that can be transported.
the spread, or standard deviation, of grain sizes in a sedi-
Transport of sediment by gravity alone is only import-
ment). Although this can be determined statistically by
ant on steep slopes and can be thought of as the first stage
sieving analysis, sorting is more usually estimated visually
of erosion and transport of weathered material. Material
through a microscope by comparison with sorting charts.
may move down a slope, under the action of gravity, by a
In such a case, the terms poorly sorted, moderately sorted,
number of mechanisms, depending on the grain size and
well sorted and very well sorted are used. Although a
cohesiveness of the material, and the slope angle (see Chap-
number of factors control sorting within a sediment, in
ter 15). Major mechanisms are rockfalls, landslides, soil creep
general the further a sediment has been transported from
and slumping (Chapter 15). In rockfalls, consolidated mate-
its source, the better the sorting of the grains.
rial falls and breaks up into a jumble of material at the base
Grain roundness is another textural property that con-
of a cliff or steep slope. In contrast, a landslide is where a
tains environmental information. Grains can be very angu-
large coherent mass of material moves down a slope unde-
lar, angular, subangular, sub-rounded, rounded and well
formed. Slumping is similar to landsliding, but contains
rounded (Figure 16.2). Grains within sediments become
saturated slope material (pore spaces are full of water)
rounded by continual abrasion during transport as a result
which deforms upon movement. Rockfalls, landslides and
of the impact of the sediment grains with each other. Well-
slumps are rapid events. Soil creep is the very slow, imper-
rounded grains indicate that the sediment has undergone
ceptible, movement of material down a slope (Chapter 15).
extended transport prior to deposition. Wind-blown dune
Screes are accumulations of sediments that build up adja-
sands in deserts are commonly very well rounded as a
cent to mountain fronts, developed through the collection
result of continual grain impacts during wind transport.
of loose sediment material removed from the mountain
by gravity-driven sediment transport. Sediments fall onto
Well Sub- Sub- Very
the surface of the scree and move down the scree surface.
Rounded Angular They come to rest at the base of the scree where the slope
rounded rounded angular angular
shallows out. Scree slopes are composed mainly of poorly
Low sphericity
sorted, angular gravels, and exhibit only crude layering.
Another form of sub-aerial gravity flow is a debris flow.
A debris flow is a slurry-like flow containing both solid
material and water but with a high ratio of solids to water.
High sphericity
Debris flows are highly destructive and are common in all
climate regimes. They are often started after heavy rainfall
on debris-laden mountain slopes, but can also be initiated
by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and even forest fires.
Figure 16.2 Roundness and sphericity scale for sediment grains. The sediments deposited by debris flows are generally
(Source: after Pettijohn et al., 1987) poorly sorted with little, or no, internal stratification.
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Chapter 16 Sediments and sedimentation
Water is by far the most common medium for sed- air and as a result only small grains can be transported
iment transport. Water moves as a result of flow in by the wind. Wind-blown sediments are important indi-
channels or as a result of currents generated by wind cators of climate change in the past and may also have
and tides. If water movement is fast enough it may carry important impacts on climate itself (Lowe and Walker,
sediment, and in many cases this transport can be for 1997). Such issues are addressed in Box 16.2. Although
hundreds of kilometres before the sediment grains are ice is a solid material, it moves and deforms slowly in
deposited. Box 16.1 describes important principles asso- the form of glaciers and ice sheets and can therefore be
ciated with sediment transport and water. Transport of thought of as a fluid. As a result it can transport large
sediment by air (wind) can also be an important mecha- amounts of sediments slowly over relatively short dis-
nism, but its effectiveness is limited by the low density of tances (see Chapter 23; Leeder, 1999).
Sediment Transport by Water The Reynolds number (Re) is a dimen- size of the sediment grain and the velocity
sionless (it has no units) quantity that indi- of the fluid flow. At low current velocities
To understand transport of sediment by
cates the extent to which a flowing fluid is only small sediment grains (clays) will be
water we need to have a basic understand-
laminar or turbulent. The Reynolds number transported in suspension. At higher veloc-
ing of the nature of flowing water. Water
relates the velocity of a flow (u), the ratio ities larger grains may be transported in
can flow in one of two ways: laminar flow
between the density and viscosity of the suspension, but it is rare for grains larger
and turbulent flow. In laminar flow the
fluid (v, the fluid kinematic viscosity) and than sand sized to be transported as sus-
water molecules all flow in the same direc-
the length of the pipe or channel through pended load.
tion, parallel to each other (Figure 16.3).
which the fluid is flowing (l). The Reynolds The Hjulström curve (Figure 16.5)
As a result, almost no mixing of water
number (Re) = ul/v. It has been experi- shows the nature of flow velocity required
takes place during laminar flow. Laminar
mentally determined that when the Reyn- to move sediment of different grain
flow is uncommon in surface waters, being
olds number is low (less than 500) laminar sizes in water. This graph shows both
restricted to low flow velocities and very
flow dominates, and when the Reynolds
shallow water. In turbulent flow, water
number is high (greater than 2000) turbu- (a) Rolling
molecules move in many directions, with
lent flow dominates. The Reynolds number
an overall net flow in one direction. As a Flow
is applicable to both water and air, but the
result water undergoing turbulent flow is
lower viscosity of air results in turbulent
well mixed.
flow dominating at lower flow velocities
than water.
Laminar flow
Sediment grains in water are trans- (b) Saltation
ported by one of three processes Flow
(Figure 16.4). First, grains can be moved
along the bed surface by rolling. Second,
grains may bounce along the bed surface;
Flow this process is termed saltation. Third,
material may be lifted off the bed surface (c) Suspension
Turbulent flow
and transported in suspension in the fluid, Flow
kept in suspension by turbulent flow in the
fluid. Sediment transported by the first and
second mechanism is termed bed load
and that transported by the third process
Flow is called suspended load. Whether a Figure 16.4 The three mechanisms of sedi-
Figure 16.3 Laminar and turbulent flow in sediment grain will be transported as bed ment transport in flowing water: (a) rolling,
water. load or suspended load will depend on the (b) saltation and (c) suspension.
Box 16.1 ➤
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16.2 Clastic sediments
➤
the velocity of water required to keep Clay Silt VF S F S M S C S VC S Gran. Pebbles Cobbles Boulders
a sediment clast in transport and the
1000
velocity required to move a stationary VF S = Very fine sand
Erosion and transport F S = Fine sand
clast. Therefore, as a consequence it also M S = Medium sand
Ero
shows the velocity below which sediment sio C S = Coarse sand
n VC S = Very coarse sand vel
of a specific grain size will be sedimented.
of gra d
co
ns Gran. = Granular an
d
d loa
d be
As can be clearly seen in Figure 16.5, as 100 oli
da san of
te of tio
n
dm sion si
sediment grain size increases, a higher Ero po
ud De
velocity is required both to keep the grains
Flow velocity (cm s-1)
d
in transport and to move stationary grains. loa
ed
sb
For fine sediment grain sizes only low flow ta
10 p or
velocities are required to keep sediment ns
Erosion of unconsolidated mud Tra Deposition
in transport. A consequence of this is that
fine-grained sediments will accumulate
Transport in suspension
only under very quiet water conditions. In Curves are approximate
d
oa
for flow depth of 1 m.
dl
contrast to this, fine-grained sediments 1
de
The positions of the
en
require relatively more energy to be moved curves vary for different
sp
su
flow depths and different
from a stationary position. This is due to
of
sediment characteristics.
on
the fact that clay grains, which dominate
i
sit
po
fine-grained sediments, are cohesive in
De
0.1
nature and clump together. As a result of 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
this, it takes greater flow velocity to trans- Grain size (mm)
port stationary clay material than sand-
Figure 16.5 The Hjulström diagram, illustrating the relationship between grain size and current
sized particles. This means that, although velocity for sediment grain transport. The two curves show the energy required to keep sedi-
clay-sized particles are deposited only ment in transport (lower curve) and the energy required to transport grains from a stationary
when current velocity effectively falls to position. (Source: after Press and Siever, 1986)
zero, once deposited, clay size material is
not easily eroded and transported again.
Box 16.1
Wind-Blown Transport Figure 16.6 Sandstorm
in Dubai. (Source:
of Sediment Mehdi Photos
Wind-blown sediment transport is S hutterstock.com)
called aeolian transport (Figure 16.6).
Although such transport can take place
in many environments, it dominates in
arid and semi-arid environments with
little water. As air has a lower viscosity
than water, higher flow velocities are
needed to move sediment grains. At
typical wind speeds, medium sand
grains (up to 0.5 mm) are the largest
Box 16.2 ➤
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Chapter 16 Sediments and sedimentation
➤
grains that can be transported (this con- This primary productivity results in the Loess is a fine-grained (less than
trasts with the pebbles and boulders that uptake of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the 50 µm) sedimentary deposit composed of
can be transported by water). As a result atmosphere and is, therefore, an import- grains of quartz, feldspar, carbonate and
the deposits built up from wind-blown ant component of the global climate clay minerals transported by wind from
sediment grains are generally fine grained system. Such observations have led some arid land surfaces and deposited else-
in nature. Transport distances for such researchers to suggest that the artificial where, often thousands of kilometres from
material can be vast, with dust deposits addition of iron to the oceans could be its source (Pye, 1987). Thick deposits of
transported thousands of kilometres from one way to lower atmospheric CO2 levels loess sediments are present in the Czech
the Sahara of North Africa to the Atlantic (a process commonly termed iron fertil- and Slovak Republics of central Europe,
Ocean (Figure 16.7). This material settles ization). It has also been proposed that and in central China, in an area known as
out on the sea floor, contributing to sedi- dust transported from the Sahara has had the Loess Plateau. It is believed that these
mentation in the oceanic environment. The a detrimental impact on the development loess deposits were formed during full gla-
amount of material removed is huge and of Caribbean corals. It has been recog- cial conditions. The loess was derived from
for the Sahara approximately 2.6 * 108 nized that, since the late 1970s, fluxes winds blowing across arid glacial outwash
tonnes per year. The extent of this dust of wind-blown dust to the Caribbean plains. These loess deposits also contain
transport has changed through time, a from the Sahara have increased and it soil layers which are interpreted to reflect
fact documented through climate and dust has been suggested that this has led to times of wetter climatic conditions, with
records preserved in ice cores and deep- environmental stress on Caribbean corals negligible loess sedimentation (Lowe and
sea sediments. Dust transport from land (Shinn et al., 2000). Walker, 1997).
surfaces was greater during the last glacial
period than today. Thompson et al. (1995)
documented increased dust transport
during the Late Glacial Stage in ice cores
from glaciers in the high Peruvian Andes.
They concluded that atmospheric dust
contents were up to 200 times as high as
today as a result of increased aridity.
As well as responding to changes in
global climate, the transport of mineral
dust through the atmosphere also has
direct impacts upon climate and biological
systems itself. Very fine-grained mineral
dust is highly effective at scattering light
and, therefore, may have a cooling effect
on climate (see Chapter 4). Recently, it
has been clearly documented that the
element iron, present within wind-blown
dust derived from deserts (Figure 16.7),
acts as a nutrient in the surface layers of
oceans and helps promote algal growth Figure 16.7 Iron-rich wind-blown dust from the Sahara being delivered to the North Atlantic
in the water column (so-called primary Ocean where it acts as a nutrient stimulating surface water primary productivity.
production) (Moore and Braucher, 2008). (Source: image courtesy of SeaWiFS Project, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center and ORBIMAGE)
Box 16.2
16.2.4 Products of sedimentation – bedforms moved along the bed surface by the current, small irregu-
larities on the bed surface influence the manner in which
A bedform is a morphological feature formed when
sediment is transported and deposited. Bedforms depos-
sediment and flow interact on the sediment bed surface.
ited under unidirectional flow (currents that are flowing in
Ripples on a sandy beach and sand dunes in a desert are
dominantly one direction such as river currents and wind)
both examples of sediment bedforms. As sediment is
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16.2 Clastic sediments
are different from those formed under oscillatory flow (cur- medium sand-sized sediments, whereas dunes are more
rents that oscillate backwards and forwards such as wave predominant in medium to coarse sands (Figure 16.9).
currents). A clear relationship has been documented between flow
Current ripples form under unidirectional flow and are velocity and bedforms (King, 1991) (Figure 16.9). At low
small bedforms (up to 5 cm in height and 30 cm in wave- flow velocities, bedforms do not form. At greater flow
length) and form predominantly in sand-sized sediment. velocities current ripples form within fine to medium
Current ripples are not symmetric but have a shallow stoss sand-sized sediment, dune bedforms forming at higher
side and a steep lee side as shown in Figure 16.8a. Sedi- flow velocity. At very high velocities bedforms do not form
ment is transported up the stoss side and avalanches down owing to the speed of sediment transport. This is known
the lee side. As a result the ripple migrates in a down- as the upper-plane bed stage.
stream direction. In plan view (looking from above) the Wind-generated waves in water bodies (predominantly
shape of current ripples can vary from straight to sinuous shallow marine settings, but sometimes also present in
to linguoid (Figure 16.8b). This variation in ripple shape lakes) produce circular, oscillatory water motion (see
can be in response to water flow and water depth. Chapter 22). Beneath the surface of the water body, at the
Dune bedforms are larger than current ripples (up to sediment surface, this motion is translated into horizontal
10 m high) but have similar cross-sections and form in a oscillatory current movement (Figure 16.10). This motion
similar manner. Ripples are more predominant in silt to sweeps grains away from a central zone and deposits
(a) Wavelength
Lee side Stoss side
Crest Trough
Flow Summit point Brink point
Avalanching
direction
down lee
Height
Cross- Point of flow Eddy in Point of flow
strata separation trough reattachment
(b)
Straight-crested Sinuous Catenary
Lunate Linguoid
Flow direction
Figure 16.8 (a) Schematic diagram to illustrate the formation of a current ripple under unidirectional current flow. (b) Shape of current ripples in plan
view. The change from straight-crested to linguoid is governed by current strength and water depth. (Source: after Tucker, 1981)
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Chapter 16 Sediments and sedimentation
Both sand ripples and sand dunes may be formed by
wind-transported sediment. The most predominant envi-
100 ronment for wind-produced bedform formation is that of
Upper flat bed
80 the arid desert environments (Chapter 21), but localized
Mean flow velocity (cm s-1)
Subaqueous dunes sand dunes may also form in coastal environments as
60
coastal sand dunes (Chapter 22). Arid zone aeolian (wind-
40
blown) bedforms can be highly variable in size, ranging
up to 600 m in wavelength and 100 m in height. When
Ripples
sediments are deposited from wind, the most common
result is sand dunes (Figure 16.11). Under simple condi-
20 tions of unidirectional wind patterns, simple dunes may
No movement on flat bed form, with stoss and lee slopes. However, in many desert
regions wind directions can change seasonally, which leads
to more complicated dune bedforms. Unidirectional dunes
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.1
Sediment size (mm) can take two forms. Transverse dunes are linear features,
with a shallow windward side and a steep lee slope. The
Very
Silt
Very fine Fine Medium Coarse
coarse
internal structure is similar to dunes and ripples formed
sand sand sand sand
sand below water. Barchan dunes also have a shallow windward
and steep lee side, but these are isolated dunes, with a
Figure 16.9 A bedform–flow diagram to illustrate the grain size and cur-
rent velocity regimes under which sediment bedforms are present. characteristic crescent shape. These dunes are most com-
(Source: after Nichols, 2009, and King, 1991) monly formed as sediment is moved across a hard sub-
strate, such as a dried-up lake bed. Stellate (star-shaped)
dunes form under conditions in which wind directions
particles as symmetrical ripples on the sediment bed. In are variable, and with no particular direction prevailing.
cross-section and plan aspect, wave-formed ripples are These dunes do not migrate and may be initiated at irreg-
symmetrical in shape and as such can easily be distin- ularities in the ground surface. Seif (or linear) dunes form
guished from current ripples formed under unidirectional where two distinct wind directions are present at approx-
flow conditions (Nichols, 2009). imately right angles to each other. Wind-formed ripples
are commonly present on the surface of sand dunes.
Chapter 21 provides further details on sand-dune forms
Wind and processes.
Waves
Barchan dunes Transverse dunes
Oscillation in water
Prevailing Prevailing
wind direction wind direction
Linear dunes Star dunes
Oscillatory motion
becomes horizontal
Sand grains swept
into ripples Prevailing Prevailing
wind directions wind directions
Figure 16.10 The formation of symmetrical wave ripples by oscillation of Figure 16.11 Aeolian bedforms in arid environments. (Source: after
a water body. (Source: after Nichols, 2009) Nichols, 2009)
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16.3 Biological sediments
Reflective questions
➤ What grain roundness would you expect for a beach sand?
➤ Looking at the Hjulström curve, what can you say about
the transport of boulders within rivers and streams? Ooid Pisoid Peloid
(62 mm) (72 mm) (61 mm)
➤ How would you use ripples to distinguish between
sediment deposited in a river and that deposited in a
shallow marine wave-dominated setting?
16.3 Biological sediments Oncoid Intraclasts
(72 mm)
In areas where there is a minimal supply of clastic sedi- Figure 16.13 Non-skeletal components of carbonate sediments.
ments, other components form the major contribution to (Source: after Nichols, 2009)
sediments. The main component is the accumulation of
dead organisms or the build-up of framework structures also produced bioherms in the geological past. Non-bio-
(bioherms such as coral reefs). Two main types of biolog- logical components form as the result of direct precipita-
ical sediments can be recognized, carbonate sediments tion of calcium carbonate in the form of grains, although
and organic-rich sediments. The major components in some of these grains may form via microbiological pro-
carbonate sediments are skeletal fragments of marine cesses. Ooids and pisoids are concentrically coated grains
or freshwater organisms (e.g. brachiopods, molluscs, whereas peloids are grains with little internal structure
echinoids, corals, foraminifera and calcareous algae), (Figure 16.13).
bioherms (e.g. corals) and non-biological components Carbonate sediments are most abundant within warm
(e.g. ooids and peloids) (Figures 16.12–16.14). Reefs are tropical waters, as carbonate production is favoured
the result of framework building by organisms composed in strong solar radiation, warm-water environments.
of calcium carbonate material (Masselink and Hughes, Although traditionally viewed as forming in clear waters,
2003). Organisms most characteristic of reef build-up are free from terrestrial sediment inputs, reefs have also
corals, but bryzoa, coralline algae and brachiopods have been reported from tropical shallow waters containing
high levels of terrestrial sediment inputs (Figure 16.14b)
(Perry et al., 2008). Carbonate sediments form predom-
inantly in tropical and subtropical shallow marine envi-
Skeletal fragments Bioherms ronments, but calcium carbonate accumulation can also
Molluscs Corals occur within temperate shallow marine environments
(cephalopods, bivalves, Bryzoa
gastropods) and lakes. These sedimentary environments are sensitive
Cyanobacteria
to inputs of land-derived sediment and an example is
Brachiopods (stromatolites)
discussed in Box 16.3. Sediments composed of shells of
Echinoids
Crinoids
single-celled organisms (e.g. diatoms and foraminifera)
Corals
also accumulate in deep-sea environments. Such sediment
Foraminifera
is commonly termed calcareous ooze, or siliceous ooze,
Non-skeletal
carbonate grains depending on the composition of the shell material mak-
Algae
Ooids ing up the sediment. When buried and lithified, carbonate
Red algae Pisoids sediments are known as limestones. Chalk, a pure white
Green algae Peloids limestone formed throughout north-west Europe 80–65
(faecal pellets) million years ago (see Figure 2.4 in Chapter 2), is an
Yellow–green algae
(sea grasses and Intraclasts
example of a sedimentary rock composed of the remains
lake algae) Lime mud
of shells of a calcareous blue–green alga (Tucker and
Figure 16.12 Components of carbonate sediments. Wright, 1990).
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Chapter 16 Sediments and sedimentation
(a) (b)
Figure 16.14 Tropical carbonate sedimentary environments. (a) Assemblage from a clear, tropical reef setting at Eleuthera, Bahamas. Note the presence
of large coral colonies. All material in such environments becomes transported and deposited as sediment upon the death of the organisms. (b) A reef
assemblage forming in a muddy, sediment-dominated reef setting, Queensland, Australia.
(Source: Chris Perry)
Discovery Bay, Jamaica – environments. Much of this calcium inputs of land-derived sediment. In many
Terrestrial Sediment Impacts carbonate is derived from the skeletal parts of the world changes in land use,
remains of organisms. This accumulation deforestation or climate change have
Upon Tropical Carbonate
of calcium carbonate is an important led to increased inputs of land-derived
Sediments sink for CO2 and so is, therefore, an sediments. One example where such
Carbonate sediments, composed of the important part of the global carbon sediments have had a major impact is
mineral calcium carbonate, commonly cycle. Carbonate sediments accumulate that of Discovery Bay, north Jamaica
accumulate in tropical shallow marine mostly in clear waters, with minimal (Figure 16.15). In this example, bauxite
Discovery N Fe content (mg g-1)
(a) (b) 61000
Bay 1001-3000
JAMAICA 3001-6000
6001-9000
l
nne
20 m 18500'N 9001-12 000
78500'W
cha
10 m 712 000
5m
Ship
l e
ann
p ch
5m
Shi
5m
10 m
20 m
30 m
50 m
40 m
Bauxite loading
500 m terminal
Figure 16.15 Discovery Bay, north Jamaica. (a) Water–depth map of the bay, also showing the location of the bauxite loading point.
(b) Distribution of iron within the bay, showing the high levels of bauxite accumulation within the bay.
BOX 16.3 ➤
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16.4 Chemical sediments
➤
dust, an iron-rich, aluminium-rich material have led to the bay containing areas within the sediment. Iron and phosphorus
that is mined for aluminium production, where surface sediment is composed of are released from the sediments into the
has been discharged from a loading ter- up to 35% bauxite sediment (Perry and overlying water column and greater cal-
minal into Discovery Bay, a semi-restricted Taylor, 2004). As well as significantly cium carbonate is buried, compared with
embayment fronted by fringing reefs and altering the composition of the surface sediments in areas of the bay that have
dominated by the deposition of carbonate sediments, this bauxite material has also not received bauxite material (Taylor et al.,
sediments. Since the 1960s these inputs led to markedly altered element cycling 2007).
BOX 16.3
Reflective question
➤ What types of landform are composed largely of biological
sediments?
16.4 Chemical sediments
The most important chemical sediment is that termed
evaporative sediment. These sediments are formed as a
result of minerals precipitated out of lake or seawater as
Figure 16.16 Peat formation occurs in areas of high rainfall and/or poor waters are concentrated by evaporation. As seawater is
drainage where waterlogging is common. In some places deposits of peat
evaporated the least soluble mineral precipitates out first.
several metres thick can develop.
This is usually calcite (calcium carbonate, CaCO3) followed
by gypsum (calcium sulfate, CaSO4) and halite (sodium
chloride, NaCl) as the water becomes more saturated. If
The most widely distributed type of organic-rich water becomes very concentrated a number of salts of
biological sediment is peat, which forms through the potassium become precipitated (bittern salts). The most
accumulation of dead plant material in wet conditions commonly encountered evaporite mineral is gypsum. Water
(Figure 16.16). The accumulation of peat is favoured in concentrated to 19% of its original volume will precipi-
areas where rates of plant breakdown are low, which is tate gypsum. Halite is only deposited once the water has
most common in waterlogged stagnant conditions. Under been reduced to less than 10% of its original volume and,
such conditions, low oxygen, coupled with low pH, inhib- therefore, is less common than gypsum. Many water bod-
its the breakdown of organic matter by bacteria and fun- ies undergoing evaporation are periodically recharged by
gus. This leads to the accumulation of organic material. addition of water, either by rainfall or river water input,
Peat has often been cut and dried for use as a burning fuel. making it rare for such concentrated evaporation. The
If peat layers are buried beneath further sediment layers, high solubility of NaCl also means that it is readily redis-
water is squeezed from the material and volatiles (water solved on exposure to water. Bittern salts are very rare and
vapour and CO2) are lost. This process leads to the forma- form only after complete evaporation of a standing body
tion of lignites and coals. Many of the large coal depos- of water.
its of north-west Europe were deposited in freshwater Evaporative sediments are common in arid climates
swamps during the Carboniferous era, 350 to 300 million (see also Chapter 21) and may form in coastal settings or
years ago. in standing bodies of water. In the case of coastal settings,
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Chapter 16 Sediments and sedimentation
Uplift and
exposure
of rock
In situ
weathering
Transport
Sedimentation
Continental Coastal and Oceanic
Figure 16.17 Sabkha salt deposits among sand dunes in Qatar on the shallow marine
margins of the Empty Quarter Desert.
(Source: Paul Cowan Shutterstock.com) Figure 16.18 A schematic diagram to illustrate the pathways and major
sites of sedimentation of clastic sediments in surface environments.
(Source: after Nichols, 2009)
the best documented examples are sabkhas (Figure 16.17).
These are low-angle tidal flat environments (the coasts of
the Persian Gulf being a classic example). Evaporation of
Reflective question
groundwater draws in seawater, which upon evaporation
precipitates gypsum. However, in these settings the water ➤ In which environments are chemical sediments more likely
rarely becomes concentrated enough to precipitate halite. to be found?
Thick deposits of halite have been formed in the past,
such as those extracted in the Cheshire region of northern
England. However, such thick deposits are not forming 16.5.1 Continental environments
in the present day. To produce such thick accumulations
of halite complete evaporation of large water bodies has 16.5.1.1 River environments
been invoked, such as the Mediterranean Sea. However,
The term fluvial is generally used to describe river envi-
this may become a phenomenon of the future if climate
ronments and processes. There are three major types of
and land management change impact on evaporative
fluvial environment that can be recognized: braided (where
processes.
the river consists of several shifting channels separated
by islands, or bars); meandering (where singular sinuous
16.5 Sedimentation in Earth channels are surrounded by low-lying floodplains); and
surface environments anastomosing (where the river consists of stable, splitting
and rejoining channels, thereby possessing elements of
Sedimentation takes place in a wide range of Earth sur- both braided and meandering form). For a detailed discus-
face environments. In general, sedimentary environments sion of fluvial geomorphology see Chapter 19.
can be thought of as a traverse from upland mountainous Braided channels form most commonly where water
environments, through lower-lying continental environ- flows over loose sand or gravel, often in mountainous or
ments, shoreline and shallow marine settings, eventually to upland areas. A characteristic feature of braided rivers
oceanic environments, and this is the structure adopted in is the mobile nature of the channels and the intervening
the following section (Figure 16.18). This passage is partic- bars (Figure 16.19; see also Figure 19.4 in Chapter 19).
ularly true in the case of clastic sediments where the trans- The sediments deposited in braided rivers are most com-
port of sediment by water, wind or ice moves sediments monly composed of gravels and coarse sands. Fine-grained
from continental environments to offshore environments. sediments may be deposited on bars, but they are not
Given the scope of this chapter, only a brief summary can common. The predominant sedimentary bedforms present
be given here of the characteristics of sedimentation in within braided river sediments are dune bedforms, formed
Earth surface environments. Other chapters of this book as bars accrete and move forward within and between the
provide further details within specific environments. channels.
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16.5 Sedimentation in Earth surface environments
In contrast to braided rivers, meandering rivers form environments standing bodies of water are rare. The major
in low-lying areas, with a predominance of finer sedi- process of sediment transport and deposition is by wind
ment. Meandering is a term used to describe the sinuous action, although flood events can also lead to fluvial condi-
nature of the channels (Figure 16.19). Sediments depos- tions prevailing under wet seasons. Three major forms of
ited in meandering river environments are quite different sedimentation take place in arid environments: sand seas,
from braided rivers, being predominantly finer grained alluvial fans and playa lakes.
than braided river sediments. Sediments deposited in the Sand seas (also known as ergs) are areas of sand accu-
channels are coarser than those deposited in floodplains, mulations, and large sand seas are present in the Sahara,
as the water flowing within the channels transports the Namibia, south-western North America and western
finer materials downstream. During periods of high stage central Australia. Sand seas are not the same as deserts.
(floods) water may overflow the channels and deposit Deserts are simply dryland environments and may or may
suspended sediment upon the floodplain. As the sediment not contain sand seas. These sand seas are composed of
carried in suspension is silt and clay sized, the resulting dune bedforms deposited from wind-blown sediments (see
sediment on floodplains is fine grained. Such fine-grained above). Sediment grains in these environments are typically
sediments are high in nutrients and as a result floodplains well rounded as a result of grain–grain collisions during
are fertile areas. Indeed, it is the flooding and deposition transport, and composed almost entirely of quartz. The
of fresh sediment that keeps the land fertile, which is why red colour of desert sands is the result of a thin coating of
flood management and dam building can have a major iron oxide as a result of the oxidizing conditions in arid
negative impact on soil fertility in river areas. In addition environments (see Chapter 21).
to the floodplains, sediments accumulate on the inside Alluvial fans are cones of sediment that accumulate at
of meanders, which leads to the formation of point bars mountain fronts. The major agent of sediment transport
(Figure 16.19). Current ripples, especially on the surface on alluvial fans is flowing water (which is generally present
of point bars, are the most common sediment bedform in only during wet seasons). This flowing water spreads out
meandering river environments (Tucker, 2001). and deposits sediment as it slows down in distant parts of
the alluvial fan surface. The result is a semicircular fan Fig-
ure 16.20). Sediment deposits on alluvial fans are a mixture of
16.5.1.2 Arid environments
gravels and coarse sands, with a general decrease in grain size
Desert environments are those regions of the Earth where away from the mountain front. Alluvial fans are particularly
potential evaporation exceeds rainfall (often the defini- common in arid mountainous settings with well-developed
tion that potential evapotranspiration is more than twice fans present in Death Valley in California (e.g. Figure 16.21),
the precipitation is used; see Chapter 21) and in these and the Atlas Mountains of Morocco (Harvey, 1997).
Meandering
Braided
Cross-stratification
formed by downstream Crevasse splay
Sand or Vegetated migration of bars, sand
gravel bar bar waves and dunes
Floodplain
Point
Levee
Channel bar
Lateral
migration
Major erosional Internal Fining-upwards of Epsilon cross-bedding/
surface defining erosion grain size within lateral accretion surface
base of composite surfaces some channel fills
channel fill
Figure 16.19 Sedimentation associated with braided and meandering river systems.
(Source: after Tucker, 1981)
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Chapter 16 Sediments and sedimentation
Mountain range 16.5.1.3 Glacial environments
Slope Feeder channel Ice plays a major role in sediment transport and sedimenta-
tion and gives rise to a number of characteristic landforms
Mountain front and sediment deposits. However, erosion and sedimenta-
Axial channel tion through glacial activity are significantly different from
those resulting from water and air. Detailed information on
sediments in glacial systems can be found in Chapter 23.
Tributary 16.5.2 Coastal and marine environments
channels Fan surface
16.5.2.1 Delta environments
Figure 16.20 Typical features of an alluvial fan. (Source: after Harvey,
1997) There have been many definitions for deltas but a broad
definition can be given as a discrete shoreline protuberance
formed at a point where a river enters an ocean or other
Playa lakes are ephemeral (seasonal) bodies of water body of water. Deltas are sites where sediment supplied by
which accumulate during rainfall events. Water flowing the river is accumulating faster than it is being redistributed
into these lakes deposits a layer of silt and clay. As the in the ocean by waves and tides. These environments vary
lake dries up, evaporite minerals are precipitated (gyp- depending on whether a delta is dominated by river processes
sum and halite), and desiccation cracks form within the (e.g. the Mississippi Delta), wave processes (e.g. the Rhone
sediment surface. If the water body dries up completely, Delta) or tidal processes (e.g. the Ganges Delta). Further
a salt crust known as a salt pan is produced. At the next details of delta environments are provided in Chapter 22.
wet period further sediment is deposited followed by
additional formation of evaporite minerals. This alterna-
tion of muds and evaporite minerals is characteristic of 16.5.2.2 Estuaries and salt marshes
playa lakes. An estuary is a semi-enclosed coastal water body where
there is a mixture of river and seawater and where there is
a mixture of fluvial and marine processes. At the present
time estuaries are common as a result of the post-glacial
rise in sea level drowning the mouths of rivers. Two major
morphological elements are present in estuaries: tidal
channels and tidal mudflats (Figure 16.22). Tidal channels
Figure 16.21 An alluvial fan in an arid mountainous region of Death Valley Figure 16.22 An estuarine mudflat environment with a few salt-tolerant
National Park. (Source: Steve Carver, University of Leeds) species on Lesbos island, Greece. (Source: Rudmer Zwerver Shutterstock.com)
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16.5 Sedimentation in Earth surface environments
are major sites of sediment transport and hence consist main coast to form a ridge of sediment parallel to the coast
of sand-sized sediment. Within tidal channels subaqueous (see Chapter 22). Such islands are most common along
dune bedforms and ripples commonly form. In estuar- shorelines with a low tidal range and high wave energy.
ies both flood (incoming tide) and ebb (outflowing tide) Sediment accumulates along the front of the island in a
currents can be present, but in general either the ebb or beach environment, whereas landward of the island, quiet
the flood current is strongest and this is reflected in the conditions allow the accumulation of fine-grained mate-
nature of the bedforms. Tidal mudflats are regions away rial, either in salt marshes or lagoons. Lagoons are areas of
from strong flood or ebb currents. Suspended sediment low energy and are normally formed behind a barrier such
(silt and mud) is carried over the mudflats during high as a barrier island. Along clastic sediment shorelines, muds
tide and deposited upon the mudflat as the tide turns and and salt marshes develop, whereas in carbonate-dominated
water velocity falls. The frequency of flooding depends shorelines, fine-grained carbonate mud accumulates.
on the height of the tide and the elevation of the mudflat. Within tropical coastal settings in which clastic sed-
Mudflats gradually build upwards and therefore become iment input by rivers is minimal, the deposition of
flooded less frequently over time. If flood frequency is low, carbonate biological sediments can dominate. In such
salt-tolerant plant species will colonize the mudflat, and environments, sediment may be formed by the build-up
these systems are termed salt marshes. In tropical environ- of reef-building organisms, the accumulation of skeletal
ments, mangroves form in such environments as a result of material and the inorganic precipitation of calcium car-
similar processes (Figure 16.23). Chapter 22 provides more bonate. Reefs composed of corals accumulate in shallow,
information on estuary and salt marsh systems. high-energy conditions and commonly act as barriers to
shallow lagoon environments behind. Within these shallow
lagoons, fine-grained sediment composed of precipitated
16.5.2.3 Beaches, barriers and lagoons
calcium carbonate (lime mud) accumulates.
Between deltas and estuaries coastlines may be sites of
sediment erosion or sediment deposition (see Chapter 22).
16.5.2.4 Shallow marine environments
Along coastlines that are sites of deposition, sedimentation
may take place on beaches, lagoons or barriers. A beach is The nature of sediment deposited in shallow marine envi-
an area that is continuously impacted by waves. Sediment ronments is governed by the strength of currents produced
accumulating on beaches (which may be supplied by cliff by tides and storms. Sands are the predominant sediment
erosion or by longshore drift) is continuously reworked and deposited, commonly as sand dunes up to 10 m in height.
is characteristically well sorted and well rounded. On very In wave- and storm-dominated environments (micro-tidal)
shallow-sloped beaches, waves and wind may form ripples, sands are deposited as wave-rippled and symmetrical hum-
but on steeper-sloped beaches low-angle sediment accu- mocks. In tidal-dominated shallow marine environments
mulation may be present, especially on wave-dominated (macro-tidal) sand waves and sand ribbons form. Sand
beaches. A barrier island is a beach detached from the waves form under lower tidal flow and are aligned perpen-
dicular to the direction of tidal flow. Sand ribbons form
under higher tidal flows and are aligned parallel to tidal
flow. Fine-grained sediment tends to be deposited in waters
deep enough not to be affected by major storms and tides.
At the present time, many shallow marine environments
(e.g. the North Sea) are covered with a layer of coarse sand
and pebbles. These deposits are relict from the time of
much lower sea level during the last Ice Age. Finer-grained
sediment is currently being trapped in estuaries.
16.5.2.5 Oceanic environments
Oceanic environments include those environments from
the edge of the continental shelf into the abyssal plains
Figure 16.23 Tropical coastal mangrove with tree roots that trap and sta- (see Chapter 3), and span a water depth from 100 m or
bilize sediment. (Source: Nunnicha Supagrit / Alamy Stock Photo) less to over 8000 m in some of the deep-sea trenches.
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Chapter 16 Sediments and sedimentation
Sedimentation in oceanic environments takes place via is an accumulation of calcite tests of microscopic organ-
two major processes: turbidite currents and pelagic sedimen- isms living in the water column (e.g. foraminifera and
tation. Turbidite currents are mixtures of sediment and coccoliths), and is widely distributed on the ocean floor.
water which, because of their increased density relative to Siliceous ooze is composed of the tests of microscopic
seawater, flow down and along the bottom surface of the organisms made of silica (e.g. radiolaria and diatoms) and
oceans. In this process, they transport sand and clay-sized has a localized distribution on the ocean floor.
sediment from shelf slopes to deeper oceanic environ-
ments, depositing sediment as a thin bed widely across
the sea floor (Figure 16.24). Turbidite flows are commonly
triggered by earthquake events, with one of the best Reflective questions
documented examples being in the Grand Banks area of
➤ What are the main differences in the dominant sediment
Newfoundland in 1929. The resulting turbidite flows broke
processes between continental, coastal and oceanic
transatlantic telephone cables on the seabed.
environments?
Pelagic sedimentation is the slow background sedimen-
tation of fine-grained material falling through the water ➤ What type of bedforms do you find in rivers?
column to the seabed. The best developed pelagic sedi-
➤ What type of bedforms do you find in arid environments?
ments accumulate in the deep sea where clastic sediment
input from continents is minimal. Three types of pelagic
sediments have been documented from deep-sea environ-
ments: brown clay, carbonaceous ooze and siliceous ooze.
Brown clay is a sediment accumulation of fine-grained clay 16.6 Response of sedimentation
grains and glass fragments. The sediment is derived pre- to environmental change
dominantly from wind-blown continental material, volca-
nic material and micrometeoric grains. Carbonaceous ooze Both natural and anthropogenic activities can have a
major impact on the style and rate of sedimentation
in surface environments. Therefore it is important that
we can measure the rates of sedimentation on different
environments and Box 16.4 provides some examples of
how this can be done. The natural changes that impact
most upon sedimentation are climate change and sea-
level change. Climate change leads to changes in rainfall
and vegetation which have major impacts upon sediment
supply in the catchment, and thereby sedimentation in
associated receiving water bodies. Sea-level change results
in changes in the base level of sedimentary systems.
The result is commonly either the marine inundation of
coastal and continental environments, or the exposure of
shallow coastal shelves. In general, these natural changes
are slow and gradual, although there are numerous
examples in the geological past where such changes have
produced marked changes in sedimentation style. At the
present time sea-level rise, associated with global climate
warming, is having marked impacts on low-lying coastal
systems (see Chapter 22).
Of greater short-term impact and concern are the
effects of anthropogenic activities on sedimentation. Such
activities can be either direct, through the engineering
of water bodies (e.g. dams and, reservoirs), or indirect,
Figure 16.24 Sandstone beds deposited by turbidite currents, Tabernas, through changes in catchment characteristics (e.g. mining
southern Spain. and, urbanization).
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16.6 Response of sedimentation to environmental change
Measurement of measured by laying down grass mats on the of 137Cs in the sediment, an estimate of
Sedimentation Rates marsh and measuring sedimentation upon annual sedimentation rate can be made.
the mats over durations of 1–10 years. For longer-term sedimentation rate esti-
The rate of sedimentation is a measure of Longer-term measurements of sedimenta- mations, archaeological artefacts or 14C
the thickness of sediment (normally mea- tion rates can be made using r adionuclide dating can be used to estimate sediment
sured in centimetres) that accumulates at determination. Caesium-137 (137Cs) is accumulation rates over hundreds to
a specific location over a specific amount a radioactive element that was released thousands of years (see Chapter 5). Under
of time. Generally, accumulation rates are into the atmosphere by atomic weapons special circumstances, yearly layers of
quoted in centimetres or millimetres per testing in the 1950s and by the Chernobyl sediment (commonly called varves in lake
year, but may also sometimes be quoted nuclear power station incident in 1986 sediments) can be recognized, allowing for
as grams per cm2 of sediment. However, in (Figure 16.25). By measuring the vertical accurate estimates of sedimentation rate in
many environments sedimentation rate is location of these two concentration peaks such cases (Figure 16.26).
generally very low, and so rates in centime-
tres per hundred years, or even per thou-
sand years, are commonly quoted.
Sedimentation rates can be measured
for environmental systems using a range of
techniques. Short-term measurements can
be made by collecting sediment that accu-
mulates in a sediment trap and measuring
the amount of sediment deposited over a
month or a year. Alternatively, in salt marsh
or floodplain environments short-term
sediment accumulation rates have been
160
140
Annual deposition of 137Cs (PBq)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990
Year
Figure 16.25 The inputs of radioactive 137Cs from the atmosphere to the
northern hemisphere since 1950. The peaks in the 1950s and 1960s as a
result of atomic weapons testing, and in 1986 as a result of the Chernobyl Figure 16.26 Annual sediment layers (varves) deposited in
incident, allow for estimates of sedimentation rate to be made for sedi- uaternary Glacial Lake Riada, central Ireland. Core is a pproximately
Q
ments over the past 50 years, assuming constant sedimentation rates. 25 cm in length. (Source: Cathy Delaney)
(Source: after Owens et al., 1996)
Box 16.4 ➤
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Chapter 16 Sediments and sedimentation
➤
Typical sedimentation rates in natural per 1000 years), as a result of their great is a dynamic process and rates of sediment
systems display a wide range of values. In distance from sediment sources. Sedi- accumulation may vary over timescales
general, sedimentation rates are low, being mentation rates in lakes, floodplains and from daily to yearly. Longer-term changes
of the order of less than 1 cm yr - 1. Sed- coastal settings can be much higher (in in sedimentation rate will also result from
imentation rates are very low in oceanic the range of 0.1–10 cm yr - 1). It should be natural and anthropogenic changes to the
environments (commonly less than 1 cm remembered, however, that sedimentation system.
Box 16.4
16.6.1 Dams and reservoirs erosion (clear-water erosion: see Box 19.4 in Chapter 19).
Before 1930 the Colorado River, USA, carried up to 150
Dams and reservoirs have been constructed since early
million tonnes of suspended sediment annually to its head
human history for regulation of water, but in the last 50
in the Gulf of California. Since that time, a number of
years the construction of major dams for water supply
dams have been built on the Colorado. The Glen Canyon
and hydroelectric generation has increased markedly. As
Dam, for example, was constructed as a sediment trap to
well as having marked impacts upon water flow within
prolong the life of Lake Mead behind the Hoover Dam
catchments downstream of the dam, they also have a
which was completed in the 1930s. Sediment is currently
marked impact on sedimentation and sediment trans-
being deposited and trapped behind these structures
port throughout the catchment. Although sedimentation
(e.g. in Lake Mead and Lake Powell) and is no longer dis-
impacts vary between catchments, it has been estimated,
charged into the sea. Indeed, as a result of dams and water
for example, that a typical water reservoir in upland
abstraction in southern California, water no longer enters
United Kingdom loses 10% of its volume as a result of
the sea from the Colorado River. Box 16.5 discusses the
sedimentation over a 100 year lifetime (Figure 16.27). The
world’s largest dam.
two most significant impacts are the trapping of sediment
behind the dam and the reduction in the sediment load of
the river downstream. Sedimentation in lakes behind dams 16.6.2 Mining
leads to less floodplain sedimentation downstream, which
The activity of mining economic deposits from the Earth
reduces nutrient supply and increases the potential for
can have major impacts on sedimentation in both river
and coastal systems. Mining activity can take the form of
subsurface mining for metals, or the open-cast mining of
metals, coals and aggregate material. In all cases, the min-
ing activity exposes large amounts of material to subaerial
and fluvial erosion through the production of piles of spoil
and waste material. This increase in erodibility leads to
increased sediment loads in rivers and increased deposi-
tion of material in downstream environments. In addition
to large sediment yields, the sediment that is deposited in
downstream settings is commonly highly contaminated
with metals, which has an impact on organisms living
within those environments.
A severe pollution event linked to the dispersion of
metals associated with a tailings dam spill was the Aznal-
cóllar copper–silver–lead–zinc mine in Spain, 45 km west
of Seville. On 25 April 1998 the tailings dam, which held
the fine-grained metal-rich tailings waste from the mining
activities, failed, releasing metal-rich sediment into the
Figure 16.27 An upland reservoir in the UK during drought conditions Agrio and Guadiamar Rivers. Approximately 4600 ha of
showing layers of sediment that have accumulated within the reservoir. floodplain land was flooded with an estimated 2 million
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16.6 Response of sedimentation to environmental change
The Three Gorges Dam its capacity within 7 years of opening. seasons to allow more transported sedi-
To minimize this loss of capacity in the ment into the lower reaches of the river.
The largest dam-building project in the
Three Gorges area, two approaches have The second is to increase tree cover in the
world was undertaken on the Yangtze River
been recommended. The first is to keep catchment in order to decrease erosion of
in China (Figure 16.28). The Three Gorges
the reservoir levels low during high-flow silt into the river.
Dam wall is 2 km long and 100 m high and
was completed in 2006. All hydroelectric
plants on the dam were operational by
2012. The resultant reservoir stretches
for 650 km upstream. As well as for hydro-
electric generation, the Three Gorges Dam
is designed to protect 10 million people
downstream from devastating floods that
have killed up to 300 000 people in the
past 100 years. However, there is concern
as to how long the reservoir will last, given
that silt carried down by the Yangtze will
sediment behind the dam, perhaps even-
tually filling the reservoir. On the Yellow
River, also in China, a reservoir behind the
Sanmenxia Dam filled with silt within four
years of construction and had to be emp-
tied, dredged and rebuilt. In the year 2000
the reservoir had less than half its original
capacity (Chengrui and Dregne, 2001).
The Yangtze carries 530 million tonnes of
silt through the Three Gorges area each
Figure 16.28 The Three Gorges Dam, Yangtze River, China. This is a false colour satellite image
year. A similar, smaller dam on the Yangtze where red represents green vegetation, light blue is urban area or bare ground, and dark blue
(the Gezhouba Dam), a test run for the is water. (Source: NASA/GSFC/METI/ERSDAC/JAROS, and U.S./Japan ASTER Science Team)
Three Gorges, lost more than a third of
BOX 16.5
m3 of metal-rich tailings, as well as over 5 million m3 result of the deposition of these tailings’ sediment on the
of metal-rich acidic water. This was the worst recorded floodplain and the channel bed (Hudson-Edwards et al.,
pollution event in Spanish history. The contaminated 2005; Kraus and Wiegand, 2006).
sediment was deposited along a length of river 40 km
downstream from the mine, and 800 m wide. Similar
16.6.3 Urbanization
toxic sediment inputs to river systems as a result of min-
ing have happened recently in Bolivia (Rio Pilcomayo; Urbanization has a marked effect on sediment sourcing
Hudson-Edwards et al., 2001) and Romania (Tisa Basin; and sedimentation, mainly through the anthropogenic
Macklin et al., 2003). nature of sedimentary material and the engineering
The clean-up of affected rivers takes the form of of the land surfaces (Taylor and Owens, 2009). There
mechanical excavation, and manual clearing of the depos- are two main types of urban sediment: aquatic sedi-
ited layer of tailings sediment. Recent research has shown ments in urban water bodies (e.g. canals and, docks),
that there are long-term impacts upon river systems as a and as street sediments on road surfaces (‘street dust’).
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Chapter 16 Sediments and sedimentation
Urbanization of sediment catchments has a number of 16.6.4 Sediment management
effects on sedimentation in water bodies. Watercourses
The field of sediment management has rapidly expanded
become engineered, commonly by channelization and
in response to the environment pressures exerted upon sed-
culverting, and land surfaces are paved over. All this has
iment systems. As Box 16.6 indicates, many systems suffer
the effect of increasing the rate and extent of sediment
from issues of sediment quality (e.g. pollution) and sedi-
supply to receiving water bodies, while vegetation loss
ment quantity (e.g. sediment requiring dredging). Manage-
reduces the sediment storage capacity of the system.
ment of sediment in such cases may take the form of source
In addition to sediment yields, sediment quality also
control by cleaning up contaminated sediment sources such
markedly decreases as a result of urbanization. Sedi-
as mine sites, industry and wastewater treatment works,
ment can become contaminated by sewage, industrial
for example. Site-specific remediation, or clean-up, can
pollution and vehicular pollution. As a result of this,
take the form of dredging, sediment nourishment, sediment
sediment pollution is a problem within urban water bod-
capping (to isolate contaminated sediments from overlying
ies, and chemical reactions in the sediment can lead to
water) or in situ chemical or biological treatment.
the remobilization of this pollution and the generation
of noxious methane gas (Taylor et al., 2003). Sediment
accumulates on street surfaces as a result of industrial, Reflective questions
vehicular and building activities and these sediments
commonly contain high concentrations of lead and ➤ Thinking of dams, mining and urbanization, which of one
other metals (Robertson et al., 2003). These sediments or two of these activities are most likely to: (a) increase
have been implicated in respiratory diseases, as the fine- rates of sedimentation; (b) change the type (or quality) of
grained fraction of this sediment can be resuspended in the sediment; and (c) decrease rates of sedimentation?
the atmosphere and inhaled by humans living and work- ➤ Can you describe some methods of measuring
ing in urban environments. sedimentation rates?
Contaminated Sediment Man- and sediment accumulation in the port biphenyls, PCBs, and polyaromatic hydro-
agement and Treatment, Port significantly reduces water depth. As a carbons, PAHs).
result a dredging programme is needed to The option taken to deal with this
of Hamburg, Germany
maintain water depths in the port to allow dredged contaminated sediment is to treat
The contamination of sediments with continued shipping access (Figure 16.29). it in a specially built sediment treatment
potentially toxic elements (e.g. metals, Approximately 3 to 4 million m3 of sedi- plant. The dredged material is passed
persistent organic pollutants) is increas- ment is dredged each year. Once the sed- through rotary screens and sieves to
ingly being recognized as a major prob- iment has been dredged from the port, it remove the coarser fraction of the sed-
lem. In many cases, the presence of this cannot be dumped at sea as the sediment iment, leaving behind the fine sediment
contamination needs management and is contaminated and must be treated as a fraction ( 663 mm). This fine sediment
remediation. Such an example is the Port controlled waste. The River Elbe upstream fraction contains the majority of the con-
of Hamburg, Germany, which is a major of Hamburg flows through industrial and taminants as a result of the high capacity
economic shipping port on the River Elbe, mining areas in Germany and the Czech of silt and clay minerals to adsorb con-
approximately 100 km from the North Sea. Republic and for this reason the sedi- taminants. The resulting coarser sediment
Sediment is delivered to the port from ment in Hamburg Port is contaminated fraction is lower in contamination and
upstream sources on the River Elbe and (Netzband et al., 2002), containing high can be used for building material. The fine
from tidal transport of sediment from the levels of arsenic, mercury, chromium, lead sediment fraction is dewatered and dis-
North Sea. Sedimentation rates are high, and organic pollutants (polychlorinated posed of to a specially built landfill facility.
Box 16.6 ➤
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16.7 Summary
➤
By removing the coarse fraction from the
dredged material the volume of material
which requires landfill disposal is signifi-
cantly reduced. This dredging of sediment
from the port also acts as a pollutant
filter to the North Sea, annually removing
approximately 30% of metal contaminants
from the River Elbe that would otherwise
be discharged to the North Sea.
This management of sediment rep-
resents a site-specific approach. A more
sustainable approach for contaminated
sediment management is one that con-
siders sediment management on the river
basin scale, identifying and minimizing con-
taminant inputs at source. It is increasingly
being recognized that river basin scale
approaches to sediment management are
Figure 16.29 Dredging operations in Port of Hamburg.
the most effective, from both economic
(Source: Philip N. Owens)
and ecological viewpoints (Owens, 2005).
Box 16.6
16.7 Summary reconstruction of past sedimentary environments through the
recent and geological past. Both natural and anthropogenically
Sedimentation is a major process acting to shape the Earth’s induced changes in environmental conditions impact upon sedi-
surface. Sediments are derived from fragments of pre-existing mentation processes. These changes might be climatic, physical
rocks (clastic sediments), the remains of organisms (biological or chemical in nature and such changes can be recognized. Of
sediments) and the direct precipitation of minerals from sea- these changes, anthropogenic impacts (e.g. engineered struc-
water (chemical sediments). These different types of sediment tures, mining and urbanization) have the most marked and rapid
have characteristic chemical and physical properties and occur effects, both on sediment physics and sediment chemistry. It
in a range of characteristic settings. Sediments are deposited in should be clear that a thorough understanding of sediments and
all surface environments, from continental settings to oceanic sedimentation processes is required for physical geographers
settings. Within these environments distinct grain composition, and environmental scientists to interpret the Earth’s surface
grain shape and sediment bedforms are preserved. This allows the geomorphology.
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Chapter 16 Sediments and sedimentation
Further reading based on interpreting sedimentary environments from the geo-
logical record, the first half of the book provides a good, clear
overview of the major processes operating on sediments, the
formation of bedforms and the sediments deposited in the full
range of Earth surface environments.
Lowe, J.J. and Walker, M.J.C. (1997) Reconstructing
Quaternary environments. Longman, Harlow. Perry, C.T. and Taylor, K.G. (eds) (2007) Environmental
This deals extensively with methods and examples of how sedimentology. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford.
Quaternary environments can be reconstructed from the rock This book provides an extensive introduction to the
record. As such, it has a large amount of information upon sed- sedimentology of contemporary Earth surface environments
imentary successions and would give the student a good back- and the impacts of climatic and environmental change upon
ground to ancient sedimentary deposits. It also provides useful these environments. A large range of terrestrial, coastal and
information on loess and wind-blown deposits. marine environments are covered, and aspects of the biology,
physics and chemistry of sediments are included, as well as
Moore, J.K. and Braucher, O. (2008) Sedimentary and good case examples of sediment pollution, management and
mineral dust sources of dissolved iron to the world ocean. remediation.
Biogeosciences, 5, 631–656.
A paper on some of the material discussed in Box 16.2. Taylor, K.G. and Owens, P.N. (2009) Sediments in urban river
basins: a review of sediment-contaminant dynamics in an
Nichols, G. (2009) Sedimentology and stratigraphy, 2nd edition. environmental system conditioned by human activities. Journal
Blackwell Science, Oxford. of Soils and Sediments, 9, 281–303.
This book is designed for undergraduates studying sedimentol- A paper that brings together research knowledge on urban river
ogy in the earth sciences. Although latter parts of this text are sediment contaminants.
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C H A PTER 1 7
Soils
Pippa J. Chapman
School of Geography, University of Leeds
Learning objectives (water). Soil can be defined as a complex medium, con-
sisting of inorganic materials (such as sand, silt and clay
After reading this chapter you should be able to: minerals), organic matter (living and dead), water and air,
variously organized and subject to dynamic processes and
➤ appreciate the wide range of functions soil perform interactions. As well as being a major component of the
natural system, soil has a key role in the use and manage-
➤ describe the components that make up soil and understand how
ment of the environment by humans, where it performs a
they affect the physical, chemical and biological properties of soil
wide range of essential functions:
➤ describe the processes of soil formation and the factors that
control soil development, and understand how these lead to the • It is a medium for plant growth, providing plants with
features seen in soil profiles support, essential nutrients, water and air. Plant life,
in turn, supports animal life. Soil is therefore able to
➤ compare and contrast the different methods of soil classification
provide humans with food, fibre and fuel. This ‘pro-
➤ define the important physical soil properties of soil texture and duction’ function is also referred to as the ‘forestry and
soil structure
agricultural’ function of the soil.
➤ explain important cation–clay mineral interactions and the pro- • It acts as a reservoir for water, influencing the quan-
cesses that control soil pH and relate these concepts to soil fertility tity of water in our rivers, lakes and aquifers (see
➤ understand the important functions soil biota perform and the Chapter 18).
factors that control their diversity and activity • It has a filtering and transforming role for materials
➤ appreciate the environmental importance of soil and understand
added to the soil (see Chapter 20). Thus, soil is often
the threats posed to soil and soil processes by human activities
able to protect the quality of our air and water against
many forms of harmful substances (pollutants).
• It recycles dead plants and animals into nutrients
17.1 Introduction needed by all living things.
• It stores huge amounts of carbon. It is estimated that
Soil is a major component of the Earth’s ecosystems and there are 15 gigatonnes (15 thousand million) of car-
forms at the interface of the atmosphere (air), lithosphere bon in the world’s soils; three times more than in all
(rocks), biosphere (plants and animals) and hydrosphere vegetation and forests.
M17 An Introduction to Physical Ge 83575.indd 429 24/05/2017 13:19
Chapter 17 Soils
• It provides a habitat for organisms. A handful of soil
may be home to billions of organisms, belonging to
thousands of species.
Air
• It provides raw materials such as clays, gravels, sands 25%
and minerals as well as fuels such as peat. It also pro- Solid Mineral Pore
vides a physical base for the foundations of buildings material 45% spaces
Water
and roads.
25%
• It helps to protect our cultural heritage. Soils preserve Organic
a diverse range of archaeological remains which are a 5%
vital resource for understanding anthropogenic history.
Soil is, therefore, essential to humans and the maintenance Figure 17.1 The components of soil. This diagram shows the composition
of the environment. Without soil, the biosphere in which by volume of a typical topsoil. The dashed line between water and air indi-
we live could not function. As Doran and Parkin (1994) cates that the proportion of these two components varies with soil mois-
ture. Water and air make up the pore spaces whereas the solid material is
stated: ‘The thin layer of soil covering the Earth’s surface
made up from mineral and organic matter.
represents the difference between survival and extinction
for most terrestrial life.’
Soil, however, is not an unlimited resource and can be Air and water fill the pore spaces between solid soil
lost, degraded or improved by natural processes and human particles. The relative proportion of air and water fluctu-
activities. As most soils take thousands or even millions of ates greatly and they are inversely related to each other.
years to form, they cannot be replaced if they are washed Following rainfall, water fills the pore spaces, expelling
away or polluted. Understanding the nature and distribu- much of the air. As water gradually drains away or is used
tion of soils and the processes operating within soil is there- by plants, air refills the pores.
fore essential if we want to preserve our soil in a healthy
state and improve our understanding of ecosystem dynam-
ics. This chapter begins by describing the components of 17.2.1 Mineral particles
soil before examining soil formation processes. These pro- In most soils the mineral fraction predominates. Mineral
cesses impact the physical and chemical properties of soil, particles are derived from the weathering of parent material.
which are also described. The types of organisms found in Weathering (Chapter 14) refers to the breakdown of rocks
soil and the functions they perform are also covered in this and minerals by the action of physical and chemical pro-
chapter. The chapter concludes by examining a range of cesses. The larger mineral particles, which include boul-
impacts of human activities on soils and soil processes. ders, stones, gravel and coarse sands, are generally rock
fragments, whereas smaller particles are usually made of a
17.2 The components of soil single mineral. There are two major types of mineral parti-
cles: primary minerals, which are minerals that have changed
Soil comprises four major components: the inorganic or little since they were formed, such as quartz, feldspars and
mineral fraction, organic matter, water and air. The rel- micas; and secondary minerals, such as clays and oxides of
ative proportion of these four components greatly influ- iron and aluminium, which are formed from the break-
ences the physical, chemical and biological properties of a down and chemical weathering of less resistant primary
soil. In a soil, the four components are mixed in a complex minerals . The composition and size of mineral particles
way. Figure 17.1 shows that approximately half the soil have a great influence on the physical and chemical proper-
volume of a typical topsoil consists of solid material (inor- ties of a soil (see Sections 17.5 and 17.6).
ganic and organic); the other half consists of voids or pore
spaces between the solid particles. Most of the solid mate-
17.2.2 Soil organic matter
rial is inorganic mineral matter. However, the influence
of the organic component on soil properties is often far Soil organic matter can be divided into three categories: (i)
greater than its small proportion suggests. Most agricul- decomposing residues of plant and animal debris referred
tural soils contain between 1 and 10% organic matter and to as litter; (ii) resistant organic matter known as humus;
are referred to as inorganic or mineral soils because of the and (iii) living organisms and plant roots collectively
low organic content. referred to as the soil biomass. Fresh plant and animal litter
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17.2 The components of soil
is progressively decomposed by soil microorganisms (see Each water molecule
= Na+ d+H is polar
Section 17.7) to a more or less stable end product called d-O
H H
humus which is resistant to further decomposition. During d+H
= Cl- O
the breakdown of organic matter by microorganisms, O H H
plant nutrients are released, particularly carbon, nitrogen O
H H
and phosphorus. This process is called mineralization. The H O
balance between inputs of plant and animal materials H O
H H H H
and losses by decomposition determines the amount of O
O H
organic matter in the soil. The organic matter content of
H H
soils varies greatly but it usually represents between 2 and H
O O
6% by volume, but even a small amount is important as it
H H
has such a large impact upon many of the major physical,
H H
chemical and biological properties of soil. In arid climates,
O O
where less vegetation grows, soil organic matter is low
H O H
(0.5–2%), whereas in environments where decomposition
Solid H H
processes are drastically slowed, such as in waterlogged
Solution
conditions, a surface accumulation of only partially
decomposed material builds up to form depths of several Figure 17.2 The dissolution of table salt (NaCl) in water. Since water
(H2O) is a polar molecule (one end has a different charge from the other
metres of peat, which typically contains more than 50% end), the negative end is attracted to positive ions and the positive end is
organic matter. attracted to negative ions. Table salt completely dissolves (dissociates) in
Soil organic matter is a very important component of water as the water molecules keep the sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl - )
soils because it (i) is the main food for soil organisms (see ions apart and stop them from reforming the solid salt. The figure shows
how the water molecules are linked to the sodium and chloride ions.
Section 17.7); (ii) binds mineral particles together and
therefore stabilizes the soil’s structure (see Section 17.5.3)
and protects it from erosion; (iii) improves water holding referred to as cations and negatively charged ions as anions.
capacity (see Section 17.2.3); (iv) improves porosity and In soil solution important cations and anions include those
aeration and therefore aids the growth of plants; and (v) in Table 17.1.
is a major source of nutrients and therefore influences soil An important function of the soil solution is to ensure
fertility. the continual supply of some of these cations and anions
to the plant roots. Soil solution is also the main agent of
translocation, carrying dissolved ions, including pollutant
17.2.3 Soil water
ions, and small particles through the soil to surface and
Water is essential to the ecological functioning of soils. groundwaters.
Plant and soil organisms depend on water to survive. Water is held in soil by the attraction of water mole-
Water is also a major driving force in soil formation as it cules to each other and to soil particles. Water exists as
is required for parent material weathering. All chemical one of three states in the soil (Figure 17.3). The amount
weathering processes depend on the presence of water. held in each state changes over time, which affects the
Water together with soil air fills up the pore spaces
between the mineral and organic components of the soil. Table 17.1 Some important cations and anions in soil solution
Soil water, however, is not pure; it contains dissolved
organic and inorganic substances and is known as the Cations Anions
soil solution. When some compounds dissolve in the soil
solution, the atoms become separated as ions. An ion is H+ Hydrogen Cl - Chloride
an atom, or group of atoms, bearing an electrical charge. -
Na + Sodium NO3 Nitrate
For example, when table salt (sodium chloride), which has
K+ Potassium SO42 - Sulfate
the chemical formula NaCl, dissolves in water the atoms
separate and form ions (see Figure 17.2). The sodium ions Ca2+ Calcium HCO3 - Bicarbonate
have a single positive charge and are indicated by the sym- Mg2+ Magnesium OH - Hydroxide
bol Na +, whereas chloride has a single negative charge as
Al3+ Aluminium
indicated by the symbol Cl - . Positively charged ions are
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Chapter 17 Soils
30
(gravitational water)
24 Field capacity Available water
(capillary water)
18
Water (%)
12
Wilting point
Saturation Field capacity Wilting point
6
Unavailable water
Figure 17.3 Soil water states. (hygroscopic water)
0
Sand Sandy Loam Silt Clay Clay
loam loam loam
amount of water available to plants and the potential Particle size classes
movement of nutrients and pollutants within the soil. Increasing % clay
When all the soil pores are filled with water from rainfall,
Figure 17.4 The general relationship between soil texture and soil water
the soil is described as saturated (Figure 17.3 left box). The availability.
soil, however, does not stay in this state for very long as,
under the action of gravity, water will start to drain out of
the larger pores and is replaced by air. This water is called greater soil surface area per unit volume. However, much
gravitational water and when all of it has drained away the of the water held in soils with a high proportion of clay-
soil is said to be at field capacity (Figure 17.3 middle box). sized particles is unavailable to plants (i.e. hygroscopic
The small pores retain water against the force of grav- water) because it is held in very small pores. The general
ity: this water is known as capillary water and represents relationship between soil texture and soil water availability
the majority of water that is available for plant uptake. is shown in Figure 17.4. Soil structure influences the nature
This water remains in the soil because the combined and abundance of soil pores and soil permeability and
attraction of (i) the water molecules to each other and (ii) therefore the rate at which water drains through the soil.
water to the soil particles is greater than the gravitational For example, if a soil has a lot of well-connected pores and
force. Capillary water moves within the soil from zones is very permeable, water will percolate rapidly through it.
of higher potential (wet areas) to lower potential (dry Organic matter increases the soil’s moisture holding capac-
areas) (see Chapter 18). The most common movement is ity and indirectly affects water content through its influence
towards plant roots and the soil surface, where it is lost by on soil structure and total pore space (White, 1997).
evaporation and transpiration. The final type of water is
hygroscopic water, which is held as a tight film around indi-
17.2.4 Soil air
vidual soil particles (right box in Figure 17.3). This water
is unavailable to plants as the attraction between the water Soil air occupies pores that are not filled with water. Soil
and the soil particles is greater than the ‘sucking power’ animals, plant roots and most microorganisms use oxy-
of plant roots. A soil in which all the water is hygroscopic gen and release carbon dioxide (CO2) when they respire
will appear dry although some water still remains. The (breathe). In order to maintain biological activity, oxygen
drier the soil, the harder the plant has to work to obtain needs to move into the soil and CO2 must move out of the
the remaining water held in progressively smaller pores. soil. This ventilation of the soil is known as aeration. Aera-
Eventually there comes a point when plants cannot with- tion is affected primarily by the pore size distribution, pore
draw the tightly held water from the soil and this is known continuity, the soil water content and the rate of oxygen
as the permanent wilting point (Figure 17.4). The water consumption by respiring organisms. As soil air is ‘com-
retained in the soil between the states of field capacity and partmentalized’ by the presence of water and intervening
the wilting point is known as the plant available water or soil particles, the composition of the soil air differs from
available water. that of atmospheric air. Generally it has a higher moisture
The amount of water held in each state is related to content, higher CO2 concentrations and lower oxygen con-
a number of factors including soil texture, soil structure centrations than the atmosphere (see Table 17.2). Carbon
(see Section 17.5.3) and soil organic matter content (see dioxide concentrations are often several hundred times
Section 17.2.2). Since soil water occurs as films around higher than that in the atmosphere.
soil particles, if there are many small particles (i.e. clay- However, the composition of soil air is constantly
sized particles) in a soil it will hold more water due to the changing with marked diurnal and seasonal fluctuations.
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17.3 Soil profile
Table 17.2 The composition (% by volume) of soil air relative to the open
atmosphere.
Atmosphere Soil air
Nitrogen (N2) 79.01 79.0
Oxygen (O2) 20.96 18.0–20.8 O Organic horizon — surface layer
dominated by the accumulation
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 0.035 0.15–1.0 of organic matter
A Mineral horizon — mineral material
mixed with decomposed organic
matter. Dark colour due to the
presence of organic matter
These changes are often associated with the differences
E Mineral horizon — depleted in clay,
in biological activity between night and day or between iron and aluminium oxides. Eluvial
summer and winter. There will be less respiration on a horizon. Lighter in colour than A and
Solum
B horizons
cold winter’s night in a temperate zone than on a warm
summer’s day and so CO2 concentrations in soil air may
B Mineral horizon — enriched in iron,
be much lower in winter. The composition of soil air also aluminium and clay minerals.
varies considerably from place to place in the soil. Illuvial horizon
C Unconsolidated material
Reflective questions
➤ What is the difference between primary and secondary R Bedrock
minerals?
➤ Why does soil organic matter have such an important Figure 17.5 A hypothetical mineral soil profile showing the relative posi-
tions of the major horizons that may be present in a well-drained soil in
impact on the properties of soil?
the temperate humid region. Not all the horizons described here are pres-
ent in every soil profile, and the relative depths vary.
➤ What factors affect the soil’s moisture holding capacity
and why?
by the accumulation of fresh or partially decomposed
➤ Why is the concentration of CO2 in soil air higher than
organic matter. The A horizon can occur at or near the
that in the air above the soil?
surface (beneath the O horizon) and contains a mixture
of mineral and organic (mainly humus) material and is
therefore usually darker than the horizons below. Beneath
17.3 Soil profile this occurs the E horizon or elluvial horizon. As the E
horizon is a zone of depletion (e.g. of clay, organic matter
Soils are described by the characteristics of their soil pro- and iron) it is usually a pale, ashy colour. E horizons are
file. This consists of a vertical section through the soil common in high-rainfall areas, especially in soils devel-
from the ground surface down to the parent material. It is oped under forests. The underlying B horizon is often a
made up of a series of distinctive horizontal layers known zone of accumulation (e.g. of clay, iron, organic matter
as soil horizons. This horizontal alignment is mainly due to and carbonates) often referred to as the illuvial horizon. In
the translocation of materials by the movement of water some soils, the accumulation of iron oxides in the B hori-
through the soil. The removal of solid or dissolved mate- zon gives it a reddish colour. The A, E and B horizons are
rial from one horizon is called eluviation, while the deposi- sometimes referred to as the solum (from the Latin for soil
tion in another horizon is referred to as illuviation. or land). It is in the solum that the soil-forming processes
The soil horizons are given letters according to their are active and that plant roots and animal life are largely
genesis (mode of formation) and their relative position in confined. The B horizon usually grades into the C horizon,
the profile. The major horizons are shown in Figure 17.5. which largely comprises unconsolidated weathered par-
Note that not all the horizons described here are present ent material known as the regolith. Although the regolith
in every soil. The O horizon is a surface layer dominated is affected by physical and chemical processes it is little
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Chapter 17 Soils
affected by biological activity and therefore not part of the under conditions of high rainfall and rapid drainage. The
soil solum. If unweathered rock exists below the C horizon percolating water carries soluble substances downwards
it is called bedrock and is designated the R horizon. through the soil profile, depositing some in lower layers
In some soil profiles, the soil horizons are very distinct but removing the most soluble entirely (see Chapter 20).
in colour, with sharp boundaries, whereas in other soils Removals also include the loss of gases and uptake of sol-
the colour change between horizons may be very gradual, utes by plants.
and the boundaries difficult to locate. However, colour Mixing of organic and inorganic components is an
is just one of the many physical, chemical and biological important process that is carried out by soil animals,
characteristics by which one horizon may differ from the microbes and plant roots, freezing and thawing of water,
horizon above or below it. and shrinking and swelling of the soil. Humans also cause
The informal terms ‘topsoil’ and ‘subsoil’ are often physical mixing of the soil by ploughing. Chemical and
used to describe soil. Topsoil refers to the upper portion biological processes can also transform soil components.
of the soil (usually the A horizon or plough horizon) and Organic compounds decay and some minerals dissolve
is the part most important for plant growth. The subsoil while others precipitate. These transformations result in
refers to the part of the soil below the topsoil (plough the development of soil structure and a change in colour
depth) and usually relates to the B horizon. from that of the parent material. Translocation of material
within the soil profile often occurs in response to gradients
of water potential (e.g. suction) and chemical concen-
trations within soil pores. Suspended and dissolved sub-
Reflective questions stances may move up or down through the soil profile.
➤ Draw a diagram of the typical soil horizons and explain The net result of these soil forming processes occurring
their importance in determining the properties of soil. over a long period of time is the formation of different soil
horizons. However, the processes that dominate at a par-
➤ What is the difference between eluviation and illuviation? ticular site are dependent on the environmental conditions
at that site. In areas where rainfall exceeds evapotrans-
piration, net water movement is down through the soil
(Figure 17.6a). The extent of leaching is often indicated by
17.4 Soil formation processes
the acidity of the soil (Jarvis et al., 1984). In many freely
draining soils, clay is carried from the upper horizons by
17.4.1 Pedogenesis
percolating water to lower horizons and this is known
The process of soil formation, called pedogenesis, takes as clay eluviation, or lessivage (Figure 17.6b). The clay is
place over hundreds and thousands of years. The soil is an redeposited as skins or coats on the surfaces of aggregates
open system, which allows input of materials to the soil, or in pores and around stones. Soil horizons characterized
the loss of materials from the soil and internal transfers by clay accumulation are described as argillic. Clay elu-
and reorganization of these materials within the system. viation tends to produce a group of soils known as acid
Soil horizons develop as a result of a number of processes brown earths or luvisols (Figure 17.7).
occurring within the soil, which can be classified into the Podzolization may occur in soils where there is intense
following categories: additions, removals, mixing, translo- leaching and translocation of material (Figure 17.6c).
cations and transformations. Organic acids complex with iron and aluminium com-
The main addition of soil material comes from the par- pounds that are transported downwards from the E hori-
ent material of the soil. Mineral particles are released from zon by percolating water and deposited in the B horizon.
the parent material by weathering at the base of the soil, Podzolization occurs on freely drained sites under forests
and contribute to the lower layers of the soil. Significant and heath plants and the end product of this process is
additions of material come from surface accumulation, a soil called a podzol (Figure 17.8), the characteristics
particularly of organic matter. Additions also include sol- of which are the presence of an organic layer, a leached
utes and particles carried by precipitation and the wind, E horizon and an accumulation of iron, aluminium and
energy from the Sun and gases from the atmosphere. humic material in the B horizon. These soils are not very
The main losses (removals) from the soil occur through productive for agriculture because they are acidic and the
wind and water erosion and leaching. Leaching is the free drainage results in leaching of fertilizers away from
removal of soil material in solution and is most active plant roots.
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17.4 Soil formation processes
(a) (b) (c) Figure 17.6 The movement of water
Leaching cm Clay eluviation Podzolization
0 in the soil-forming processes of
Accumulation of
acid humus or peat
(a) leaching, (b) clay eluviation, (c)
Depletion podzolization, (d) gleying, (e) lateriza-
of bases Loss of clay Depletion tion and (f) salinization.
Fe, Al, of Fe and Al
Clay (Source: (a)–(d) Reproduced from
humus
National Soil Resources Institute,
Bulletin 10, Jarvis et al. (1984) ‘Soils
Losses Losses Losses Precipitation and their use in Northern England’,
Some Accumulation
N, Ca, Mg, N, Ca, Mg, N, Ca, Mg, of Fe, Al, Soil Survey of England and Wales,
precipitation of clay
Na and K Na and K Na and K humus
of calcium Rothamsted Experimental Stations,
80 Harpenden, Herts, Fig. 14, p. 47. ©
Drainage Drainage Drainage
Cranfield University 1984. No part of
water water water this publication may be reproduced
without the express permission
of Cranfield University; (e) and (f)
(d) (e) (f) adapted from McRae, 1988)
Gleying Laterization Evaporation Salinization
Intermittent Intense weathering; Salt crust
aeration in loss of Si. Residual
presence of accumulation of Deposition of
organic Fe and Al soluble salts
matter
Slowly Losses Upward
permeable Mobilization Si, N, Ca,
May be transmission
subsoil and local Mg, K and
or formation of Na, Mg, K,
fluctuating precipitation Na Cl, SO4
of kaolinite
groundwater of ferric iron
Upward
Slow Drainage movement
drainage water of saline
groundwater
Figure 17.8 A podzol from the Upper Wye catchment, Wales. (Source:
Figure 17.7 A brown earth soil. (Source: Davey Jones) Chris Evans)
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Chapter 17 Soils
In many locations waterlogging leads to the reduction,
mobilization and removal or redeposition of iron com-
pounds in the soil (Figure 17.6d). The reduction of ferric
(Fe3+) to the more mobile, grey ferrous (Fe2+) iron com-
pound (see Chapter 15) by microorganisms is known as
gleying. The soil loses the brown/red colour of ferric oxide
and becomes grey or bluish. Alternate phases of reduction
and oxidation due to fluctuations in the water content
result in soil having a mottled appearance with brown/red
iron oxide spots or streaks occurring along root channels
and larger pores as shown in Figure 17.9.
Laterization (ferralitization) occurs in tropical and
subtropical soils where high temperatures and heavy rain
result in intense weathering and leaching (Figures 17.6e
and 17.10). Almost all the by-products of weathering are
leached out of the soil leading to the development of hori-
zons depleted in base cations (e.g. calcium, magnesium,
potassium and sodium) and enriched in silica and oxides
of aluminium and iron (McRae, 1988). The red colour of
these soils is due to the presence of haematite and goethite
(Figure 17.10). Conversely in areas where evapotranspi-
ration exceeds rainfall, such as arid and semi-arid areas,
water is drawn to the soil surface and as water evaporates
salts are precipitated at or near the surface (Figure 17.6f;
see also Box 18.4 in Chapter 18). This salinization process
is almost the complete opposite of leaching.
Figure 17.9 A stagnohumic gley. (Source: John Conway)
Figure 17.10 A red laterite soil (also
known as an oxisol) formed under a
wet, humid and warm tropical
climate, Brazil. (Source: Phil
Haygarth)
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17.4 Soil formation processes
17.4.2 Factors affecting soil formation water stimulates weathering processes, which helps to dif-
ferentiate the soil into horizons and influences soil depth.
The major processes involved in soil formation described
The main effect of temperature on soils is to influence
above are controlled by local and regional environmental
the rate of soil formation via mineral weathering and
factors. In the late 1800s, Dokuchaiev, a Russian scientist,
organic matter decomposition. For every 10°C rise in
was one of the first to recognize that soils do not occur
temperature, the speed of chemical reactions increases by
by chance but usually form a pattern in the landscape
a factor of two or three; biological activity doubles, up to
and develop as a result of the interplay of climate, parent
around 30–35 °C, and evaporation of water increases. As
material, organisms and time. Building on this work in the
rates of chemical weathering are greatest under conditions
1930s and 1940s, Hans Jenny suggested that topography
of high temperature and humidity, soils in tropical areas
was an additional important factor (Jenny, 1941).
are often several metres deep while those in polar regions
are shallow and poorly developed (Figure 17.11). In addi-
17.4.2.1 Climate tion, soils are influenced by microclimates that are related
to altitude and aspect.
Climate is perhaps the most influential factor affecting
soil-forming processes as it determines the moisture and 17.4.2.2 Parent material
temperature regimes under which a soil develops. In addi-
tion, climate is influential in determining vegetation dis- Soils may develop on the weathered surfaces of exposed,
tribution (see Chapters 10 and 13). Rainwater is involved consolidated in situ rock surfaces, or unconsolidated
in most of the physical, chemical and biological processes superficial material that has been transported and depos-
that occur within the soil, and particularly weathering and ited by gravity, water, ice or wind. Parent material influ-
leaching. To be effective, however, water must pass down- ences soil formation through the process of weathering
wards through the whole of the soil profile and into the and then through the influence of the weathered material
regolith. The amount of precipitation that percolates down- on soil processes. Rock types influence the rate of weath-
wards through the soil is mainly related to total annual ering through their mineralogical composition and the
precipitation and rate of evaporation (from vegetation and surface area of the rock exposed. The larger the exposed
soil), although topography and permeability of the parent surface area, the faster the rate of weathering. Some
material are also important factors. Overall, percolating minerals are more susceptible to weathering than others.
Polar Tundra Taiga zone Semi-desert Tropical forest zone
Steppes
Savannas
Savannas
3000 desert and desert
2700
2400
precipitation (mm)
Evaporation or
2100
1800 Temperature
Temperature (5C)
1500 25 Evaporation
1200 20
900 15 n
600 10 ipitatio
Prec
300 5
0 0
Fresh rock
Little chemical alteration
Illite— montmorillonite
Kaolinite
Al2O3
Fe2O3 + Al2O3
Figure 17.11 Schematic representation of the variation of soil depth with climate and biome from the equator to the north polar region. Soils are
deeper in the wet humid tropics and in the temperate zone and most shallow in dry or very cold locations. The weathering products of aluminium and
iron oxides are also shown. (Source: after Strakhov, 1967, as adapted in Birkland, 1999, Fig. 10.5, p. 274)
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Chapter 17 Soils
Goldich (1938) proposed a ‘stability series’ for the silicate soils on steeper slopes are drier as most precipitation runs
minerals (see Figure 14.21 in Chapter 14). This arrange- off the surface or through the upper horizons to lower
ment of minerals is in the same form as Bowen’s reaction ground. This produces the pattern of soil distribution
series, where the silicate minerals are placed in their order illustrated in Figure 17.12a. On slopes with very permeable
of crystallization (also shown in Figure 14.21). The miner- parent material water tends to penetrate to the subsoil,
als that crystallize first form under much higher tempera- leaving the higher ground and steep slope well drained,
tures than those that crystallize last. Consequently, the whereas soils on the lower slopes and valley bottoms are
minerals that crystallize first, such as olivine and pyroxene, more likely to be affected by groundwater as shown in Fig-
are not as stable at the Earth’s surface, where the tempera- ure 17.12b. Milne (1935) was the first to use the term soil
ture and pressure are very different from the environment catena for topographically determined soil profiles in East
in which they form. In contrast, quartz, which crystallizes Africa. Where there is no change in the geology along the
last, is the most resistant to weathering. slope, soil differences in the catena are brought about by
Knowledge of rock mineralogy allows rocks to be drainage conditions, differential transport, eroded material
placed in their order of susceptibility to weathering. Hard and the leaching, translocation and redeposition of mobile
igneous rocks and Carboniferous and Jurassic sandstones chemical constituents.
weather slowly to give shallow, stony, coarse-textured soils. Aspect affects the solar energy received at the ground
In contrast, softer Permo-Jurassic sandstones weather surface. In the northern hemisphere, south-facing slopes
more rapidly to give deeper, less stony, loamy or sandy receive more and are therefore warmer and generally lower
soils. The soils that develop on all these parent rocks are in moisture than north-facing slopes. Consequently, soils
generally acidic owing to the low base cation content of on the south slopes tend to be drier, less densely vegetated,
these rocks or the bases are leached from the soil faster
than they are replenished by weathering. Carboniferous,
Permo-Triassic and Jurrassic clays, siltstones, mudstones
(a) Overland flow and
and shales are all fine-grained rocks which weather to give near-surface (shallow)
silty or clayey soils which are generally slowly permeable. runoff
The weathering products of chalk and limestone are very
soluble, and therefore soil depths are often shallow, par-
ticularly on steeper slopes. At the foot of the slope, where
Soil Surface Stagnogleyic Brown Stagnogleyic Surface water
deeper soils form, they are well drained and base rich. Fur- class water brown earths earths brown earths gley soils
gley soils
ther information about parent material weathering can be
found in Chapter 14. (b) Winter
water table Summer
water table
17.4.2.3 Topography
Topography relates to the altitude, slope and aspect of Peat
the landscape and can hasten or delay the influences of
climatic factors. Slope steepness is an important factor, as
Soil Brown earths or podzols Groundwater Peat soils
steeper slopes reduce the amount of water infiltrating and class gley soils
percolating through the soil and allow increased erosion of
Gleyic brown earths or gley —podzols
the surface layers. Therefore soils formed on steeper slopes
tend to be thin, coarse textured and poorly developed com- Never waterlogged, Seasonally waterlogged,
unmottled strong mottling
pared with soils on gentler slopes or more level terrain.
Occasionally waterlogged, Permanently waterlogged,
However, weathering rates tend to be greater on steeper slight mottling typically grey or bluish grey
slopes, although the weathering products do not accumu- Figure 17.12 Relationship between slope, hydrology and soil forma-
late very deeply as they are efficiently removed by erosion. tion on (a) slowly permeable parent material and (b) permeable parent
For example, 90% of the dissolved material in the rivers of material. (Source: Reproduced from National Soil Resources Institute,
the Amazon basin comes from the steep Andes Mountains Bulletin 10, Jarvis et al. (1984) ‘Soils and their use in Northern England’,
Soil Survey of England and Wales, Rothamsted Experimental Stations,
which only cover 12% of the basin (Gaillardet et al., 1997). Harpenden, Herts. Fig. 16, p. 52 © Cranfield University 1984. No part of
On slopes with less permeable parent material, surface this publication may be reproduced without the express written permis-
waterlogging causes gleying on flat ground, whereas the sion of Cranfield University)
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17.4 Soil formation processes
and thus lower in organic matter. These differences are soil property with time is negligible, the soil is said to be in
reversed in the southern hemisphere. steady state. However, in reality soil rarely reaches this state
Altitude influences climate (Chapter 9). Temperature because of changes in one of the environmental factors.
declines with altitude and precipitation tends to increase For example, changes in the world’s climate over geologi-
with altitude in the middle latitudes. This leads to an cal time accompanied by changes in sea level, erosion and
excess of rainfall over evaporation and as a result leaching deposition have produced large changes in the distribution
rates are high and waterlogging occurs where the drainage of vegetation and parent material. Therefore most soils have
is poor. The lower temperatures also lead to a reduction in not developed under a single set of environmental factors
biological activity and therefore slower decomposition of but have undergone successive waves of pedogenesis. The
organic matter. This in turn leads to the accumulation of most recent large change in climate resulted in alternating
thick organic horizons at the surface and ultimately to the glacial and interglacial periods of the Pleistocene (Chap-
formation of peat. ter 4). In high and middle latitudes, glaciation removed the
majority of soils and covered large areas with drift material.
Therefore, soil development in these areas began again on
17.4.2.4 Organisms
new surfaces after the final retreat of the ice during the
Organisms include plants, animals, microorganisms and Holocene which began about 11 700 years ago (Chapter 5).
humans. Vegetation extracts water and nutrients from
the soil and under natural conditions returns most of the
17.4.2.6 Combined influences
nutrients it uses to the soil in litter. The type of vegetation
influences the type and amount of litter that is returned to It can be seen that the five factors influencing soil formation
the soil. Different soil types support different vegetation do not operate as single independent factors. Climate influ-
communities. Vegetation also protects the soil from water ences vegetation and human activities and is itself affected
and wind erosion by intercepting rainfall, decreasing the by topography. Vegetation is influenced by climate and
velocity of runoff, binding soil particles together, improv- parent material. The combined influence of the five factors
ing soil structure and porosity, and providing a litter cover produces a set of soil-forming processes, which results in
which protects the soil surface against raindrop splash. the world’s distinctive soil profiles. Not all soils develop the
Earthworms and other small animals such as moles mix same amount or combination of horizons and therefore
and aerate the soil as they burrow through the soil. Earth- specific combinations of horizons are used to classify soils.
worms have been found to increase the infiltration rate of Box 17.1 provides details on soil classification schemes.
fine-textured soils and contribute towards increasing the
stability of the soil structure by intermixing organic mat-
ter with mineral particles (Curtis et al., 1976). Soil organ-
isms, including fungi, bacteria and single-celled protozoa,
Reflective questions
play a major role in the decomposition of organic matter
(see Section 17.7). The end product is humus. Humans ➤ What are the similarities and differences between the
influence soil formation through manipulation of vegeta- soil-forming processes of leaching and clay eluviation?
tion, agricultural practices such as drainage and irrigation,
➤ Can you explain why soils are considered as open systems
the additions of fertilizers, lime and pesticides, and urban
and how this influences soil formation? (Drawing a dia-
and industrial development.
gram may help with your answer.)
➤ Can you describe the process of podzolization? What
17.4.2.5 Time
materials are removed? Why does this happen? Where are
Over time soil is continually forming from the parent they being redeposited?
material, under the influence of the climate, topography,
➤ Why are soils in tropical areas often several metres deep
vegetation and soil organisms. Soil genesis is a long process;
while those in polar regions are shallow and poorly
the formation of a layer 30 cm thick can take from 1000 to
developed?
10 000 years. During this time, the properties of the soil
continually change. This is manifest by changes in the soil ➤ How does soil development vary down a slope of relatively
profile including the number of horizons, their depth and uniform parent material?
their degree of differentiation. When the rate of change of a
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Chapter 17 Soils
Soil Classification divided into (1) order, (2) suborder, (3) subgroups by the addition of adjectives to
great group, (4) subgroup, (5) family and the great groups’ names. Further subdi-
Not all soils develop the same amount or
(6) series. There are 11 orders that are vision into families occurs on the basis of
combination of horizons and therefore
differentiated by the presence or absence physical and chemical properties. The final
specific combinations of horizons are
of diagnostic horizons, features that show level of subdivision, the series, is achieved
used to classify soils. There are a number
the dominant set of soil-forming pro- on the basis of the locality in which that
of different soil classification systems
cesses that have taken place or chemical type of soil was first recognized. It has no
used throughout the world, many of
properties. This is essentially a subjective real value in terms of soil classification but
which are summarized by Fitzpatrick
process as there are no fixed principles is used in soil mapping at more detailed
(1983) and Gerrard (2000). The two
involved. A brief summary of the charac- scales.
most commonly used are the soil taxon-
teristics of the soil orders is presented in The FAO-UNESCO (1974) scheme was
omy (classification) of the United States
Table 17.3. Suborders are differentiated designed for the production of the Soil
Department of Agriculture (USDA) and
using criteria that vary from order to Map of the World. It is now a very widely
the system used by the Food and Agri-
order. The number of subgroups ranges used scheme. It has 28 major soil groups
culture Organization – United Nations
from two to seven per order. In the differ- that are subdivided into 153 units. The
Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Orga-
entiation of the great groups, the whole major group names come from a num-
nization (FAO-UNESCO).
assemblage of horizons is considered, ber of linguistic routes and many have
The USDA soil taxonomy scheme is
together with a number of diagnostic been used before in other classification
a hierarchical classification with soils
features. Great groups are divided into schemes, while others have been newly
Table 17.3 Characteristics of the soil orders of the soil taxonomy scheme of soil classification
Order Characteristics
Alfisols Generally possess an argillic horizon and a moderate to high base saturation. They are common in humid temperate
environments
Andisols Form on parent material of volcanic origin, especially ash, and are often very fertile
Aridisols Occur in both cold and hot dry areas where effective rainfall is low and often have a high salt content
Entisols Recently formed soils with limited development of horizons
Histosols Organic-rich soils
Inceptisols Soils of humid regions with altered horizons that have lost material by leaching but still contain some weatherable
minerals
Mollisols Dark-coloured, base-rich soil of temperate grasslands
Oxisols Red, yellow or grey soils of tropical and subtropical regions. They have strongly weathered horizons enriched in silica,
clay and oxides of aluminium and iron and are acidic with a low nutrient status
Spodosols Podzolic soils that have an organic surface horizon, a bleached grey to white eluvial horizon and a B horizon enriched
in organic matter and oxides of iron and aluminium. These soils are coarse textured, highly leached and acidic, with a
low nutrient status
Ultisols Highly weathered, leached, acidic and have a low nutrient status. They usually have an argillic horizon and the B hori-
zons of well-drained soils are red/yellow due to the accumulation of iron oxides. They have developed over a long
period of time in humid, warm, temperate and tropical regions
Vertisols Swelling clay soils with deep, wide cracks
Box 17.1 ➤
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17.5 Physical properties of soil
➤
Table 17.4 Approximate relationship between the USDA soil taxonomy soil orders and FAO-UNESCO major soil groupings
USDA soil taxonomy soil orders FAO-UNESCO major soil groups
Alfisols Luvisols
Andisols Andosols
Aridisols Calcisols, Gypsisols, Solonchaks, Solonetz
Entisols Arenosols, Fluvisols, Leptosols, Regosols
Histosols Histosols
Inceptisols Cambisols
Mollisols Chernozems, Greyzems, Kastanozems, Phaeozems
Oxisols Alsiosl, Ferralsols, Nitosols, Plinthosols
Spodosols Podzols
Ultisols Acrisols, Lixisols
Vertisols Vertisols
devised. Approximate equivalents with morphological, such as texture, structure or absence of diagnostic horizons and
the soil taxonomy orders are shown in and colour, while soil processes or chem- properties. One advantage of this scheme
Table 17.4. Many of the soil characteristics istry define other groups. The division of is that it is less hierarchical than many
used to define the major soil groups are groups into units is based on the presence other schemes.
Box 17.1
17.5 Physical properties of soil when various iron-containing minerals undergo oxidation
and reduction. In well-drained soils iron is oxidized and
Soil physical properties are those properties of the soil that imparts a reddish or yellowish colour to the soil. In water-
you can see, feel, taste and smell. By observing soil colour, we logged soils, the iron minerals are reduced, owing to the
can estimate organic matter content, iron content, soil drain- anaerobic conditions, and impart a grey or blue colour to
age and soil aeration. By feeling the soil we can estimate the the soil.
kinds and amounts of different size particles present. Soil
physical properties have a huge influence on how soils func-
tion in an ecosystem and how they can be managed.
17.5.2 Soil texture
Mineral particles in the soil vary considerably in size from
boulders (greater than 600 mm in diameter) and stones
17.5.1 Soil colour
(greater than 2 mm in diameter) down to sand, silt and clay.
Soil colour is easy to observe and although it has little The sand-, silt- and clay-sized particles are often referred to
effect on the soil, it is possible to use it to determine the as the fine fraction or fine earth, and are usually separated
nature of soil properties such as organic matter content, from the larger soil particles by passing through a sieve
aeration and drainage characteristics. Colour also helps with 2 mm diameter holes. Within the fine earth fraction,
us to distinguish the different soil horizons of a soil pro- size definitions vary between different systems (Table 17.5).
file (e.g. see Figure 17.8). Soils with a higher amount of All set the upper limit of clay as 2 mm (2 micrometres;
organic matter are black or dark brown in colour. Surface two-millionths of a metre) but differ in the upper limit
horizons are usually darker than subsequent horizons chosen for silt and the way in which the sand fraction is
owing to their higher organic matter content. Soil colour subdivided (see also Chapter 16, e.g. Figure 16.1).
can be used to determine the drainage characteristics Soil particles are classified into different size fractions
of a soil because of the colour change that takes place because as particles become smaller they have different
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Chapter 17 Soils
Table 17.5 Soil particle size classification schemes 100 0
Size range (diameter, mm)
80 20
International
Size or Atterberg USDA-FAO SSEW, BS and 30
Per
class System* System† MIT System‡
c
60 40
en
Clay
2o
Clay 60.002 60.002 6 0.002
t
45
silt
y6
cla
2
Silt 0.002–0.02 0.002–0.05 0.002–0.06
—6
Silty
t
en
0o
Sand 0.02–2 0.05–2 0.06–2 40 Sandy clay 60
c
Per
m
35 clay
Gravel 72 72 72 30 Silty
Clay loam clay loam
20 Sandy clay loam
*This system subdivides sand into fine and coarse fractions. 80
† 18
This system subdivides sand into very fine, fine, medium, coarse and very coarse 15
L
fractions. 10 oamy Sandy loam Sandy silt loam Silt loam
‡This system is adopted by the Soil Survey for England and Wales, British Stan- san
Sand d
dards and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; it subdivides sand into fine, 0 100
10
85
80
70
60
50
40
20
0
medium and coarse fractions and refers to gravel as stones.
Per cent sand 60-2000 om
0
properties (see Table 17.6). In particular, as particles 100 0
Read clay in Read silt in
become smaller the total surface area of the soil particles this direction
this direction
in the soil becomes larger and this has a large influence on 50
50
a number of properties such as water holding capacity, cat-
25
ion exchange capacity (CEC) (see Section 17.6.1), compaction 100
0
and rate of mineral weathering. 100 80 20 0
Read sand in
It is extremely rare for soils to be composed of a single this direction
particle size class. Thus, soil texture refers to the relative
Figure 17.13 The triangular diagram of soil textural classes adopted in England
proportions of the sand-, silt- and clay-sized fractions in a and Wales. For example, a soil with 40% sand, 30% silt and 30% clay is a clay loam,
soil. The classification of texture in terms of particle size as highlighted in the diagram.
distribution is normally shown as a triangular diagram
(Figure 17.13). Combinations of different proportions be measured in the field by working moist soil between
of sand, silt and clay result in 11 main textural classes finger and thumb as explained in Box 17.2. This is a quick,
although the number of classes may vary between different easy and cheap technique. Alternatively, the particle size
countries. Triangular diagrams can be used to determine can be measured in the laboratory using two techniques.
a textural class if the particle size distribution is known, Either the slow but highly accurate pipette technique
or to determine a range of particle size distributions if a which applies Stokes law to measure particle settling rates,
textural class is known. The texture of a soil can be deter- or the faster, but less accurate hydrometer specific gravity
mined either in the field or in the laboratory. Texture can test, where soil particles are allowed to settle out over time.
Table 17.6 Influence of soil size fractions on some properties and behaviour of soil
Property/behaviour Sand Silt Clay
Water holding capacity Low Medium High
Aeration Good Medium Poor
Drainage rate High Slow to medium Slow
Organic matter decomposition Rapid Medium Slow
Compaction Resists Easily compacted Easily compacted
Susceptibility to water erosion Low High Low
Ability to hold nutrients Poor Medium to high High
Leaching of pollutants Allows Moderately retards Retards
(Source: Brady, Nyle C.; Weil, Ray R., The nature and properties of soil, 12th edition. © 1999. Adapted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ)
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17.5 Physical properties of soil
Soil texture is an important property as it greatly influ- particles. As a result, sandy soils have high percolation
ences the soil functions. For example, coarse-textured soils rates but lower water retention capacities because water
have larger pore spaces because the sand-sized particles do passes rapidly through the pores and little sticks to the soil
not fit as closely together as the smaller silt- and clay-sized particles. The opposite is observed for fine-textured soils.
Determining Soil of soil in your hand. Begin by removing all hand for a few minutes, then follow the
Texture by Feel stones of more than 2 mm and any large steps shown in Figure 17.14.
roots, moisten the soil and mould it in your
The simplest and quickest way of assessing
soil texture is by working a moist sample
Can the soil be rolled into No
a ball (about the size of a SAND
large marble)?
Yes
When the ball is pressed
between the thumb and No
SANDY
forefinger does it flatten LOAM
at the point of contact?
Yes
Can you roll the soil No
into a sausage about
5 mm thick?
Yes
Can you bend the sausage No
into a horseshoe SILT LOAM
without breaking it?
Yes
Can you make a ring by Can you feel or hear
No No SILTY
joining the two ends of sand grains when you
CLAY
the horseshoe together rub the soil between
LOAM
without it breaking? your fingers?
Yes Very slight CLAY
Yes
LOAM
Thoroughly wet the soil;
does it stick to your SANDY
fingers? Appreciably CLAY
LOAM
Yes CLAY
Figure 17.14 Flow chart for determining soil texture by feel. Box 17.2
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Chapter 17 Soils
17.5.3 Soil structure move soil particles from one place to another throughout
the soil profile. (ii) The activities of burrowing animals,
Soil particles normally do not remain detached from one
such as earthworms, lead to the mixing of mineral and
another. Instead, soil particles tend to adhere to each other,
organic particles of soil and the formation of stable orga-
forming larger groupings called aggregates or peds. Soil
no-mineral complexes. They can also produce macropores
structure is characterized in terms of the shape (or type),
and channels which in turn influence infiltration rates and
size and distinctness (or grade) of these peds. Each ped
hence soil drainage. (iii) The secretions of soil animals
is separated from another by voids or natural surfaces
can act as nuclei for ped formation while fine roots and
of weakness. Soil structure is divided into four principal
microbes produce a range of polysaccharide substances
types: blocky, spheroidal, platy and prismatic as shown in
which bind soil particles together and fungal hyphae liter-
Figure 17.15. The following terms are used to describe the
ally hold mineral and organic particles together. Together,
distinctness of the structure: (i) structureless (no observed
these factors combine to produce peds/aggregates in soil.
peds); (ii) weak (indistinct peds; when disturbed breaks
The clay-sized particles and organic compounds largely
into a lot of unaggregated material); (iii) moderate (well-
hold the peds together. The strength with which the indi-
formed peds; little unaggregated material when disturbed);
vidual peds are held together influences both the soil’s
and (iv) strong (distinct peds; remains aggregated when
resistance to erosion and ease of cultivation. A strong
disturbed).
structure holds the soil together and causes it to resist ero-
The formation of stable peds requires the action of
sion. The same characteristics, however, make it difficult to
physical, chemical and biological factors as follows. (i)
plough (White, 1997). Ploughing tends to alter and weaken
Freeze–thaw, wet–dry and shrink–swell processes have a
the soil structure, and the passage of farm machinery leads
dramatic effect on soil structure throughout the whole
to soil compaction.
profile, although the effects are the greatest in the top
Bulk density provides an indication of soil compaction.
layer, where the exposure is direct. These processes help to
It is calculated by dividing the dry weight of soil by its
mould the soil into peds, change the volume of the soil and
volume, and is usually expressed in grams per cm3. The
volume includes the volume of soil particles and the vol-
Main type Subtype
ume of pores among soil particles. Soil bulk density can
Blocky
vary between about 0.5 (in a peat soil) and 1.8 g cm - 3 and
Angular
Common in B horizons of soils in humid regions. a soil with a bulk density of about 1.3 g cm - 3 would have
Peds are of the same order of magnitude with ∼50% pore spaces. As the volume of pore spaces decreases
flattened surfaces that form the faces of adjacent
peds. Subangular the bulk density increases; this happens as a result of
externally or internally applied loads, such as using heavy
Spheroidal agricultural vehicles to plough soil or harvest crops. A high
Characteristic of surface A horizons.
Peds are roughly equidimensional and there are
Granular soil bulk density ( 7 1.6 g cm - 3) can result in restricted
two types: granular which are relatively non-porous, root growth, poor movement of air and water through
and crumb which are porous. They are common in
the A horizon of soils under grass and deciduous Crumb the soil and reduced water infiltration into the soil. Any
forest, where the presence of organic matter and practice that improves soil structure can lead to a decrease
roots help their development.
in bulk density. On agricultural land, this revolves around
Platy
decreasing soil disturbance and increasing soil organic
Common in E horizons and compacted clay soils. matter content.
Peds with predominantly horizontal cleavage
Clearly the size, shape and arrangement of the peds
and short vertical axis.
determine the pore space or porosity of the soil. A soil
Prismatic Columnar with a well-developed structure is typically less compact
Characteristic of B horizons in clayey soils of arid and has a greater permeability and porosity than does a
and semi-arid regions. coarse-grained soil with a poor structure. The size and
Peds with the vertical axis much longer than the
horizontal one form vertical columns; vertical Prismatic connectivity of the soil pores are important in determining
faces are usually well defined with angular tops. the ease with which water, air and biota move through the
Prisms with rounded tops are referred to as
columnar. soil. Good structural development is therefore necessary to
obtain well-drained and well-aerated soils, to promote free
Figure 17.15 Diagrammatic representation of the main types of soil movement of soil biota, to allow roots to proliferate and to
structure. enable aerobic microbial processes to dominate.
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17.6 Chemical properties of soil
17.6.1 Clay minerals and cation exchange
Reflective questions Clay minerals are formed from the weathering products
➤ What particles contribute to soil colour and how can soil of aluminium and silicate minerals. Box 17.3 explains the
colour provide valuable insight into the drainage status of structure of clay minerals. Clay minerals are extremely
a soil? small ( 60.002 mm in diameter), and have a large surface
area and a negative electrical charge so they are able to
➤ Why are soil particles classified into different size fractions? attract and hold water and cations. Therefore, they have a
➤ How does soil texture influence soil structure? fundamental influence on both the physical and chemical
properties of the soil. The electrical charge on clay colloids
➤ In which texture class does a soil with 10% sand, 60% silt results from isomorphous substitution which occurs during
and 30% clay fall? (It may help to look at Figure 17.13.) the formation of clay minerals. It is when one atom in
the crystal lattice is replaced by another atom of similar
➤ Can you define soil bulk density?
size without disrupting or changing the crystal structure
of the mineral. For example, Al3+ may replace Si4+ in the
tetrahedral sheet (Figure 17.17a) and Mg2+ or Fe3+ or
17.6 Chemical properties of soil Fe2+ or Ca2+ can replace Al3+ in the octahedral sheet (Fig-
ure 17.17b). The clay mineral structure is electrically neu-
Chemical properties give soils their ability to hold nutri- tral, but as the replacing ion generally has a lower positive
ents and create a desirable environment for plant growth. charge than the ion it replaces, the clay mineral becomes
They are strongly influenced by parent material and electrically charged. For example, the silicon ion has a pos-
organic matter content as they control the amount and itive charge of 4 (i.e. Si4+ ). If silicon is replaced by alumin-
type of colloids in a soil. Soil colloids are very small (less ium (Al3+), which has a charge of 3, then the clay has lost
than 0.002 mm in diameter) particles that stay suspended one positive charge, which leaves one unsatisfied negative
in water. The most important soil colloids are clays and charge on the clay.
humus (organic matter).
The Structure of Clay Alternating sheets of one tetrahedral bonds hold the unit layers in montmoril-
Minerals sheet and one octahedral sheet produce lonite together. As a result, water mole-
what are known as 1:1 clays. Kaolinite cules can penetrate between the layers
The structure of all clay minerals is based on is the commonest 1:1 clay mineral (Fig- enabling it to expand and contract on
two types of sheets consisting of repeating ure 17.18a). Each pair of sheets is held wetting and drying.
units of (i) a silicon (Si) atom surrounded by together by hydrogen ions, making it a
four oxygen (O) atoms in the form of a tet- relatively rigid and stable structure. In 2:1
rahedron as shown in Figure 17.16a and (ii) clays, the aluminium octahedral sheet is (a) (b)
an aluminium (Al) or magnesium (Mg) atom sandwiched between two silicon tetra- 2- - - -
O O2 O2 O2
surrounded by six oxygen (O) or hydroxy hedral sheets. There are many different
(OH) atoms in the shape of an octahedron types of 2:1 clays that are distinguished +
(Figure 17.16b). The individual units are Si4 Al3
+
on the basis of how the unit layers are
linked together by sharing oxygen atoms held together and the spacing between - - - - - -
to form silicon tetrahedral sheets and alu- O2 O2 O2 O2 O2 O2
the unit layers. In illite, the unit layers are
minium octahedral sheets (Figure 17.17). All held together by potassium (K+ ) ions, Figure 17.16 The structure of (a) a sil-
clay minerals are built from various combi- which make it a relatively stable clay icon tetrahedron and (b) an aluminium
nations of these two sheets. (Figure 17.18b). In contrast, weak oxygen octahedron.
Box 17.3 ➤
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Chapter 17 Soils
➤
(a) Figure 17.17 The structure of (a)
O 2- O 2- (a) a silicon tetrahedral sheet Kaolinite Aluminium
and (b) an aluminium octahe- 1:1
Silica
dral sheet. non-expanding
Si4+ Si4+
(b)
Silica
O2- O2- O2- O2- O2-
Aluminium
Illite (mica) Silica Firm bonds
(b) + + + + +
2:1 K K K K (potassium
H H H H H
non-expanding Silica ions)
O2- O2- O2- O2- O2- Aluminium
Silica
3+ 3+
Al Al
Figure 17.18 The arrangement of silicon and aluminium
sheets in (a) kaolinite and (b) illite, (Source: adapted from
O2- O2- O2- O2- O2- Smithson et al., 2002)
+ + + + +
H H H H H
Box 17.3
The net negative charge on clay minerals is balanced by solution of CaCl2, each Ca2+ ion will replace two Na +
cations (e.g. Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Na+, Al3+ and H+ ), which ions as Ca2+ has double the charge of Na +, and Na + will
are attracted to the surface of the clay minerals and held be washed out in the solution, as shown in Figure 17.19.
(adsorbed) there by electrostatic attractions. They are Cation exchange reactions are also rapid and revers-
referred to as exchangeable cations because cations in the ible. The distribution of the cations between soil and
soil solution can displace adsorbed cations on the clay sur- solution depends on their relative concentrations and
face. Interchange between a cation in solution and another the force of attraction to the negatively charged surface
on the surface of a colloid is known as cation exchange. All of the clay mineral. Cations adsorbed on the exchange
cation exchange reactions must be chemically balanced. sites are in equilibrium with cations in the soil solution.
For example, if a clay containing Na+ is washed with a For example, if Ca and Mg are the dominant cations in
Clay colloid
Solution
- -
Na+ Ca2+
- -
Ca2+ Na+ Cl-
- Na+ -
Cl-
- - Cl-
Na+ -
Cl Na+ Na+
- -
- -
Negatively charged
exchange sites on
soil colloid
Figure 17.19 Schematic diagram representing cation exchange between calcium ions in solution and sodium ions held
on the surface of a negatively charged colloid.
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17.6 Chemical properties of soil
the soil solution they will also dominate the exchange 17.6.2 Soil acidity
sites. In general, the strength of adsorption increases
The degree of acidity or alkalinity of a soil is an import-
as the charge of the cation increases and the size of the
ant variable as it affects most soil physical, chemical and
hydrated cation decreases. The sequence of preferred
biological processes. Whether a soil is acidic, neutral or
adsorption is: Al3+ 7 Ca2+ 7 Mg2+ 7 K+ 7 Na+
alkaline is determined by measuring the hydrogen ion
(Cresser et al., 1993).
concentration in the soil solution. In pure water at 24°C,
Cation exchange capacity, commonly abbreviated to
water ionizes to give equal concentrations of hydrogen
CEC, is the ability or capacity of a given quantity of soil
(H+) and hydroxide (OH - ) ions:
to hold cations. This capacity is directly dependent on
the overall net negative charge of the colloids present in H2O 3 H+ + OH - (17.2)
the soil. It is usually expressed as milliequivalents (meq)
per kg of oven-dried soil. The main factors controlling The concentration of both H+ and OH - ions is
the CEC of a soil are the number of colloids present (soil 1 * 10 - 7(0.000 000 1) moles per litre. As it is inconvenient
texture), the type of colloids present and organic matter to use these very small numbers to express the concentra-
content. The CEC of a soil is a very important property tions of H1 ions, a simpler method of using the negative
as it controls both soil fertility and soil acidity. Soils with logarithm of the hydrogen concentration was developed,
a high CEC usually have a high capacity to store nutrients known as pH (see Chapter 20).
and are therefore potentially more fertile than soils with a As the pH scale is logarithmic, a change of one unit
low CEC. represents a 10-fold change in hydrogen concentration
The soil cations that are readily adsorbed onto soil (Table 17.7). For example, a 10-fold increase in H+ ion
colloids can be divided into two groups. First, there are the concentration from 1 * 10 - 5 to 1 * 10 - 4 moles per litre
base cations, which include the important plant nutrients is represented by a one-unit decrease in pH from 5 to 4.
Ca2+, Mg2+, K+ and Na+. Second, there are acid cations, Table 10.9 also shows the inverse relationship between the
which include Al3 + and H + . Related to this distinction in concentrations of H+ and OH - ions. As one increases, the
cations is the term base saturation, which is defined as the other must decrease proportionally as the product of the H+
proportion of exchange sites occupied by base cations and and OH - concentrations must always equal 1 * 10 - 14.
is calculated as follows: Although the pH scale ranges from 1 to 14, most soils
Base saturation (%) have a pH of between 3.5 and 9. Very low values are often
associated with soils rich in organic matter, whereas high
(Ca2+ + Mg2+ + K+ + Na+) values usually result from the presence of sodium carbon-
= * 100 (17.1) ate. Although the reason a soil becomes acidic is because
Ca2+ + Mg2+ + K+ + Al3+ + H+
of excess H+ ions in the soil solution, it is the presence of
A soil with a high base saturation (greater than 35%) is aluminium that is largely responsible for producing these
more fertile than a soil with a low base saturation. H+ ions (Brady and Weil, 2007).
Table 17.7 The pH scale
H+ concentration OH - concentration
pH (moles per litre) (moles per litre) Description
3 0.001 0.000 000 000 01 Excessively acidic
4 0.000 1 0.000 000 000 1 Strongly acidic
5 0.000 01 0.000 000 001 Moderately acidic
6 0.000 001 0.000 000 01 Slightly acidic
7 0.000 000 1 0.000 000 1 Neutral
8 0.000 000 01 0.000 001 Alkaline
9 0.000 000 001 0.000 01 Strongly alkaline
0 0.000 000 000 1 0.000 1 Excessively alkaline
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There are a number of natural processes and human-in-
Fungi
duced changes that result in hydrogen and aluminium
becoming the predominant cations in the soil and thus
increase its acidity:
Bacteria and actinomycetes
• Leaching: percolating water removes base cations
(Ca2+, Mg2+, K+ and Na+ ) faster than their rate
Nitrogen
of release from weathering and therefore cation
exchange sites become dominated by aluminium and
Phosphorus
hydrogen.
• The respiration of roots and microbes, and the
Relative availability/activity
Potassium
decomposition of organic matter, release hydrogen
ions.
• The addition of acids such as H2SO4 and HNO3 from Calcium and magnesium
the atmosphere in acid rain also increases hydrogen
ions in the soil. Sulphur
• Use of acid-forming fertilizers. For example, the appli-
cation of ammonium-based fertilizers results in nitrate Iron and zinc
and H+ release.
• Harvesting of the crop removes the base cations from Manganese (and aluminium)
the soil as they are not returned to the soil in litter.
Copper
Soil pH affects which plants grow well as they vary
considerably in their tolerance to soil pH. Soil pH also Boron
determines the fate of many pollutants, affecting their
breakdown, solubility and possible movement from the
Molybdenum
soil to surface waters and groundwaters. For example, 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
many heavy metals become more water soluble under Soil pH
acid conditions and can move down with water
Figure 17.20 The influence of soil pH on the availability of plant nutri-
through the soil to aquifers and surface waters (see ents and activity of soil organisms.
Chapter 20).
There are 16 essential elements without which green
plants cannot grow normally. The availability of these
essential nutrients for plant uptake is greatly influenced slightly basic soils, phosphorus and molybdenum become
by soil pH (Figure 17.20) as are the number, species and insoluble at low pH and unavailable to plants. Soil pH also
activities of soil organisms. All 16 essential elements influences plant growth by the influence of pH on activity
must be present in the correct proportions as too little of beneficial microorganisms and root activity. In acidic
or too much of any element will result in symptoms soils the number and activity of many soil organisms are
of nutrient deficiency or toxicity. On the basis of their reduced, including worms, bacteria that convert ammo-
concentration in plants they are divided into macronutri- nium to nitrate, organisms that break down organic mat-
ents (carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus, ter and nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
sulfur, calcium, magnesium, potassium and chloride) and In contrast, high soil pH leads to phosphorus and
micronutrients (iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron and boron becoming insoluble and unavailable to plants and
molybdenum). concentrations of the micronutrients, particularly iron,
Strongly acidic soils (pH 4–5) usually have a low or manganese, zinc and copper, becoming so low that plant
reduced supply of the macronutrients, particularly cal- growth is restricted. Therefore a pH range of 6 to 7 is
cium, magnesium, potassium, nitrogen, phosphorus and generally most favourable for plant growth as most plant
sulfur, and high, often toxic concentrations of the micro- nutrients are readily available in this range. However,
nutrients, especially iron, manganese and zinc. While most some plants have adapted to a pH above or below this
nutrients are more soluble in acid soils than neutral or range.
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17.7.1 The soil biota
Reflective questions The organisms that live in soil can be grouped accord-
➤ Why are cations attracted to clay minerals? ing to size into: microfauna (body width 6 0.1 mm),
which includes the microbes, bacteria and fungi as well
➤ What is the difference between a 1:1 clay mineral and a as algae, nematodes and protozoa; mesofauna (body
2:1 clay mineral? width 0.190.2 mm), which includes microanthropods and
➤ What is the meaning of each of the following terms: iso- enchytraeids; and macrofauna (body width 7 2 mm),
morphous substitution, cation exchange capacity and which includes earthworms, millipedes and termites
base saturation? (Figure 17.21). The primary role of the soil biota is to
decompose organic matter, like leaf and plant litter, and
➤ Why is the level of soil pH so important for plant in the process release nutrients such as nitrogen and phos-
growth? phorus. These fauna are often allocated to functional
groups based on their feeding habit. Some feed primarily
on microbes (microbial feeders) or litter (detritivores),
17.7 Soil biology whereas others feed mainly on plant roots (herbivores) or
other animals (carnivores).
Although soils may appear to be made up of inert soil Collectively the mass of organisms in a given mass of
particles, in fact, they are home to many different types soil is referred to as the soil biomass. The mass of macro-
of soil organisms. For example, a single teaspoon of soil and mesofauna can be measured directly as they can be
may contain thousands of species, millions of individuals physically separated from the soil and is usually expressed
and hundreds of metres of fungi (European Commission, as kg per hectare (to a certain depth). The soil biomass
2010). Without the activities of soil organisms, dead veg- can range from 2 to 5 t ha - 1 (White, 1997), with earth-
etation would accumulate on the soil surface, and there worms making up the largest single contribution (∼75%;
would be no recycling of nutrients. Thus a healthy, fertile Wild, 1993). This is more than the weight of the cattle
soil depends on a vibrant range of organisms living within grazing upon the soil in a temperate grassland. In contrast,
it; from bacteria and fungi to tiny insects, earthworms microfauna are intimately mixed with soil particles and
and small mammals. However, despite the fact that the organic matter and, being very small, are difficult to iso-
majority of Earth’s species might actually live in soil, soil late for weighing or counting. For microfauna, collectively
biota, which is the collective term for all organisms living referred to as the soil microbial biomass, the methods
within the soil, have until recently received little attention used to measure numbers and/or mass include either direct
(Wardle, 2002). This is because the majority of soil organ- observation of organisms on agar plates, and physiological
isms are very, very small, and they are extremely difficult or biochemical methods such as extraction of adenosine
to study (Bardgett, 2005). triphosphate (ATP), substrate-induced respiration (SIP)
In recent years, we have become more aware of the and chloroform fumigation–incubation. These methods
wide variety of important functions that soil biota give no information about the species of biomass, but give
perform (European Commission, 2010). In addition to an estimate of biomass size which is valuable in modelling
decomposing organic materials and releasing nutrients, carbon turnover in soil (White, 1997). The most common
soil biota regulate the carbon flux, keep pests at bay and method used to measure soil microbial biomass is chlo-
decontaminate polluted land, and provide raw material roform fumigation followed by incubation or extraction
for new pharmaceuticals to tackle infectious diseases. (Jenkinson and Powlson, 1976).
For example, in 1928 Alexander Fleming noticed that a In addition to being grouped by sizes, the soil organ-
soil fungus growing in his laboratory was inhibiting the isms can be classified into three main groups based on
growth of nearby cultures of staphylococcus bacteria. the principal function they perform in the soil: primary,
From this he deduced that the fungus must be killing the secondary and higher consumers. Together all these soil
infectious disease by some means, and shortly afterwards organisms interact with each other and their surroundings
isolated penicillin from the fungus, which is used in anti- in a complex system to perform a variety of functions that
biotics throughout the world today to treat many serious are important in maintaining fully functioning soils that
diseases. can support human life.
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(c)
(a)
(b)
Figure 17.21 Examples of soil: (a) microfauna – protozoa, which are around 50 um long (i.e. 0.05 mm); (b) mesofauna – a magnified view of a red velvet
soil mite, which is around 2 mm long; and (c) macrofauna – termites. (Source: (a) photowind; (b) Fotoam; (c) sydeen, Shutterstock.com)
17.7.1.1 The primary consumers
algae and viruses. Bacteria are single-celled organisms, are
The primary consumers include all the organisms that very abundant, with populations ranging from 100 mil-
decompose organic matter. They are able to break down lion to 3 billion in a gram of soil, can reproduce rapidly,
and mineralize complex organic substances, releasing CO2 doubling their population in minutes under favourable
and nutrients (e.g. NH4, PO4 and SO4) as well as produc- conditions, and live in the water-filled pores in soil. How-
ing new compounds that are less susceptible to decomposi- ever, they are very sensitive to environmental conditions
tion and accumulate as soil organic matter in the soil. for their survival and growth, including moisture, tempera-
Microbes (bacteria and fungi) are the most abundant ture and porosity. When conditions are not conducive for
and diverse members of this group, which also includes growth they can enter a dormant phase and come back to
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17.7 Soil biology
life after a period of weeks, months or years in response to on soil organic matter. Protozoa (Figure 17.21a) are sin-
changing environmental conditions. gle-celled organisms which require a water film around soil
Certain groups of bacteria perform specific functions, particles for both feeding and moving. Hence their activity
particularly in relation to the nitrogen cycle. For example, is restricted to the water-filled pores in soils, but they can
nitrifying bacteria are responsible for oxidizing ammo- withstand drying of the soil by rapidly forming resistant
nium (NH4), which is produced from the decomposition structures called cysts. Nematodes are tiny worm-like crea-
of proteins, into nitrate (NO3) which is taken up by plants tures which also require water to move, feed and reproduce
and once again converted to proteins. This process is in. Nematodes can be grouped according to the type of
known as nitrification. Other bacteria are able to convert food they consume: plants, bacteria, fungi and other ani-
nitrogen from the atmosphere into nitrogen-containing mals. Macroarthropods are small invertebrates (animals
organic substances in the process of nitrogen fixation while without a backbone) which feed on a combination of bac-
different bacteria return equal amounts of nitrogen to the teria, fungi, other macroarthropods and decaying organic
atmosphere through a series of processes called denitrifica- matter.
tion. Chapter 13 discusses the nitrogen cycle (see Box 13.1).
Fungi comprise an eclectic group that varies from sin-
17.7.1.3 Higher-level consumers
gle-celled yeasts to complex structures visible to the human
eye. A gram of soil can contain around a million fungi, This group of soil organisms includes a wide range of
such as yeast and moulds. Fungi are chemo-heterotrophic, species, such as earthworms, ants, termites (Figure 17.21c),
which means they require a chemical source of energy woodlice millipedes, centipedes, beetles and spiders. Some
rather than being able to use light as an energy source, as of these organisms, such as millipedes and woodlice, con-
well as organic substrates to obtain carbon for growth. sume organic matter, whereas others, such as centipedes,
Many fungi are parasitic, often causing disease to their spiders and beetles, are the major predators in soil. Earth-
living host, but others live on dead or decaying organic worms, termites and ants help mix, move and aerate the
matter, thus breaking it down. Fungi that are able to live soil, influencing its structure and porosity. Moles and part-
symbiotically with living plants, creating a relationship that time soil residents, such as voles, snakes, lizards, mice, rab-
is beneficial to both, are known as mycorrhizae. Mycorrhizal bits, lemmings and badgers, also play a role in maintaining
fungi (see Figure 11.6 in Chapter 11) obtain the carbohy- soil biodiversity as they mix plant litter and roots into the
drates they require from the plant roots, in return providing soil when burrowing as well as creating airways and mac-
the plant with nutrients, especially phosphorus, and mois- ropores through which water can pass.
ture. There are three main types of mycorrhizal fungi:
• Ectomycorrhizas which are most abundant in temperate 17.7.2 Factors influencing soil biodiversity
and boreal forest ecosystems where they infect roots of
The activity and diversity of soil organisms are controlled
trees and shrubs, especially coniferous species.
by a combination of biotic and abiotic factors. The main
• Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi which infect a wide vari-
abiotic factors are
ety of plants such as agricultural crops, grasses and
herbs (Figure 11.6). • climate, which controls temperature and moisture
• Ericoid mycorrhizal fungi that infect ericaceous plants regimes within soil;
such as heathers and dwarf shrubs that grow in acidic, • soil physical properties such as texture and
nutrient poor, organic soils. structure; and
In addition to decomposing organic material, fungi bind
• soil chemical properties such as pH and salinity.
soil particles together, thereby enhancing soil structure, The growth and activity of soil organisms increase at
provide a food source to microbial feeding fauna and act higher temperatures and moistures, although soil organ-
as plant pathogens. isms vary in their optimal ranges of temperature and
moisture. As climate varies both spatially across the globe
and temporally at the same place, due to diurnal and
17.7.1.2 Secondary consumers
seasonal variations, the climatic conditions to which soil
This group of soil organisms, which is dominated by pro- organisms are exposed vary greatly. Soil texture influences
tozoa, nematodes and microarthropods, exists alongside the activity and diversity of soil organisms as it determines
the microbes, feeding on them and on each other, and the ability of the soil to retain water and nutrients. Soil
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structure is important because it influences the porosity of 17.8 Impact of human activities on soils
soil, which controls both the distribution of water in soil and soil processes
and the extent to which biota are able to enter and occupy
pore spaces, which is controlled by pore neck diameter The soil functions described at the beginning of this chap-
and the size of the organisms. Soil pH influences soil biota ter are at risk from human activities. Pressures include
as it controls nutrient availability (see Figure 17.20); acid agriculture, drainage, extraction, application of wastes
soils are high in soluble aluminium which can be toxic and urban development. These pressures can lead to soil
to many soil organisms as well as plants. Most microbes degradation such as soil erosion, contamination (by heavy
grow within the pH range 4–9 and many soil organisms metals, organic contaminants such as pesticides, radionu-
are sensitive to acidic conditions. Soil salinity can also clides (from nuclear waste) and excessive use of nitrogen
cause severe stress to soil organisms, leading to their rapid and phosphorus fertilizers), acidification, soil compaction,
desiccation. However, the sensitivity towards soil pH and loss of organic matter, salinization and loss of biodiversity.
salinity differs between species. For example, earthworms All of these threats lower the current and/or future capac-
occur in low numbers in acidic soils and their abundance ity of the soil to support human life. At a global level,
increases as soil pH increases towards pH 7 (Edwards and the total area of soil that has been degraded by human
Boheln, 1996), whereas acid soils tend to be dominated by activities (almost 20 million km2) exceeds the total area of
enchytraeid worms (Cole et al., 2002) which replace earth- farmland (15 million km2) and the main causes are defor-
worms as the dominant soil animal. estation, overgrazing and poor agricultural management
Soil organisms influence plants and organisms that (Oldeman et al., 1991). In Europe, an estimated 633 mil-
live entirely above ground, and these influences take place lion hectares (6.33 million km2) are affected by some kind
in two directions. Plants can exert a strong influence on of degradation process (Table 17.8). In this section empha-
the activity and composition of soil organisms, especially sis is placed on the most severe soil degradation problems.
close to their roots, called the rhizosphere. In turn, plant For each of these the causes, magnitude, impact on soil
growth may be limited or promoted by these soil organ- function and remedies will be briefly discussed.
isms. For more information on the linkages between plant
and soil biological communities see Bardgett (2005) and
Wardle (2002). 17.8.1 Soil erosion
Overall, soil organisms are very sensitive to environ- Soil erosion is a two-phase process consisting of the
mental conditions, such as moisture and supply of organic detachment of individual particles from the soil mass and
matter. Another important factor affecting soil biota is their transport (see Chapter 15). It is a natural process
physical disturbance of the soil caused by intensive agri- but is accelerated by human activities that expose the soil
cultural management. For example, earthworms, soil during times of erosive rainfall or windstorms, or that
nematodes and mycorrhizal fungi have all been found
to be lower in agricultural systems than in undisturbed
ecosystems (Bardgett, 2005). Thus an increase in soil deg-
Table 17.8 Estimated areas affected by major soil threats in Europe
radation, as discussed in Section 17.8, is likely to have a
negative impact on soil biodiversity.
Threat Area affected Percentage of
(million total European
hectares) land area
Reflective questions Water erosion 115 12
Wind erosion 42 4
➤ What roles do fungi carry out in the soil?
Acidification 85 9
➤ Can you name some of the processes that bacteria carry Pesticides 180 19
out that are important in the nitrogen cycle?
Over-fertilization 170 18
➤ What are the main functions that soil biota perform? Soil compaction 33 4
Organic matter loss 3.2 0.3
➤ What are the main factors that control the activity and
diversity of soil organisms? Salinization 3.8 0.4
(Source: Oldeman et al., 1991)
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17.8 Impact of human activities on soils and soil processes
increase the amount and speed of overland flow. Farming the Mediterranean Basin, average yearly losses exceed
practices such as overgrazing, removal of vegetation and/or 15 tonnes per hectare (UNEP, 2000) which represents a
hedgerows, ploughing up and down slopes, abandonment reduction in productivity of around 8% (Pimentel et al.,
of terraces, compaction by heavy machinery and poor 1995). In the Russian Federation, it is estimated that the
crop management may have these effects. humus content of agricultural soils decreases by about
The GLASOD study estimated that 15% of the Earth’s 1% each year (Karavayeva et al., 1991) and that long-term
ice-free land surface is afflicted by some form of land deg- productivity is endangered since the annual erosion rates
radation (GLASOD, 1990). Of this soil erosion by water exceed the rate of humus production. In the UK, a review
is responsible for 56% and wind erosion is responsible for of 24 studies found that crop yields decreased by 4% per
about 28%. During the past 40 years, nearly one-third of 10 cm depth of soil loss, equivalent to a soil loss of around
the world’s arable land has been lost by erosion and con- 100 Mg ha - 1 (Bakker et al., 2004).
tinues to be lost at a rate of more than 10 million hectares In addition to ‘on-site’ effects, the soil that is detached
per year (Pimentel et al., 1995). Approximately 11.4% of by accelerated water or wind erosion may be transported
the EU territory is estimated to be affected by moderate considerable distances. This gives rise to ‘off-site prob-
to high level soil erosion rates (more than 5 t ha - 1 yr - 1) lems’, including sediment deposition on roads and in
according to a study performed by the Joint Research watercourses and reservoirs (see Chapter 16). Another
Centre in 2015. Soil erosion’s most serious impact is its major off-site impact results from agricultural chemicals
threat to the long-term sustainability of agricultural (fertilizers, pesticides and heavy metals) that often move
productivity, which results from the ‘on-site’ damage with eroded sediment. These chemicals can pollute down-
that it causes. Erosion by water can quickly remove large stream watercourses.
volumes of soil, which bury or destroy crops in localized Measures to control erosion include the retention
areas, and leave channels, rills and gullies that in the worst or planting of strips of permanent vegetation (trees or
case can inhibit agricultural machinery cultivating the hedges) to form shelter belts to reduce the effects of wind
land (Figure 17.22). (see Chapter 9), and tillage techniques such as contour
In the long term, soil erosion results in a reduction ploughing, strip and alley cropping, and use of cover crops
of soil depth, with fertile topsoil being lost at the rate to reduce the rate at which water is able to move across
of several millimetres per year (Morgan, 1986), which the soil surface. Rotation farming, adjusting stocking
leads to a reduction in productivity and thus crop yields. levels and agro-forestry practices can also be used to help
In the United States, an estimated 3.6 * 109 tonnes of reduce soil erosion. Although severe soil erosion is nearly
soil and 118 * 109 tonnes of water are lost from the always irreversible, in less severe cases damage can still be
160 million hectares of cropland each year (Pimentel et prevented.
al., 1995). In more than one-third of the total land of
17.8.2 Soil acidification
Soil acidification is a natural process that occurs over the
long term, but it has recently been enhanced by human
action though the emission of sulfur and nitrogen com-
pounds from the combustion of fossil fuels, resulting in
acid rain. Humans also influence the acidity of soils by
agricultural practices such as the harvesting of crops, the
draining of waterlogged soils and the overuse of nitrogen
fertilizers. However, in Europe and North America acidic
deposition is by far the most important cause of soil
acidification.
Soil acidification is not a visually obvious feature
although it has a large impact upon the ecosystem. The
Figure 17.22 Gullies that have developed on fields in Ukraine. Fields most sensitive soils to acidification are those derived
with arable crops can be seen in the background, but the fields on the
from base-poor igneous (e.g. granite) and metamor-
foreground have long since become unusable for crops as the gullies
have made farm machinery access impossible. (Source: Yuri Kravchenko, phic rocks. Soils developed on these rocks tend to have
Shutterstock.com) low base cation and clay contents. Soils containing
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Chapter 17 Soils
carbonates or with higher base cation and clay contents been a substantial reduction in SO2 emissions in Europe
have a greater capacity to buffer acidification. This dif- (76%), the US (50%) and the UK (92%), although emis-
ferential ability of soils to cope with acidification has sions of NOx continued to increase in Europe until the late
been examined through use of a ‘critical loads’ approach 1980s before starting to decline.
(Nilsson and Grennfelt, 1988), which has been used as Despite this decline in SO2 emissions and therefore
a tool for developing air quality policy (e.g. Sullivan et decline in acid deposition to soil, modelling and experi-
al., 2012). Soil acidification has the effect of increasing mental data predict that the recovery of some soils will
the leaching of base cations, such as calcium and mag- take decades (NEGTAP, 2001), although some recent
nesium, and depleting the soil’s buffering capacity. It evidence from soil monitoring shows that soil pH is
also increases the solubility of heavy metals in the soil, increasing in soils across England (Kirk et al., 2010),
such as aluminium, manganese, lead, cadmium and zinc, north-eastern USA and eastern Canada (Lawrence et al.,
which can be toxic to plants. This may lead to decreased 2015). However, in comparison to surface waters, doc-
plant growth or changes in plant communities. For umentation of the impact of recovery from acid rain on
example, forest decline in central Europe is linked with soils is sparse.
increasing acidity in soils. Populations of soil organisms
may also change, with a shift towards more acid-tolerant
17.8.3 Soil pollution
species. As a result, a number of soil processes can slow
down. For example, the decomposition of litter becomes A wide range of substances including heavy metals, pes-
slower, leading to surface accumulation. Soil acidification ticides and fertilizers can pollute soils. A distinction is
gradually leads to acidification of waters draining from often made between soil pollution originating from clearly
them (see Chapter 20). Acidity and high concentrations defined sources (local or point source pollution) and that
of aluminium can lead to deterioration of aquatic life from undefined sources (diffuse or non-point sources). The
with losses in the diversity and size of invertebrate and introduction of pollutants to the soil can result in damage
fish populations. to or loss of soil functions and may result in food and
Soil acidification can be slowed down by a reduction water contamination.
in acid deposition. However, both the capacity of soils
to recover and the time frame needed to achieve recovery
17.8.3.1 Heavy metals
remains uncertain (Sullivan et al., 2012). Since the 1980s
considerable national and international effort has been Although heavy metals such as cadmium, copper, chro-
made to decrease emissions of acidifying pollutants. This mium, lead, zinc, mercury and arsenic are present natu-
is a difficult problem because those countries suffering rally in soil, they can originate from a number of other
most from acid rain are not always the main polluters sources including industry (e.g. atmospheric emissions,
owing to the movement of the pollution in the atmosphere waste disposal and effluent disposal), agriculture (e.g.
across the planet. In 1979, 34 European and North Amer- application of sewage sludge, farm wastes and fertiliz-
ican countries adopted the Convention on Long-Range ers), waste incineration, combustion of fossil fuels and
Transboundary Air Pollution, which bound them to reduc- road traffic. Long-range transport of atmospheric pollut-
ing emissions. The convention agreed firm targets in 1983, ants can also add to the metal load in an area. In general,
when 21 European countries, but not the UK, agreed to the highest concentrations of heavy metals are associated
reduce their sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions by 30% from with local sources of contamination such as mining and
their 1980 levels by 1993. In 1999 the Gothenburg Protocol industrial facilities both in operation and after closure.
was signed by 25 states and the European Union. It is a Thus the largest and most affected areas are concentrated
multi-pollutant protocol designed to reduce acidification, around heavily industrialized regions of the world, such
eutrophication and ground-level ozone by setting emis- as north-west Europe. Heavy metals accumulate in the
sions ceilings for sulfur dioxide, and other gases, to be met soil as they bind to organic matter and clay minerals and
by countries by 2010. In 2012, countries agreed to further are largely unavailable to plants. However, if soil acidity
reduce their emissions until 2020. In the United States, an increases, heavy metals are released into soil solution,
‘Acid Rain Program’ commenced in 1995, an offshoot of where they can be taken up by plant roots and soil organ-
the Clean Air Act, that aimed to achieve environmental isms, or leached into surface and groundwaters, thus
and public health benefits through reductions in emissions polluting the food chain and affecting drinking-water
of SO2 and oxides of nitrogen (NOx). Since 1990 there has quality.
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17.8.3.2 Pesticides and organic solvents nitrates is undesirable because in drinking water they are
considered to be a health hazard and in marine waters can
Organic compounds such as pesticides, oils, tars, chlo- cause eutrophication (Burt et al., 1993).
rinated hydrocarbons, PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls; Although there is a link between the use of inorganic
used in the manufacture of electrical appliances) and diox- nitrogen fertilizers and nitrate leaching, it is indirect, as
ins are widely used in industry and agriculture and enter long as the recommended amount is used, it is not applied
the soil through atmospheric deposition, direct spreading in the autumn and there is no crop failure. The more fertil-
onto land, or contamination by wastewaters and waste izer used, the greater the crop yield and the more nitrogen
disposal. Modern agricultural production systems rely in the plant residue (straw, stubble and roots). This can
on pesticides (mainly fungicides, insecticides and herbi- lead to an increase in soil organic nitrogen and the poten-
cides) for crop protection and disease control purposes. tial for nitrate leaching after mineralization of organic
These pesticides are applied either directly or indirectly nitrogen to nitrate. Mineralization of soil organic nitrogen
to the soil. The intensive use of pesticides has occurred can also occur when permanent grasslands and woodland
since the Second World War. In northern and western are brought into cultivation. Leaching of nitrates is most
Europe pesticide use peaked in the 1980s (Stanners and pronounced on free-draining soils during autumn and
Bourdeau, 1991), whereas in southern Europe its use is still winter. The ultimate loss depends on the soil texture, land
increasing. use, rainfall pattern, drainage properties, the presence
The behaviour of pesticides in soil is influenced by a or absence of vegetation, the amount and availability of
number of factors including its chemical properties, cli- nitrogen applied, the timing of applications in relation to
mate and soil type (particularly soil texture). Many pes- crop growth and, for grassland, the intensity of grazing by
ticides, particularly the older ones, have a broad activity livestock (Burt et al., 1993).
spectrum. This means they affect organisms that they were Until recently, the risk of water pollution from phos-
not intended to target. Pesticides can affect soil directly phorus was believed to be minimal owing to the fact that
by adsorption onto clays and organic matter, by affecting the majority of phosphorus applied in fertilizer is quickly
soil microorganisms and plant growth, and by moving bound to the soil. However, long-term inputs of phos-
through the soil to surface and groundwaters. In Europe, phorus from fertilizers and manure to intensive crop and
the maximum admissible concentration of pesticides and livestock agricultural systems have been made at levels that
metabolites in drinking water is set at 0.5 mg L - 1 (EEC often exceed outputs in crop and animal produce. Calcula-
80/778). The impact of pesticide use on the soil is very tions of an annual phosphorus balance for European agri-
much dependent on the specific pesticide used. However, culture indicate that western European countries actually
as there are over 1000 different compounds on the market, operate an annual phosphorus surplus (Ulén et al., 2007).
all behaving differently in the soil, it is very difficult to In the United Kingdom this surplus is 15 kg ha - 1 yr - 1
identify and evaluate all the threats posed by pesticides. (Withers et al., 2001). Fertilizer phosphorus application
rates for individual crops have remained relatively constant
17.8.3.3 Fertilizer use – nitrogen and phosphorus in recent decades (Withers et al., 2001). As a result, the
total amount and availability of phosphorus in agricul-
Soils used for intensive agriculture require additional nutri- tural soils have increased to a point where some soils can
ents, particularly nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, be classified as ‘over-fertilized’. There is concern that this
to maintain optimum plant productivity. Over the past may lead to increased phosphorus loading to the aquatic
50 years the use of inorganic fertilizers has increased by environment, through a combination of leaching and
between 5 and 10 times to increase crop yield. Nitrates are eroded soil material. Although phosphorus losses are small
not adsorbed on soil particles but remain in solution, from in comparison with nitrate, only a small increase in phos-
where they may be taken up by the plant, leached out in phorus concentration is needed to produce a large change
drainage water or denitrified. In contrast phosphorus is in the ecological dynamics of lakes and rivers.
adsorbed strongly on the surface of clay particles and to To reduce phosphorus loss from agricultural land the
iron and aluminium oxides. Nitrates are therefore leached concentration of soil phosphorus and/or the transport of
out in drainage water whenever there is sufficient excess of phosphorus from land to water needs to be reduced. As
rainfall. The concentration of nitrates in drainage water most phosphorus loss is associated with the movement
depends on the volume of drainage water and the amount of fine soil particles, the same measures that are used to
of nitrates available for leaching in the soil. Leaching of reduce soil erosion, such as cover crops and vegetated
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buffer strips between cultivated land and watercourses, period, in the Beuce region south of Paris, soil organic
would be beneficial. matter decreased by half (COM, 2002). The ploughing up
Nutrient leaching from agricultural land is mainly a of grasslands, the abandonment of crop rotation and the
problem in areas of intensive agriculture, where fertilizer burning of crop residues all reduce the amount of vegeta-
use is greatest, such as western Europe and North Amer- tion matter returning to the soil and increase CO2 levels
ica. In Europe, the Water Framework Directive (WFD) in the atmosphere. The EU Common Agricultural Policy
aims to reduce water pollution caused or induced by (CAP) requires all farmers in receipt of the single pay-
nitrates from agricultural sources through the designation ment to take measures to protect their soil from erosion,
of Nitrate Vulnerable Zones (NVZs). Within these zones, organic matter decline and structural damage. Various
farmers are required to undertake measures to reduce measures can be taken to increase the organic content of
nitrate leaching. In addition, codes of good agricultural soils. These include the introduction of grass into agricul-
practice aim to narrow the imbalance between fertilizer tural rotations, ploughing crop residues back into the soil,
input and plant uptake through a combination of best increasing land left with a grass cover, and the spreading
management practices (BMPs) such as (i) better adjust- of animal manure. Recent research in England has shown
ment of fertilizer application and crop demands by soil that farmers can be encouraged to change their soil man-
testing and taking account of organic manures as sources agement when presented with information on the likely
of nutrients; (ii) application of fertilizers at the most benefits to their farm of increasing soil organic matter
appropriate times (i.e. when the crop most needs it); (iii) (Gaunt et al., 2008).
improvement of methods of manure application; (iv) mini- Soils are a major reservoir of carbon. In the EU it is
mizing leaching losses from arable land by sowing autumn estimated that soils store around 75 billion tonnes of car-
crops; (v) less intense use of grasslands; and (vi) edge bon (European Commission, 2009), while in the UK soil
of field measures such as buffer zones. Kay et al. (2009) store in the order of 10 billion tonnes of carbon (Milne
provided a comprehensive review of theses management and Brown, 1997; Tomlinson and Milne, 2006). To illus-
options and their relative impact on nutrient and pesticide trate its size and importance compare it to the size of total
loss from soil to water bodies. However, nitrate leaching carbon emission in the EU which amounted to approxi-
cannot be completely prevented, especially in areas with mately 3.4 billion tonnes in 2014 (Joint Research Centre,
high precipitation and where high crop yields are achieved 2015). Loss of soil carbon leads to deterioration in soil
on permeable soils (Burt et al., 1993). function as well as contributing to greenhouse gas emis-
sions and thus climate change. However, our knowledge
of how soil carbon stocks are changing is limited. Bellamy
17.8.4 Soil organic matter and carbon
et al. (2005) showed that between 1978 and 2003 there had
Soil organic matter is a vital component of productive been a decline in soil organic matter, and therefore soil
and stable soils; it is the primary energy source for a wide carbon, in agriculturally managed soils across England
range of soil organisms; it is an important store of global and Wales. They reported that carbon has been lost from
carbon which, if disturbed, can increase greenhouse gas UK soils at an annual rate of 13 million tonnes, equivalent
concentrations in the atmosphere; it has a critical role to about 8% of the UK’s current carbon emissions from
to play in maintaining soil structure; and it influences the burning of fossil fuels. If correct, this is a significant
water retention and regulates nutrient supply. It also acts contribution to greenhouse gas emissions. However,
as a buffer against many of the threats discussed above. there is some debate concerning the possible cause of this
Intensive cultivation of soils has led to a decline in organic decline in soil carbon (Smith et al., 2010b) which requires
matter due to increased soil organic matter decomposi- further investigation. In addition, there is conflicting evi-
tion rates upon cultivation and loss of the organic rich dence as to whether soil organic matter, and therefore C
topsoil through erosion (Dawson and Smith, 2007). This stocks, have declined in the UK over the last 30 years where
is of particular concern in Mediterranean areas, where there has been no change in land use (Bellamy et al., 2005;
75% of the total area has a low (3.4%) or very low (1.7%) Chapman et al., 2013; Reynolds et al., 2013),
soil organic matter content (COM, 2002). Agronomists Further losses of soil carbon could occur as a result of
consider a soil with less than 1.7% organic matter to be in climate change, owing primarily to changes in tempera-
pre-desertification stage. In England and Wales, the per- ture and soil moisture speeding up the decomposition of
centage of soils with less than 3.6% organic matter rose organic matter. However, the increase in decomposition
from 35% to 42% in the period 1980 to 1995. In the same may be counteracted by the higher rate of CO2 uptake by
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17.8 Impact of human activities on soils and soil processes
plants, as they grow faster (Kirschbaum, 2000). A review Current national and international policies are to maintain
for the European Commission (2008) was unable to find levels of soil organic matter/carbon and, where appropri-
strong and clear evidence for either an overall combined ate, to increase levels. Box 17.4 describes how soils can
positive or negative impact of climate change on soil car- be managed to store carbon. In addition, certain habitats
bon stocks. Hence there are still great uncertainties regard- such as peatlands that contain large stores of soil carbon
ing the impact of climate change on soil carbon cycling. need to be protected.
Managing Soils to Store matter, which leads to an increase in to a decline in crop production. Currently
Carbon the release of CO2 from the soil. there is concern that many of the world’s
agricultural soils are alarmingly depleted of
Soil is a major component in the global Figure 17.23 illustrates the soil carbon
carbon (see Section 17.8.4).
carbon cycle, containing about 1500 Pg changes over time on agricultural land.
There is, however, a way to reverse the
(1 Pg = 1 Gt = 1015 g) of organic car- Estimates of historic soil organic carbon
soil carbon release process as research
bon (Batjes, 1996), which is about three loss range from 40 to 90 Gt (Smith, 2004),
has shown that soils can regain lost car-
times the amount in vegetation and twice of which about one-third is attributed to
bon by absorbing or ‘sequestering’ it from
the amount in the atmosphere. Through soil degradation and accelerated erosion
the atmosphere. Carbon sequestration
photosynthesis, plants convert CO2 into and two-thirds to mineralization (Lal,
implies transferring atmospheric CO2 into
organic forms of carbon and return some 2004). Conversion of natural ecosystems
long-lived pools and storing it securely
to the atmosphere through respiration. to fields for crop production and grass-
so it is not immediately re-emitted to the
The carbon that remains in plant tissue is lands causes depletion of a soil’s carbon
atmosphere. Thus soil carbon sequestra-
added to the soil through their roots and content by as much as 75% (Lal, 2004).
tion means increasing soil carbon stocks.
as litter when plants die and decompose. Severe depletion of the soil organic car-
This can be best achieved through changes
This carbon is then stored in the soil as soil bon pool degrades soil quality and leads
organic matter. Carbon can remain stored
in the soil for millennia, or be quickly
released back into the atmosphere as Changes in agriculture
CO2. Climate, vegetation type, soil texture
and drainage all influence the amount
and length of time carbon is stored in
Soil carbon
the soil. Therefore, soils play a major role
in maintaining a balanced global carbon
cycle. However, the carbon content of Soil C Soil C Soil C
decrease stable increase
soil is smaller today than a few hundred
years ago owing to the intensification and
mechanization of agriculture. Agricultural
practices have depleted soil organic car-
Time
bon pools by two main routes: Mechanization (hundreds of years) Management
change
1. Reducing the amount of carbon
returned to the soil in litter by harvest- Effect on
ing and removing the crop. atmospheric
CO2
~
2. Excessive use of tillage practices
which breaks up the soil, increasing Figure 17.23 Changes in soil carbon stocks resulting from changes in
the decomposition rate of soil organic agricultural land use and management
Box 17.4 ➤
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Chapter 17 Soils
➤
in land-use and management practices in non-arable, areas of the country or the scientists can combine data on soil
soils that have been depleted in carbon, world, in which case the net benefit may carbon, land use and climate to create
such as intensively managed agricultural be low. models that estimate the carbon change
soils and degraded soils. Some of the soil Improvements in measuring, moni- related to farm management practices.
carbon sequestration options available toring and verifying changes in carbon However, they are continuing to refine
for agricultural land include reduction in stocks in soils are needed for quantitative measurement methods for greater
tillage, reducing fallow periods, improving economic and policy analysis. Currently, accuracy.
efficiency of animal manure use and crop
4 2.5
residue use, conversion of arable land to
grassland, woodland or bioenergy crops 3.5
and restoring degraded land. Estimates
Maximum yearly carbon mitigation 2
% offset of 1990 UK CO2-carbon
of the maximum yearly carbon mitigation 3
potential (Tg C yr-1)
potential for some of these land manage-
2.5
ment options are shown in Figure 17.24 1.5
emissions
and compared with the 1990 CO2 emis- 2
sions from the United Kingdom. Many of 1
1.5
these land management practices also
improve soil quality, plant production and 1
water conservation, reduce erosion, and 0.5
enhance wildlife habitat and species pro- 0.5
tection, which result in increased biodiver- 0 0
manure
Sewage
incorporation
No-till
Extensification
regeneration
production
sity. Recent research has shown that the
Animal
Bioenergy
sludge
Woodland
Straw
largest potential for increasing soil carbon
stocks in England comes from land-use
change (e.g. arable to woodland) rather
than changes in land management (King Land management change
et al., 2004). However, large-scale land-
Figure 17.24 Estimates of the maximum yearly carbon mitigation potential, and maximum
use change may result in food production
percentage offset of UK 1990 CO2 emissions of some different land management changes.
being transferred to other, currently (Source: after Smith et al., 2000)
Box 17.4
17.8.5 Other threats but reclamation of saline soils is expensive, as it requires
complex amelioration techniques. It is estimated that
17.8.5.1 Salinization
• the global distribution of salt-affected soils is around
Salinization is the accumulation in soils of soluble salts of 830 million hectares (Martinez-Beltran and Manzur,
sodium, magnesium and calcium to the extent that the soil 2005; Rengasamy, 2016);
fertility is severely reduced. The process is mainly a problem • 25% of irrigated cropland in the Mediterranean area
in arid and semi-arid areas, where there is insufficient rain is affected by moderate to high salinization (Mateo-
to leach away soluble salts, and upward soil water movement Sagasta and Burke, 2014);
due to evapotranspiration leads to salt precipitation at or • in the Hungarian plains, irrigation has caused salini-
near the soil surface (see Chapters 16 and 21). Irrigation zation of more than 20% of the region (Stanners and
of the land with water of a high salt content dramatically Bourdeau, 1995); and
worsens the process. In coastal areas salinization can also • in Australia, 2.5 million hectares have become salinized
be associated with abstraction of groundwater for drinking since the introduction of European agriculture, and
and industry. This can cause the intrusion of salty seawa- salinization could devastate up to 12 million hectares
ter as it attempts to replace lost freshwater in the ground. during the next 100 years. The current cost to repair
Human-induced salinization is estimated to affect 50% of all damaged infrastructure alone is A$100 million per year
irrigated land (Abrol et al., 1988). Salinization is reversible (Queensland Government, 2016).
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17.8 Impact of human activities on soils and soil processes
17.8.5.2 Soil compaction Section 17.7). Soil biodiversity reflects the variability
among living organisms in the soil. Species range from
Soil compaction occurs when soil is subject to the repetitive the myriad of invisible microbes, bacteria and fungi to
and cumulative effect of mechanical pressure through the use the more familiar macro-fauna such as earthworms and
of heavy machinery, or to a lesser extent by the trampling of termites. Soil is by far the most biological diverse part
livestock when overstocked, especially in wet soil conditions. of Earth. Soil organisms are known to play a key role in
Compaction causes reorientation of soil particles and reduces many of the fundamental functions that occur in soil.
the porosity of the soil. This slows water and air movement However, the roles played by most groups of soil organ-
and reduces the water holding capacity of the soil. With isms are very poorly known. Soil communities are cur-
reduced infiltration rates, compacted soil is likely to produce rently exposed to a wide range of impacts, including soil
much greater volumes of overland flow, which increases the erosion, agricultural intensification and the deposition
risk of soil erosion. Compaction can occur within both the of acidic pollutants, with poorly documented effects on
top- and subsoil. Soil compaction mainly affects heavily diversity of the soil biota, and virtually unknown effects
mechanized agricultural land such as central Europe and on ecosystem processes.
North America. In Europe about 33 million hectares (4% Soil management strongly influences soil biota in agri-
of land area) is at risk from soil compaction, mainly in the cultural systems (Stockdale et al., 2006). For example,
Russian Federation, Poland, Germany, Belgium, the Neth- different practices cause a shift in habitat and in sub-
erlands and north-west France (Oldeman et al., 1991). The strate availability, which results in changes in abundance
major impact of soil compaction is a decline of agricultural of individual species (Van Camp et al., 2004). However,
productivity. Surface compaction may reduce yield by up to evidence of the threats to biodiversity and opportunities
13% (average 5%) and subsurface compaction may reduce for its conservation and improved management is mainly
yields by between 5 and 35% (Stanners and Bourdeau, 1995). qualitative and hence there is the need for research that
Surface soil compaction can be resolved by reworking the quantifies these threats. Box 17.5 provides information
soil. However, subsoil compaction is much harder to resolve. about recent work to establish whether enhanced soil
Compaction can be prevented by reducing the amount of biota can reduce nutrient losses from agricultural soils.
tillage, reducing traffic over fields, improving land drainage, However, to date, no comprehensive indicator of soil
increasing organic matter and reducing surface pressure of biodiversity exists (European Commission, 2010). In
machinery by increasing the axles and wheels on agricultural addition, no legislation or regulation exists that is spe-
machinery, increasing tyre width and reducing tyre pressure. cifically targeted at soil biodiversity, whether at interna-
tional, EU, national or regional level. This partly reflects
17.8.5.3 Soil biodiversity
the lack of awareness of soil biodiversity and its value, as
Soil is the habitat for a large variety of living organisms well as the complexity of the subject (European Commis-
assembled in complex and varied communities (see sion, 2010).
Can enhanced soil biota fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides and other in groundwater and surface water can
reduce nutrient leaching industrial products. This type of farming impact upon human health and the quality
leads to a loss of soil fertility, biodiversity of aquatic ecosystems while gaseous loss
losses from arable soil?
and ecosystem health. In addition, the loss of N contribute to global warming. These
The high yield of crops currently produced of nitrogen (N) from agricultural systems nutrients also represent valuable resources
via conventional agriculture is achieved is a major global environmental concern which might become limited in the near
through the application of inorganic as increased nitrate (NO3) concentrations future. Therefore there is an urgent need
Box 17.5
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Chapter 17 Soils
➤
to move towards more sustainable agri- (P). In addition to improving plant nutrient (ii) improvements in soil structure and soil
cultural practices that aim to use applied acquisition, there is emerging evidence water retention, possibly reducing leachate
resources as efficiently as possible to that AMF have the ability to reduce nutri- volume; (iii) competition with other soil
ensure sufficient yields and reduce envi- ent loss from soils. For example, Bender organisms involved in N cycling; (iv) shifts
ronmental impacts. and van der Heijden (2015) showed in community structure of the soil biota;
Most nutrient transformations in soil that increased soil biota (including AMF) and (v) increasing plant acquisition of
are performed by soil organisms, partic- significantly increased plant nutrient organic and inorganic P.
ularly for nitrogen (see Section 17.7.1.1). uptake and plant yield and reduced N The study of AMF-driven reductions
Through their activities, they drive nutri- leaching losses in experimental pots with in soil nutrient leaching losses is a new
ent cycling and play an important role in enriched soil life (ENR) compared to those and growing discipline that has largely
determining whether nutrients are made with a reduced soil-life treatment (RED) been conducted in small-scale laboratory
available to plants, are stored in the soil (Figure 17.25). pot experiments. Hence there is a need
or leached from the soil to surface and Despite the growing evidence that AMF to conduct further research at the field
ground waters. Over 80% of terrestrial can reduce leaching losses of both N and scale (Figure 17.27), over multiple growing
plant species possess a symbiotic associ- P, the mechanisms underlying this rela- seasons before we can determine whether
ation between their roots and arbuscular tionship remain unclear. Cavagnaro et al. agricultural management practices that
mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). In this mutual- (2015) presented a conceptual framework enhance soil biota, such as reduced tillage,
ism the plant delivers photosynthetically of the pathways through which AMF may crop rotation or mulching, have the poten-
derived carbon (C) to the fungal partner alter the composition of leachate (Fig- tial to reduce nutrient leaching and thus
in return for nutrients obtained from the ure 17.26). Potential mechanisms include mitigate against water quality issues, such
surrounding soil, especially phosphorus (i) enhanced rates of N immobilization; as eutrophication.
(a) N (b) 130 P
900
110
700
90
Plant N uptake
Plant P uptake
[kg ha-1]
[kg ha-1]
500 70
Uptake
50
300
30
100
10
ENR RED -10 ENR RED
P leached
[kg ha-1]
-100
Loss
N leached
[kg ha-1]
0.4 kg ha-1
-1
0.5 kg ha
-300
Figure 17.25 Cumulative plant N uptake and N leaching (a) and plant P uptake and leaching (b) of plants grown
in experimental pots inoculated with enriched (ENR) or reduced (RED) soil life. (Source: after Bender and van der
Heijden, 2015)
Box 17.5 ➤
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17.8 Impact of human activities on soils and soil processes
➤
Non-mycorrhizal plant Mycorrhizal plant
Key:
Plant roots
AMF hyphae
Soil particles
(1) Starting Influent (1) Starting
nutrient pool nutrient pool Influent
(3) Water uptake
(2) Root (3) Water uptake
immobilization
(2) Root and AMF
immobilization
(5) Soil
aggregation (5) Enhanced soil
(7) Gaseous
aggregation
N loss
(7) Gaseous
N loss
(4) Nutrient pool Effluent (4) Nutrient
at risk of loss pool at risk Effluent
of loss
(6) Leached (6) Leached
nutrients nutrients
Figure 17.26 Overview of potential impacts of mycorrhizal versus non-mycorrhizal plants on soil nutrient loss pathways. The starting nutrient
pool (1) may comprise inorganic and/or organic nitrogen (N)- and phosphorus (P)-containing compounds. Immobilization of nutrients (2)
and water uptake (3) are enhanced when plants are colonized by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). As a consequence, the pool of nutrients
at risk of being leached (4) will be reduced with mycorrhizal plants. Simultaneously, AMF can improve soil structure (5). As a consequence of
all of these factors, more nutrients could be leached (6) where plants are non-mycorrhizal. Similarly, gaseous N loss (7) could be enhanced
when plants are non-mycorrhizal due to reduced plant N assimilation. The sizes of the arrows indicate the direction of change (i.e. increased,
decreased or similar), but they are not drawn to scale. (Source: Cavagnaro et al., 2015)
Figure 17.27 Field trials on wheat being
conducted by the White Rose Sustainable
Agriculture Consortium in the UK exam-
ining relationships between soil manage-
ment, soil biota and crop yield. See www
.whiterosesusag.leeds.ac.uk for further
details. (Source: Martin Lappage, White
Rose Sustainable Agriculture Consortium
and University of Leeds)
Box 17.5
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Chapter 17 Soils
17.8.6 Policy and legislation across Europe. The proposed directive primarily seeks to
address seven key threats to European soils: (1) erosion, (2)
Soil degradation processes are a major worldwide prob-
decline in organic matter content, (3) soil compaction, (4)
lem with significant environmental, social and economic
soil salinization, (5) landslides, (6) contamination and (7)
consequences. For example, feeding the world’s growing
soil sealing. However, in 2010 a minority of member states
population, 7.3 billion in 2015 and projected to increase
blocked further progress of the Soil Framework Directive
to 9.5 billion by 2050, means an increase in agricultural
and in 2014 it was withdrawn.
production of ∼70%. However, soil degradation is a major
Although the Soil Framework Directive was not
constraint to achieving this target. As soil is a non-re-
adopted, national governments are becoming increasingly
newable resource on human timescales there is increasing
aware of the importance of their soil resources and have
need to protect soil as a vital resource. Growing awareness
begun to shape policies to recognize this. For example,
of the need for a global response has led to national and
in England a First Soil Action Plan for England was pub-
international initiatives. In 1972, the Council of Europe’s
lished in 2004 and followed in 2009 by Safeguarding our
Soil Charter called on states to promote a soil conserva-
Soils: a Strategy for England which addressed many of
tion policy. The World’s Soil Charter and the World’s Soils
the threats identified in both the EU Thematic Strategy
Policy sought to encourage international co-operation in
and the draft Framework Directive but within in English
the rational use of soil resources (COM, 2002). In 1992, at
context. All these policies aim to manage soils sustainably
the Rio Summit, the participating states adopted a series
and tackle potential degradation threats so that the soil’s
of declarations of relevance to soil protection. In partic-
ability to function and thus provide essential services is
ular, the concept of sustainable development was agreed
protected or enhanced.
and legally binding conventions on climate change, biolog-
The European Commission now plans to study existing
ical diversity and desertification adopted. The aim of the
EU and national policies that are relevant to soil, their
1994 Convention to Combat Desertification was to prevent
effectiveness and coherence, and any gaps there might
and reduce land degradation, rehabilitate partly degraded
be. This is in response to the 7th Environment Action
land and reclaim desertified land. For further information
Programme, in which the EU commits to use and manage
on desertification see Ecosystems and human well-being:
land sustainably and protect soil. Through the adoption of
Desertification synthesis, a report of the Millennium Eco-
polices that help protect soil, other environmental media
system Assessment (2005).
such as air and water will also be improved.
In 2001, the EU indicated soil loss and declining soil
fertility as the main threats to sustainable development
as they erode the viability of agricultural land (COM,
2002). Although several different EU policies (e.g. on
water, waste, pesticides, industrial pollution prevention) Reflective questions
contributed to soil protection, they were neither coordi- ➤ What are the main controls on the nature and intensity of
nated nor comprehensive to ensure an adequate level of soil erosion?
protection. In 2006, the European Commission adopted
the Soil Thematic Strategy, which explains why further ➤ Explain what is meant by the term ‘soil compaction’ and
action is needed to ensure a high level of protection of soil how the effects of compaction can be reduced in soils.
functions and the sustainable use of soils. The Strategy ➤ Why is it important to maintain or even enhance the
included a proposal for a ‘Soil Framework Directive’ which organic matter content of a soil?
aimed to harmonize and raise the level of soil protection
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17.9 Summary
17.9 Summary control the direction and speed of soil formation. Climate and
organisms determine the rate at which chemical and biological
Soil is composed of minerals, organic matter, air, water and liv- reactions occur in the soil, while parent material and topography
ing organisms in interactive combinations produced by physical, define the initial state for soil development and time measures
chemical and biological processes. Soil is an essential compo- the extent to which reactions will have proceeded.
nent of the terrestrial biosphere and performs a wide range of There are large differences between soil profiles from place to
essential functions that sustain life. It supports plant growth on place throughout the world. To describe soil profiles in a coherent
which humans rely for food, fibre and wood for fuel and build- manner, various classification schemes have been introduced.
ing materials. It provides a habitat for large numbers of animals The physical properties of soil depend largely on the size of
and microorganisms that decompose dead plants and animals the soil particles (soil texture) and on their arrangement (soil
into the nutrients needed by all living things. It acts as a reser- structure) into peds or aggregates. Texture and structure influ-
voir for water, and has a filtering, transforming and buffering ence the distribution and movement of water and air in the soil
role. It also provides raw materials and a physical base for the and thus greatly affect plant growth. Soil colour is used as an indi-
foundations of buildings and roads. It also presents a record of cator of organic matter content, drainage and aeration.
past environmental conditions and it stores large amounts of Clay minerals are the product of weathering. The structure
carbon. of all clay minerals is based on two types of sheets: the tetrahe-
Soil is made up of mineral and organic materials, and con- dral sheet, which consists of repeating units of a silicon atom
tains pore spaces occupied by water and air. The minerals surrounded by four oxygen atoms in the form of a tetrahedron;
include residues of the parent material and secondary minerals, and the octahedral sheet, which consists of repeating units of
which are the product of weathering. The organic matter is com- an aluminium atom surrounded by six oxygen atoms or hydroxy
posed of readily decomposing plant, microbial and animal prod- (OH) groups in the shape of an octahedron. Alternating sheets
ucts, living organisms and roots and resistant organic matter of one tetrahedral sheet and one octahedral sheet produce what
known as humus. The soil water contains solutes and dissolved are known as 1:1 clays, whereas an aluminium octahedral sheet
gases, and is referred to as the soil solution. The composition of sandwiched between two silicon tetrahedral sheets produces 2:1
soil air differs from that of atmospheric air in that it generally clays. Isomorphous substitution (Al3+ replaces Si4+ or/and Fe2+
contains more CO2 and less oxygen owing to the respiration or Mg2+ replaces Al3+ ) in the crystal lattice of clay minerals results
of soil organisms and roots. The soil is an open system, which in an overall net negative charge. This charge is balanced by cat-
allows input of materials to the soil, the loss of materials from ions, positively charged ions, which are attracted to the surface
the soil and internal transfers and reorganization of these mate- of the clay minerals and held there by electrostatic attractions.
rials within the system. It is the processes of additions, removals, These cations are known as exchangeable cations as they can be
mixing, translocations and transformations that are influential displaced by cations in the soil solution in the process of cation
in differentiating soil material into a series of horizons that exchange. In most agricultural soils, calcium and magnesium are
constitute the soil profile, and in determining the nature and the dominant exchangeable cations. However, as the acidity of
properties of soil. the soil increases, aluminium and hydrogen ions dominate the
The soil-forming processes that dominate at a site are con- exchange sites.
trolled by five interacting environmental conditions: parent There are a number of natural and human-induced changes
material, climate, topography, organisms and time. These environ- that increase soil acidity. They include leaching of base cations,
mental variables are known as the soil-forming factors and they respiration of roots and organisms, decomposition of organic
➤
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Chapter 17 Soils
➤
matter, deposition of acids from the atmosphere, application Soils are home to many different soil organisms that perform a
of nitrogen fertilizers, removal of base cations in crop harvests wide variety of important functions such as decomposing organic
and draining of waterlogged land. Soil pH determines the fate of material, regulating the carbon flux, decontaminating polluted
many pollutants, affecting their breakdown, solubility and possible soils and even providing raw materials to tackle infectious dis-
movement from the soil to surface and groundwaters. eases. These soil organisms can be grouped according to size or
The availability of the essential nutrients for plant uptake into three main groups depending on the principal function they
is also influenced by soil pH as are the number, species and perform. The diversity and activity of soil organisms are controlled
activities of soil organisms. Low soil pH leads to a decline in the by a combination of biotic and abiotic factors.
number and activities of many soil organisms, an increase in con- Soil, as a resource, is being increasingly exploited throughout
centrations of aluminium, iron, manganese and zinc (to the extent the world. The pressures of agriculture, drainage, extraction,
of toxicity to plants and other organisms), a decrease in the application of wastes and urban development have led to soil
concentration of the macronutrients (to the extent that plants degradation such as soil erosion, contamination, acidification,
may show signs of deficiencies) and a reduction in root activity. In compaction, loss of organic matter, salinization and loss of bio-
contrast, high soil pH results in phosphorus and boron becoming diversity. Ensuring that our soil is sustainable, and not damaging
insoluble and unavailable to plants and low concentrations of the to future generations, will involve, as well as regulatory bodies, all
micronutrients, particularly iron, manganese, zinc and copper, sectors of society whose activities and decisions affect soils. This
resulting in restricted plant growth. is one of the world’s biggest challenges for the future.
Further reading This is the up-to-date edition of a comprehensive and popular
textbook. It covers all the major aspects of soils, and therefore
provides an in-depth reference for all areas of soil science and
management. The book is well written and often illustrates
Bardgett, R. (2005) The biology of soil: A community and ideas and concepts with diagrams, graphs, tables and case stud-
ecosystem approach. Oxford University Press, New York. ies (mainly American), making the subject available and easy to
This textbook provides an excellent introduction to soil understand.
ecology. It describes the vast diversity of biota that live in soil,
discusses the factors that control this diversity across different Rowell, D.L. (1994) Soil science: Methods and applications.
temporal and spatial scales and considers how biotic interac- Longman, London.
tions in soil influence decomposition and nutrient cycling. This textbook includes useful examples of practical soil work
in the field and laboratory.
Batjes, N.H. (1996) Total carbon and nitrogen in the soils of
the world. European Journal of Soil Science, 47, 151–163. An Smith, P. (2004) Soil as carbon sinks: the global context. Soil
assessment relevant to Box 17.4 Use and Management, 20, 212–218.
A useful summary relevant to Box 17.4.
Brady, N.C. and Weil, R.R. (2016) The nature and properties of
soils, 15th edition. Pearson Education, Harlow.
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C H A PTER 1 8
Catchment hydrology
Joseph Holden
School of Geography, University of Leeds
Learning objectives for which inputs and outputs of mass and energy can be
defined and measured. Catchments are drawn on the basis
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
of land surface topography. The boundary of a catchment
is called a drainage divide; water on one side of the divide
➤ describe and critically evaluate the measurements used to
will flow towards one river and on the other side of the
determine the inputs, outputs and stores of water in catchments
divide it will flow towards a different river. The proportion
of land area compared with the density of river channels
➤ understand the main ways that water moves across and through
or total stream channel length within a catchment may
the landscape and how water reaches rivers
determine how efficiently water can be removed from a
➤ explain spatial and temporal variability in runoff generation catchment since water in channels tends to move much
➤ evaluate the form of river hydrographs and describe the likely more quickly than water across and through hillslopes.
processes leading to their form The pathways by which water travels to a river or lake
➤ describe different types of flooding and how flooding might be will often determine how quickly that water will reach the
impacted by land use and climate change river or lake. The flow paths also determine water quality;
water that has been in contact with soil or rock for long
periods, for example, often has a very different chemistry
18.1 Introduction from precipitation water (see Chapter 20). The dominance
of different types of water flow process across or through
An area of land in which water flowing across the surface the landscape is controlled by local climate and catchment
drains into a particular stream or river is known as a catch- features such as geology, topography, soils and vegetation.
ment or drainage basin. In North America the same defi- Knowledge of the relevant mechanisms and their controls
nition also applies to the term watershed. The catchment is important for determining catchment hydrological
is a convenient unit because it is normally well defined response to a precipitation event. The amount of precipita-
topographically, it can be studied as a series of nested units tion that reaches the river channel can be very great (almost
of increasing size (so that larger catchments are made of 100% in some urban areas) or very low (less than 5%),
many smaller subcatchments), and it is an open system depending on soil or rock water storage and evaporation.
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Chapter 18 Catchment hydrology
Changes in catchment management (or land use) such as Evapotranspiration
urbanization, ploughing, afforestation, deforestation and (E)
artificial soil drainage can result in changes to the flow Precipitation
(P)
paths for water across hillslopes and therefore to changes Interception
and biological
in the timing, volumes and quality of water reaching the storage
river channel. Thus, flood risk and water supply can be (I)
Soil water
altered if there are changes in the relative dominance of Evaporation
store (M)
runoff flow paths occurring within the catchment.
The movement of water on hillslopes occurs in a num-
ber of forms including overland flow (of different types),
Groundwater
subsurface flow involving micropores, macropores and natural store (G)
soil pipes, to displacement flow and groundwater discharge.
Channel storage
The dominance of these processes varies with climate, (S) River flow
topography, soil character, vegetation cover and land use, runoff (Q)
but may vary at one location (e.g. seasonally) with soil
moisture conditions and with storm intensity and duration. Figure 18.1 Main measurement components of a catchment water bud-
This chapter aims to investigate the main c omponents get. The letters used form part of equation (18.1).
of a catchment water balance, to examine runoff
production processes and to evaluate the role of these
18.2.1 Precipitation
processes in generating river flow. This will help explain
why there is spatial and temporal variability in the The main hydrological inputs to catchment systems are
dominance of particular processes and therefore such in the various forms of precipitation (e.g. hail, mist, dew,
variability in river flow. rain, sleet or snow). Precipitation is usually expressed in
units of length such as mm or cm (or inches in the United
States). This is because it is assumed that the precipitation
18.2 Measuring the main components has fallen uniformly over a given area and so the volume of
of catchment hydrology water is divided by the surface area of the catchment (or
gauging instrument) to give a depth of water. Rain gauges
A water balance is often defined by a simple equation which are traditionally used to collect inputs of precipitation
is used to express the idea that the water inputs are equal to the ground surface (Figure 18.2). These gauges funnel
to the outputs plus or minus changes in water stores: water into a collecting device. Many gauges can automat-
ically record the volume of water received (usually by a
P = Q + E + ∆(I + M + G + S) (18.1)
tipping bucket or siphon mechanism) and if gauges are
where P is precipitation, Q river discharge, E evapotrans- remote or flood warnings need to be provided, data can be
piration, I interception and biological water store, M collected by telemetry (e.g. mobile phone).
soil water storage, G groundwater storage and S channel Precipitation in forms other than rainfall, and wind
and surface storage. Seasonal variations in the balance turbulence around rain gauges, both cause problems for
(especially between precipitation and evaporation) help to precipitation measurement. Careful siting of a rain gauge,
control the seasonal patterns of river flow. In arid zones usually at ground level, is needed so that turbulence does
such as central Australia or south-east Spain high rates of not affect precipitation entering the gauge orifice. In
evapotranspiration may mean that river flows are small temperate and polar regions snowfall is not immediately
(many are completely dry) even after a rainfall event. recorded on most rain gauges since water is not freely
Figure 18.1 shows the main components of a traditional available to trickle into the collecting device. Even those
catchment water budget. It does not include the trans- gauges that are heated suffer from the problem that snow
fer processes that will be discussed later. Measuring the that has already fallen elsewhere can blow into the gauge,
main components shown in Figure 18.1 might at first causing precipitation totals to be overestimated. Many
seem straightforward but there are many problems asso- mists and dews can precipitate water onto vegetation or
ciated with the techniques employed. The following sec- the ground surface. Rain gauge surfaces have different tex-
tions discuss each component of the water budget and tures from surrounding vegetation and may not accurately
associated measurement strategies. record these inputs. For example, in Newfoundland, Price
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18.2 Measuring the main components of catchment hydrology
(a) (b)
Figure 18.2 Rain gauges. (a) There are two rain gauges in this image.
In the foreground there is a rain gauge at ground level surrounded by
a metal grid. The grid reduces potential splash and turbulence effects
which might influence the amount of precipitation that enters the
gauge. In the background a green rain gauge can be seen in the centre
of a sunken circle. The circle around the gauge has been dug to reduce
turbulence and splash effects. (b) The internal mechanism of a tipping
bucket rain gauge. The water drips through a funnel at the top into the
sea-saw buckets. Each time the bucket tips this is recorded by a small
data recorder.
(1992) used wire netting to catch fog precipitation and one or two rain gauges. Yet it is well known that there can
found that 50% of summer precipitation to the vegetation be great local differences in rainfall received. Topography,
and ground surface came in the form of fog that was not aspect and the localized nature of many storm events may
correctly measured by rain gauges. Therefore it is often mean that readings from one rain gauge cannot be applied
necessary to have separate recording devices for different to the whole catchment. If there is a network of gauges
types of precipitation (e.g. using automatic snow depth, then spatial averaging can be done using arithmetic means,
pressure or light reflectance recorders). Thiessen polygons (Figure 18.3a) or isohyets (contours
Rain gauges provide point measurement of precipita- of equal rainfall; Figure 18.3b). Often topography com-
tion. Often large areas of catchments are only gauged by plicates spatial interpolation between gauges since slight
(a) (b)
10
20
30
20
Rain gauge
Zone of influence for rain gauge
Catchment boundary
Figure 18.3 Producing spatial data from point rain gauges: (a) using Thiessen polygons, where polygons are constructed around a set of points in such a
way that the polygon boundaries are equidistant from the neighbouring points; (b) using contours (isohyets) of rainfall.
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Chapter 18 Catchment hydrology
changes in altitude can result in large changes in precipita- gauges exist around the world and generally these take
tion (see Chapter 9). It is sometimes difficult to install and the form of a water-level recorder (normally a pressure
maintain a sufficiently dense network of gauges and there- sensor or a float) housed in a protective well which is
fore remote sensing technology is becoming widely used in fixed into the river at a suitable location (Figure 18.5).
precipitation measurement. Radar techniques allow rain- In order to get good control over water levels and to
fall totals to be estimated across catchments through time allow for small changes in discharge to result in mea-
and space. Radar can remotely pick up changes in rain- surable changes in water level around the recording
drop density across a catchment allowing improved flood instrument, many gauging sites take the form of weirs
forecasts and catchment water budgets to be developed. or flumes (Figure 18.6). These large in-stream engineer-
Nevertheless it is often necessary to check radar data using ing features, however, are not always practical on large
ground rain gauges and there is need for careful calibra- rivers.
tion of the radar datasets (Rabiei and Haberlandt, 2016). If measurement of water volumes is required in order
Satellite missions allow rainfall data to be collected over to produce a water budget then recorded water levels
large areas (Figure 18.4) and there is now a global moni- must be converted into a discharge reading for the river.
toring system which uses several satellites, each originally This requires a rating equation to be determined for each
deployed for their own weather and research purposes, river flow gauging site. Sometimes this is well known for
which are connected up to measure global precipitation at a particular shape of weir but generally field calibration
30-minute intervals. Satellite imagery can also be used to is required. Box 18.1 provides some examples of how
estimate snow cover and how much water might be stored stream discharge can be measured. These discharge data
in snowpacks. can be used to derive a rating equation. It is necessary to
measure (e.g. by using one of the techniques in Box 18.1)
the discharge of the river when the water level is at dif-
18.2.2 River flow
ferent heights. The values can then be plotted as shown
River flow is the only phase of the hydrological cycle in Figure 18.7 and the equation for the line of best fit is
in which water is confined into well-defined channels calculated. This can then be used to infer the discharge
allowing ‘accurate’ measurements to be made of the from any water height at that point on the river. Care must
quantities involved. Good water management is founded be taken when inferring discharge values that are beyond
on reliable river flow information. Many river flow the range of water-level values that have been calibrated.
This is because the curve can change shape when the river
3/26/2015 0321Z TRMM Precipitation Radar 15dBZ Isosurface floods or for very low flows.
0 10 20 30 40 0 5 10 15 20 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Radar Reflectivity (dBZ) 15dBZ Isosurface Height (km) TRMM Precipitation mm/hr (PR & TMI)
Nebraska
Nebraska Iowa
Kansas Missouri
Oklahoma
Arkansas
Miss
Texas
Texas
Louisiana
Figure 18.4 Three-dimensional rainfall data from the Tropical Rainfall Figure 18.5 A stilling well on a stream. The vertical pipe contains a
easuring Mission satellite for a storm during March 2015. (Source: NASA,
M ressure sensor at the bottom to record water level through time. The
p
Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission) barrel is a separate item for automatically sampling water quality.
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18.2 Measuring the main components of catchment hydrology
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 18.6 Typical gauging stations: (a) crump weir, (b) flat crested weir, (c) flume-type weir and (d) v-notch weir. (Source: (d) USGS)
16
14
12
Water level, H (m)
10
Q = 0.349 x H 0.757
4
Data point
2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Discharge, Q (m3 s–1)
Figure 18.7 Example of a stage–discharge rating curve and equation.
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Chapter 18 Catchment hydrology
River Discharge Measurement
Several methods can be adopted to mea-
sure river discharge. Three main methods
are illustrated below.
Velocity–area method
This method requires estimation of the
water velocity to be multiplied by an
estimation of the cross-sectional area of
water. The river cross-section is surveyed
and water and bed level are plotted. Water
velocity can be measured using a variety
of instruments (see Herschy, 2008).
Figure 18.8 shows a river survey with the
water velocity being measured using an
impeller meter. The number of revolutions
of the impeller per second is recorded as
the water flows past it. It is usual to place
the impeller at three-fifths of the water
depth to give an estimate of mean veloc- Figure 18.8 Measuring water velocity using an impeller meter across a river cross-section,
ity in the water column. This is because Green Creek, near Bridgeport, USA. (Source: USGS)
water will move more slowly near the bed
and faster near the river surface and it is
assumed that three-fifths of the depth
provides the best average. Measurements 0
of velocity can be done at several points Q = V1 * A1 + V2 * A2 + V3 * A3 + V4 * A4 + V5 * A5
across the river. Each separate velocity
-1
measurement can then be multiplied by
Depth (m)
a separate area value associated with A1 A2 A3 A4 A5
-2
that reading as indicated in Figure 18.9.
The separate discharge values for each V1 V2 V3 V4 V5
segment can then be summed to give the -3
discharge for the whole cross-section.
-4
Acoustic gauging
Ultrasonic discharge gauges work by 1 2 3 4 5
recording the time for a beam of acoustic Channel width (m)
pulses to cross a river at different depths. Figure 18.9 Velocity–area cross-section plot to calculate discharge.
Devices are placed on opposite banks
of the river and the travel time for the channels multiple path ultrasonic gauges vegetation or where high suspended sedi-
pulse is used to calculate the stream flow are required which use a series of pairs of ment loads are likely.
velocity. These devices can be left in situ devices arrayed vertically to characterize An alternative acoustic method of river
to give an automatic record. A water-level the vertical velocity profile and hence gauging is via the use of Doppler probes
sensor is also needed and the cross-sec- get a better value of discharge across which record the change in frequency when
tional area has to be surveyed in advance the channel. Ultrasonic gauges cannot be acoustic waves are reflected from natural
for different water levels. In non-uniform used well where there is dense aquatic suspended sediment or gas bubbles in river
Box 18.1 ➤
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18.2 Measuring the main components of catchment hydrology
➤
water. The change in frequency is proportional to the velocity of the chloride) to the river and measuring the amount of dilution in
particle or gas bubble. The Doppler method therefore works well in the river water. A graph of concentration against time can then
murky rivers unlike the ultrasonic discharge gauges described above. be plotted (Figure 18.11). Using the following equation the dis-
They can therefore be deployed during high flow events when rivers charge of the river can then be established:
are likely to have sediment loads. Sometimes Doppler profilers are
(Ci - Cb)V
deployed from boats or cables across rivers to provide velocity mea- Q = (18.2)
L
surements across the channel (Figure 18.10). (Cd - Cd)dt
Dilution gauging
where Q = discharge, Ci = concentration in added water,
An alternative method is to calculate discharge based on dilution. Cb = background river water concentration,
This involves adding a known concentration of chemical (e.g. sodium V = volume of water added to river,
Cd = measured downstream concentration after water is added
and t = time of measurement. The equation simplifies to:
(Ci - Cb)V
Q = (18.3)
shaded area under graph shown in Figure 18.11
Further details on how this technique can be used are given
in Burt (1988).
Conductivity or concentration
Background
concentration
Time
Figure 18.10 A tethered boat with an acoustic Doppler water velocity
Figure 18.11 Dilution curve measured in a river
profiler on the Fox River, Illinois. (Source: USGS)
as the tracer flows past the sampling point.
Box 18.1
Often the volume of water that has been discharged by 120 000 m3/15 000 000 m2 = 0.008 m = 8 mm of
a river is divided by the catchment area in order to allow water.
runoff volumes to be compared with precipitation depths, • So when compared with the depth of rainfall that
infiltration rates or evaporation losses which are also com- fell over the entire catchment, which was 40 mm,
monly expressed in units of length. By working out how a discharge of 8 mm is equivalent to 20% of the
much water entered the catchment as precipitation and precipitation.
measuring how much came out (by measuring stream dis- • Hence the catchment efficiency was 20%.
charge) we can determine the ‘efficiency’ of the catchment. • If there was no change in catchment storage then
For example: we can say that 80% of the water was lost through
evapotranspiration.
• Precipitation = 40 mm in 7 days.
• River discharge = 120 000 m3 of water in 7 days. In many catchments river flow is not gauged but it is
• The catchment area is 15 km2 (this catchment area is sometimes estimated using the water balance equation
equivalent to 15 * 1000 * 1000 m2 (since there are (18.1) when the other variables (e.g. precipitation and
1000 * 1000 m2 in 1 km2) = 15 000 000 m2). evapotranspiration) are known. On an annual basis, or
• If we were to spread the discharge evenly over longer periods, it is often assumed that storage of soil
over the surface of the entire catchment and groundwater is zero and thus Q = P - E. However,
this would give us a depth of water of this may be satisfactory for an annual water budget but
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Chapter 18 Catchment hydrology
it is often not sufficient to determine daily discharge for as precipitation minus the fall in water level. However,
ungauged rivers. A number of techniques have been devel- these measurements tend to be unreliable because of the
oped to enable daily discharge estimates for ungauged effect of direct sunlight and heating of the pan material.
rivers. Archfield and Vogel (2010), for example, selected a Atmometers can give direct readings of evaporation; a water
gauged stream in New England. They then compared daily supply is connected to a porous surface and the amount of
flow from this stream with a 50-year record from 27 other evaporation over a given time is measured by the change in
streams in the area. Using statistical analysis they then water stored. However, measurement of evapotranspiration
mapped out the area surrounding the gauged stream where rather than evaporation is necessary since most catchments
daily flow rates were correlated to other streams 98% of of interest are not made up entirely of open water. Lysime-
the time. They repeated this for streams which correlated ters are often used to measure evapotranspiration but they
95% of the time and so on. They then repeated the whole can be very difficult to install and maintain. A lysimeter
exercise for the other gauged streams. The scientists were (Figure 18.12) isolates a block of soil (with its vegetation
then able to select ungauged streams and from their maps cover) from its surroundings so its water balance can be
pick out the gauged stream which was most likely to have measured. The weight of the block is measured to deter-
a matching pattern of daily discharge. This could then be mine how much water has been lost. If the soil in the lysim-
used to estimate discharge in ungauged streams. eter is kept moist by the addition of water, and well covered
Clearly this technique is less reliable where there are by vegetation (a grass sward is ideal), evapotranspiration
few gauged streams within large areas of the world and is controlled by the weather and is largely independent
there remain significant challenges. The use of satellites of the amount (biomass) of the vegetation. This allows
is therefore being advocated. The SWOT satellite mission measurement of potential evapotranspiration, which is the
can measure water surface height and has been used for evapotranspiration from a vegetated surface with unlimited
ocean monitoring. However, it has been suggested that water supply. Because of difficulties in directly measuring
this system could be redirected to measure water heights potential evapotranspiration it is often estimated based on
across the land surface at 100 m resolution to within a equations that take account of solar radiation, air tempera-
centimetre accuracy every 10 days. Therefore, water levels ture, dew point temperature, wind speed and the vegetation
in rivers and lakes could be monitored. Discharge can then roughness properties (e.g. vegetation height and density).
be inferred (but note that it is not directly measured) over However, as with precipitation and lysimetry measure-
time since water slopes can be estimated and over time ments, evapotranspiration is highly variable and it can be
more information about the river cross-sections will be difficult to upscale local calculations to entire catchments.
derived at low flows and high flows by the SWOT system.
18.2.3 Evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration is evaporation plus transpiration (the
biological process by which water is lost from a plant
through its leaves). Evapotranspiration is difficult to
measure and is affected by: solar radiation (providing
latent heat; see Chapter 6); temperature of the air and the
evaporation surface (these influence the capacity of the air
to hold moisture and the rate at which evapotranspiration
Collecting
can occur); wind speed (removing saturated air); humidity; Tank filled chamber for
turbulence (and hence surface roughness as determined by with soil drainage, D
topography or vegetation); plant biology (transpiration attached to
balance
processes); and availability of water. As for precipitation,
evapotranspiration can vary widely over short distances
and there are often mosaics of values coinciding with
changes in vegetation cover. Figure 18.12 A simple lysimeter. The inputs of precipitation are mea-
sured as are the outputs from soil drainage out of the block. The block is
Evaporation can be measured using an evaporation
weighed and evapotranspiration is estimated by determining the change
pan, which is simply a container of open water in which in weight over time once drainage and precipitation are taken into
the water depth is measured. Evaporation is calculated account.
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18.2 Measuring the main components of catchment hydrology
18.2.4 Soil water obtaining acceptable point measurements and reliable
areal measurements is still difficult. Remote sensing of
The ability of a soil to absorb and retain moisture is cru-
soil moisture characteristics is possible in some envi-
cial to the hydrology of an area. The soil water store will
ronments either using airborne or satellite instruments
vary seasonally and will depend on soil properties, soil
or using ground-based geophysical equipment such as
depth and precipitation. Deep permeable soils can store
ground-penetrating radar (see Chapter 25). Airborne or
large quantities of water, providing a moisture reserve
satellite techniques are preferable as they can provide
through times of drought and helping to sustain river flow
wide spatial coverage in a short period of time. However,
during dry periods. There are a wide range of techniques
most of these Earth observational techniques are limited
for the measurement of soil water content. Examples are
to examining soil moisture in the upper 5 cm of the soil
listed in Table 18.1. The most common method is the
profile which may not be representative of the entire soil
gravimetric technique whereby soil samples are extracted,
profile (Box 18.2). A range of techniques exist for examin-
weighed and then heated in an oven for 24 h at 105 °C
ing soil water movement and these will be discussed later
to remove the moisture and then reweighed. However,
in this chapter.
Table 18.1 Some common methods for determination of soil water content
Technique Method Main advantages Main disadvantages
Gravimetric Soil samples weighed and heated Accurate, little equipment required Slow, destructive, requires many
in oven at 105 °C for 24 h and then samples
reweighed to determine moisture
loss by mass
Electrical resistance blocks Gypsum blocks installed into soil and Cheap, good data over time which Not good in very wet conditions, gyp-
electrical resistance measured can be continuously recorded sum slowly dissolves, slow response
to real soil moisture changes
Neutron probe Radioactive source lowered into hole Repeatable at any given site, rapid Must be calibrated for each new test
and fast neutrons released – these measurement site, radiation hazard, high cost
are impeded by hydrogen nuclei in
soil water. A detector senses scatter-
ing of impeded neutrons
Time domain reflectometry Waves of electromagnetic energy Rapid collection of spatial data Must be precisely calibrated. Lots of
sent into ground and reflections of noise on the signals
these waves from subsurface fea-
tures are collected. The presence of
water affects the speed of the wave
Capacitance sensors Uses dielectric constant of soil as a Small-scale differences between soil Difficult to install and calibrate as
measure of water content layers can be measured as well as air gaps and local inhomogeneities
values close to the soil surface affect readings
Heat dissipation sensors The temperature in a porous block Variation in the conductivity of water Large power requirement, high cost
is measured before and after a is not a problem, easy to automate,
small heat pulse is applied to it. The non-destructive
amount of heat flow is proportional
to the amount of water contained
within the soil
Carbide method CO2 gas is emitted when water is Relatively inexpensive, rapid in field Destructive, specialized equipment
added to calcium carbide. A small measurements and reagents needed
wet weight soil sample is mixed with
calcium carbide in a sealed container
and the pressure of the produced
gas is measured
Remote sensing Satellite/airborne imaging Large spatial coverage, fast Difficult to calibrate the images,
coarse scale
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Chapter 18 Catchment hydrology
Satellite soil moisture data the upper 5 cm of the Earth every 2–3 remarkable amount of soil moisture data
days for all areas except those that are fro- was gathered. An example is shown in
The Soil Moisture Active Passive mission
zen or covered with water. It successfully Figure 18.13. However, we will now have to
launched by NASA in January 2015 was
collected data until July 2015, but then wait until future satellite launches before
designed to measure the soil moisture in
part of the system failed. Nevertheless a we can obtain such exciting data again.
Figure 18.13 Global soil moisture using data from the radiometer instrument on NASA’s Soil
oisture Active Passive (SMAP) observatory. Each image is a composite of three days of SMAP
M
radiometer data, centred on 15, 18 and 22 April 2015. The images show the volumetric water
content in the top 5 cm of soil. Wetter areas are blue and drier areas are yellow. White areas indi-
cate snow, ice or frozen ground. (Source: NASA/JPL-Caltech/GSFC)
Box 18.2
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18.2 Measuring the main components of catchment hydrology
18.2.5 Groundwater Hillslope
Unsaturated hollow with
Groundwater is water in the saturated zone below the land zone saturated Well
surface. Therefore groundwater can be held within soils or surface
River
in bedrock. Nearly all rocks are porous and can hold water Water table
within them. The depth at which a soil or rock is fully
saturated (all the pore spaces are full of water) is called the Saturated zone
water table (Figure 18.14). If we dig a hole into the ground
(such as a well) then water will flow from saturated rock
into the well. The water level within the well will rise to a Figure 18.14 Saturated and unsaturated zones and the water table.
constant level which demarcates the water table. Therefore
measuring the water table is relatively simple and requires
saturated soil and rock. This water movement will be
an instrument to record the water level in a well (similar to
discussed later in this chapter. One assumption that is
those used in river-level gauging). The water table is often
often made in water balance studies is that catchments are
not flat depending on topography and geology. Sometimes
watertight. However, bedrock geology may allow water to
the water table will be at the surface in hillslope hollows,
flow out of a catchment below the surface without reach-
particularly after heavy rain.
ing the local river system. Often surface topography does
Water-table data from one point in a peat bog are
not tell us exactly which direction water may be flowing
shown in Figure 18.15 over time. The water table was
below the surface and so it is sometimes difficult to deter-
measured by using a pressure sensor that recorded water
mine groundwater losses and gains from a catchment. This
level in a thin, shallow plastic tube that was perforated and
was recently found to be the case even for very small catch-
installed into the peat. The water table is close to the sur-
ments around peatland ditches (Holden et al., 2017).
face most of the time, which is unusual for most environ-
ments but typical for peatland systems. During dry spells
the water table slowly falls owing mainly to evapotrans-
piration and some drainage of water from the hillslope. Reflective questions
When it rains the water table quickly rises towards the sur-
➤ What are the main problems with measuring catchment
face again as shown by the almost vertical lines on the plot.
water budgets?
The groundwater store is important because in some
areas it is the only source of water for humans and it rep- ➤ How would you measure discharge if you visited a moun-
resents virtually all (97%) of the Earth’s non-saline and tain stream that was strewn with boulders and coarse
non-frozen water resources (Price, 2002). However, mea- sediment making it difficult to use an impeller meter?
suring exactly how much water is in any groundwater store
➤ Why is very little known about peak discharge values of
is very difficult and requires an estimation of the porosity
many of the world’s largest rivers?
of the rock or soil that is holding the water. If the bedrock
contains only a few small pores then it cannot hold much ➤ What methods are there for determining the changes in
water, yet if all the pores are full then it is still saturated. water stored below the ground surface?
Water is not just stored as groundwater but moves through
0
Depth to water table (cm)
10
15
20
25
03/12/2009 22/01/2010 13/03/2010 02/05/2010 21/06/2010 10/08/2010 29/09/2010 18/11/2010
Figure 18.15 Water-table depth for a 12-month period for a peat bog in northern England.
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Chapter 18 Catchment hydrology
18.3 Flow paths to water bodies moves into the soil. If infiltration is occurring at less than
the infiltration capacity then all rain reaching the soil surface
Figure 18.16 illustrates the main flow pathways for water will infiltrate into the soil.
through and across a hillslope. Precipitation can either hit The infiltration capacity of a soil generally decreases
the surface of the hillslope directly or be intercepted by veg- during rainfall, rapidly at first and then more slowly, until an
etation. This intercepted water can be stored on leaves and approximately stable value has been attained (Figure 18.17).
tree trunks (interception storage) which shelter the ground Soil surface conditions may impose an upper limit to the
beneath. Stemflow is the flow of water down the trunk of a rate at which water can be absorbed, despite a large avail-
tree or stems of other vegetation species allowing water to able capacity of the lower soil layers to receive and to store
reach the hillslope. There are then two possibilities for direct additional infiltrating water. Often the infiltration capacity
precipitation or stemflow once it reaches the land surface: is reduced by frost; snowmelt above a frozen surface can lead
either to infiltrate into the soil or to fill up any depressions to rapid generation of overland flow and large flood peaks.
on the surface and flow over the surface as overland flow. Field ploughing can increase soil infiltration capacity at first,
although it can progressively decline over time as the soil
becomes more compacted again (Imeson and Kwaad, 1990).
18.3.1 Infiltration Soils with well-developed humus and litter layers (such as
Infiltration is the process of water entry into the surface of tropical rainforest soils) tend to have high infiltration capaci-
a soil and it plays a key role in surface runoff, groundwater ties (Ward and Robinson, 2000).
recharge, ecology, evapotranspiration, soil erosion and trans- Soil water movement continues after an infiltration
port of nutrients and other solutes in surface and subsurface event, as the infiltrated water is redistributed. Bodman
waters. Surface water entry is influenced by vegetation cover, and Colman (1943) suggested that for a uniform soil there
soil texture, soil porosity and soil structure (e.g. cracks and would be a series of zones in the wetting part of the soil
surface crusting) and compaction. The infiltration rate is profile during an infiltration event. The zone nearest the
the volume of water passing into the soil per unit area per surface is a saturated zone (typically in the upper centimetre
unit time (e.g. m s-1, mm h -1). The maximum rate at which of the soil profile). As water penetrates more deeply a zone
water soaks into or is absorbed by the soil is the infiltration of uniform water content, the transmission zone, develops
capacity. This is very important in determining the propor- behind a well-defined wetting front. There is a sharp change
tion of incoming rainfall that runs off as infiltration-excess in water content at the wetting front. Figure 18.18 shows
overland flow (see Section 18.3.2) and the proportion that the water content with depth for a sandy soil 4 minutes
after ponded infiltration at the surface. Note that the soil
below the wetting front still has some pre-event moisture.
Throughflow pathways
Matrix flow – water moves
Precipitation through small soil pores
18.3.2 Infiltration-excess overland flow
Macropore flow – through If surface water supply is greater than the rate of infiltra-
small cracks and root channels
Infiltration tion into the soil then surface storage will occur (even on
Pipeflow – through larger
cavities in the soil urban surfaces as there are still very small surface depres-
Infiltration-excess
overland flow
sions). When the surface depressions are filled they will
(Hortonian OLF)
Soil Interception
+ stemflow
f0
Percolation
Infiltration capacity
Saturation-excess
overland flow
Throughflow
Return flow
Saturated Saturated
River
fc
Unsaturated t0 tc
bedrock Bedrock
Time
Figure 18.17 The typical decline of infiltra-
Figure 18.16 Main hillslope runoff pathways. tion capacity during a rainfall event.
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18.3 Flow paths to water bodies
(a) Water supply to water has difficulty entering the soil because it is saturated.
soil surface and Hence overland flow will occur. This type of overland flow is
infiltration
known as saturation-excess overland flow. It can occur at much
(b)
lower rainfall intensities than those required to generate infil-
Saturated zone
0 tration-excess overland flow. Saturation-excess overland flow
2 can occur even when it is not raining. This might happen,
for example, towards the foot of a hillslope (Figure 18.16).
Transmission 4
zone
Water draining through the soil is known as throughflow
6 (see below). Throughflow from upslope can fill up the soil
Depth (cm)
Wetting front 8 pores at the bottom of the slope and so the soil becomes
saturated. Any extra water is then forced out onto the sur-
10
Soil with
face to become overland flow. This water is known as ‘return
antecedent 12 flow’ and is a component of saturation-excess overland flow.
water content Therefore saturation-excess overland flow is more likely to
14
10 20 30 40 50 60 occur at the bottom of a hillslope, or on shallow soils where
Water content (%) there is restricted capacity for water storage.
Figure 18.18 Soil water zones during infiltration: (a) theoretical zonation; The area of a catchment or a hillslope that produces
(b) measured water content for a sandy soil in Iowa 4 minutes after pon- saturation-excess overland flow will vary through time.
ded infiltration commenced. During wet seasons, for example, more of a catchment or
hillslope will be saturated and therefore able to generate
start to overflow; this is called Hortonian overland flow or
saturation-excess overland flow than during dry seasons. If
infiltration-excess overland flow. Horton’s (1933, 1945) the-
the catchment starts off relatively dry then during a rainfall
ory of hillslope hydrology assumed that the only source of
event not much of the area will generate saturation-excess
storm runoff was excess water that was unable to infiltrate
overland flow, but as rainfall continues then more of the
the soil. In this theory infiltration divides rainfall into two
catchment becomes saturated, especially in the valley bot-
parts. One part goes via overland flow to the stream chan-
toms, and therefore a larger area of the catchment will pro-
nel as surface runoff; the other goes initially into the soil
duce saturation-excess overland flow (Figure 18.19). The fact
and then through groundwater flow to the stream or into
that the area of a catchment in which saturation-excess over-
groundwater storage or is lost by evapotranspiration.
land flow occurs tends to vary is known as the ‘variable source
In many temperate areas infiltration-excess overland
flow is a rare occurrence except in urban locations. The
infiltration capacity of many soils is too high to produce
infiltration-excess overland flow (Burt, 1996). Infiltra-
tion-excess overland flow is more likely in semi-arid areas
where soil surface crusts have developed and rainfall events
can be particularly intense. It is also more likely in areas
where the ground surface is often frozen, such as north-
ern Canada or parts of Siberia. Often infiltration-excess
overland flow will occur only on spatially localized parts Winter Summer
of a hillslope such as in tractor wheelings on arable land. Dry
This spatially localized occurrence of infiltration-excess
overland flow is known as the partial contributing area
c oncept (Betson, 1964). This suggests that only parts of the
catchment or hillslope will contribute to infiltration-excess
overland flow rather than the whole catchment.
Wet
18.3.3 Saturation-excess overland flow
Autumn
When water infiltrates a soil it will fill the available pore
Figure 18.19 Seasonal changes in catchment saturation for a small head-
spaces. When all the pore spaces are full the soil is saturated water in Denmark. The likely source areas for saturation-excess overland
and the water table is at the surface. Therefore any extra flow vary throughout the year.
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Chapter 18 Catchment hydrology
area concept’ (Hewlett, 1961). The variable source area model of water delivery to the river channel. Soils are not uni-
has become the dominant concept in catchment hydrology. form deposits as they have cracks and fissures within
The main differences between the two overland flow them. Water can move through the very fine pores of
types are related to the water flow paths. For infiltra- soil as matrix flow, or it can move through larger pores
tion-excess overland flow all of the flow is fresh rainwater called macropores (macropore flow), or even larger cav-
that has not been able to infiltrate the soil. However, satu- ities called soil pipes (pipeflow). Water moving through
ration-excess overland flow is often a mixture of water that the soil matrix occurs in a laminar fashion whereas flow
has been inside the soil (return flow) and fresh rainwater within macropores and pipes is turbulent (see Box 16.1
reaching the hillslope surface. Therefore its chemistry will in Chapter 16 for explanation of laminar and turbulent
be very different (see Chapter 20). flow).
18.3.4 Throughflow
18.3.4.1 Matrix flow
If water infiltrates the soil several things can happen:
Flow through the matrix of a porous substance should
• It can be taken up by plants and transpired (or be lost behave as determined by ‘Darcy’s law’. As Box 18.3 indi-
from the soil by evaporation). cates, Darcy’s law allows us to calculate the likely rate of
• It can continue to percolate down into the bedrock. water movement through a porous substance when it is
• It can travel laterally downslope through the soil or saturated (the saturated hydraulic conductivity). Hence it is
rock – this is called throughflow. possible to estimate the amount of flow taking place as
Worldwide, most water reaches rivers by throughflow, matrix throughflow. Often the saturated hydraulic con-
through the soil layers or through bedrock. Throughflow ductivity will vary with depth and soil type. Sandy soils
can both maintain low flows (baseflow) in rivers by slow typically have a high hydraulic conductivity compared
subsurface drainage of water and contribute to peak with clay soils that have low hydraulic conductivities.
flows (stormflow) through its role in generating satura- Therefore water will drain through sand more quickly
tion-excess overland flow and as an important process in than clay. Lateral throughflow through the matrix will
its own right (Burt, 1996). There are different ways that occur in any soil in which the hydraulic conductivity
water can move through soil and this affects the timing declines with depth. If both soil and bedrock remain
Darcy’s Law (K = saturated hydraulic conductivity). h1 and h2 can be measured at each side
This may be expressed as of the tube and the difference between
Darcy’s law is a mathematical relationship
the water pressures at both ends is called
originally determined by Henry Darcy q = KIA(18.4)
the head difference (∆h). Note that
in 1856 that allows us to calculate the
Figure 18.20 provides a schematic ∆h/L (length of tube) = I. The rate that
amount of water (or other fluid) flowing
diagram of how the relationship can be water leaves the tube can be measured (q).
through a substance. It equates volu-
established in a laboratory test and helps For a given soil in a tube of cross-sectional
metric discharge per unit time (q) to the
explain what the letters stand for. The area A, the hydraulic conductivity, K, can
product of the area of substance being
diagram shows a cylinder of soil inside be determined as it is the only unknown in
tested (A), the hydraulic gradient, I (which
a tube. Water enters the left side of the the equation.
is the difference in water pressure (∆h)
tube and leaves the right side of the tube By changing the hydraulic head (the
between one end of the substance and
after having passed through the soil. The water pressure difference between one
the other divided by the length (L) of the
water moves through the tube because end of the tube and the other) and mea-
substance being tested), and a coefficient
the soil is porous. The water pressures suring the discharge for these different
Box 18.3 ➤
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18.3 Flow paths to water bodies
➤
well and timing how long it takes for the
≤h water level in the well to reach the origi-
A
L nal level, and timed movement of tracers
h1 (e.g. dye). The factors affecting hydraulic
h2
conductivity include those associated
q with the fluid and those associated with
the soil or rock including temperature,
salinity, pore space geometry and soil or
rock surface roughness. As the scale of
Horizontal datum approach increases, often the estimation
Figure 18.20 Laboratory apparatus for determination of soil saturated hydraulic conductivity of hydraulic conductivity can be found
(K) based on Darcy’s law. The letters are as indicated in the text and equation (18.4). to increase because of incorporation
of ever-larger and more extensive frac-
values it is also possible to confirm that which Darcy’s law is no longer applicable. ture systems. Flow analysis predictions
the relationship between head and dis- The relationship holds only for laminar based upon Darcy’s law in the presence
charge is linear for most materials (non-turbulent) flow of fluids in homoge- of massively fissured soils or rocks such
(a graph of I against q should be a neous porous media. as karstic limestones (see Chapter 14)
straight-line plot). It should also be pos- The hydraulic conductivity (units of or highly fractured crystalline rocks can
sible to determine the head or discharge velocity) of a soil or rock is an important lead to large errors. Flow in such cases
conditions for which the relationship parameter and is frequently used for cannot be described adequately by a lin-
deviates from the linear form (when the estimating water movement through ear relationship such as Darcy’s law and
graph starts to deviate from a straight hillslopes. Techniques for determining K in more detailed analysis of turbulent flows
line) and therefore the threshold beyond the field include pumping water out of a is required.
Box 18.3
permeable at depth, however, then percolation remains large soil pores lose their water before small pores. How-
vertical and little lateral flow can occur; infiltrating ever, the forces exerted by small empty soil pores mean
water will serve only to recharge groundwater storage that when water is added to a soil it will fill small pores
(Burt, 1996). first; thus the ‘suction’ or ‘soil water tension’ exerted by
Water also moves through soils on hillslopes that are small pores is greater than that exerted by larger pores.
unsaturated. Even after a long drought most soils con- When all of the soil pores are full of water the soil is
tain some water. This suggests that gravitational drain- saturated and there are no suction forces. Instead there
age and evapotranspiration are not the only forces at will be forces associated with gravity and the pressure
work in moving water within soils and that other forces of water above a given point. There will be a positive
involved must be very strong. Chapters 14 and 17 discuss pore water pressure caused by the pressure of water from
the processes by which water is held within soil and it above. When the soil is unsaturated there will be forces
was shown that water remains in the soil after gravita- associated with gravity and negative forces associated
tional drainage because of the combined attraction of with the suction effect. It is therefore possible to mea-
the water molecules to each other and the water to the sure these suction or positive pore water forces using
soil particles. This water that is held in soil against the instruments positioned within the soil and to determine
force of gravity is known as capillary water and it will in which direction water is likely to move through a
move within the soil from wet areas to dry areas. It is hillslope (Figure 18.21).
more difficult to get water out of small soil pores (spaces
between the solid particles) than it is to obtain water
18.3.4.2 Macropore flow
from larger soil pores. This is why sandy soils are much
dryer than clay soils. The attractive forces holding the Macropores are pores larger than 0.1 mm in diameter
water to the soil particles and between the thin layers of and can promote rapid, preferential transport of water
water are much greater in small pores. This means that and chemicals through the soil, not only because of their
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Chapter 18 Catchment hydrology
280
300
280
Height
260
240
220
200
160
180
140 120
100
80
60
40 20
Horizontal distance
Figure 18.21 Lines of equal soil water potential on a hillslope indicating the probable direction of water flow. Water flows from areas of high to low poten-
tial. Gravity (and hence height on the slope) is an important factor, but it is possible for water to be drawn upwards in the soil profile at some locations. For
example, the soil may be drier near the surface and hence the soil water suction effects will pull water from deeper, wetter areas towards the surface.
size but also because they are connected and continuous imaging techniques used in medical science to take hun-
over sufficient distances to bypass agriculturally and envi- dreds of images of the soil sample that are then compiled
ronmentally important soil layers (Beven and Germann, by computer techniques to produce one 3D image (e.g.
1982). Therefore if a field has many macropores, surface Hu et al., 2016). This technique is known as computed
fertilizer applications may get washed through the mac- tomography.
ropore channels and may not enter the main part of the The occurrence of a macropore does not necessarily
soil. Fertilizer applications could therefore be transported mean that there will be preferential flow of water through
out of the hillslope before they can be taken up by plants, the channel. The process of water flow in macropores has
potentially resulting in downstream water quality prob- three components: water is delivered to macropores, the
lems. Macropores can be formed by soil fauna, plant roots available water then flows some distance into the macro-
and cracking (Figure 18.22). They have been identified by pores and finally the water may be absorbed through the
using microscope and visual observation techniques (e.g. walls or the base of the macropores. A macropore must
dyes) as well as 3D imaging. The latter makes use of X-ray be sufficiently connected to a supply of water in order for
Figure 18.22 Macropores can be seen as narrow cavities along root channels and other open-
ings in this soil profile. (Source: SCOTTCHAN / Shutterstock.com)
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18.3 Flow paths to water bodies
there to be flow. Beven and Germann (2013) noted that versions of soil macropores. Soil pipes are created by a wide
since an important review they undertook in 1982, which is range of processes including faunal activity (animal bur-
one of most heavily cited papers in hydrology, macropores rows) and by turbulent flow through desiccation (shrink-
have still not received the attention that their importance age) cracks, biotic (e.g. roots) and mass movement cracks
deserves. The dominant concepts in soil physics and soil enhancing macropores into pipe networks. Climate, biota,
water transport modelling continue to be based on Darcy’s human activity, soil chemistry, soil texture, erodibility, soil
law, which applies to laminar flow through micropores, and structure, hydraulic conductivity, clay minerals, cracking
is of limited use in representing water flow through macro- potential and dispersivity are all important controls on soil
pores. Macropores may not take up much space in the soil piping (Jones, 1981). Pipes can be up to several metres in
and if they are open at the soil surface they will often only diameter and several hundred metres in length (e.g. Holden
take up a tiny proportion of the soil surface. Despite their and Burt, 2002a) and occur in a broad range of environ-
small spatial role, macropores can still have a high impact ments. Pipe outlets (Figure 18.23) may transmit a large pro-
on runoff and play a large role in throughflow as water can portion of water to the stream in some catchments. Holden
preferentially flow through them. Holden and Gell (2009) and Burt (2002a) and Smart et al. (2012) found 10 to 14%
showed that macropores caused by crane fly larvae could of river discharge in peat catchments had moved through
increase soil percolation rates over areas without larvae. the pipe network on peatland hillslopes while 43% of
A study in Niger on a crusted sandy soil showed that 50% discharge moved through pipe networks in semi-arid loess
of infiltrated water moved through macropores (Leonard soils of China (Zhu, 1997).
et al., 2001). Some studies in upland peat catchments have Piping is common in arid and semi-arid areas such as
indicated that 30% of throughflow moves through macrop- south-east Spain and Arizona where shrinking and desic-
ores (Holden et al., 2001; Holden, 2009). cation cracking are common. Often soil crusting in these
environments can result in infiltration-excess overland
flow. If a few cracks at the surface exist then infiltration
18.3.4.3 Pipeflow
will be concentrated at those points. Turbulent flow may
Natural soil pipes are subsurface cavities of diameter then enlarge cracks to form soil pipes. In these areas pipes
greater than 1 mm that are continuous in length such that can grow so large that they eventually collapse, forming
they can transmit water, sediment and solutes through large gullies, and so they are important in shaping the
the soil and bypass the soil matrix. Soil pipes are larger landscape of several regions.
Figure 18.23 A view inside a natural soil pipe as it approaches the outlet on a streambank –
the bed of the pipe has gravels while the soil above is a peat. The internal diameter of the pipe
is about 50 cm in height. Turbulent water flow after rainfall can enlarge the pipe.
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Chapter 18 Catchment hydrology
18.3.4.4 Groundwater flow for thousands of years. For example, the qanats of Iran
are ancient tunnel systems, several kilometres in length,
Groundwater is water held below the water table in both that connect groundwater in mountainous areas to more
soils and rock. Therefore groundwater flow has, to some arid areas in the plains. By boring tunnels into the ground
extent, already been discussed in the sections on matrix below the water table, the water can then be released
flow, macropore flow and pipeflow. Rock has small pores, by gravity through the tunnel network for irrigation or
fractures and fissures. Therefore it is possible to use domestic use. In many places groundwater has been over-
Darcy’s law (Box 18.3) to investigate flow rates through abstracted or the abstraction brings other problems such as
bedrock where fissures are at a minimum. Where there are around the Tuscon area of Arizona where ground subsid-
large fractures such as in cavernous limestone areas (e.g. ence has resulted from groundwater abstraction. In parts
Cutta caves area of northern Australia) then it may not be of Australia groundwater abstraction has led to the soils
so useful. becoming salty and unsuitable for plant growth (Box 18.4).
Groundwater accounts for around 30% of the world’s Groundwater may be a large store of water, but in order
freshwater store. Some countries such as Austria, Hun- for it to be available to supply river flow the holding mate-
gary and Denmark rely almost entirely on groundwater rial (rock or soil) needs to be not just porous but permeable.
(Holden, 2011) to provide for people’s needs, while half of That is to say, a rock (or soil) may be porous but relatively
the water resources in the United States come from ground- impermeable either because the pores are not connected
water. Humans have tapped into groundwater systems or because they are so small that water can be forced
through them only with difficulty. Conversely a rock that
has no voids except one or two large cracks will have a low
Water porosity and therefore a poor store of water. Nevertheless
table Impermeable layer
X (confining bed) because water will be able to pass easily through the cracks
Water flow A Y Z Potentiometric the permeability will be high. Layers of rock sufficiently
from aquifer B C D surface
F
porous to store water and permeable enough to allow water
E
Aquifer to flow through them in economic quantities are called
aquifers. Sometimes aquifers can be confined between
Impermeable layer impermeable rock layers (aquitards) and are open only for
(confining bed)
recharge and discharge at certain locations (Figure 18.24).
Sometimes aquifers are recharged from stream and lake bed
Figure 18.24 A confined aquifer. Between X and Z the aquifer is uncon- seepage rather than supplying river flow itself. However,
fined and has a water table; to the right of Z the aquifer is confined and groundwater is generally an important supplier of river
has a potentiometric surface. Wells A, B, D and E enter permeable mate- baseflow. Depending on the nature of the aquifer, baseflow
rial and strike water. Wells C and F are in impermeable material which will
discharge may be uniform throughout the year or peak
yield water only very slowly. (Source: after Price, 2002)
some time after wet periods.
Groundwater Abstraction in Wales. Western Australia uses ground- resources. This is because if the inflow
Australia water to supply 72% of its urban and into the ground is much smaller than
industrial demand. Up to 4 million people the outflow from the aquifers then the
As a vital resource, groundwater supplies in Australia rely totally or partially on groundwater resource will decrease. While
over 65% of irrigation water for farming groundwater for domestic supply. Such there are large groundwater reserves in
in South Australia, Victoria and New South demand puts pressure on groundwater Australia, many are in very remote areas
BOX 18.4 ➤
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18.4 River discharge
➤
or where the water is difficult to access. second source is when land use is changed 17 million hectares. There are a series of
Therefore the more accessible groundwa- so that trees are removed. The trees may knock-on effects of soil salinization. For
ter reserves may become depleted. In fact, keep the water table fairly deep by using example, the high concentrations of salt
30% of Australia’s groundwater manage- a lot of water. However, when they are at the soil surface can also pollute streams
ment units are either almost overused or removed, the water table may quickly rise when runoff occurs and the native vege-
certainly overused. to the surface and mobilize the salts that tation also becomes damaged. Damage to
Additionally there is the problem of are stored in the soil. Approximately 5.7 river ecology due to salt pollution is also
salinization. Salinization is the build-up million hectares of Australia are within associated with loss of streambank vege-
of salt within the soil. This causes severe regions at risk or suffering from dryland tation, which can then also lead to exacer-
damage to farmland as the land is no salinity. In 50 years this may increase to bated bank erosion.
longer able to support crops. Water
from deep below the surface contains
salts. Normally these salts are held deep
below the surface where they do not
affect plants. However, when the deep
groundwater is brought to the surface and
evaporated in hot conditions this leaves
behind salts as a deposit, killing plants and
soil organisms. There are two main ways
excess salts are brought to the surface.
The first source is from irrigation water
which is abstracted from deep sources.
Each time irrigation water is applied it may
add more salts to the surface and as that
water evaporates it leaves the salts behind.
Over time the salt concentration builds Figure 18.25 Salinization of farmland in South Australia. (Source: Claver
up to damaging levels (Figure 18.25). The Carroll/Getty Images)
Box 18.4
A graph of the way discharge varies over time is called a
Reflective questions hydrograph. Hydrographs can be analyzed for long peri-
ods or for short storm events. Long records of river dis-
➤ Why are the source areas for infiltration-excess overland charge are useful because they can tell us about the likely
flow and saturation-excess overland flow likely to be dif- frequency of particular high- and low-flow events and
ferent in any given catchment? the seasonality and overall variability in flows. Unfortu-
➤ Why might the areas producing overland flow in a catch- nately very long-term records of river flow are not widely
ment vary through time? available.
➤ What is Darcy’s law?
18.4.1 Stormflow
➤ Why might fertilizers and pesticides applied to some fields
It is often useful to analyze the characteristics of indi-
move through the soil very quickly and bypass the plant
vidual storm hydrographs. This is because it gives us
roots leading to river pollution?
information on how quickly rainwater moves from the
hillslope to the stream channel. Figure 18.26 identifies the
18.4 River discharge main components of a storm hydrograph. The separation
on the hydrograph of baseflow and stormflow is often
There are several important components of river flow that arbitrary and a variety of techniques have been adopted;
need to be assessed in order to determine water availabil- these are discussed in Ward and Robinson (2000). The
ity at different times of the year, and likely flood risks. baseflow is the amount of water in the river channel that is
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Chapter 18 Catchment hydrology
derived from groundwater sources and can be considered
to be a ‘slowflow’ component of the hydrograph. In the Midpoint of rainstorm
Rainfall
case of Figure 18.26, baseflow rises only slowly and some
time after the rain has fallen. This is because water in
the groundwater zone typically travels much more slowly
and by longer, more tortuous flow paths than by other Lag
processes. The amount of baseflow in a river depends on time
seasonal variations in precipitation, evapotranspiration Peak flow
and vegetation. However, there is a wide range of baseflow Rise time Falling
runoff responses. In cavernous limestones water will very limb
Discharge
quickly move through cracks and fissures providing rapid, Rising
peaked groundwater hydrographs. However, it is unusual limb
for aquifers to provide a major contribution to storm
Stormflow
hydrographs (Price, 2002).
The hydrograph in Figure 18.26 shows that there is a
lag time between the precipitation and the peak discharge
of the river. This lag time is affected by the hillslope run- Baseflow
off processes discussed earlier. Where infiltration-excess Time
overland flow dominates the hillslope runoff response
Figure 18.26 Components of a storm hydrograph.
then the hydrograph is likely to have a short lag time and
high peak flow (Figure 18.27a). If throughflow in the small before entering the stream channel. Throughflow may also
soil pores (matrix flow) dominates runoff response on the contribute directly to storm hydrographs by a mechanism
hillslopes then the hydrograph may look something like called piston or displacement flow. This is where soil water
that in Figure 18.27b. The lag time is long and peak flow at the bottom of a slope (old water) is rapidly pushed out
low. However, since throughflow contributes to satura- of the soil by new fresh infiltrating water entering at the
tion-excess overland flow then throughflow can still lead top of a slope.
to rapid and large flood peaks. In some soils or substrates The proportion of precipitation that is produced as
only a small amount of infiltration may be needed to stormflow in a river may vary from storm to storm. During
cause the water table to rise to the surface. There may even a wet season saturation-excess overland flow may be more
be two river discharge peaks caused by one rainfall event. common since the area of the catchment over which it is
This might occur where the first peak is saturation-excess generated is greater. As a result, river discharge peaks will
overland flow dominated (with some precipitation directly be greater and lag times shorter than during drier anteced-
in the channel). The second peak may be much longer ent conditions.
and larger and caused by subsurface throughflow accu- The occurrence of hillslope flow processes in the catch-
mulating at the bottom of hillslopes and valley bottoms ment and their relative dominance affect the speed at which
(a) (b)
0
Precipitation
(mm h )
-1
2
4
Q Q
Time Time
Figure 18.27 Example hydrographs for a single storm: (a) for an infiltration-excess overland flow
dominated catchment; (b) for a throughflow dominated catchment.
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18.4 River discharge
water is delivered to the stream (Table 18.2). Catchments flood peaks to travel down the various tributaries and
dominated by infiltration-excess overland flow have the through the system may be many days or weeks. Therefore
shortest lag times and the highest peak flows. This is why longer-term analysis of daily or weekly flows is required.
urbanization can lead to increased flood risk downstream. Furthermore, over long periods it is possible to identify
Therefore many urban developers are now required by city important differences in catchment response through sea-
planners to develop infrastructure to slow the flow of water sons. Figure 18.29 shows hydrographs for two adjacent
through the system. These might include ‘green roofs’ catchments in Dorset, England. There is a great difference
(Figure 18.28), which contain soil and vegetation to slow in hydrograph response which is not related to different
the flow, or pond systems to capture fast-moving urban climates. The Sydling Water catchment is dominated by
water and enable slower release of water at a later stage. baseflow and lies on permeable chalk limestone with high
soil infiltration capacities. Therefore little storm runoff
is generated within the catchment and groundwater flow
18.4.2 Flow frequency
dominates river flow. For the River Asker, however, there
In very large catchments it is often difficult to spot indi- are many events when stormflow is produced and the
vidual storm hydrographs on the river at the lower end catchment is more responsive to rainfall. There are many
of the catchment. This is because the length of time for storm hydrographs during the year and it is likely that
Table 18.2 Relative flow speeds for runoff processes
Pathway Relative speed of delivery
Infiltration-excess overland flow Very fast
Saturation-excess overland flow Fast
Throughflow:
Matrix flow Slow
Macropore flow Medium
Pipeflow Fast
Figure 18.28 Green roof on an urban building, helping to slow the movement of water
through the urban zone. (Source: Alison Hancock / Shutterstock.com)
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Chapter 18 Catchment hydrology
10
2
Mean daily discharge (m3 s-1)
Asker at East Bridge, Bridport
1
0.5
0.2
0.1
Sydling Water at Sydling St Nicholas
0.05
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
50
precipitation (mm)
40
30
Daily
20
10
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Figure 18.29 River discharge on two Dorset catchments during 1998. (Source: data courtesy of National River Flow Archive, CEH-Wallingford,
and the Environment Agency, South Wessex area)
overland flow or rapid throughflow mechanisms (through
macropores and soil pipes) generate most of the runoff 10
in the Asker catchment. The infiltration capacities of the
soils are quite high and so infiltration-excess overland
flow is unlikely to be a frequent occurrence. However, the
substrate is impermeable clay in the Asker catchment and
so there is little chance for percolating water to penetrate 1
deeper subsurface layers. Therefore the soils above the
bedrock are more easily saturated and can rapidly generate
Q/mean Q
saturation-excess overland flow. The soils are also quite
thin and there are steep slopes.
When analyzing long-term discharge records it is 0.1
sometimes useful to compare flow duration curves. Hourly Tees
or daily flows are grouped into discharge classes and the Tamar
Wharfe
percentage of time that any particular flow is equalled or
Hull
exceeded is plotted. Often these curves are plotted on a Severn
probability scale (this is the scale on which a normal distri- Ver
bution plots as a straight line) as shown in Figure 18.30. 0.01
1 5 10 20 40 60 80 90 95 99
This allows the lower and higher ends of the curves to be Percentage of time flow equalled or exceeded
examined and compared with other curves in more detail.
Figure 18.30 Flow duration curves for some British rivers. (Source: after
Generally, if rivers are being compared it is usual to plot the
Ward, R.C. and Robinson, M., Principle of hydrology, 4th edition, 2000,
other axis as the discharge divided by mean discharge to McGraw-Hill, Fig. 7.14. Reproduced with the kind permission of the
allow fair comparison between large and small catchments. McGraw-Hill Publishing Company)
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18.4 River discharge
In Figure 18.30, flow duration curves that plot steeply northern Africa and Greenland having warmer but wetter
throughout, such as the Tees and the Tamar, denote highly conditions. Therefore the behaviour of a particular NAO
variable flows with a large stormflow component, whereas phase can result in a potential increase in frequency
gently sloping curves such as the River Ver indicate a large of flooding in certain areas and drought in others.
baseflow component. The slope at the lower end of the Figure 18.31 highlights the opposing relationships that
flow duration curve characterizes the perennial storage exist between river flow and the NAO. The River Agueda
in the catchment so that a flat lower end indicates a large in Portugal and River Guadalquivir in Spain both lie in
amount of storage. close proximity to the Atlantic Ocean and hence have a
Long-term flow records are not always available, but good negative relationship with the NAO (when the NAO
where they are available, it is possible to identify varia- is positive, little precipitation falls in southern Europe
tions in river flow that may be linked to changes in land and drought is frequent). The River Kent located in
management (Box 18.5) or climatic factors. Research is north-west England lies in close proximity to the North
currently attempting to link trends in annual river flow Atlantic and therefore has a strong positive relationship
with climatic factors such as El Niño events or changes with the NAO (when the NAO is in a positive phase,
in the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO). Chapter 6 rainfall increases, therefore flooding is more frequent).
provides further detail on El Niño and the NAO. For The Loire River in France, while benefiting from having a
the NAO, for example, during a positive phase northern long time series, is also a heavily developed river system
Europe and eastern North America have warmer and wet- both historically and presently. Therefore the relation-
ter conditions while southern Europe, the Mediterranean, ship between the NAO and river discharge is somewhat
northern Africa and Greenland have cooler but drier con- masked. However, a negative relationship is evident. Cur-
ditions. When the NAO is in a negative phase the oppo- rent research interest is focused on trying to locate where
site weather patterns occur, resulting in northern Europe the boundaries of the different relationships between river
and eastern North America having cooler but drier discharge and the NAO lie and whether they are changing
conditions while southern Europe, the Mediterranean, with climate change.
Agueda, Portugal Guadalquivir, Spain
2 60 2
1000
1 1
800
40
NAO index
NAO index
Discharge
Discharge
0 0
600
-1 -1 400
20
-2 -2 200
-3 0 -3 0
1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980
Year Year
Loire, France Kent, England
2 2000 3 20
2
1 1500
1 15
NAO index
NAO index
Discharge
Discharge
0
1000 0
-1 -1 10
500
-2 -2
0 -3 5
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
Year Year
Figure 18.31 Mean annual discharge (blue, measured in m3 s -1) of four rivers in Europe and corresponding NAO index (red). The strength of the
NAO phase, and therefore the associated impacts, is shown by their distance from the zero axes. Note that the length of the available data record
for each river is different. (Source: Figure based upon river data kindly supplied from Global Runoff Data Centre (GRDC). Courtesy of Sara Alexander,
University of Leeds)
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Chapter 18 Catchment hydrology
Impact of land and water monthly flows for May, July and Novem- and wastewater discharges were associ-
management practice on ber. Land-use change examined included ated with flow changes in some regions.
the proportion of the catchment that Dams reduced most flow features while
river flows in the USA
change land cover, the proportion of the road density, agriculture and wastewater
Eng et al. (2013) conducted a study across catchment that was under agriculture, discharges were associated with higher
4196 gauged, perennially flowing rivers road density, number of dams and their flows. One interpretation of increased
in the USA and compared changes in dis- density, density of wastewater release road density and wastewater discharge is
charge with patterns of land-use change points and so on. Of the factors studied, that there was enhanced urbanization and
since 1990. They examined the annual the most common factors related to that this was associated with faster flow
maximum mean 1-day flow, the mean changes in river flow were road density pathways for rainwater to reach the river
7-day annual minimum flow, and the mean and dams. Agricultural development network.
BOX 18.5
18.4.3 River regime drain into the oceans. Instead the rivers in these endoreic
catchments drain internally into the continents which are
Seasonal variation in river flow which tends to be repeated
often hot and dry. In many cases there is no permanent
each year is known as the regime of the river. Often this is
water body at the centre of the basin but there may be a
expressed as monthly discharge. Chapter 19 provides some
salty area where seasonal lakes appear and then evaporate
examples of river regimes in different climates. Rivers in
leaving behind salts. In other cases, if there are permanent
equatorial areas tend to have a fairly regular regime, tropi-
lakes, they tend to be very salty due to evaporation (e.g.
cal rivers show a marked contrast between discharge in dry
Dead Sea) and the lake may expand and contract by huge
and wet seasons, while in other climatic areas snow may
distances between seasons (e.g. Lake Eyre in central Aus-
complicate the regime as it does not contribute to runoff
tralia; see Figure 21.4 and Section 21.4.3 in Chapter 21).
until melting occurs. Thus regimes can often be complex
River discharge in glacial regions tends be dominated
and despite important climatological controls may also
by two features. First, a seasonal control, which means
depend on the catchment geology and soils that control
that river discharge is greatest in early summer when snow
the relative role of hillslope runoff production processes.
and ice melt is at a maximum. Discharge can be extremely
Arid zones, particularly those in subtropical drylands,
low during the winter months. The glacier ice acts as a
are characterized by rare but intense rainfall events. Such
long-term water store so that annual precipitation inputs
high rainfall intensities coupled with sparse vegetation
cover tend to result in infiltration-excess overland flow,
rapid runoff and high flood peaks. However, many dry-
land soils are coarse and sandy in nature and thus have
high infiltration capacities. In these areas, such as the
Kalahari in Africa, overland flow is a rare occurrence
(see Chapter 21). There can thus be a wide variation in
response depending on the type of substrate and vege-
tation cover. Typically river flows in drylands will cease
within a few days of the rainstorm. Much water does
not reach the channel system because evaporation rates
are high and soil water storage capacity is great since the
soils were dry prior to the rainfall. Water is also often lost
via seepage into river beds and for much of the year river
channels are dry (Figure 18.32). It is worth noting that Figure 18.32 A dry river channel in the De Na Zin wilderness, New Mexico.
around of the fifth of the Earth’s land surface does not (Source: Radoslaw Lecyl / Shutterstock.com)
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18.5 Flooding
to the catchment do not necessarily match the outputs. Often fluvial flood frequency is analyzed by examining
Changes in the size of the glacier will be a main determi- flow duration curves. However, it is more common to
nant of catchment water balance. Second, there is a diur- analyze the flood record for the number of times water
nal control so that night-time discharge tends to be much level in a river peaked above a given (often critical) level.
lower than that of the mid-afternoon. This reflects melting Sometimes this water-level value is not the same as a
cycles of the glacier ice during daylight hours. Typically discharge value because the lower parts of many catch-
peak discharge lags a few hours behind peak temperature ments are affected by tides. If high storm discharge from
as it takes time for the energy to melt the ice and then for upstream coincides with a spring high tide or a sea-level
the meltwater to be routed through the river network. Peri- surge then flooding can be exacerbated. If long-term riv-
glacial areas often have riverflow supplied from upstream er-level records are available then simple return period
glaciers. However, permafrost can impact water perco- calculations are possible. For example, if a water level
lation and therefore alter patterns of river flow. Further greater than 20 m occurred 10 times in 10 years we would
details are provided in Section 24.2.5.2 of Chapter 24. say that the return frequency of the 20 m flood at a given
point is on average once per year. This helps us determine
how often certain flood events might take place. Of course
Reflective questions we could get a 20 m flood occurring three times in 1 year
and the return frequency is just an average value. However,
➤ What factors might affect the lag time between peak rain- inferring what might be expected in the future from flood
fall and peak river discharge? events that have happened in the past may not be reliable
➤ What are the main ways stormflow can be generated? given that land management change (e.g. see Box 18.5) and
climate change might impact hydrological processes oper-
➤ Why might the dominance of particular runoff processes ating within a given catchment.
vary over time and space? Because the hydrograph shape and relative size of the
peak flows are often determined by hillslope runoff pro-
➤ What shape do you think the flow duration curves of
cesses, human activities can affect the form of a storm
Sydling Water and the River Asker should be? (Both catch-
hydrograph. Soil erosion, deforestation, afforestation,
ments are discussed above and their annual hydrographs
grazing intensity (compacting the soil surface) and other
are shown in Figure 18.29.)
agricultural activities (such as ploughing, irrigation and
crop growth) or the development of towns and drain
systems are ways in which the hydrograph shape may
18.5 Flooding be affected. The magnitude of floods has been both
increased and decreased by human action in different
There are different types of flood events. Most people think locations. Additionally humans have decided to live in
of occasions when rivers overtop their banks and spill out low-lying areas subject to flooding. These areas tend to
onto surrounding land. This is known as fluvial flooding. be where there are fertile soils (often made more fertile by
However, there are other types of flooding. Pluvial flooding regular flooding) suitable for crops and where navigation
can occur when there is heavy rainfall which leads to con- of rivers by boats allows transport of goods and people.
centrated overland flow inundating an area. A town can be So floods should be expected if people live on floodplains
flooded in this way without a river overtopping its banks and it is possible to produce maps of areas prone to
because urban zones often have impermeable surfaces and flooding. Nevertheless people still choose to develop land
so overland flow can be quickly generated. Groundwater and live in zones where flooding is likely. Humans have
flooding can also occur in some areas where there are con- modified the landscape of many regions to change both
centrated zones of saturation-excess overland flow. Coastal deliberately and inadvertently the size and frequency of
flooding caused by tidal surges, storm surges or tsunamis floods. Covering more of the landscape with concrete and
are also major problems in many locations. tarmac, which are impermeable, and then channelling
It should be noted that flooding is a natural phenome- flow into drains that feed streams, will inevitably lead
non and is to be expected on all rivers. The severity of any to increased flood risk. Large-scale change across entire
flooding will depend on the response of hillslope runoff catchments could change flood risk too, such as defor-
production processes to heavy or prolonged rainfall or estation or overgrazing which compacts the soil, leading
snowmelt and to the nature of the area being flooded. to reduced infiltration.
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Chapter 18 Catchment hydrology
Additionally it is possible that human modification of Within this larger catchment a small tributary catchment
the climate may also lead to changes in flood frequency is highlighted. If land management were to change in this
and flood magnitude. For example, it is forecast for some catchment that resulted in a lower flood peak and delayed
areas that a warmer climate could mean more intense rain- lag times (e.g. dense trees were planted) it would be expected
fall events. This could lead to more floods. However, pre- that this would be beneficial to those downstream. However,
dicting flood risk is very difficult, especially in a changing the figure shows that because the peak from the small tribu-
climate. If a flood of a particular size has occurred twice tary has been delayed, it now peaks at the same time as the
in the past hundred years it might be called the 1 in 50 peak in the main river channel. Therefore it is contributing
year flood. However, that does not mean it will occur only most discharge at the same time as the main river. The effect
twice in the next 100 years. With changing climate (or land of this synchronous peaking is an increase in the flood peak
management) the same size flood could occur 20 times in the main river channel. This will therefore have a negative
(1 in 5 year flood). The difficulties of predicting the risk from impact on those living downstream and increase flood risk.
flooding are of major importance to humans because often This example highlights the importance of considering
designs of flood defence are made based on flood return whole catchments and not just single parts of catchments.
periods (e.g. to protect against the 1 in 100 year flood). Flood risk mitigation strategies must examine whole catch-
In some locations flooding has increased in recent years ments and models are needed that allow examination of the
due to both changing precipitation regimes (e.g. positive timing and volume of water moving through the drainage
NAO in northern Europe) and land management activity network across whole catchments. Some parts of a catch-
which results in enhanced production of stormflow. One ment might be more sensitive to change than others and the
of the problems with building larger and better flood same change in one part of a catchment (e.g. tree planting)
defences around our towns and cities in order to counter might not have the same impact if that change had occurred
greater river discharges is that the flood water has to go in another part of the catchment. Box 1.2 in Chapter 1
somewhere. Many solutions to flooding have involved provides an example of an approach to study how different
either building taller levees or embankments next to rivers spatial patterns of the same land-cover change influence the
or straightening the river channel and clearing out the sed- river flow peak in different ways.
iment and vegetation to allow faster, more uniform river
flows. However, there are many examples from around the Rainfall
world where these techniques have led to worse flooding
downstream (e.g. the Mississippi had its worst (and most
disastrous) flooding in 1993 after many years of river
engineering works). This is because sending the water
more quickly through one part of the river system simply
reduces the lag time downstream and increases the overall
flood peak. Floodplains normally have a function: they act
as a temporary store of water, which means that the flood
peak downstream is not as great as it would otherwise be.
However, the demand for building or farming on the flat 30 min
fertile floodplains of the world means that fewer and fewer 60 min
of them are freely available for a river to store its water.
Thus flooding in lowland areas is becoming an ever-in-
creasing problem as the extra water is brought downstream
more quickly and in greater quantities than ever before.
Changes in flood risk caused by land management Before tree planting in subcatchment
change are not always as simple as would be first expected. After tree planting in subcatchment
For example, it is not possible to say that if you cover 20% Figure 18.33 The importance of flood wave synchronicity when consid-
of a catchment with trees to take up more water that you ering impacts of land management change on flood risk. Despite the tree
will reduce the flood risk by 20%. Indeed, such an activity planting activity causing the small tributary catchment to have a lower
flood peak, this has still resulted in a higher overall flood peak in the main
that reduces flooding in a small area might actually lead
channel. This is because the timing of the flood peak from the tributary
to more flooding downstream. Figure 18.33 shows a catch- has been delayed so that it now matches that in the main channel and so
ment with hydrographs at different points down the system. it makes the overall flood larger.
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Further reading
Reflective questions ➤ For a river near your home find out what land manage-
ment changes have taken place within its catchment:
➤ Based on climate change predictions for your area how
what are the likely impacts of these land-use changes on
might your local river flow change over the next 50
the hydrology of the catchment in terms of water balance,
years?
runoff production processes, shape of the storm hydro-
➤ What factors might increase or decrease flood risk for a graph and long-term river flow?
river system?
18.6 Summary over time (e.g. during a storm or over seasons) and varies spatially
across a catchment.
This chapter has illustrated the main components of catchment The nature of river discharge is controlled by the water bal-
water budgets and shows how each of these can be measured. ance and by the ways in which water reaches the river in any given
The main problems with measurement techniques are related catchment. Some catchments are dominated by flashy stormflow
to extrapolating point data over an entire catchment and errors with minimal baseflow (sometimes none) whereas others with
associated with the measurement techniques themselves. deep permeable soils and rocks are dominated by baseflow with
Advances are being made on collecting spatial data such as pre- limited stormflow runoff. There is a spectrum of responses in
cipitation radar and remote sensing of soil moisture but these still between. Environmental change can lead to changes in the domi-
need to be calibrated using point data. nance of particular runoff production processes within any catch-
Water reaches the river channel in a range of ways, some ment or to timing of delivery of water to the river channel and
by direct precipitation on the channel but mostly by movement through river channel systems. This leads to changes in catchment
through soil or bedrock. Water that runs over the land surface as response to precipitation in both the short and long term.
overland flow is often water that is being returned to the surface Fluvial flooding occurs when rivers overtop their banks, pluvial
from the soil except where infiltration-excess overland flow occurs flooding occurs when heavy rainfall inundates the ground and
or where fresh rainwater meets an already saturated land surface causes surface water flooding and groundwater flooding occurs
and mixes with return flow. Throughflow occurs in a variety of when saturation-excess overland flow accumulates in key areas.
forms, each of which affects residence time of water in the soil and Flooding can be influenced by changes to the catchment system
contact with soil or bedrock constituents. Throughflow can contrib- derived from human activity, and there can be some areas of the
ute to river stormflow and to river baseflow. The dominance of par- catchment that are more sensitive to the same change than
ticular runoff processes in contributing to river flow both changes others. Floods can also be influenced by climate change or
natural climatic variability.
Further reading about how environmental change and hydrological processes
interact.
Herschy, R.W. (ed.) (2008) Hydrometry, principles and practice.
Arnell, N. (2002) Hydrology and global environmental change. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester.
Pearson Education, Harlow. This book contains an overview of river gauging techniques
This is an excellent companion to this chapter. The book and instruments. It is a little limited on some aspects of the
is full of great examples and explains terms and processes water budget, but written very clearly with lots of useful
clearly. There are many useful comments and diagrams photographs.
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Chapter 18 Catchment hydrology
Price, M. (2002) Introducing groundwater. Nelson Thornes, A paper that discusses the scale of approach to hydrological
Cheltenham. measurement.
This is a clear, well-illustrated and nicely written book on
Ward, R.C. and Robinson, M. (2000) Principles of hydrology.
groundwater. The best introduction to groundwater you can
McGraw-Hill, London.
read. It also contains material on analyzing river flows.
These authors provide one of the best general textbooks on
Uchida, T., Asano, Y., Onda, Y. and Miyata, S. (2005) Are hydrology.
headwaters just the sum of hillslopes? Hydrological Processes,
19, 3251–3261.
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C H A PTER 1 9
Fluvial geomorphology and river management
David J. Gilvear1 and Richard Jefferies2
1
School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Science, University of Plymouth
2
Environment Agency, Shrewsbury
Learning objectives contrast the raging torrents in the Alps that form the head-
waters of the River Rhine with the more tranquil character
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
of the same river as its passes through the ‘polder’ land-
scape of the Netherlands and discharges into the North
➤ understand basic controls on the processes of flood generation
Sea. At a reach scale, salmon fishermen identify reaches
and sediment delivery to rivers
and ‘pools’ of unique character to improve their chances
of a successful days fishing. The size, shape and location
➤ define and measure the size and shape of river channels and
of a river can also be transformed overnight by a single
drainage networks
large flood, by depositing sediment in some areas and
➤ explain how water and sediment move in river channels reactivating other reaches by erosion. Damaging floods are
➤ describe the environmental controls on the size and shape of river documented annually at some location in most countries
channels and rates of channel change and extreme flooding reported as occurring somewhere in
➤ show an awareness of how an understanding of river channel the world in any 1 year. In Northern England and Scot-
behaviour can be used to manage rivers in a more sustainable and land in the winter of 2015/16, unprecedented flooding, at
environmentally sensitive way least as recognized in the flow gauging record, also caused
extensive damage to land and property with thousands of
homes flooded in cities such as Carlisle, Leeds and York
19.1 Introduction and bridges washed away. This followed months of flood-
ing on the Somerset Levels in south-west England in the
Rivers vary greatly in appearance with changes both from winter of 2013/14. The cause of and ways to prevent such
source to mouth and between individual rivers. It is this floods in the future is a ‘hot’ political issue. In the USA, at
morphological diversity that is the fascination for many the start of 2016, tributaries of the Mississippi also had
people. In the case of Europe, contrast the quietly flowing record water levels and this followed severe flooding in
small chalk-fed streams shaded by overhanging willows 1993, 1995 and 2011. Riverside levees failed and parts of
of southern England with the turbulent milky-coloured cities such as Memphis and St. Louis were inundated by
torrents draining glacial regions of the Alps. Similarly, floodwaters. Floods and the associated fluvial processes
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Chapter 19 Fluvial geomorphology and river management
of sediment erosion and deposition are an integral part 19.2 Catchment processes: energy
of river environments but a major threat to humankind and materials for rivers
and one that will get worse under global warming scenar-
ios. Of lesser human consequence, the salmon fishermen 19.2.1 Runoff, river regimes and floods
may return following a flood to find that the location
and nature of their ‘best’ pools have changed. Indeed, on Catchment runoff is controlled by regional climate and
the River Spey in Scotland, salmon fishermen pay large catchment characteristics such as topography, geology,
amounts of money to obtain lifetime fishing rights to a soils, vegetation and land use. The percentage of rainfall
particular ‘pool’ only to return following a very large that reaches the channel may vary from more than 90% to
flood to find it infilled with sediment. less than 10% depending on the water balance (see Chap-
Rivers are dynamic landscape features that adjust ter 18). Seasonal variability in the water balance, together
their morphology in space but also time. They are a with a number of other variables, controls the pattern of
significant flood and erosion hazard to humans and yet streamflow throughout the year. Such patterns are known
have also been vital to human civilization. They provide as runoff regimes and may be revealed simply by plotting
water supply, water power and landscapes that have a daily flow against time, but more often are shown using
very high nature conservation value via the habitats they monthly flow data, sometimes expressed for each month as
provide for plants and animals. Describing and explain- a ratio to mean annual flow. At the global scale four major
ing variability in space and time of in-channel sediment river regimes can be identified (Figure 19.1). The first type
mobilization, transport and deposition processes together of runoff regime is one dominated by snow and ice melt
with the landforms they create are encompassed within which produce a major peak of streamflow during the
the scientific discipline called fluvial (fluvio – Latin for late spring in the case of snow melt or early summer with
river) geomorphology. The movement of sediment from glacial ablation (see Chapter 16). In temperate, oceanic
catchment-wide sources via hillslope runoff, together with areas precipitation occurs all year with a winter or autumn
subsequent deposition on floodplains, also forms part of maximum, but the runoff regime is more the reflection of
the subject of fluvial geomorphology but is the focus of the marked peak of evapotranspiration during the summer
other chapters within this book (Chapters 15, 16 and 18). months. Tropical, non-equatorial, river systems receive
This chapter will examine the geomorphology of river high precipitation during the summer but experience a
channels. marked dry season during the winter. Evapotranspiration
Fluvial geomorphology, until relatively recently, was is high at all times so that the streamflow mirrors the
a subject studied by a few academics in their quest to seasonal pattern of rainfall. Finally equatorial rivers have
understand the evolution of river landscapes. Modern
fluvial geomorphology involves detailed field study of
Ice melt Oceanic rainfall/
processes using precise measurements, often involving evapotranspiration
sophisticated equipment, statistical analysis of the field Snow
Discharge
melt
data obtained, and mapping and monitoring change on
rivers using airborne and spaceborne remote sensing
(Chapter 25). Here the advent of the drone has spawned
many new investigations and approaches to the study
of river geomorphology. Numerical modelling using
‘Big Data’ is also critical. Today, fluvial geomorpholo-
gists now work alongside civil engineers, water resource Tropical Equatorial
rainfall
managers, planners and ecologists in a common quest
to utilize rivers for water supply, power and navigation
Discharge
and to alleviate flooding while maintaining the nature
conservation value of rivers. Fluvial geomorphologists
are also leading the way with regard to river rehabili-
tation, which focuses on reversing the historical legacy
of environmental degradation of rivers caused by inap-
propriate channelization, bank protection and river flow 1 year 1 year
regulation methods. Figure 19.1 Runoff regimes at the global scale.
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19.2 Catchment processes: energy and materials for rivers
more complex regimes because precipitation has a bimodal annual precipitation appear to offset any further vegeta-
distribution with two clear maxima. tion biomass increase and slightly elevate sediment yields
At the regional scale, although river regimes may show beyond the 750 mm maximum (Douglas, 1967). Given that
broad similarity, closer inspection of flow fluctuations precipitation varies widely at global and regional scales
reveals distinct differences. In steep, impermeable moun- and the Earth’s surface varies from horizontal plains to
tainous catchments with intense precipitation episodes, steep, sometimes near vertical, mountainous terrain the
regimes with rapid rates of water-level change and large average sediment yield of rivers varies widely (Table 19.1).
flood peaks are apparent. These are known as flashy The sediment yield per unit area is highest for small rivers
regimes. In contrast, lowland catchments with permeable although obviously the total load of large rivers usually
geologies have slower rates of water-level change and exceeds that of smaller ones. In the case of the United
smaller flood peaks. These are often termed ‘subdued’ Kingdom, the average value lies somewhere in the range
river regimes. Such differences, particularly in the size of 30940 t km - 2 yr - 1 but values range from less than 1.0
flood peaks, have important implications for river channel to 500 t km - 2 yr - 1. It is important to realize that human
morphology. Many river regimes have been highly mod- activities can also release vast amounts of sediment to river
ified by human river flow regulation; in most cases this systems and modify the natural sediment yield. Construc-
results in a reduction in the size and frequency of floods tion activity and deforestation are two activities that are
and an increase in low flows. known to inject large pulses of sediment to river systems.
Poor agricultural practices, such as ploughing downslope,
lead to sheet wash, rilling and gullying and can also result
19.2.2 Sediment sources and delivery
in elevated sediment input to rivers
Sediment is transferred to river systems from a vari-
ety of catchment sources, including surface erosion on
Table 19.1 Average sediment yield (t km −2 yr −1) for a variety of rivers
hillslopes, by rill and gully erosion and landsliding (see
Chapter 15), usually during or following intense precip- Kosi, India 3130
itation and runoff. Sediment delivery to river systems is Brahmaputra, Bangladesh 1370
therefore often highly pulsed (the sediment arrives in dis-
Colorado, USA 424
tinct phases or pulses, rather than continuously). Delivery
River Ystwyth, UK 164
will often be seasonal in nature, most notably in glacial
rivers where summer glacial meltwater flushes out rock Orinoco, Venezuela 90
flour produced by glacial abrasion (see Chapter 23). In Zambesi, Mozambique 75
addition, sediment can enter the river directly when river Amazon, Brazil 67
banks erode floodplain materials or adjacent valley sides. Danube, Russia 27
The bulk of a river’s sediment comes from the headwater River Exe, UK 24
located within mountainous areas. For example, over
Volga, Russia 19
80% of the Amazon’s sediment load comes from 12%
of the catchment covering the Andes Mountains. It is
also important to realize that not all sediment eroded in
the catchment reaches the stream. It may be temporarily Apart from the total load, the calibre of sediment also
stored in locations such as at the base of slopes or flood- varies widely and this has important implications for
plain margins. channel morphology. Tropical weathering tends to result in
As with river regimes, there are marked variations in the majority of sediment delivered to river systems being
the volume of sediment eroded at the global and local silts and clays. In temperate areas silts and clays are also
scales. At the global scale the highest natural sediment prevalent but in mountainous terrain, sands and gravel and
yields are observed for catchments receiving between 250 even boulders enter the stream system. In Arctic and alpine
and 350 mm precipitation annually with a sparse vegeta- areas coarse sediments are well represented but glacial
tion cover. With increasing precipitation, vegetation cover erosion also produces vast amounts of silt-sized material.
increases and sediment release from the catchment mark- Knowledge of river sediment loads and the calibre of the
edly declines (Langbein and Schumm, 1958). Sediment material is important in river engineering. It can determine
yield thus tends to reach a minimum with a forest cover the size of sediment traps at water intakes and the lifetime
at 750 mm precipitation annually. Further increases in of a flood storage reservoir, for example.
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Chapter 19 Fluvial geomorphology and river management
(Figure 19.2a). Strahler also designated headwater tribu-
Reflective question taries as first-order streams with their meeting producing
a second-order stream and so on, but he omitted the
➤ What are the main controls on how much sediment enters second reordering procedure so that all headwater tribu-
a river and reaches the mouth of a river? taries are designated first order and the main channel is
not redesignated along its length. Other variables used to
quantify the stream network include main stream length
19.3 River channel morphology: (MSL, km) which is the distance of the main river channel
measuring rivers from source to mouth and equates with the length over
which the long profile is measured (Figure 19.2b); total
Critical to understanding the geomorphic behaviour stream length (TSL, km) which is the combined length of
of river systems is the ability to measure their morpho- all components of the channel network; and drainage den-
logical attributes precisely (Kondolf and Piégay, 2016). sity (DD, km) which is the drainage area (DA, km2) divided
Stream channels consist first and foremost of a drainage by the TSL (Figure 19.2b). These variables are important
network whereby each time two river networks join the because they reflect the combined effects of topograph-
downstream flow, channel dimensions nearly always ical, geological, pedological and vegetation controls on
increase. Discharge can diminish downstream in arid catchment hydrology. Indeed, these variables have been
areas owing to evapotranspiration, such as in the Oka- utilized as a surrogate for river flow in the analysis of
vango River in southern Africa. For a given river channel channel morphology and provide clues as to the nature of
reach there are five basic variables or degrees of freedom: the flood hydrology. High drainage densities, for example,
slope (which is also influenced by the nature of channel often mean flashy flow regimes.
network), channel width, depth, channel planform and bed
roughness. Reliable measurement of these variables needs (a)
to take into account the fact that their values change not
only at the regional scale but also locally. Furthermore, 1
1 1
precise definition of the terms in a field situation can be 1
complex. 2 2 1
1
2 1
3 2
19.3.1 Channel networks and slope 1 1 3
Despite the variable size and nature of stream patterns, 4
each network has been found to have an ordered inter- 1
nal composition. Horton (1945) used this observation to
promote the stream order as a way of describing drainage
networks in a numerical manner. In his ordering system
(b)
each source stream was designated as a first-order stream;
two first-order channels meet to generate a second-order
stream, and so on. He then drew a line from the highest-
order stream to the headwaters along the channel, which
involved least deviation from the line of the main stem of
the channel network. He then related this line to changes
in altitude. Therefore it is along this line that channel slope MSL
changes from source to mouth are measured. Measure-
ment is undertaken either by using contour levels and dis-
tance measurements from a map or by field survey. When DA
the values are plotted against distance from the stream
source this is known as the channel long profile. TSL
Ordering methods have been refined subsequent to
Figure 19.2 Stream networks: (a) stream ordering according to the sys-
the work of Horton. Strahler’s (1957) modification of tems of Horton and Strahler; (b) measuring mainstream length (MSL) and
Horton’s ordering system has been most widely adopted total stream length (TSL) and drainage area (DA).
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19.3 River channel morphology: measuring rivers
19.3.2 Channel cross-section: width, depth
River channels are three-dimensional linear features. To
A1
describe their reach morphology, in terms of size and
shape, their form is broken down into channel cross-
section and planform. Channel size and shape vary locally
L
within a reach. In order for reliable measurements to be
made at one location that can be compared with mea- W
surements elsewhere on the river, the cross-section should
be measured on a straight reach and located consistently d A2
with reference to river bed landforms (see section below
on channel bed morphology). Channel size and shape are P
usually quantified by measuring bank-full channel dimen-
sions in cross-section. Bank-full conditions occur when Figure 19.3 Morphological measurements of stream channel cross-sec-
the discharge just fills the channel, and this is significant tion: channel bank-full width (W), channel depth (d), length of the wetted
because it is the water level at which flow resistance (via perimeter (length of the two river banks plus channel bed) at bankfull (P)
and channel cross-sectional area (A). L is the distance from one cross-
friction of the bed and banks) tends to be at a minimum
section to the next where the area, depth, width etc., may be different.
so the conveyance of water at this level is most efficient.
Efficient transfer of water is sometimes termed hydraulic river banks plus channel bed) at bankfull (P) and channel
efficiency. Identification of the position of bank-full stage cross-sectional area (A) (Figure 19.3). These variables
in the field, however, is often difficult. A simple uniform can also be used to calculate two other key variables: the
channel cross-section with two straight banks that inter- width–depth ratio (W/d) and the hydraulic radius (R), which
sect a floodplain at a sharp angle is rare in nature. The val- is A divided by P.
ley floor on either side of the channel may be at different
elevations, the banks have irregular sides that gradually
merge with the floodplain and vegetation may overhang
19.3.3 Channel planform
and colonize banks masking their presence. The planform, or pattern, of a channel can be divided
Measurement of the channel cross-section can be used into three broad types, namely braided (Figure 19.4),
to determine channel bank-full width (W), channel depth meandering (Figure 19.5) and straight. In reality many
(d), length of the wetted perimeter (length of the two channels are intermediate types and in addition to these
Figure 19.4 A braided reach of an
Icelandic River just to the south of
Landmannalauger.
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Chapter 19 Fluvial geomorphology and river management
Figure 19.5 The Cononaco River
in the Ecuadorian Amazon.
(Source: Dr Morley Read /
Shutterstock.com)
three broad types, anastomosing and wandering planforms in excess of 1.5. However, other variables can be used to
have been identified. Variables quantifying the form of describe meandering channels further. These include the
undivided or single channels are numerous. The most meander width, meander wavelength and radius of curva-
common is channel sinuosity (Figure 19.6). This is the ratio ture. In the case of divided channels, channel multiplicity
of the length of river between two points to the length can be calculated by measuring the total length of the
of the valley between these two points. Rivers display a perimeters of sand and gravel islands (known as bars) and
continuum of sinuosities from a value of 1 to more than 5. vegetated islands in the river and dividing by the length of
Straight channels are defined as having a sinuosity of less the channel reach over which this process was undertaken.
than 1.5. A meandering channel refers to a single channel One problem with this approach, however, is that the value
with a number of bends which result in a channel sinuosity obtained is not a constant and varies with the water level
at the time of survey. Bars can become ‘drowned’ during
high water levels and emerge during low flows.
Single Divided
Straight 19.3.4 Channel boundary materials
Straight Channel boundaries can consist of cohesive sediments,
Braided sands and gravels, bedrock or vegetation. Bedrock or veg-
etation boundary types need only be recorded as such, but
as a basis for analysis of sediment transport, detailed field
sampling and subsequent analysis of bed sediments are
required. For sand and silts, or mixed sands and gravels,
a bulk sample or grab sample is abstracted and analyzed
Sinuous for particle size. Sediment mineralogy and roundness can
Meandering Anastomosed be measured using a hand lens and used to help determine
sediment sources. For coarse channel bed sediments, which
typically have a great range of sizes, often 100 particles
Figure 19.6 The four main river planform types defined according to
channel sinuosity and channel multiplicity: braided, meandering, anasto- are selected randomly and their size measured individually
mosing and wandering. with calipers or a pebble sizing plate (Bunte and Abt, 2001).
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19.4 River channel processes: understanding water and sediment movement
If all the particles are roughly of the same size the sediment though the turbulence of the water may give the impres-
is referred to as well sorted, whereas if they are highly vari- sion of fast-moving water. Mean water velocity in an open
able in nature they are poorly sorted. In general, riverine channel can be estimated using the Manning equation:
sediments tend to be well sorted but can show a bimodal
distribution. Roundness is judged visually. Imbrication of R0.66 S0.5
v(m s - 1) = (19.1)
particles, whereby their long axes tend to be aligned along n
a common vector due to flow direction, can also be noted where V is mean water velocity, S channel bed slope
and used to understand flow paths during floods. (expressed as a gradient in m per m such as 0.005), R
Movement of stream bed material can be monitored hydraulic radius (see above) and Manning’s ‘n’ is a mea-
using tracers. Traditionally bed material was painted and sure of channel roughness (Manning, 1891; Chow, 1959;
the loss and occasionally subsequent discovery of the peb- Simon and Castro, 2003). Indices of bed grain size are
bles could be used in the first case to identify movement usually used to quantify channel roughness although
and in the second track movement distances (Kondolf and in-channel vegetation and the overall shape of the chan-
Piégay, 2016). More recently use has been made of mag- nel (form roughness) also need to be taken into account.
netized pebbles, which enables relocation using a metal Defining a representative value of bed roughness for het-
detector, or pebbles with a radio-tracking device inserted erogeneous channel beds is problematic, particularly since
(Sear et al., 2000; Arnaud et al., 2015). Sediment load can larger particles have a greater effect on roughness than
also be calculated by recording the amounts of material in small particles. Values will thus only be an approximation
sediment traps and stored in reservoirs (see Chapter 9). of roughness.
For a given cross-section the way in which water veloc-
ity, depth and width increase with a rise in water level has
been termed ‘at-a-station hydraulic geometry’ (Langbein,
Reflective questions 1964). Water velocity, width and depth express themselves
as power functions of discharge:
➤ Imagine yourself by your local river. Try to decide where
you would define the bank-full limit to be on the channel. w = aQb (19.2)
It is not always easy and do not assume the water edge is
the channel boundary. d = cQf (19.3)
➤ How do you overcome the problem of measuring sedi- v = kQm (19.4)
ment size when the river bed comprises pebbles with a
wide range of sizes? where Q is stream discharge in m3s - 1, w is water width in
metres, d is water depth in metres and v is water velocity
in ms - 1. Since wdv is equal to Q it can be established that
the sum of the exponents b, f and m is 1 and the sum of
19.4 River channel processes: under- the intercept values a, c and k is equal to 1. In most river
channels, velocity increases more rapidly than water depth
standing water and sediment movement
and width. Typical values for b, f and m are 0.1, 0.4 and
0.5. Stream power is another useful measure of river flow
19.4.1 Water flow and flow hydraulics
hydraulics and is described in Box 19.1.
Understanding what governs the velocity of water flow and Within a river channel cross-section, considerable vari-
amount of flow that can be accommodated by a channel ation in water velocity and flow characteristics occurs.
of a given size, shape, boundary roughness and bed slope The velocity distribution in cross-section can be shown by
is central to fluvial geomorphology. Water within a chan- isovels, lines of constant velocity. Generally water velocities
nel is subject to two principal forces: the force of gravity, are greatest in mid-channel and much lower at channel
which induces water flow, and frictional forces. Hence, a margins and close to the stream bed (Figure 19.7). At river
channel in which gravitational forces are high and chan- bends centrifugal forces give rise to an excess fluid pressure
nel boundary roughness is low will have a high average on the outer bank and a deficit on the inner bank. This
water velocity. A similar channel, however, with a channel creates a surface water gradient between the inner bank
boundary consisting of boulders, and thus high frictional (lower elevation) and outer bank (higher elevation). The
forces, will have a slower average water velocity, even deeper water on the outside of the bend, having a greater
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Stream Power of energy available within a single second where w is water width in metres and
and within a given cross-section on a the other variables are as in equation
One of the most important geomorphic
channel to do geomorphic work, such as (19.5). Because this calculation is absolute
variables is stream power, which describes
eroding, moving or depositing sediment. (W m - 1), it can be used to compare the
the energy available in a particular area
Total stream power is a useful variable energy regime between cross-sections
of channel. Total stream power (Ω), mea-
to calculate in order to understand the meaningfully, and to predict when parti-
sured in watts, is calculated at any given
driving force available for morphological cles are entrained and the rate at which
cross-section in a river by
change, and can be related to rates of they move downstream. Unit stream
Ω = rgQS (19.5) bank or bed erosion or to understand power can, therefore, be used to assess
channel dynamics and channel type. the likely morphological impact when
where Q is stream discharge (m3 s - 1), S Unit stream power (P) (sometimes one or more independent fluvial variables
is channel slope, g is acceleration due to known as specific stream power) provides are altered (e.g. change to channel slope,
gravity (9.8 m s - 1) and r is water density a more detailed insight into morphological width, depth, bed or bank erodibility or
(1000 kg m - 3). Discharge is a measure processes because it describes the energy discharge), such as an increase in channel
of the volume of water passing through a available per unit width of channel: slope during river diversions or an increase
particular cross-section during one sec- in discharge under future climate change
rgQS
ond, so total stream power is the amount P = (19.6) scenarios.
w
Box 19.1
(a)
m s-1 0.25 0.20 0.15 hydraulic head, falls to the bottom of the outer bank (into
0
the pool) and then moves up to the inside of the bend. The
1 water therefore circles outwards as it moves downstream,
following a spiral or helicoidal flow path. The area of max-
Depth (m)
(b) Isovels
m s-1 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 imum water velocity, known as the thalweg, moves towards
0
the outer bank in response (Figure 19.7). This idealized
1 model of flow occurs in sinuous channels, but the pattern
of flow is often altered or dominated by local controls on
channel morphology such as funnelling of flow between
Isovels m s-1 boulders or trees.
0.5
19.4.2 Sediment movement
Thalweg
Helicoidal River beds contain sediments of mixed size and these may
0. 5
flow be classified in terms of how they are transported: in sus-
0.1
pension (wash load), or along the bed (bed load). Trans-
Figure 19.7 Patterns of velocity distribution within river channels shown port of fine sediments, which are typically sourced from
using isovels, which are lines of equal velocity: (a) broad shallow and soil erosion and river bank erosion, is termed wash load
rectangular channels; (b) meandering channels with a helicoidal flow and sediments are predominantly suspended in the water
and the thalweg indicated. The helicoidal flow is superimposed on the
and transported downstream. Coarse sediments such as
downstream movement of water with a downward flow of water near the
outer bank of the meander bend and an upward flow near the inner bank gravels and cobbles, which are typically sourced from river
of the bend. bank or bed erosion and hillslope input, are dominantly
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moved by rolling, hopping or bouncing (known as channels have flow conditions that are capable of trans-
saltation). porting the wash load over a wide range of flows. Thus,
The type of transport – and where and when it occurs – although there is a broad correlation between discharge
depends on flow hydraulics. A particle can be mobilized and suspended sediment transport, a plot of the two can
or entrained if the forces applied to it are greater than exhibit a wide scatter of points which relate to temporal
the resisting forces. Applied forces include the fluid drag variations in hillslope controls on sediment mobiliza-
from moving water (which depends on velocity, large-scale tion. Sediment movement, in both suspended and bed
turbulence and the kinematic viscosity of the water) and the load form, is highly pulsed, with ‘waves’ of sediment
downslope potential energy of the particle’s submerged moving through the river system. As a result sediment
mass. Resistance to entrainment is provided by packing transport in rivers has been likened to a jerky conveyor
and by gravity (the submerged weight of the particle). belt (Ferguson, 1981).
Taken as an average over time, shear stress may be quite Within a given river channel reach, if net erosion
low, but erosion can still occur because of turbulence from and deposition are equal, the river bed will remain at
eddies. Most channels usually show considerable variation approximately the same elevation. Channels that are
in the levels of turbulence and eddies in the flow create neither aggrading nor degrading may remain vertically
short-lived (seconds) and localized (metres) peaks in shear stable but often undergo planform changes as the river
stress that entrain larger particles (Bridge, 2003). Once in migrates naturally across the floodplain. These changes
motion, particles transported as bed load roll, slide or sal- are usually relatively slow and are normally evident if
tate (hop) along the bed in a shallow zone only a few grain observed over a period of years. If erosion exceeds depo-
diameters thick (see Chapter 16). If the particle is small sition, a lowering of the river bed (degradation) and
(typically 6 2 mm), or entrainment forces are sufficiently subsequent bank collapse usually occurs. Depositing
high (due to increased discharge or localized turbulence), it channels occur when the input exceeds output, resulting
may be carried upwards into the main body of water and in vertical aggradation of the bed and triggering lateral
transported in suspension. Deposition and cessation of deposition along channel margins. Often this results
bed load movement for an individual particle occurs when in an increase in the rate of bank erosion and channel
velocity falls below the critical conditions. Hence, assum- change. Channel and floodplain landforms and their sta-
ing no change in hydraulic conditions, a particle will come bility, in this context, can also be viewed in terms of the
to rest only if it becomes lodged against an obstruction balance between sediment input and output and a natu-
or falls into an area sheltered from the main force of the ral tendency to migrate across the floodplain. Identifying
water by a larger particle. which situation occurs in a reach of interest is of critical
Hydraulic sorting is an inevitable consequence of selec- concern to river management. A knowledge of sedi-
tive transport whereby, in non-cohesive sediments, finer ment budgets and the possibility of sediment starvation
particles are preferentially moved downstream. Another because of trapping and removal of sediment upstream
useful concept is that of stream competence. This is the is also of paramount importance in terms of the stability
largest size of particle that a stream can carry as bed of infrastructure and, in particular, bridges. In recent
load at a single time or position. Stream capacity refers years a number of notable bridge collapses have been
to the maximum volume of sediment that a stream can caused owing to undermining of bridge foundations.
carry. Unparalleled flood discharges could also cause excessive
In contrast to bed load, suspended load transport is scour around the base of bridge piers. Geomorpholo-
determined not only by the discharge of the river and gists have a responsibility to be able to predict the pos-
nature of flow, but also by its rate of supply from the sibility of altered sediment budgets and the effects of
drainage basin. In many cases the suspended load is changes in sediment budgets on channel morphology.
‘supply limited’. This means that the sediment trans- Stable channels, especially bedrock channels, are less
port capacity of the river exceeds the rate of supply of likely to be a problem although short-term fluctuations
sediment from the catchment. Supply limitation for the in channel form caused by flooding or sediment pulses
finest particles of suspended load, especially clay and moving down the river can bring about erosional or
silt, occurs most of the time in rivers because bank and depositional change. The role of floods and discharge of
hillslope sediment sources are activated only during varying magnitude in controlling sediment transport is
precipitation events and high flows. However, many discussed in Box 19.2.
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Chapter 19 Fluvial geomorphology and river management
The Dominant Discharge the dominant discharge and is often con- Frequency of flood of given discharge
Concept sidered to equate to bank-full discharge, Volume of sediment transported per flood
Total sediment load for each discharge
although this is not necessarily the case
Rivers erode their beds and banks and (Emmett and Wolman, 2001). Small floods Dominant
receive inputs of sediment from the discharge
are generally ineffective in mobilizing
Frequency
surrounding landscape during floods. In coarse river beds and causing bank erosion
general, floods with higher flows have but can transport wash load introduced
greater potential to erode and transport to the river by hillslope runoff. In many
sediment per unit time. Medium-sized large temperate rivers the majority of sed-
floods, however, although transporting iment transport is accomplished by flood
less sediment per unit time, occur more events which occur between twice each
frequently and can thus transport greater year and once in every 5 years. However,
sediment loads in the long term. In the while this concept is useful, it is also overly Discharge
long term the total amount of geomor- simplistic because morphological change Figure 19.8 Illustration of the derivation of
phic work is the product of the sediment usually lags behind hydrological change. dominant discharge.
transported during medium-size floods Also, dominant discharge does not equate
and their frequency (Figure 19.8). The to bankfull in some rivers, particularly in
flood discharge that achieves the greatest highly active river channels (braided or
total geomorphic work is referred to as Box 19.2
wandering).
(Figure 19.9). Rivers have been described as having histor-
Reflective questions ical hangovers because of the lag between process change
and landform response.
➤ Do you think that water moves through a reach fastest in When considering fluvial processes, it is useful to con-
upland boulder-bed rivers or gentle lowland rivers? sider over what timescales change occurs. These include
➤ Why do river channels sometimes usually have clear water • instantaneous timescales (10 - 1 9100 years) (hours/
during low flows but are turbid at high flows? days);
➤ Do you think that river channels adjust their size and
• very short timescales (109101 years) (1–10 years);
shape to optimize their carrying of water or sediment or
• short timescales (101 and 102 years) (10–100 years);
both?
• medium timescales (103 and 104 years) (1000–10 000
years); and
• long timescales (7105 years)(7100 000 years).
Discharge and sediment loads will vary in instan-
19.5 River channels: linking channel taneous time as a result of individual flood events.
processes and morphology Cross-sectional form parameters adjust over instanta-
neous and short timescales, planform and local-scale
Linking channel size and shape to water and sediment profile change over short and medium timescales, and
transport processes would be relatively easy if channels the overall longitudinal river profile only changes over
responded proportionally and instantaneously to the size the medium and long term. Figure 19.9 illustrates this
of floods. This does not occur, because different elements diagrammatically by showing how different features
of a channel’s morphology have different susceptibilities of varying size (or length scale) change over different
to change and they may change over different timescales timescales.
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19.5 River channels: linking channel processes and morphology
104
Increasing length scale (m) 103
Reach
Planform
gradient
102
Bed Meander
morphology wavelength
Bed configuration
101 Gravel-bed stream
Channel
width
Channel
depth
100
Cross-sectional
Bed configuration form
Sand-bed stream
10-1
10-1 100 101 102 103
Increasing timescale (yr)
Figure 19.9 Schematic diagram of the timescale of adjustment of various channel form components with
given length dimensions for a hypothetical temperate river (10 - 1 is 0.1 years, 100 is 1 year and 101 is 10
years, while 102 is 100 years and 103 is 1000 years).
The concept of equilibrium is central to linking chan-
nel processes and morphology. True equilibrium could
occur only if all morphological variables responded in
instantaneous time, but as stated above this is rarely the
case. Negative feedback is an important component of
equilibrium between form and process. For example, if a
channel is too narrow for a given flow and sediment con-
centration during an exceptional flood event, bank erosion
may enlarge the channel and reduce flow velocity. Channel
form thus oscillates around an average and this is referred
to as dynamic equilibrium (see Chapter 1, especially
Box 1.1).
Of course no adjustment will occur if the channel
boundary prevents erosion because it is resistant bed-
rock or strengthened by a vegetation root mat, concrete
or artificially placed bank protection such as gabions
(wire cages filled with rocks; Figure 19.10). In these
cases the discharge will be accommodated in the exist-
ing channel or by inundation of the valley floor. Valley
floor inundation occurs during a flood even if channel
adjustment is occurring, because the rate of change
of discharge is more rapid than the rate at which the
channel can adjust its dimensions and bed roughness. Figure 19.10 Flood engineering through a village on Inchewan Burn, a
If there is a large flood that enlarges the channel, tributary of the River Tay, Scotland.
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Chapter 19 Fluvial geomorphology and river management
followed by a period of years with smaller floods, flow 19.5.1 Long profile
velocities will be reduced in the enlarged channel,
The long profile (slope of a river from its source to mouth)
resulting in sediment deposition and a return towards
is typically concave with progressively lower gradients
the morphology that existed before the exceptionally
downstream. The degree of concavity, however, varies
large flood event. However, if there is no sediment
among rivers according to a host of factors. These include
delivery from upstream for deposition then little or no
inherited landscape form (which is dominated by glacia-
adjustment is likely to occur in channel dimensions.
tion in most of the UK), geology, tectonics and variability
The time taken for a channel to return to its original
in runoff. Indeed many rivers that drain passive continen-
form after a flood-induced change is termed the relax-
tal margins (see Chapter 2) have a significant convexity.
ation time or recovery period. In temperate rivers this is
Natural variations to the concave downstream model
usually fast in relation to the return periods of floods.
also occur owing principally to interruption by lakes or
Rapid revegetation is an important component of the
resistant rock bands. Where particularly resistant rock
recovery. Human activity that alters fluvial processes,
bands exist, waterfalls or rapids result (Figure 19.11). At
such as channelization or river flow regulation, may
the reach scale the long profile may locally steepen or be
alter the rate of change so that the river system is no
reduced in gradient owing to localized aggradation and
longer in equilibrium. Processes of feedback (negative
degradation processes. At the larger scale such aggradation
or positive) may then create a new (and possibly unde-
or degradation can be caused by a rise or fall in base level
sirable) equilibrium state, such as a wandering chan-
nel, which is characterized by accelerated rates of bed (e.g. from sea-level change or dredging within a reach).
incision, bed deposition or bank erosion. An under- (b)
standing of equilibrium is therefore important for river
management.
(a)
Figure 19.11 Waterfalls (a) and rocky rapids (b) often occur at a particularly resistant rock band. They are common in upland areas such as these exam-
ples from Scotland.(Source: (b) Tom Grundy / 123RF.com)
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19.5 River channels: linking channel processes and morphology
19.5.2 River channel cross-sections efficient channel. Semicircular channels are, however, lia-
ble to bank collapse, so a trapezoidal cross-section is used
Channel cross-sections adjust, as described above, to
instead (flat bed and sloping banks). Although trapezoidal
accommodate the discharge and sediment load from the
channels are hydraulically efficient, they are often poor at
drainage basin, as permitted by the constraints of bed and
transporting coarse bed sediment, which requires high bed
bank erodibility, sediment dynamics within the section
shear stresses and a wide, shallow channel over which the
and channel slope. Consider how the channel bank-full
material can be mobilized and transported. When engi-
cross-section varies along a river from source to mouth.
neering river channels it is important to maintain a mobile
Change in channel form from upstream can be summa-
bed and to ensure that the downstream continuity of bed
rized by stating that with distance downstream there is an
sediment transport through the reach from upstream is
increase in bank-full cross-sectional area. However, there
maintained.
is not a linear relationship between increase in discharge
Vegetation can also be important in controlling
and channel cross-sectional area. A given increase in
cross-sectional form by influencing bank resistance and flow
channel cross-sectional area will result in a proportionally
hydraulics. Root systems increase bank strength, so vegeta-
greater increase in bank-full discharge capacity because
tion-lined channels tend to be narrower (Zimmerman et al.,
larger channels are typically more efficient at transporting
1967) and more stable (Abernethy and Rutherfurd, 2000).
water. Second, boundary roughness generally decreases
A reduction in the vegetation cover often results in bank
downstream, which promotes faster flow for an otherwise
erosion which, once initiated, is difficult to stop. Large
unchanged cross-section. This reduced roughness is able
wood within the channel provides extra roughness and
to offset the decrease in transport capacity caused by a
hydraulic complexity and has a significant effect on
decrease in the channel slopes that usually occur down-
cross-section morphology (Gregory, 1992; Keller and
stream. The relationship between downstream increase in
Macdonald, 1995) and can dissipate energy effectively. The
discharge and bank-full indices of channel morphology is
most effective river management is that which works with
known as ‘downstream hydraulic geometry’ (Leopold and
these natural processes rather than against them.
Maddock, 1953) and average values are as follows:
wb = aQ0.5 (19.7) 19.5.3 Channel planform
db = cQ0.4 (19.8) When viewed from above, channels vary greatly in appear-
ance. They range from those with tortuous bends that
vb = kQ0.1 (19.9) snake through the landscape to straight and multiple-
channel rivers. The processes controlling the develop-
where wb, db and vb are channel bank-full cross-sectional ment of these channel patterns through time have long
width, depth and velocity values, respectively. Such rela- been the focus of fluvial geomorphology (e.g. Leopold
tions imply an adjustment of channel shape whereby and Wolman, 1957; Kellerhals and Church, 1989; Van
channels become broader and shallower in proportional der Berg, 1995). A conceptual model of morphological
terms while velocity only increases slowly downstream. types in relation to some controlling process variables is
These equations describe the change in channel form shown in Figure 19.12. Studies have consistently demon-
downstream in uniform sediments. However, bed and bank strated that channel slope and discharge are important
erodibility and sediment load are important in controlling controlling variables. Early work by Leopold and Wolman
channel cross-sectional geometry. Channels with a high (1957) based on numerous field studies of gravel-bed
percentage of silt/clay in their banks, and rivers transport- rivers in the United States suggested that for any given
ing much of the sediment load in suspension, tend to be discharge there is a threshold slope above which channels
narrower and deeper than sand and gravel-bed rivers. This will meander. They also found another higher threshold
is due to flow hydraulics. Channels can carry material in above which they will braid. They also found that these
suspension most effectively under certain optimal hydrau- critical slope thresholds decreased with increasing dis-
lic conditions: typically, semicircular channels are hydrau- charge (Figure 19.13a). Thus, braided planforms tend
lically most efficient at transporting water and, therefore, to be found on large rivers, or on small rivers with steep
suspended sediment. Many river engineering projects, such slopes (where stream power is high). Braided streams have
as straightening and alteration of the cross-section shape several channels which except at high flood are divided
over long distances, have sought to create a hydraulically by active coarse-grained bars. Each channel may be
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Chapter 19 Fluvial geomorphology and river management
sinuous but overall a fairly straight planform exists and (a)
0
the width–depth ratio is large. At the lower end of the
0.05
energy spectrum, anastomosing rivers have a network of Straight
semi-permanent and very slowly changing interconnected Meandering
Braided
sinuous channels with cohesive banks, although a variety 0.01
Channel slope (m m-1)
of forms have been identified in temperate, tropical and Braided
0.005
Arctic environments. The relationship between planform
and the primary control of stream power is complex owing s = 0.012 Q-0.44
to other influencing variables; Simpson and Smith (2001) 0.001
working on the Milk River in North America found that 0.0005
Meandering
0.0001
0.00005
100
500
1000
5000
10 000
50 000
100 000
50
10
Bank-full discharge (m3 s-1)
(b)
Erodibility of bank particles (E )
Bed material supply dominated channels Braided
Decreasing channel stability E>T
Decreasing sediment size
Meandering
E~T
Straight
E<T
Transportability of bank particles (T)
Figure 19.13 (a) The relationship between braided and meandering plan-
Mixed load channels forms and the controlling variable of slope and discharge. (b) Straight,
Decreasing sediment size meandering and braided patterns defined in terms of erodibility and
transportability of bank particles.
Decreasing channel stability
it failed the Leopold and Wolman (1957) slope–discharge
test in that it was braided when its discharge and slope
values suggested it should be meandering. They suggested
that this was because the river had a sandy bed whereas
Leopold and Wolman had worked mainly on gravel-bed
rivers in the United States. Clearly bed sediment size is
important in controlling river planform.
Straight Meandering Braided
Ratio of bed material load
Increasing channel gradient
Where the bed material is coarse, the bank material
Suspended load channels
to total sediment load
Decreasing sediment size highly erodible, or the dominant mode of sediment trans-
port is by bed load movement, there will be a tendency
Sand bar Silt for the river to be laterally active, as in active meandering,
Gravel bar Vegetation
wandering or braided rivers. River channel planforms can
Gravel and boulders Flow
be differentiated using the ratio between the transportabil-
ity of bank particles to the erodibility of bank particles
Figure 19.12 Conceptual model of morphological types of channels
indicating the conditions (sediment size, channel gradient and ratio of
(Figure 19.13b). Braided and wandering gravel-bed rivers
bed load to suspended load) under which river channels will be tend to have uncohesive coarse floodplain sediments that
straight, meandering or braided. provide high rates of sediment input (from bank erosion
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19.5 River channels: linking channel processes and morphology
causes the bed material to become more rounded down-
stream. Perturbations to this general pattern are caused
by injections of sediment from tributaries, hillslope inputs
or bank collapse, by lithological changes along the long
profile or by reach variability in stream power. Lakes and
artificial structures such as weirs will also interrupt the
pattern of sediment transport.
Superimposed on the long profile and cross-sectional
geometry are a variety of erosional and depositional bed-
forms. The type of forms depends upon whether the bed is
composed of predominantly sands, gravels or bedrock and
upon channel gradient. Within gravel-bed rivers the most
common bedforms are pool–riffle sequences. Pools are
Figure 19.14 A formerly braided river reach of the Biala river in the Polish characterized during low flow by relatively slow flowing
Carpathians has been channelized in to a single reinforced channel with water with fine bed material. Riffles are formed by accumu-
very limited channel heterogeneity.
lation of relatively coarse material and are characterized
by shallow, more rapidly flowing water (Figure 19.15). The
and bank collapse) that travel only for short distances spacing of pools and riffles is often five to seven times the
(typically less than 1 km) during floods. In areas where channel width but a variety of spacings have been found
bank erosion cannot occur, such as in bedrock-lined rivers, in natural channels. In mountain streams where the size
channels tend to be straight or follow the pattern of geo- of bed materials is large relative to the size of the channel
logical structure (e.g. faults). If there is sufficient energy in and/or the channel slope is steep (typically greater than
the system, rivers are likely to meander, although research 10%), a step–pool morphology, with steps of coarse mate-
in undisturbed, forested rivers in the Pacific north-west in rial such as boulders (Montgomery and Buffington, 1997)
the United States has shown that rivers containing very or large dead wood (Keller and Swanson, 1979), sometimes
large volumes of large dead wood tend also to have a lower replaces pools and riffles.
sinuosity because the wood dissipates the majority of the The channel bed of sand-dominated reaches is com-
energy in such systems (Keller and Swanson, 1979), which monly composed of ripples (less than 40 mm in height and
is usually used to create the secondary flow forms required 600 mm in wavelength) and larger dunes forming traverse
for meandering. sand bars (see Chapter 16). During periods of high dis-
It is important to understand the potential response charge sand dunes can be formed, as seen in Figure 19.16.
of channel planform when river management alters a The size and shape of these bedforms change with time
process control such as width, depth, sinuosity, slope since their form is directly related to flow velocity. Down-
(Figure 19.14) or water or sediment discharges. If the stream migration of dunes and ripples occurs as material
activity takes a stream across a threshold then the river is carried up the stoss side and avalanches over the crest
can change its form and level of stability. Furthermore, and down the lee side (see Chapter 16). At very high flow
if channels are wholly constructed and a planform is velocities a flat river bed can be formed or anti-dunes cre-
adopted which is not in equilibrium with the processes it ated. Anti-dunes migrate upstream as erosion from the
is unlikely to be a success for long. downstream side of the anti-dune throws material into sal-
tation and suspension more rapidly than it can be replen-
ished from upstream.
19.5.4 Channel bed morphology
Such sedimentary structures can be related directly to
The morphology of the stream bed changes downstream. stream power and the diameter of the bed material. In bed-
Often there are bedrock channels in the upper section rock channels a variety of sculptured forms can be found,
of the long profile with an exponential decline of bed in part controlled by the rock type and structure. The
material particle size downstream. This downstream most well-known feature is the pothole caused by corrasion
fining is due to particle sorting and abrasion. Particle (mechanical wearing and grinding), cavitation (pressure
sorting occurs because smaller particles are preferentially changes due to bubble collapse in turbulent flow) and corro-
entrained and transported further downstream (Ferguson sion (chemical weathering). In some bedrock rivers rhythmi-
et al., 1996). Abrasion, involving grinding and chipping, cal forms similar to pools and riffles have also been identified.
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Chapter 19 Fluvial geomorphology and river management
(a) (b) 20
Direction of flow Armour layer
Imbricated armour mean size (62 mm)
layer
Fines
infiltrated
into the %10
substrate
gravels
0
64 16 4 1 0.25
An open gravel substrate Particle size (mm)
devoid of fines
Riffle Pool
Turbulent flow
shallow depths
Slow flowing and
relatively deep
Coarse bed
material
Fine bed material
Figure 19.15 A pool–riffle sequence showing the main morphological attributes of pools and riffles (viewed from the side) including (a) a schematic
diagram of stream bed armouring with and without infiltrated fine sediment and (b) a particle size distribution of the bed sediments on the gravel bed
River Tryweryn, Wales.
Figure 19.16 Large sand dunes formed during the high-flow season, Cinaruco River, Venezuela.
Thus, the rapids within the Grand Canyon of the Colorado bar forms owing to their regular spacing. Bars may consist
River, which are well known to white-water rafters, are of coarse or fine material, be relatively stable or highly
spaced at intervals of 2.6 km with deeper sections in between. mobile, and be attached or detached from the river banks.
Sizeable accumulations of bed load material are referred In general, mid-channel bars are found on braided rivers,
to as bars (Figure 19.17). For example, riffles are lobate lateral and diagonal bars on wandering gravel-bed rivers,
gravel bars but are usually studied independently of other whereas point bars form on the inside of bends within
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19.6 River channel changes: rates and types of channel adjustment
meandering rivers (Figure 19.17). Most bar forms consist of
an upstream portion of sediment known as the bar head,
with a tail of finer material. Associated with bar forms and
channel bed topography is variability in grain size. Grain
size tends to be greatest in the centre of channels and finer
at the channel margins (relating to the normal pattern of
flow velocity across the channel). Within meandering chan-
nels, because water velocity is greatest close to the outer
bank, grain size tends to be at a maximum here and slowly
decreases towards the inner bank. Exceptions to these gen-
eralizations will reflect complex flow hydraulics. In natural
channels with non-uniform channel morphology, patterns
of flow velocity during floods are highly variable and
complex. The vertical structure of bed forms in gravel-bed Figure 19.18 A vertical ‘freeze core’ of a gravel substrate. The core has
rivers typically consists of a surface layer of stones with been collected by inserting a tube into the sediment and then filling the
finer material beneath. The coarser layer is referred to as an tube with liquid nitrogen. This freezes the water around the tube and the
nearby sediment thereby allowing it to be pulled out with the sediment
intact for investigation. The core shows mixed grain sizes below the
coarser ‘armour’ layer that is characteristically found at the surface.
armoured layer as it protects the finer material from being
transported (Figure 19.18).
Channel side bars Point bars
Reflective questions
➤ Why are roof gutters normally semicircular in
cross-section?
➤ If the river were also to carry larger gravel-sized material
Channel junction bars Mid-channel bars
would you design it with a semicircular cross-sectional form?
19.6 River channel changes: rates
Diamond bars Diagonal bars and types of channel adjustment
River channels adjust their channel slope, cross-section,
planform, bed morphology or stream network over a range
of timescales in relation to natural and anthropogenic
Sand waves, linguoid bars or larger dunes changes (Figure 19.19). This chapter is focusing on short
timescale changes because of their direct relevance to river
management. Some changes take place slowly and gradually
while others can occur almost instantaneously in response
to individual flood events. Channel change can also be dis-
tinguished according to whether it is autogenic or allogenic.
Autogenic change refers to fluctuations of channel form
about an equilibrium condition. Allogenic change refers
to adjustments of channel form in response to a change
Counterpoint bar through time in the sediment and water regime of the river.
Box 19.3 provides a simple way of determining how channel
Figure 19.17 A classification of simple bar forms and flow patterns. shape might change if discharge or sediment input changes.
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Chapter 19 Fluvial geomorphology and river management
Natural or human-induced
change of driving variables
+
Inflow discharge Inflow sediment
hydrograph hydrograph
Q QS Suspended load
Driving
variables
Bed load
Time Time
Act on
Channel
bed and bank
Boundary conditions
materials and
vegetation
River training structures
and channelization
To form
Channel
characteristics
Cross-section Channel gradient Planform
(width and depth)
Figure 19.19 Principles of channel form and change. Alteration of the driving variables and/or boundary condi-
tions causes changes in channel characteristics.
Predicting Channel Response margin vegetation removal or gravel bed load (Qb) on channel forms can be
to Changes in Discharge extraction, and indirectly via land-use hypothesized:
change, varies greatly (Kondolf et al.,
and Sediment Yield Q+: w+, d+, (w/d)+, l+, S-
2002). The highly eminent American fluvial
Predicting how channels might adjust to geomorphologist Stan Schumm, however, Q-: w -, d-, (w/d) -, l -, S+
changes in sediment yield, sediment type produced a set of relationships as to how
and discharge is complex. Rivers vary in channels would respond to change in dis- Qb+: w+, d-, (w/d)+, l+, S+, P-
their sensitivity to discharge or sediment charge or sediment yield (Schumm, 1977). Qb -: w -, d+, (w/d) -, l -, S-, P+
load. Similarly their sensitivity in terms of Using a plus or minus sign to denote an
morphological adjustment to direct human increase or decrease respectively, the where w is width, d mean depth, l mean-
intervention such as channelization, river effects of a change in discharge (Q) or der wavelength, S channel gradient and P
channel sinuosity.
Box 19.3 ➤
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19.6 River channel changes: rates and types of channel adjustment
➤
The algorithms were based on Schumm’s w -, d+ -, (w/d) -, l -, S+ -, P+ These simple algorithms can be useful
observations of predominantly sand-bed in assessing how a channel might respond
(such a change may be caused by
channels in semi-arid and sub-humid to climate change or human activity and
adoption of good agricultural management
regions. Therefore their wider applicability they may predict the direction of change.
practices, such as use of buffer zones and
has yet to be fully tested. Furthermore, Such simplistic models, however, should
water retention ponds)
changes in discharge or sediment load be used with caution. Channels with highly
rarely occur alone because of their interde- Q+, Qb -: variable ratios of bed to bank resistance
pendence on climatic and catchment vari- w+ -, d+, (w/d)+ -, l+ -, S-, P- and complex modes of sediment transport
ables. Four combinations can be postulated: can respond in different ways. Even if the
(such a situation may occur when a river directions of change are predicted, the
Q+, Qb+: is in receipt of water from a ‘donor’ stream) rate and magnitude of change are still
w+, d+ -, (w/d)+, l+, S+, P- likely to be unknown. The river will alter
Q-, Qb+:
(such a change may be caused by whichever component is the easiest. For
w+ -, d-, (w/d)+ -, l+ -, S+, P-
urbanization) example, if the banks are soft and erod-
(such a situation may occur where con- ible and the bed is bedrock, the river will
Q-, Qb -: struction or mining activity takes place in a widen.
catchment).
Box 19.3
19.6.1 Cross-sectional change
The extent of bank or bed erosion will depend upon the
resistance of the channel bed and banks. Sand-bed rivers
with highly mobile beds, such as the Fraser River in Can-
ada, can experience changes of 5 m in bed elevation during
a flood season. On such rivers even greater bed lowering
can occur around bridge piers where scour is exacerbated.
Knowledge of such bed-level change during floods is criti-
cal in creating sound foundations for river structures such
as that shown in Figure 19.20. Channel widening usually
takes place during extreme floods often resulting in move-
ment of a river by more than a whole channel width. In
the United States there is evidence that floods of 100–200
year recurrence interval have resulted in channel widening
of between 60 and 600%. A 100-year recurrence interval
flood on natural reaches of the River Tummel in Scotland,
however, resulted in channel widening of 10% despite the
presence of uncohesive sand and gravels.
19.6.2 Planform change
Changes in channel pattern vary according to planform
geometry. Meandering rivers shift their position primarily
by extension, translation, rotation or enlargement
(Hooke, 1980) (Figure 19.21a). However, differences in
bank strength, resulting from sediment and vegetation
Figure 19.20 Exposure of bridge piers on a tributary of the Luangwa
variability, ultimately cause more complex changes in
River, Zambia. The original bed level can be seen by the ‘ragged’
form to occur (Micheli and Kirchner, 2002). Braided river concrete on the piers.
channels change chaotically in response to bar development
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Chapter 19 Fluvial geomorphology and river management
(a) (b)
Initiation
Translation
Migration
Riffle
Extension Growth
Pool
Erosion
Primary flow
Depositional bar
Future position
of river banks
Double- Scroll bars
Rotation
heading
Cutoff
Translation,
extension
and rotation
Figure 19.21 Modes of channel planform change on a meandering river: (a) types of change and (b) the devel-
opment of a straight reach into a meandering reach and then into a straight reach as the meander bend is cut
off leaving ‘oxbow’ lakes on the floodplain.
and shift their position laterally across the floodplain. 0.5 m yr - 1, but may reach values of 5 m yr - 1 or more.
Wandering gravel-bed rivers exhibit a number of types of In contrast, some meandering channels appear static
movement including meander development and avulsion. with little or no change in planform over a few hundred
Avulsion is the process whereby a channel shifts from an years or more. Mobility appears to relate to the degree
old course to a new course, leaving an intervening area of of incision and stream power. The meandering Luangwa
floodplain intact. River in Zambia is an example of a highly mobile
Generally, rates of channel shifting are greater for meandering river. On the Luangwa River average annual
braided rivers than wandering gravel-bed rivers and bank erosion rates have varied between 1 and 20 m over
slowest for meandering rivers. Locally, however, bank the 40 years from 1956 to 1997 (Gilvear et al., 2000).
erosion on the outside of meander bends can be Figure 19.22 shows a reach of the Luangwa in 1956
quite rapid and ultimately result in meander cutoffs and 1988 where channel migration and meander cutoff
(Figure 19.21b). In the United Kingdom, medium-sized have occurred. Such vast changes in the channel have
meandering rivers have been observed to have migrated resulted in safari lodges being swept into the river. The
across more than 50% of the floodplain in less than 200 safari lodges are located on the outside of the meanders,
years. For small- and medium-sized meandering rivers despite the erosion threat, because animals come down
(less than around 20 m wide), average bank erosion to the river edge to drink. They do so via the point bars
rates are often less than 0.1 m yr - 1, usually less than on the opposite side of the river from the safari huts and
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19.6 River channel changes: rates and types of channel adjustment
Figure 19.22 Channel planform changes on the meandering Luangwa River, Zambia, over a 32-year period.
thus many animals can be easily spotted. Prediction of reservoir construction, urbanization, building construc-
the rate and direction of meander migration is prob- tion, mining, land drainage and vegetation change such
lematic on meandering rivers. The rate of bank erosion as afforestation and deforestation. For example, Wolman
varies around the meander bend and as the meander (1967) produced a model of the response of channels to
develops and alters its sinuosity. The rate of erosion will land-use change in the Piedmont region of the United
also be dependent upon the size and timing of floods States and this model is shown in Figure 19.23. His model
over proceeding years and on the resistance of river of land-use change over the past 200 years deals with the
bank sediments encountered as the river migrates across conversion from forest to urban land with interim stages
the floodplain. of arable agriculture, reversion to woods and grazing
and construction activity. The model suggests episodes
of aggradation, scour, stability and bank erosion within
19.6.3 Human-induced change
the affected river channels. For example, channels below
Over the last few thousand years human activity has urban areas in the United States have been shown to have
significantly modified the majority of river channels in channel capacities of up to six times the size of their
developed parts of the world. This modification acceler- rural counterparts. In the United Kingdom values up
ated over the past 200–300 years through channelization, to 150% are more common (Gregory et al., 1992).The
straightening and embanking. In addition there have nature of channel change in detail is complex and a good
been changes resulting from human activity altering example is the case of rivers regulated by dams as dis-
river flows and sediment yields. Such activities include cussed in Box 19.4.
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Aggrading
Channel Bank
Stable
Scour
Scour
S t a b l e A g g r a d i n g
condition erosion
Woods
Construction
Land-use F o r e s t C r o p p i n g and Urban
grazing
800
600
Sediment yield
(t km-2 yr-1)
400
200
0
1780 1820 1860 1900 1940 1980
Year
Figure 19.23 A model of variations in sediment yield and channel response over time, Piedmont region, USA.
Degradation of River prevalent along the whole course of the and are now reaching the end of their
Channels Below Dams river downstream of the dam. Increased design life. Fluvial geomorphology has
coastal erosion 965 km downstream of the increased the general understanding of
Dams or weirs typically disconnect river High Aswan Dam on the Nile has even been how such structures affect river stability
habitats by preventing the upstream blamed on the impoundment. and habitats. Ownership of such large, old
migration of fish and the downstream The primary response of the regu- and potentially dangerous structures also
movement of sediment, and large dams lated river to the change in flood regime, carries a significant liability. As a result,
often alter hydrology, particularly dom- however, usually seems to be a decrease many old dams are now being removed
inant discharge. A common response, in channel capacity. This usually takes the or modified to allow fish and sediment to
except in bedrock channels, to the release form of a reduction in channel width which move through the fluvial system. In 2011
of sediment-free water below dams is can often be over 50%. Width reduction is the world’s largest ever dam removal
degradation of the channel bed mainly largely achieved through the formation of project took place with the removal of
because sediment is lost from the reach depositional bars and berms and subse- Elwah and Glines Canyon Dams within the
but not replaced. In time degradation pro- quent vegetation colonization. Shrinkage Olympic National Park, USA. This opened
gressively moves downstream. This process of over 50% in the width of the River Spey up 100 km of river to Pacific salmon, and
often continues unless bedrock is met, the in Scotland, downstream of the Spey Dam geomorphologists are monitoring down-
channel becomes armoured to the effects constructed in 1938, occurred over 50 stream dispersion of sediment formerly
of clear water erosion, or an unregulated years (Figure 19.24; Gilvear, 2003). trapped behind the dam and related chan-
tributary injects sediment to the regulated Many structures were built in the early nel adjustment.
river. Such degradation and erosion can be part of the twentieth century or before
Box 19.4 ➤
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19.7 Fluvial geomorphology and environmentally sound river management: living and working with nature
180
Spey Dam
Laggan Bridge
Allt na Cubhaig
Strath an Ellich
160
Allt Breakachy
River Calder
River Truim
1946
Mashie
140 1989
1995
120
Channel width (m)
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300
Distance downstream from Spey Dam (km)
Figure 19.24 Spatial variability and changes in channel width (1945–1989) downstream of the Spey Dam, Scotland.
Box 19.4
determine which rivers might be more dynamic than others
in particular environmental settings.
Reflective questions
➤ Why do rivers adjust their form and how rapidly do they
change width and depth?
19.7.1 River management and the engineering
tradition
➤ Do you think that geomorphologists now understand
Historically, many rivers in developed countries have
enough about rivers to predict how they will change in the
been straightened, or have had major changes made
future, particularly where human interference is present?
to their cross-section shape (widening, deepening and
embankments) in order to drain land for agriculture or
other development. This has typically led to significant
19.7 Fluvial geomorphology and
loss of habitat area and habitat variety and ecological
environmentally sound river management:
damage such as loss of spawning gravels for salmon.
living and working with nature These changes are also unsustainable because river pro-
cesses often result in a return to the original morphology:
The above sections have demonstrated that river channels
river systems can be thought of as having a ‘memory’.
are not static features in the landscape but have high lev-
The memory effect, and associated recovery, frequently
els of dynamism and are very sensitive to changes in flow
leads to morphological instability that is difficult and
or sediment yield or changes in bed and bank resistance.
expensive to manage. A notable example of this is the
Such temporal variability has to be incorporated into river
Mississippi River, which regained much of its sinuosity
management if environmentally sound and sustainable
following straightening in the early twentieth century.
solutions are to be reached. This is the focus of this sec-
However, in many developed countries there are now
tion in the chapter. Rivers can be classified into different
programmes to assess and improve environmental quality,
types and this often provides a simple way for managers to
and these recognize that alterations to morphology have
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Chapter 19 Fluvial geomorphology and river management
significant impacts on ecosystem health. In Europe, for to help manage and improve the environment. Many large
example, the European Union Water Framework Directive engineering consultancies now employ fluvial geomor-
(European Union, 2000) requires Member States to assess phologists to advise on projects involving large-scale river
the ecological quality of rivers, lakes and wetlands, and engineering works.
to restore lost functioning where possible. The goal of the
directive is for the water environment to achieve good eco-
19.7.2 Living with rivers
logical quality. To do this, individual countries have to assess
the biological quality, the water quality and, for the first As a result of the failure of a number of river manage-
time, the morphological quality of the water environment. ment and engineering schemes there has been a radical
The UK has developed a Morphological Impact Assessment shift in the nature of river management (Leeks et al.,
System to assess how significant morphological alterations 1988). This shift is towards working with, rather than
to the river are. This tool shows that around one-third of against, natural processes and accepting the dynamic
all main rivers in Scotland have significant morphological nature of river channels. This is because the long-term
damage, and require restoration to achieve good quality viability of many engineering structures cannot be assured
(Scottish Environment Protection Agency, 2007). given the highly mobile nature of rivers and the likely
Restoration will only occur where the environmental impact of a changing climate on river morphology in the
benefits outweigh the potential cost, and the morphology of future. Flood embankments can be lost to bank erosion,
some rivers is never likely to be fully restored – for instance and current deflectors meant to deepen the river and
through a major city. Depending on the river system, a curtail its lateral movement may well be largely ineffec-
different level of effort may be needed to achieve morpho- tive in a river with high stream power. In this context,
logical restoration. Morphologically active parts of a river geomorphologists have a role in (i) deciding on what type
may recover naturally and the best approach is to leave of rivers are activities such as channel straightening or
these alone. In other rivers, where either the changes are floodplain development permissible; (ii) deciding where
very significant, or the energy levels in the river are natu- and how far from rivers structures can be built; and (iii)
rally low, physical restoration, such as re-meandering, may designing long-term and environmentally sensitive bank
be required. Restoration also needs to take climate change protection and engineering solutions to river management
effects on morphology into account. However, rivers will problems. Such an approach places the emphasis on liv-
only recover naturally if the fundamental fluvial processes of ing with rivers rather than fighting against the forces of
sediment and water movement through the system are main- nature. The role of the geomorphologist in the three situ-
tained. This can be achieved by regulation of those activities ations above is illustrated here with reference to a number
that can interrupt such processes. Similarly, river restoration of research projects.
activities such as re-meandering may also fail if these are not In a study of the success of channelization schemes
designed with due account for system processes. Brookes (1985) examined channel response in England,
The morphological impacts of river engineering are Wales and Denmark. The schemes varied in their type, age
increasingly being assessed and regulated in order to and extent and were on a variety of river types. Channel-
protect the existing quality of the environment. In some ization schemes were found to be successful on low-
countries, environmental assessment and regulation of river energy streams but on streams with stream powers above
engineering, such as sediment extraction, is increasingly 35 W m - 2 stream channels reverted back towards their
used to ensure that processes of sediment and water move- natural morphology (Figure 19.25). Such a finding is obvi-
ment operate naturally within a river system. However, ously of direct relevance to assessing where channelization
many countries and land managers have yet to adopt this schemes may be an appropriate solution to an environ-
approach, and significant morphological impacts continue mental management problem (Brookes, 1985).
to occur. An understanding of river geomorphology is The role of the geomorphologist in assessing where
required in order to identify which rivers require specific structures should or should not be built is illustrated by
management. the River Tay in Scotland. Here reconstruction of channel
Over the last decade, therefore, the science of fluvial planform evolution over the past 250 years and scrutiny of
geomorphology has moved from being a mainly academic the present-day morphology revealed that flood embank-
discipline to an applied science that is now used regularly ment failures along the river occurred more often on the
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19.7 Fluvial geomorphology and environmentally sound river management: living and working with nature
10-1 bank. An example of an alternative geomorphic approach
10 to stemming bank erosion is the use of submerged vanes
10
0
Natural cross-sections
00
W or hydrofoils. These work on the basis of modifying the
W
m Realigned, no adjustment
-2
m
-2
35
Erosive adjustment/ flow adjacent to the bank such that the processes of ero-
W
segregation
m
-2
sion are reduced and bank failure prevented. The struc-
–
Restored sinuosity
tures are located in order to generate a secondary flow
10-2 cell. This secondary cell has opposite polarity to the main
10
W
m
flow cell that results from helicoidal flow in the meander
-2
Channel slope
bend. Convergence of faster water occurs in the centre of
the channel and causes bed scouring. Eroded material is
then deposited towards the outer bank. As shear stresses
10-3
against the outer bank, toe region and bank height are
1
W
reduced, bank retreat is prevented. Installation of such
m
-2
structures has been successfully utilized on the River Rod-
ing in England (Hey, 1996).
10-4 19.7.3 River maintenance
0.1 1 10 50
Bank-full discharge per unit width, Q (m3 s-1)/w River maintenance may be needed where the channel
Figure 19.25 The response of river channels to channelization in relation dynamics are in conflict with human use. For example,
to stream power. (Source: after Brookes, 1985) river flow regulation by dams can cause sedimentation and
siltation of gravels below tributary junctions due to the
reduced frequency and magnitude of floods. This, in turn,
outside of meander bends and where embankments had can have adverse impacts on aquatic organisms such as
been constructed over old courses of the river (Gilvear and salmon, which require almost silt-free gravels to spawn.
Black, 1999) (Table 19.2). This suggests that, in the case In recent years there has therefore been a move towards
of the River Tay, and probably more generally, it is unwise releases of reservoir water down salmon rivers to flush
to build flood embankments over areas of relatively recent fine sediments from coarser ones, and to encourage fish
fluvial activity on high-energy and thus inherently mobile to migrate. These pulses are termed either flushing flows
river systems. Box 19.5 provides a large scale example of or channel maintenance flows. The most well-known,
the challenges of managing infrastructure and humans in a and probably largest, example of a channel maintenance
dynamic river environment. flow was the huge one from the Glen Canyon Dam on
Traditional engineering approaches to bank protection the Colorado River in 1997 (Kaplan, 2002). However,
on meandering channels have tended to starve the river of to a water resource company this water may be seen as
sediment (Kondolf, 1997) and to alter flow patterns such a loss that affects its profit margin. The company may
that erosion continues to occur even where rock-filled wish to know the effective discharge and duration for
gabions and concrete have been used to protect the river the release to meet its objectives. This is an area where
Table 19.2 Percentage of flood embankment failures on the River Tay in comparison with their geomorphic setting (1993 flood event)*
Overlying relic channels less than 250 years old 14
Overlying relic channels older than 250 years 5
Outside bend of meanders 28
Overlying relic channels and outside of a bend 8
Perpendicular to valley sides 13
Others 32
* Subsequent to 1993, 70% of the locations have experienced failure at least once more during floods in 1998, 2003, 2005 and 2007.
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Chapter 19 Fluvial geomorphology and river management
Flooding and Bank Erosion discharge. The Brahmaputra also has one agricultural land. It is estimated that
on the Brahmaputra River of the highest sediment loads of any river 868 km2 of land in India was lost by ero-
in the world with an estimated annual sion in the twentieth century. The river
The Brahmaputra River drains a catchment load of 402 million tonnes. is also reported to have widened and
of 580 000 km2, with more than half the Once the river meets the alluvial become shallower with bank erosion
area lying within China and Tibet, the plains of India and Bangladesh it forms rates almost quadrupling in the twentieth
remainder being composed of parts of a large, wide, braided river system up to century and bed aggradation rates of
Bhutan, India and Bangladesh. In total the 20 km across and has a valley floor width 16.8 cm yr - 1 having been reported. This
river is 2906 km long with its source being of 70–80 km. Each year in the wet sea- increase in erosion and sedimentation has
the Kangklung Kang Glacier in Tibet at an son widespread inundation of the valley been linked to increased sediment delivery
altitude of 4877 m. On leaving the Hima- floor brings misery to millions of people. to the river, resulting from deforestation
layas it flows for 640 km within the state To combat this flooding thousands of and an upward trend in flood magnitudes
of Assam, before entering Bangladesh kilometres of embankments have been possibly linked to climate change.
and flowing into the Bay of Bengal. At its built. However, the Brahmaputra, like Understanding how the Brahmaputra
mouth the mean flow of the Brahmapu- all braided rivers, shifts its course from River will alter its morphology and course
tra River is 19 830 m3 s - 1 making it the year to year, threatening cities and the in the future is of crucial importance.
fourth largest river in the world in terms of stability of embankments and destroying However, on such a large river, traditional
Water deep
Water medium
Water shallow
Sand
Vegetation dense
Vegetation medium
Vegetation low
Rough pasture/soil
0 10 Kilometres Vegetation grassland
Figure 19.26 A satellite image of the Brahmaputra River, India, classified into major land cover types. The image shows a reach with a large
mid-channel island and braided channel patterns. Note the scale.
BOX 19.5
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19.7 Fluvial geomorphology and environmentally sound river management: living and working with nature
➤
field-based approaches to collecting instability. These remote sensing technol- river (Figure 19.26). Wet-season images
geomorphological data have severe limita- ogies allow the mapping of water surfaces also allow the extent of inundation to be
tions. High spatial and spectral resolution and sand bars. Images can be compared mapped. Such hazard mapping is important
satellites can now provide important infor- over time to determine channel planform in assessing risk and developing flood miti-
mation on channel planform and channel change and the shifting position of the gation strategies.
BOX 19.5
fluvial geomorphologists can provide advice. For channel discharges being lower. It is thus apparent that a good
maintenance, a general rule of thumb is that sediment understanding of the relationship between flow processes,
within gravel-bed channels begins to be mobilized when erosion, sediment transport and depositional processes is
flow depth is greater than 80% of channel bank-full depth necessary for improved river management.
(assuming that the dominant discharge equates to bank-
full flow; see Box 19.2). Flushing flow recommendations
19.7.4 Building new river channels
in the United States have been either hydrologically deter-
mined and based on a percentage of the mean annual flow The principles of fluvial geomorphology are increasingly
or geomorphologically determined. The latter involves being used to help engineers build new river channels.
either direct field measurement of the threshold discharge New channels may be required for restoration, or because
for sediment transport or modelling of sediment transport another human use of the land is needed (Gilvear and Brad-
to predict the discharge that causes incipient motion of ley, 1997). As discussed earlier, the traditional approach
particles. Some geomorphologists argue that the flood that to diverting channels was to create a straight trapezoidal
occurs once every 1.5 years is theoretically the most suit- channel, but these are often unstable and morphologically
able discharge given that, on average, river channels have a and ecologically impoverished. From an environmen-
channel capacity equivalent to this flow level. However, in tal viewpoint such traditional techniques are no longer
reality the dominant discharge in terms of sediment trans- acceptable in most circumstances. A channel morphology
port is highly variable between reaches and rivers. that replicates the natural regime is preferable. It ought to
Another area where a geomorphological understanding be in equilibrium with the processes of water movement
of river systems has led to a change in river maintenance is and transfer and create habitat conditions that conserve
in the field of dam sedimentation and clear water erosion in-stream biota. At its simplest the channel can ‘mirror’ the
problems downstream. In many places sands and gravels former natural course but in other situations design criteria
are now lifted over dams and put into the river down- need to be based on geomorphic principles and processes
stream. The major hydroelectric company in Scotland, for while incorporating some hard engineering. For example, a
example, now undertakes this practice after 50 years of 2.7 km sinuous gravel-bed river diversion was built on the
removing sediments from behind its diversion dams and River Nith, Scotland, in 2005 (Figure 19.27). This partially
stockpiling the material. Alternatively the Grande Dixence mirrors the old channel and was constructed with reference
hydroelectric power company in Switzerland has traps to geomorphic principles. There was some hard engineering
that automatically purge material downstream when they but only at critical locations where prevention of erosion
become full of sediment. This can occur up to 50 times per was of paramount importance. The old natural river has
year owing to the high bed load yield of alpine streams. previously been lost to valley floor mining for coal. How-
However, such river maintenance alone may not success- ever, before this river was obliterated the fish were rescued
fully impact on the downstream river unless there are peak and introduced to the new channel. A post-project monitor-
discharges able to redistribute the material along the course ing programme has shown a decade after construction the
of the regulated river. Indeed such schemes may exacerbate river has developed a wide range of fluvial features such as
sedimentation problems that are a feature of regulated riffles and gravel bars and a near-natural invertebrate fauna
rivers. This sedimentation can actually increase flooding and fish community (Figure 19.27).
by reducing the channel capacity (via infilling), despite
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Chapter 19 Fluvial geomorphology and river management
Figure 19.27 The River Nith diversion, south-west
Scotland, as engineered in 2004 (a) and how it
looked in 2011 (b). Bank erosion, point bar formation
and vegetation development are all visible. The spoil
behind is from a coal mine which lies beyond.
includes reinstatement of natural channel
dimensions, re-meandering and creation
of pools and riffles. Sometimes this is as
simple as mirroring an upstream reach
or producing an exact copy of what once
existed at that location. However, the
original (historic) form may no longer be
appropriate, for instance if discharge or
sediment supply has changed owing to
catchment alterations, climate change or
other influences. Also, in many cases the
nature of the channel that existed before
the straightening occurred is not known.
Therefore geomorphologists have to
design channels in equilibrium with river
regime, sediment load and calibre and
must consider what the natural channel
pattern ought to be. Empirical equations
can be used to identify appropriate chan-
nel dimensions in the absence of any
historic information (Soar and Thorne,
2001).
A different type of restoration approach
is being undertaken on the River Avon in
Devon, England. Here the river has been
regulated by an upstream dam since 1957
and interrupted the natural flux of sedi-
ment downstream, as such the river has
been depleted of gravel. Over a 5-year
period annual injections of gravel material are being put
into the river at multiple locations. The hope is that succes-
19.7.5 River restoration sive floods will redistribute this material downstream and
River restoration is often undertaken where past human create habitat suitable for salmonid spawning. Figure 19.28
activity has resulted in morphological and ecological shows an introduction of gravel in the autumn of 2016, the
damage to river systems. Unsympathetic engineering same location 1 day later during a flood and what was left
treatments reduce channel area (for instance, due to of the augmented gravels in that location the following day.
straightening) and habitat diversity, which is important to Along with the natural gravel tagged particles are being
maintain healthy ecology. Restoration can reverse these used to ascertain how far the material is moving during
adverse morphological and ecological impacts. River floods and how particle distance affects distance travelled
restoration can also be used as a flood-control measure. (Figure 19.29). This example of river restoration shows the
Re-meandering increases channel roughness and therefore direct and paramount importance of an understanding of
reduces velocities, and in turn this reduces water veloc- fluvial geomorphology and the past history of the river
ities and attenuates the flood wave. The process often (Box 19.6).
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19.7 Fluvial geomorphology and environmentally sound river management: living and working with nature
(a) (b)
(c)
Reflective questions
➤ Based on your knowledge of fluvial geomorphology, do
you think you could design a river to be in equilibrium
with a given flood regime and sediment loading?
➤ What are the main problems associated with traditional
engineering approaches to river management?
Figure 19.28 Before (a), during (b) and after (c) a flood that transported
gravels following their introduction into the River Avon, England. The ➤ Why is morphological diversity in river channels important
mossy boulder in the front left is available for reference. to the flora and fauna?
60
50
Mean distance travelled (m)
40
30
20
Figure 19.29 A three-dimensional graph showing the
32–45 mm distance transported of radio-tagged particles 1 year after
10
augmentation on the regulated River Avon. Distance trav-
ego e
45–64 mm elled down the channel can be related to flood size and
cat in siz
ry
0
particle grain size. The distance travelled will also relate to
Gra
2.98 64–90 mm
6.20 the slope of the channel and the nature of the stream bed
9.18 which in this case is boulder-bedded (Source: data cour-
Event total peak flow over baseflow (m) tesy of Peter Downes).
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Chapter 19 Fluvial geomorphology and river management
Understanding Past River of nearby agricultural land and it had been along with stream power modelling revealed
Changes in Relation to suggested that aggradation within the that aggradation was the dominant process.
reach was exacerbating the problem. Field reconnaissance in the headwaters
Present Day Management
The study initially examined old maps revealed very large inputs of sediment
and Restoration – the need
and this revealed that the straightened from glacial deposits of mixed calibre. This
for Geomorphic Detective Work reach was in fact cut through a water- heightening of the bed elevation along with
This case study involves a geomorphic shed (drainage divide) into the adjacent more frequent large floods in the past two
investigation of the Faeshallach burn drain- River Nethy. The diverted water had been decades is leading to an increased incidence
ing the Cairngorm mountains of used to help float timber to timber mills of flooding of the downstream farmland.
Scotland. The purpose of the case study downstream of the Abernethy forest in the As such the geomorphic approach
is to demonstrate the usefulness of both eighteenth and nineteenth centuries (Fig- with its mix of desk and field-based tech-
desk-based study and fieldwork in geomor- ure 19.30). A digital elevation model of the niques highlighted that simple restoration
phic studies and how an historical perspec- catchment confirmed that naturally, river of the channel morphology along the
tive sheds light on present-day problems. water would have flowed down an adjacent existing course of the river was not a sus-
Although essentially a natural catchment. valley in what is now a much smaller river tainable solution. A longer-term vision for
and draining through the Royal Society for channel. However, when the discharge the river is required with the river being
the Protection of Birds Abernethy Reserve, exceeds bankfull, water cascades down allowed to regain naturally, through the
a reach of the river had been straightened the old pathway of the river and leads to process of aggradation, its original course
and channelized. There was a desire to agricultural flooding downstream. Channel during some future flood event or a more
restore the reach to its original morphology. long profile elevation data and channel deliberate attempt made to realign the
In addition, there was an issue of flooding cross-sectional data collected in the field river down its original course.
Figure 19.30 A digital terrain
model was used to undertake
model flow pathways and this
showed that the natural path-
way for water (light blue lines)
was not along the current
course of the river but down
the adjacent valley towards
the area of farmland (top
middle of the image). The main
stem of the current Faeshal-
lach Burn is shown as a dark
blue line. The current extent
of Abernethy Forest can also
be seen.
BOX 19.6
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19.8 Summary
19.8 Summary For a particle to be entrained from the stream bed or bank,
a threshold has to be passed whereby a critical velocity or
This chapter has focused on fluvial processes, the linkage shear stress exceeds the frictional forces that resist erosion.
between processes and landforms, and natural and human- This is dependent upon channel slope, particle size and shape
induced channel change. It has also examined the relevance of and immersed weight in relation to the bed shear stress and
fluvial geomorphology to the needs of river management in the fluid kinematic viscosity. However, processes such as imbri-
twenty-first century. cation may also play a role. Deposition and cessation of bed
Catchments vary in the amount of water and sediment they load movement for an individual particle occur when velocity
carry. This variation is a function not simply of catchment size falls below critical conditions. Hydraulic sorting occurs under
but also of local topography, land management, geology, soils, these conditions. Sediment can be carried as bed load or as
vegetation and so on. Catchments with high drainage densities suspended load and bed load transport is almost entirely a
are likely to have high peak flows and a flashy discharge regime. function of flow volume, velocity and turbulence. Particles roll,
River channel networks can be described and classified in a num- slide or saltate along the bed.
ber of ways including the stream order systems of Horton and Bed morphology can vary depending on bed material while
Strahler. The size and shape of river channels can be described in the nature of a channel’s boundary materials may also play a role
terms of channel cross-section and planform which may vary over in channel stability. In coarse sediments pool–riffle sequences
short distances. River channel plan form ranges from braided and may dominate, whereas in fine sandy channels dune structures
anastomosing to meandering and straight river channels. River may be found. Bedrock channels, however, may be subject to cav-
cross-sections are not uniform and water and sediment flows itation and corrosion processes. River channel change can occur
through a cross-section vary. At river bends a circulatory pattern very quickly during a flood event and channels can avulse from
of flow (helicoidal flow) is superimposed on the downstream one site to another. Channels may take a long time to recover
movement of the water. from a large event in terms of adjusting their size and shape back
Water within a channel is subject to gravity and frictional to suit lower flows but this relaxation time varies from river to
forces. Steep, smooth channels will have a high average water river.
velocity. A similar channel with a channel boundary consisting of Many channelized rivers have altered their course or shape
boulders, and thus high frictional forces, will have a slower aver- following engineering works and this has caused on-site and
age water velocity, even though the turbulence of the water may upstream and downstream problems. Rivers are naturally dynamic
give the impression of fast-moving water. Mean water velocity in and yet humans often require stable river channels. Thus fluvial
an open channel can be estimated using the Manning equation geomorphology has a very important role to play in modern-day
which accounts for channel slope, hydraulic radius and channel river management. It can be used to identify the causes of man-
roughness. For a given cross-section the way in which water agement problems, at both reach and catchment scales, and to
velocity, depth and width increase with a rise in water level is predict the impacts of human intervention on rivers with mobile
known as hydraulic geometry. Stream power is a key parameter in bed sediments and erodible banks. River restoration, design of
determining rates of erosion, sediment transport and instability. new river channels and river maintenance all require fluvial geo-
Slight changes in velocity can significantly affect potential stream morphological insight. However, much remains to be understood
power. about the behaviour of river channels.
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Chapter 19 Fluvial geomorphology and river management
Further reading Kondolf, M. and Piegey, H. (2016) Tools in fluvial geomorphol-
ogy. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester.
This is a volume aimed at providing comprehensive details of
the techniques required to map, monitor and investigate the
Brierley, G.J. and Fryirs, K.A. (2005) Geomorphology and geomorphology of rivers.
River Management: Applications of the river styles framework.
Blackwell, Oxford. Roni, P. and Beechie, T. (2013) Stream and watershed resto-
An excellent text examining geomorphology and river manage- ration: A guide to restoring riverine processes and habitats.
ment and with examples for many parts of the world. Wiley, Chichester.
A volume dedicated to understanding river restoration from a
Downs, P.W. and Gregory, K.J. (2004) River Channel Manage- geomorphic perspective.
ment: Towards sustainable catchment hydrosystems. Arnold,
London. Zawiejska, J. and Wyżga, B. (2010). Twentieth-century channel
A volume focused on river channel management based on geo- change on the Dunajec River, southern Poland: patterns, causes
morphic understanding of fluvial systems with many examples and controls. Geomorphology, 117(3), 234–246.
from Europe and America. This paper illustrates a range of geomorphic techniques and
how channelization alters river channel geomorphology.
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C H A PTER 2 0
Solutes and water quality
Kate V. Heal
School of GeoSciences, The University of Edinburgh
Learning objectives occurring. However, human activities can discharge sol-
utes into the environment and also alter the processes
After reading this chapter you should be able to: affecting both the concentrations and fluxes of naturally
occurring solutes. A contaminant is a chemical com-
➤ understand the difference between solute concentration and pound present in the environment, at a level which can
solute flux cause harm to humans, organisms or environments. An
understanding of solute sources and transport processes
➤ explain how solutes and water quality are affected by hydrological
underpins many topics in physical geography and envi-
processes operating within catchments
ronmental science including mineral weathering, soil
➤ appreciate the interaction of geology, climate, soil, biotic and development, biogeochemical cycling, plant and animal
human factors that produce the solute and water quality charac- nutrition, aquatic ecosystem health, and the quality of
teristics of a catchment water resources for human use.
➤ understand how spatial and temporal patterns in solutes and This chapter will examine solute processes within
water quality occur a catchment framework since these processes are inti-
➤ explain why changes in climate and land use affect solutes and mately linked with the hydrological processes discussed in
water quality Chapter 18. A range of chemical, biological and physical
factors affect solutes, and understanding solute transport
processes is important because of the implications for
20.1 Introduction devising effective strategies for managing water quality in
catchments. The factors that determine spatial and tem-
Water is essential for life, and in the natural world it
poral patterns of solutes can be examined at a number
consists of more than pure hydrogen and oxygen. It con-
of scales and these will be outlined within this chapter.
tains many other substances in dissolved or solid forms.
Knowledge of these factors is required in order to predict
This chapter deals with solutes – substances dissolved
the impacts of environmental change on solutes in catch-
in water. Together with physical and biological charac-
ments. Such environmental change may include pollution
teristics of the water, such as suspended sediment and
incidents, land use change, climate change or changes in
the presence of microorganisms and other animals and
atmospheric chemistry.
plants, these form ‘water quality’. Solutes are naturally
M20 An Introduction to Physical Ge 83575.indd 525 24/05/2017 13:24
Chapter 20 Solutes and water quality
20.2 Solutes: some key controls subtropical and boreal forests show that organic nitrogen
accounts for at least 40% of the nitrogen transported in
It is vital to appreciate some of the factors affecting solutes hydrological flow paths in forest ecosystems receiving low
before solute processes are explored within catchments. anthropogenic nitrogen inputs (Kortelainen et al., 2006;
Solute concentrations at a given point and the spatial dis- Schmidt et al., 2010). A further complication is defining what
tribution of solutes are constantly changing as the result constitutes a solute since colloids, very small particles, such as
of complex interactions of physical, chemical and biolog- of clay minerals, organic material and iron oxyhydroxides,
ical factors. This section briefly discusses the aspects of with diameter 0.1910 μm may be suspended in water. For
solute chemistry relevant for understanding solute pro- routine water sample analysis, ‘soluble’ is defined as material
cesses in catchments. Box 20.1 explains the different units that passes through a filter with pores of 0.45 μm diameter.
that are used to report solute concentrations. For detailed In addition, many elements can occur in more than one oxi-
information on solute chemistry see Boyd (2015). dation state in the environment. For example, iron may be
present as iron + 2 (ferrous, Fe2+) or iron + 3 (ferric, Fe3+).
The oxidation state of an element exerts an important con-
20.2.1 Solute form
trol on its solubility and availability for transport by water
Solutes exist in a number of different forms in the environ- in the environment. The oxidation state of an element at a
ment. It is important to know the form of a solute as well particular point in the environment is mainly governed by
as the concentration since different forms of solutes have the surrounding pH and redox potential conditions.
differing toxicities and bioavailabilities (see Chapter 12) to
living organisms. For example, the free aluminium ion is
20.2.2 pH and redox potential
much more toxic to fish than aluminium that is complexed
to organic compounds. Many nutrients occur in inorganic pH is a measure of acidity from the activity of hydrogen
and organic forms. For example, dissolved carbon occurs ions in a system. The pH scale ranges from 0 (extremely
as dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and dissolved inorganic acidic) to 7 (neutral) to 14 (extremely alkaline). Chemically,
carbon (hydrogen carbonate, HCO3-, and carbonate, CO32-, pH is the negative logarithm to the base 10 of the concen-
ions), whilst dissolved nitrogen occurs as organic nitrogen tration of hydrogen ions in solution (see Chapter 17):
and inorganic nitrogen (nitrate, NO3-, and ammonium,
pH = - log10[H+](20.3)
NH4+, ions). Measurement of both organic and inorganic
forms of solutes is required for a complete understanding Redox potential is a measure of how oxidizing or
of nutrient flows in the environment. Studies in tropical, reducing the environment is in terms of the occurrence of
Units of Concentration that there is 5.7 mg of dissolved calcium in ppb are the same as mg L - 1 or
every litre of river water. Units of μg L - 1 μgL - 1, respectively, when freshwater is
A variety of units are used for expressing
are used instead for solutes that occur at the solvent. However, ppm and ppb units
solute concentrations in water which can
lower concentrations, such as potentially can be confusing and are rarely used for
cause confusion and make it difficult to
toxic metals. Since freshwater has a den- solute concentrations in physical geogra-
compare the results of different studies.
sity of 1 g cm - 3, solute concentrations are phy and environmental science. A more
The simplest way of expressing solute con-
sometimes alternatively expressed by mass chemically useful way of expressing solute
centration is by mass, as the mass of solute
as parts per million (ppm) or parts per bil- concentrations by mass is as moles of
per volume of water, normally as mg L - 1.
lion (ppb): 1 ppm means that there is one solute per volume of water (mol L - 1):
Thus a concentration of calcium of
unit mass of solute dissolved in 1 million
5.7 mg L - 1 measured in river water means concentration (mol L - 1)
unit masses of water. The units of ppm and
Box 20.1 ➤
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20.2 Solutes: some key controls
➤
concentration (g L - 1) solute concentrations may be expressed in forms of inorganic nitrogen (N), nitrate,
= (20.1) terms of charge equivalent concentrations, NO3- , and ammonium, NH4- , were
relative atomic mass
calculated as follows: determined to be 15.0 mg NO3- L - 1
For example, a concentration of
charge equivalent concentration and 0.532 mg NH4- L - 1. To calculate
calcium of 5.7 mg L - 1 re-expressed
(eq L - 1) = concentration (mol L - 1) the total inorganic N concentration in
in mol L - 1 = 0.0057/40.08 = 1.42 *
* ionic charge (20.2) the water sample, the NO3- and NH4-
10 - 4 mol L - 1 = 142 mmol L - 1 (1.42 *
concentrations must be converted
10 - 4 * 106) since 5.7 mg L - 1 = 0.0057 For example, the charge equivalent
to concentrations of N using the rel-
g L - 1 (5.7 mg L - 1/1000) and the relative concentration of 142 mmol L - 1 of
ative atomic masses of N (14.01),
atomic mass of calcium = 40.08. The unit calcium = 284 meq L - 1 (142 mmol L - 1
NO3- (14.01 + (3 * 16.00) = 62.01)
mol L - 1 is sometimes abbreviated to M, so * 2, since the ionic charge on calcium
and NH4+ (14.01 + (4 * 1.01) = 18.05).
the concentration of 142 mmol L - 1 might is +2). The units of charge equivalent
Thus, 15.0 mg NO3- L -1 = 3.39 mg
be written as 142 mM. concentration are also sometimes written
NO3- - N L - 1 (15.0 * (14.01/62.01))
If there is interest in comparing as molc L - 1.
and 0.532 mg NH4- L -1 = 0.413 mg
quantities and properties of different Finally, care must be taken with the
NH4+ - N L -1 (0.532 * (14.01/18.05)).
compounds or investigating reaction concentration units where a particu-
Therefore the total inorganic N
mechanisms or relationships between sol- lar species is of interest. For example,
concentration in the water sample is
ute concentration and biological activity, concentrations of the two different
3.80 mg L -1 (3.39 + 0.413).
Box 20.1
electrons. Redox potential is normally measured as Eh, shows that it occurs in highly acidic, but well oxidized, con-
in units of volts (V). From electrochemical theory, Eh–pH ditions (Eh 70 V) (e.g. in acid mine drainage, Figure 20.2),
stability fields can be plotted for different elements that and also in neutral pH, reducing conditions (Eh 60 V) (e.g.
show the forms expected under particular Eh and pH con- in fens). This is partly why acid mine drainage is so damag-
ditions, if chemical equilibrium is assumed. The Eh–pH ing to aquatic ecosystems. Not only is the high Fe2+ content
stability field for iron is shown in Figure 20.1. of the water toxic, but also soluble Fe2+ is converted to
The influence of pH and redox potential on the form and insoluble Fe3+ (in the form of iron + 3 hydroxide, Fe(OH)3)
environmental impact of solutes is illustrated by the occur- when the mine drainage mixes with water of a higher pH.
rence of iron in freshwater. The Eh–pH stability field for iron Fe3+ then precipitates on the banks and bed of the river,
1.0
H2 O
FeOH = 1/2
O2 +
2H + +
2e -
0.5
Redox potential (V)
Fe(OH) 3
2+
0 Fe
Fe(OH)4-
FeCO3
-0.5
Fe(OH)2
Fe
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
pH
Figure 20.1 Eh–pH stability field for aqueous iron at atmospheric
ressure and 25°C. If the water redox potential (Eh) and pH are known
p
the figure shows the form in which iron will occur. For example, at pH 4 Figure 20.2 Iron-enriched and acidified drainage from soil and coal wash-
and Eh 0 V, iron would be present as Fe2+. (Source: after Morgan and ings at former opencast coal mining site in central Scotland.
Stumm, 1965)
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Chapter 20 Solutes and water quality
smothering plants and animals living in these habitats. catchment hydrological system as follows. In groundwater,
Box 20.2 explains the contribution of redox potential in cre- the solubility of carbon dioxide (CO2) in water increases
ating the human health hazard of arsenic contamination of because the pressure is higher than atmospheric. Carbon
groundwater supplies in Bangladesh and West Bengal. dioxide dissolves in water to form carbonic acid, a weak
acid, causing a decrease in pH in groundwater. When the
20.2.3 Temperature and pressure groundwater comes into contact with the surface envi-
ronment again, in for example a spring, the reverse effect
Increasing temperature increases the solubility of some occurs. Carbon dioxide in the spring water can come out
solids in water and speeds up the rate of chemical reac- of solution, because of the reduced pressure, and the pH
tions, but reduces the solubility of most gases. The last is of the water increases as it now contains less carbonic
particularly significant for the dissolved oxygen content acid. Not only does such degassing change water pH, but
of rivers and lakes that is necessary for organisms, such it may also result in emission of the greenhouse gas CO2.
as fish, to survive. In contrast, at high pressure, the solu- For example, Billett et al. (2004) reported that degassing of
bility of gases in water increases. This can influence the CO2 from a lowland peatland stream accounted for 13%
pH of water and carbon cycling in different parts of the of the total annual flux of carbon in the stream.
The Largest Mass Poisoning cancers, particularly of the bladder, lung to the soluble Fe2+ state. The solubiliza-
in History: Arsenic in Ground- and kidney. An estimated 35–77 million tion of iron also mobilized arsenic bound
people in Bangladesh and 2 million peo- to the iron minerals so that arsenic con-
water Supplies in Bangladesh
ple in West Bengal are at risk of consum- centrations of 0.0591 mg L - 1 have been
and West Bengal ing well water contaminated with arsenic. measured in wells, compared with the
The world’s largest outbreak of arsenic Until the 1970s, most of the popula- World Health Organization recommended
poisoning has been occurring in Ban- tion in the affected area obtained water maximum concentration for drinking water
gladesh and West Bengal, India, since supplies from surface waters which were of 0.01 mg L - 1. There is ongoing research
the 1990s. The cause of poisoning is the contaminated with sewage, resulting in into the extent to which human activity,
consumption of groundwater contain- widespread gastrointestinal disease. From such as the overpumping of groundwater
ing high concentrations of arsenic. As the 1970s thousands of low-cost tube- or introduction of anthropogenic organic
well as the total arsenic concentration, wells were dug to access groundwater matter, has affected arsenic concentra-
the chemical speciation of arsenic is supplies with a better microbiological tions in groundwater in Bangladesh and
important in assessing the impacts on quality. Many of the new wells were sunk West Bengal, but, so far, evidence of a
human health. Arsenic has two oxidation into sedimentary aquifers with a naturally significant deleterious effect of human
states in the environment. Arsenic +3 is high arsenic concentration, from arsenic activity on arsenic concentrations is not
the most toxic but is difficult to remove bound to iron minerals in delta sediments compelling. Geologists, chemists and
from water. In comparison arsenic +5 which were deposited 25 000–80 000 engineers are working together to identify
is less toxic and easier to remove from years ago. Decomposition of organic mat- alternative water supplies for the affected
water. The health effects of arsenic poi- ter in the delta sediments consumed all population and, in the short term, to
soning appear slowly, starting with skin the available oxygen, creating reducing develop technologies to reduce arsenic
lesions and followed by skin and internal conditions that converted insoluble Fe3+ concentrations in the well waters.
Box 20.2
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20.2 Solutes: some key controls
20.2.4 The role of particulates catchment, but an understanding of hydrology is vital
for determining the transport of solutes between dif-
The movement of particulate material in catchments can
ferent stores within the catchment. In general solute
affect the distribution of solutes within the catchment
concentrations are highly dependent on the mass of
hydrological system. For example, eroded phosphorus-rich
water passing through a system. Measurement of sol-
soil from agricultural areas where applications of manure
ute concentrations enables comparison of catchment
and fertilizer exceed the crop nutrient requirements is often
water quality with environmental quality standards
a more important source of phosphorus for aquatic sys-
(e.g. for drinking water and freshwater fish). However,
tems than the leaching of soluble phosphorus from soils
the solute load or flux is of more interest for some pur-
(see Chapter 17). Particles transported in water can also
poses. The solute flux is simply the solute concentra-
play an important role in the transport of solutes through
tion of the water at a point in time multiplied by the
adsorption of dissolved species on the particle surface. Parti-
discharge occurring at the same time. However, the
cles can range from large boulders, leaves and litter to small
calculation of fluxes often involves assumptions and
particles of algae, viruses, colloids and minerals. A volume
uncertainties, and these are discussed in Box 20.3. Cal-
of small mineral particles (10 - 8 910 - 10 m diameter) has an
culation of solute fluxes is used in studies of chemical
extremely large surface area (because there are more parti-
weathering rates from catchments, in biogeochemical
cles in a given volume than for coarser particles) and a sur-
studies to determine whether catchments are sinks or
face charge, resulting in the ‘sticking’ of dissolved species
sources of a contaminant or nutrient, to investigate the
that have the opposite charge to the particle surface.
response of catchments to changes in land use and/or
precipitation chemistry and, in some countries, such as
20.2.5 Solute fluxes
the USA, for managing water quality in rivers and lakes
All the factors discussed above are important controls through setting total maximum daily loads (TMDLs)
on solute concentrations and distributions within a for pollutants.
Estimating Solute Fluxes biogeochemical studies of the sources, forest canopy. However, the similarity of
cycling and stores of contaminants in the TCA output and input fluxes demon-
The solute flux, sometimes called the sol-
the environment. For example, Table 20.1 strates that production of TCA within soil
ute load, is simply the solute concentration
shows some annual solute fluxes in an and/or vegetation in the catchment is also
of the water at a point in time multiplied by
upland catchment covered by forest plan- occurring.
the discharge occurring at the same time: tation and moorland in south-west Scot- Although it is relatively straightforward
solute flux mg s - 1 land. The fluxes considered in the table are to monitor discharge continuously (see
= solute concentration mg L - 1 for trichloroacetic acid (TCA), a phytotoxic Chapter 18) it is difficult and costly to
chemical with human-made and natural measure solute concentrations constantly,
* discharge (L s - 1) (20.4)
sources. In the table the solute fluxes are so the calculation of fluxes often involves
In this calculation care should be taken expressed as mass per catchment area. assumptions and uncertainties concerning
with the units of discharge if they are in The calculated solute fluxes in Table 20.1 the solute concentration values used. The
m3 s - 1. By applying equation (20.4) for show that annual TCA inputs (rainwater and two main methods of estimating loads are
every second over a period of time, such cloudwater) to and outputs (streamwater) interpolation and extrapolation methods.
as a year, the solute flux can be estimated from the catchment are approximately Interpolation methods use the measured
by multiplying by the total seconds in the equal. Comparison of input fluxes with concentration values only and combine
time period of interest. The solute fluxes throughfall and stemflow fluxes shows that these with discharge measurements in dif-
calculated in this way are often used in 30–40% of TCA inputs are removed by the ferent ways to estimate flux. In the simplest
Box 20.3 ➤
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Chapter 20 Solutes and water quality
➤
interpolation method the mean solute intermittent there is a higher probability of estimate dissolved organic carbon (DOC) flux
concentration is multiplied by the mean sampling low flows, in which solute concen- in an upland catchment. From the relation-
discharge measured during the time period trations are lower. Extrapolation methods ship in the figure, DOC concentrations were
of interest to obtain the solute flux. In more address this problem by using the relation- calculated for the discharge measurements
complicated versions of the interpolation ship between measured solute concentration made every 10 minutes and used to estimate
method continuous discharge measure- and discharge to estimate solute concentra- a DOC flux for the 8 month study period of
ments are combined with the solute concen- tion for every time point for which there is a 3.1 g DOC m - 2, which is higher than the
tration determined for a specific time period. discharge measurement. Using these finer flux of 2.3 g DOC m - 2 estimated using
The main disadvantage of interpolation time resolution concentration estimates the simplest interpolation method (mean
methods is that fluxes of solutes mobilized with the discharge measurements normally DOC concentration * mean discharge for
during storm events are often underesti- yields more accurate solute flux estimates. the study period). For further information on
mated. This is because when water sampling Figure 20.3 shows the significant solute con- different methods of estimating fluxes and
for measurement of solute concentration is centration–discharge relationship used to their relative merits see Quilbé et al. (2006).
Table 20.1 Annual solute fluxes of trichloroacetic acid (TCA) in 8
hydrological pathways in an upland catchment in south-
west Scotland 7
DOC (mg L-1)
Hydrological pathway Annual TCA flux (mg m −2)
5
Rainwater 2100
Cloudwater 300 4
Throughfall 1400–1600 3
Stemflow 60–110
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Streamwater 2300 log10 discharge (L s-1)
(Source: based on data from Stidson et al., 2004a, b)
Figure 20.3 Significant relationship between streamwater DOC
concentration and discharge in an upland Scottish catchment
(n = 16, R2 = 58.5%, P 6 0.001).
Box 20.3
considered at all stages of the catchment hydrological system
Reflective questions in a similar manner to water quantity. Catchment hydrology
influences the transport of solutes, and Figure 20.4 shows
➤ If a large number of fish deaths occurred in your local river how processes affecting solute concentrations take place
and the suspected cause was metal contamination of the within each store and transport pathway of water in a catch-
river water, what environmental factors would you need to ment. The following section explores the processes influenc-
consider in an investigation of this suspected cause? ing solute concentrations within each compartment of the
➤ What is the difference between solute concentration and catchment hydrological system, from precipitation inputs to
solute flux? outputs in rivers and standing waters.
20.3 Solutes within the catchment 20.3.1 Precipitation
hydrological system Precipitation inputs to catchments take the form of wet
deposition, as rain, snow, hail and horizontal interception,
Catchments are the scale for assessing biogeochemical and dry deposition, as gases and particulates. The natural
cycling and managing water quality. Solute hydrology can be pH of rainwater of 5.7 is due to the presence of carbonic
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20.3 Solutes within the catchment hydrological system
Wet and dry
Precipitation
fallout, gases
Evapotranspiration Biomass
Evaporation Interception
Vegetation and
storage
litter leaching
Throughfall stemflow
Evaporation Surface Overland flow
Surface pickup
storage
Nutrient
Infiltration uptake
Weathering
Evaporation Soil moisture Throughflow Mineralization
Transpiration storage Macropore Other interactions
flow Decomposition
Capillary Leaching
Percolation
rise
Baseflow
Evaporation Groundwater Weathering Nutrient
Transpiration storage Other interactions uptake
Bank
storage
and influent
Deep transfer seepage Nutrient uptake
Sediment/solute
Evaporation Channel interaction
Transpiration storage Dissolution Decomposition
Precipitation
Input Input
Channel
Channel Solute
flow
Store runoff transport Process mechanisms
Output Output
Figure 20.4 Simplified representation of hydrological processes and associated solute processes operating within the catchment hydrological system.
(Source: after Walling and Webb, 1986)
acid, formed by dissolution of CO2 in atmospheric mois- wind-blown dust so maximum calcium concentrations in
ture. Precipitation contains a mixture of cations (positively precipitation occur in the continental interior.
charged) and anions (negatively charged) (see Chapter 17)
derived from natural sources in the ocean and on land and
also originating from human activities (Table 20.2). Sulfur,
particles, fluorine and potentially toxic elements, such
as lead, cadmium and mercury, emitted from volcanoes
(Figure 20.5) can also affect precipitation composition.
Concentrations of solutes in wet deposition vary over time
and space, depending on the proximity of solute sources,
the source of the air mass producing the precipitation and
the nature of precipitation. For example, in the United
States, sodium concentrations in precipitation are high-
est on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts as sea salts are the
main source. In contrast, the main source of calcium is
Figure 20.5 Gaseous emissions from the Pu’u O’o vent, Big Island, Hawaii.
(Source: Felix Nendzig / Shutterstock.com)
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Chapter 20 Solutes and water quality
Table 20.2 Sources of individual ions in rainwater
Origin
Ion Marine Terrestrial Pollution
Sodium Sea salt Soil dust Biomass burning
Magnesium Sea salt Soil dust Biomass burning
Potassium Sea salt Biogenic aerosols Biomass burning
Soil dust Fertilizer
Calcium Sea salt Soil dust Cement manufacture
Fuel burning
Biomass burning
Hydrogen Gas reaction Gas reaction Fuel burning
Chloride Sea salt – Industrial hydrochloric acid
Sulfate Sea salt Dimethylsulfide, hydrogen sulfide, etc., from Fossil fuel burning
Dimethylsulfide from biological decay Biomass burning
biological decay Volcanoes
Soil dust
Nitrate Atmospheric nitrogen NO2 from biological decay Vehicle emissions
plus lightning Atmospheric nitrogen plus lightning Fossil fuels
Biomass burning
Fertilizer
Ammonium Ammonia from biological Ammonia from bacterial decay Ammonia fertilizers
activity Human, animal waste
decomposition
Phosphate Biogenic aerosols Soil dust Biomass burning
adsorbed on sea salt Fertilizer
Hydrogen carbonate CO2 in air CO2 in air –
Soil dust
Silica, aluminium, iron – Soil dust Land clearing
(Source: Berner, R.A., Global Environment: Water, Air and Geochemical Cycles, 1st edition. © 1996. Adapted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ)
Altitude and the type of precipitation affect the sol- Dry deposition inputs to a catchment are more difficult
ute input to a catchment as well as the total quantity of to quantify than wet deposition inputs but measurement
precipitation. For example, cloud droplets contain higher and modelling studies suggest that they are important. In
concentrations of sulfate and nitrate ions, compared the United Kingdom in 2006, dry deposition accounted
with rain. Ground-level cloud droplets are intercepted by for 20% of the total deposition of sulfur, 52% of oxidized
the vegetation canopy and, in some environments, can nitrogen deposition and 32% of reduced nitrogen deposi-
contribute significantly to solute inputs to catchments. tion (RoTAP, 2012).
Needle-bearing conifer trees are particularly efficient
scavengers of cloud droplets from the atmosphere because
20.3.2 Evapotranspiration and evaporation
of the large surface area of needles. This process is partly
why the planting of conifer forests on base-poor soils has Evapotranspiration of water from vegetation and water
exacerbated acidification of soils and waters in temperate surfaces in a catchment acts to concentrate the solutes
latitudes receiving acid deposition (see Chapter 17). remaining in the system. In arid environments, river
Solutes dissolved in atmospheric moisture may be flow can decrease downstream (see Chapters 18 and 21)
transported for thousands of kilometres across conti- and solute concentrations may increase with distance
nents, whereas dry deposition of gases and particulates from the headwaters. This is due to the effect of evapo-
is most significant immediately downwind of the source. ration. Figure 20.6, for example, shows the salt and clay
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20.3 Solutes within the catchment hydrological system
20.3.4 Soil
The ground surface is an important divide in catchment
hydrological systems for solute processes as well as for
hydrology. Water that does not infiltrate into the ground
surface will flow rapidly towards the river channel and
has a limited time to react with the soil. In contrast, water
infiltrating into the ground surface enters the soil and
will interact with its components, such as the alternating
mineral and organic layers shown in the soil exposure in
Figure 20.7. Chemical, physical and biological processes
within the soil alter solute concentrations and significantly
influence the composition of surface waters. Some of these
important processes are discussed below and examples of
their effects are also given in Section 20.3.4.7.
Figure 20.6 Dead Vlei, Namibia, used to be periodically inundated by the
ephemeral Tsauchab river after rainfall, allowing camel thorn trees to grow
in this arid environment. After sand dunes blocked the river course some-
time within the past 1000 years, the remaining water evaporated from
the Vlei and the trees died but have been preserved by the scorching sun.
(Source: M.R. Heal)
pan formed in Dead Vlei, Namibia, from evaporation of
water after the ephemeral river that periodically inun-
dated it changed course.
20.3.3 Interception
Precipitation inputs to the catchment are intercepted by
vegetation surfaces and then either evaporate back to the
atmosphere, or are transported by stemflow or through-
fall to the ground surface. Contact of precipitation with
vegetation surfaces can result in both gains and losses of
solutes. Solute concentrations can increase in through-
fall and stemflow compared with precipitation owing
to the washing off of atmospheric aerosols, deposited
on vegetation by dry deposition, and also owing to the
leaching of solutes exuded by vegetation. The magnitude
of solute enrichment depends on the vegetation species
and location. For example, in temperate forests, maxi-
mum solute concentrations in throughfall and stemflow
occur on the forest edge. Interception of precipitation
can also result in losses of solutes where some nutrients
are absorbed by the biomass. The gain and loss of sol-
Figure 20.7 An exposure of soil near Cotopaxi volcano in the Andes
utes in throughfall and stemflow can result in localized Mountains, Ecuador. The soil comprises light-coloured layers of ash,
spatial variability in solute inputs to the ground surface deposited during volcanic eruptions, and dark-coloured organic horizons
within catchments. that have developed between eruptions as vegetation matter has accu-
mulated in the cool, wet upland climate.
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Chapter 20 Solutes and water quality
20.3.4.1 Weathering rock weathering, by the production of organic acids and
by decomposition of dead plant and animal material to
Weathering reactions are key mechanisms by which soils provide soluble nutrients for plant growth (see Chapters 14
maintain their pH within a given range to counteract the and 17). The decomposition of organic nitrogen to form
acidity generated by organic acids and decomposition. the ammonium ion which can then be oxidized to the
Solutes are released into soil solution by the weathering nitrate ion is a good example of this process:
of primary and secondary minerals (see Chapter 14), fre-
quently due to dissolution of minerals by carbonic acid Organic N 1 NH4+ + OH - (20.7)
or organic acids. An example of this process is the disso-
lution of orthoclase, a widely occurring mineral in soils Organic nitrogen is converted to the ammonium ion.
formed on acid igneous and metamorphic rocks, by carbonic
acid to form the secondary mineral kaolinite, with the NH4+ + 2O2 1 NO3- + H2O + 2H+ (20.8)
release of potassium ions: orthoclase, carbonic acid and
water react to form kaolinite, potassium ions and other Ammonium ions are oxidized to form nitrate ions and
by-products: other by-products.
4KAlSi3O8 + 4H2CO3 + 18H2O S
Al4Si4O10(OH)8 + 8H4SiO4 + 4K+4HCO3- (20.5) 20.3.4.5 Oxidation and reduction
The redox potential of the soil affects the form of sub-
20.3.4.2 Cation exchange stances with more than one oxidation state and therefore
the concentrations of solutes in soil water. In well-aerated
Positively charged ions in water percolating through the
soils, substances with multiple oxidation states are present
soil can exchange with other cations adsorbed onto neg-
in the oxidized form. However, when the soil pore space
atively charged clay minerals and humic substances with
is filled with water, the absence of oxygen causes bacteria
large surface areas, in the process of cation exchange. For
which function in anaerobic conditions to reduce substances
example:
to obtain energy. As soils become progressively waterlogged,
Ca2+ + 2H+ 4 2H+ + Ca2+ nitrate is reduced to nitrogen gas (N2), Fe3+ is reduced to
(attached (in soil (attached (in soil soluble Fe2+ and sulfate is reduced to hydrogen sulfide gas.
(20.6)
to colloid solution) to colloid solution) Therefore an increase in iron concentrations and a decrease
particle) particle) in nitrate and sulfate concentrations in soil water will occur
with progressively more reducing conditions.
Thus ions are exchanged from the water to the soil and
vice versa. Chapters 14 and 17 provide further detail on
cation exchange. 20.3.4.6 Chelation
Elevated concentrations of iron and aluminium can occur
20.3.4.3 Anion adsorption in soil water because of the formation, with soluble humic
substances, of stable complexes known as chelates.
Negatively charged anions such as sulfate (SO42 - ) and
phosphate (PO43 - ) are also adsorbed onto positively
charged surfaces in soils. This reaction is particularly
20.3.4.7 Examples of the effect of soil processes on
solute concentrations
important for phosphate because the adsorption of phos-
phate within soil is normally the reason why it is the limit- The processes discussed above affect solute concentrations
ing nutrient for biological productivity in most freshwater in soil water and frequently result in substantial modifi-
systems. cations of solute composition and concentration from the
inputs to the ground surface. The variation in soil water
20.3.4.4 Microbiological activity processes over space and also with depth in the soil profile
makes examination of soil water chemistry very complex.
Microbiological activity is the action of bacteria and Variations in solute concentrations with depth in two sche-
other microscopic organisms within the soil. It affects matic soil profiles are shown in Figure 20.8. In the podzol
solute concentrations by increasing the rate of soil and soil type (see Chapter 17 for discussion on podzols), pH
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20.3 Solutes within the catchment hydrological system
lower concentrations of organic substances and increase
(a) Soil horizon Soil water
with depth as the influence of organic acids declines.
pH Base Organic Inorganic
cations substances aluminium
Inorganic aluminium concentrations in soil water are
Low Low High Low
negligible throughout the soil profile because the forma-
O
A tion of chelates is limited by the low concentration of
E Low Low Moderate High organic substances.
B Low Low Lower High 20.3.5 Groundwater
Solute concentrations in groundwater are commonly the
C Higher Moderate Low Lower highest of any compartment in the catchment hydrological
system owing to the longer residence times of water. The
(b) Soil horizon Soil water solute concentration in groundwater at any particular
pH Base Organic Inorganic point is controlled by three main factors:
cations substances aluminium
A High High Moderate Negligible 1. Residence time: As the residence time of groundwater
increases, solute concentrations also increase because
there are more opportunities for chemical weathering
B High Low products to enter solution.
2. Rate and composition of recharge water: Groundwater
that is recharged rapidly with water of a low solute
concentration will have low solute concentrations
C Increasing High Low and will also have a high dilution potential for con-
tamination. In contrast, pollution events will have a
O organic horizon
A organo-mineral horizon
longer-term impact on groundwater that is recharged
E eluvial horizon slowly. The rate of recharge will also influence the redox
B illuvial horizon
C parent material
status of groundwater. Reducing conditions occur most
commonly in groundwater with a low rate of recharge
Figure 20.8 Variation of soil water composition with depth in two sche- from oxidized atmospheric waters.
matic soil profiles: (a) podzol; (b) calcareous brown earth. Chapter 17 pro- 3. Geochemistry of the surrounding geology: Different
vides more details on podzol and brown earth soil types and processes. minerals in rocks weather at different rates and produce
(Source: adapted from Soulsby, 1997)
different solutes.
The effect of these factors on groundwater composition
is low and the content of organic substances is high at the is illustrated by comparison of the characteristics of
top of the profile because of the organic acids produced by rainwater and water samples from different groundwater
decomposition of dead vegetation and animals at the soil groups in western Cuba in Table 20.3. Concentrations
surface. The pH and base cation concentrations increase of all ions in groundwater are higher than in rainwater
with depth as weathering of minerals releases cations into as the result of mineral weathering, but there is also
solution and concentrations of organic acids decrease. variation in ionic concentrations between different
Inorganic aluminium concentrations peak in the middle of groundwaters. Concentrations of all solutes are consid-
the soil profile owing to the formation of chelates. Soluble erably higher in groundwater from the sandstone/lime-
organic substances precipitate lower down the profile as stone/schist formation compared with the serpentinite
pH increases. formation because minerals in the former rock types are
The calcareous brown earth soil (Figure 20.8b) dis- less resistant to weathering and also because the water
plays different patterns of solute concentrations with residence time is longer. The longer water residence time
depth, largely because of the absence of an organic in the sandstone/limestone/schist formation is the cause
surface horizon. Here the pH and base cation concentra- of the lower Eh value compared with groundwater in the
tions in soil water are high at the surface because of the serpentinite formation.
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Chapter 20 Solutes and water quality
Table 20.3 Chemical composition of rainwater and groundwater from river water. However, iron concentrations in acidic river
different rock formations in western Cuba. All units mg L - 1 apart from
water have been reported to increase during the middle of
Eh (V).
the day due to the photoreduction of solid Fe3+ in channel
Parameter Rainwater Serpentinite Limestone/ sediments to soluble Fe2+ (Gammons et al., 2005). Diurnal
schist/ variations in light levels also affect the activity of photo-
sandstone
synthesizing organisms (autotrophs) in river channels and
Sodium 4.8 15.4 119 have been associated with observations of diurnal vari-
Calcium 0.8 5.2 457 ations in nitrate concentrations in river water (shown in
Magnesium 4.5 44.7 50.9 Figure 20.9). Maximum nitrate concentrations typically
occur in river water in the early morning when the activity
Sulfate 6 limit of 8.9 1300
detection of autotrophs and their nitrate uptake is lowest, whilst
Chloride 5.7 16.6 37.3
minimum concentrations occur in late afternoon when
autotrophic activity peaks.
Total dis- 24 329 2210
solved solids
Eh – 0.156 - 0.300 20.3.7 Lakes and reservoirs
(Source: adapted from Fagundo-Castillo et al., 2008)
One of the main processes affecting solute concentrations
in lakes and reservoirs is stratification (see Chapter 12).
Stratification normally occurs because of temperature dif-
20.3.6 Rivers ferences within the water column that cause density differ-
ences. It is most common in temperate lakes and reservoirs
The role of in-stream processes in altering solute con-
deeper than 10 m because of seasonal changes in climate,
centrations in catchments has been recognized only
for example in Lake Van, eastern Turkey (Figure 20.10).
in the past few decades. Water in river channels is
Stratification occurs less frequently in tropical lakes that
frequently not in equilibrium with channel sediments
have nearly constant temperatures all year round. It results
because of its short residence time. Consequently the
in the development of two layers of water with very differ-
rates of reactions are particularly important in this
ent chemical properties as shown in Figure 20.11. The sur-
compartment of the catchment hydrological system. A
face layer of water, known as the epilimnion, is warmer and
number of processes have now been identified that may
has an oxidizing environment because it is exposed to the
alter solute concentrations once water has entered the
atmosphere. Hence chemical substances with a number of
river channel.
oxidation states occur in the oxidized form in the epilim-
As for soil, cation exchange can occur between solutes
nion. The epilimnion is separated from the lower layer of
in flowing water and solutes adsorbed onto the channel
water, the hypolimnion, by a thermocline (see Chapters 3
bed. Solute concentrations in river channels may be further
and 12). In the hypolimnion, the water temperatures are
reduced by physical storage within channel sediments.
cooler and low dissolved oxygen concentrations can cause
Biological processes in river channels also affect nutrient
a reducing environment due to the isolation of the water
concentrations, through uptake and temporary retention
from the atmosphere and sunlight. Consequently, sub-
of nitrate, ammonium and phosphate, followed by min-
stances with multiple oxidation states occur in the reduced
eralization and re-release – a process known as ‘nutrient
form in the hypolimnion and the potent greenhouse gas,
spiralling’ (Ensign and Doyle, 2006).
methane, may be formed by reduction of organic material
Concentrations of iron, and associated sorbed poten-
in lake sediments. Concentrations of the metals iron and
tially toxic metals, are particularly subject to alteration
manganese often increase in the hypolimnion owing to
when water enters river channels in catchments. The
reduction of the solid form contained in basal sediments.
increase in pH that may occur when CO2 comes out of
This process can cause concentrations of iron and manga-
solution as groundwater enters river channels (see Sec-
nese in reservoir waters to exceed drinking water quality
tion 20.2.3) can cause precipitation of Fe3+ on the channel
standards, resulting in the supply of discoloured, metal-
bed and therefore a decrease in iron concentrations in
lic-tasting water to consumers.
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20.3 Solutes within the catchment hydrological system
(a) (b)
2.4 2.4
Nitrate (March) Nitrate (Oct)
2.2 Nitrate (April) Nitrate (Nov)
2.2
2.0
Nitrate (mg–N L-1)
Nitrate (mg–N L-1)
2.0
1.8
1.8
1.6
1.6
1.4
1.2 1.4
1.0 1.2
0:00 12:00 0:00 12:00 0:00 12:00 0:00 12:00 0:00 0:00 12:00 0:00 12:00 0:00 12:00 0:00 12:00 0:00
Time (h) Time (h)
Figure 20.9 Diurnal variation in nitrate concentrations (mg L - 1 nitrate-N) measured every 15 minutes using an in situ ion-selective electrode in a stream
draining a forested catchment in south-west Slovenia. The greatest diurnal variation in nitrate concentrations occurs in spring (a – March and April) and
is attributed to high light levels because the stream is not yet shaded by deciduous trees and also to high diurnal variation in streamwater temperature.
Diurnal variation in nitrate concentrations is lower in autumn (b – October and November). (Source: adapted from Rusjan and Mikoš, 2010)
Figure 20.10 Lake Van, eastern Turkey, is located at 1648 m above sea level and has a surface
area of 3570 km2 and a maximum depth of 460 m. Stratification occurs in the water column
from May to October due to summer warming of the surface waters. In winter, cooling of the
surface water and wind action results in mixing of the upper 70 m of the lake waters.
Reflective questions
➤ Why are the solute concentrations in river water not exactly the same as in the precipitation that fell on the catchment?
➤ Which factors may increase the risk of groundwater pollution?
➤ What are the main processes other than soil processes that alter solute concentrations in catchments?
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Chapter 20 Solutes and water quality
2+ 3+
Temperature Dissolved Fe + Fe +
2+ 4+
oxygen Mn Mn
High High Low High
Epilimnion
3+ 4+
Fe , Mn
Thermocline
Hypolimnion
2+ 2+
Fe , Mn
Reduction of sediment Low Low High Low
Figure 20.11 Stratification of water in lakes and reservoirs and its effect on solute concentrations.
20.4 The role of hydrological pathways d fl
ow
Precipitation rlan
in solute processes ces
sove Horizon
on - ex
ti
ltra
Hydrological pathways, the routes that water takes Infi Upper horizon
through the catchment from precipitation inputs to river matrix flow
Horizon
channel outputs, control which of the processes discussed Return flow
above influence solute concentrations. Knowledge of Macropore
hydrological pathways is essential for devising appro- flow
priate solutions to diffuse pollution in catchments. The Lower horizon
influence of hydrological pathways on solute concentra- matrix flow
tions is summarized in Figure 20.12. Precipitation inputs
to catchments normally have low solute concentrations. Dilute
Solute concentrations are relatively low and unaltered in Initially dilute but
becoming concentrated
hydrological pathways with a short residence time within
Concentrated
the catchment, such as infiltration-excess overland flow, and
macropore or pipeflow (see Chapter 18). In contrast, solute Figure 20.12 The effect of different hydrological pathways on solute con-
concentrations may be altered in throughflow in the upper centrations. Water that is unable to infiltrate into the soil will have solute
soil horizon and in the return flow component of satu- concentrations that are similar to the precipitation. Water that gets into
ration-excess overland flow because there is more time for the soil but moves by fast pathways, such as macropores or soil pipes, will
have little time in contact with the soil and so will also be quite dilute in
interaction with the soil. Solute concentrations are initially terms of solute concentrations. However, water that passes through the
low in these pathways but increase owing to the addition matrix of the soil (small pores) will move more slowly and therefore be in
of solutes from weathering reactions and microbiological contact with the soil for longer. Hence the solute concentrations will be
activity. By the time soil water has percolated to lower soil much greater. Some of this soil water can reach the stream either directly
from the soil or by first being transferred to the surface as return flow.
horizons in the catchment, solute concentrations are rela- Return flow occurs when the soil is saturated and so water returns to
tively high as the result of interaction with the soil. the surface (e.g. near the foot of a hillslope). See Chapter 18 for further
Different hydrological pathways in a catchment may details of hillslope flow pathways. (Source: after Burt, 1986)
therefore have distinct solute concentrations. Solute con-
centrations measured in runoff reaching the river channel
are the outcome of all the different hydrological pathways pathways in a catchment to runoff generation. The flow of
in the catchment, each with a different solute signature. a particular hydrological pathway, such as throughflow or
Consequently, solutes have been widely used in hydrol- groundwater flow, can be estimated by measuring the con-
ogy to estimate the contribution of different hydrological centration of a suitable solute in the hydrological pathways
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20.4 The role of hydrological pathways in solute processes
and the river channel. Along with measurements of river concentration is uniform in each pathway. Second, the
discharge this enables the flow in a hydrological pathway solute must mix conservatively when the hydrological
to be calculated using chemical mixing models. For two pathways combine with no chemical reaction occurring
hydrological pathways Pinder and Jones (1969) suggested between them (e.g. oxidation and precipitation of solids).
that equation (20.9) could be used: Third, the difference in solute concentration between the
hydrological pathways must be greater than the internal
CT - C1
Q2 = a b QT (20.9) variation within each pathway. Any solute that meets these
C2 - C1
criteria can be used in chemical mixing models. The most
where C is the concentration of solute, Q the flow, widely used solutes for this purpose are chloride, which
subscripts 1 and 2 refer to two different hydrological generally behaves conservatively within catchments, and
pathways and subscript T to the total runoff in the river the naturally occurring stable isotopes (see Box 20.4) oxy-
channel. gen-18 and deuterium. Chemical mixing model calculations
Chemical mixing models are based on three main can be performed for a number of points in time to sepa-
assumptions. First, complete mixing is required in the rate storm hydrographs for a river into different flow com-
hydrological pathways of interest so that the solute ponents on the basis of solute concentrations.
Stable Isotopes for Identify- isotopes 2H and 18O. As precipitation water The standard normally used for isoto-
ing Hydrological Flow Path- moves through the different flow path- pic analysis of water is VSMOW (Vienna
ways within the catchment hydrological Standard Mean Ocean Water). Because
ways and Solute Sources
system, it becomes progressively depleted ocean water contains relatively more
Naturally occurring stable isotopes of in the ‘lighter’ isotopes of 1H and 16O due heavy 2H and 18O due to preferential
water and solutes are increasingly used as to water losses by evapotranspiration. Con- evaporation of lighter 1H and 16O, the
non-invasive tools to identify hydrological sequently, soil water and groundwater with delta values for all catchment water sam-
flow pathways and the biogeochemical long residence times often have different ples are negative. Once the isotopic com-
cycling processes in catchments. The stable isotope signatures compared with positions of different water types have
different relative atomic masses of the precipitation and water that has moved been quantified they can be used to esti-
stable isotopes of an element, arising rapidly through the catchment system to mate water residence time in catchments,
from the different numbers of neutrons the river channel, such as by overland flow and in mixing models, as given in equation
in the nucleus, mean that different iso- or pipeflow. (20.9), to quantify the contribution of dif-
topes are favoured, or fractionated, by The abundances of stable isotopes of ferent hydrological flow pathways to river
specific hydrological and biogeochemical an element are measured using a mass discharge. For example, Muñoz-
processes. For example, in water, H2O, spectrometer in samples of waters from Villers and McDonnell (2012) combined
hydrogen occurs in the environment as different hydrological flow pathways and hydrological measurements and d 18O and
the stable isotopes 1H and 2H (deuterium) are reported as delta (d) values with units d 2H compositions measured in rainfall, soil
which have relative atomic masses of of parts per thousand (per mil or 0⁄00), water, stream water and groundwater to
1 and 2, respectively, whilst oxygen occurs calculated as shown in equation (20.10): indicate that river runoff in tropical cloud
as the stable isotopes 16O and 18O, which forest catchments on permeable volcanic
have relative atomic masses of 16 and Rsample - Rstandard substrate are dominated by groundwater
d(0⁄00) = a b
18, respectively. Precipitation is enriched Rstandard flows, rather than by shallow flow paths
compared with ocean water in 1H and within the soil as reported from previ-
16
O because these ‘lighter’ isotopes are * 1000 (20.10)
ous studies of humid tropical montane
evaporated in preference to the heavier where R is the ratio of heavy: light isotope. regions.
Box 20.4 ➤
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Chapter 20 Solutes and water quality
➤
Stable isotope ratios of solutes in different values of d 18O in the nitrate pres- forested catchments is derived from within
water, such as d 18O and d 15N (based on ent in precipitation inputs and produced the catchment rather than from direct
the ratio of 15N to 14N) in nitrate (NO3- ), by microbial nitrification within catchment atmospheric deposition. Such results are
can be used to identify the relative soils, several studies, such as by Barnes important for ascertaining the effect of
importance of different processes in bio- et al. (2008), have shown that the majority enhanced atmospheric deposition of nitro-
geochemical cycling. Based on the very of nitrate exported in river water from gen on ecosystems.
Box 20.4
catchments are dynamic. Four main factors control tem-
poral patterns of solute concentrations in catchments.
Reflective questions
First, the quantity and mobility of the solute supply
➤ Which combination of hydrological pathways would make determine its availability for transport to the river
a catchment most vulnerable to spillage of a polluting channel. For example, increased sulfate concentrations
chemical? may occur after drought in streams draining organic
soils, as shown in Figure 20.13. This is due to lowering
➤ Which flow path would you expect to produce the great-
of the water table, causing oxidation of reduced forms
est concentration of solutes: infiltration-excess overland
of sulfur compounds that have accumulated over long
flow, return flow or macropore flow? Why?
time periods in wet, anaerobic soils, to sulfate which
➤ Explain how solute tracers can be used to identify hydro- is flushed into the river channel in subsequent rainfall
logical flow pathways in catchments. events.
Second, the composition of precipitation inputs to the
catchment affects solute concentrations in river water. For
example, precipitation in coastal regions is often enriched
Using solutes as tracers has increased the understanding by sea salt during stormy weather conditions when
of hydrological processes in catchments. The advantage of
using solutes as chemical tracers is that interference with
the catchment hydrological system is minimal, whereas 90 1.0
Sulfate
direct measurements of hydrological pathways by physical 80 0.9
Discharge
methods can alter the flows being measured. Knowledge 70 0.8
of hydrology and hydrological pathways in a catchment 0.7
Discharge (m3 s-1)
60
Sulfate (meq L-1)
is important in explaining and modelling solute concen- 0.6
50
trations in rivers and also in understanding biogeochem- 0.5
40
ical cycling and temporal and spatial patterns of solutes 0.4
30
in catchments. Conversely, solute concentrations and 0.3
fluxes can be used as tools in understanding catchment 20 0.2
hydrology. 10 0.1
0 0
19 June 09 July 29 July 18 Aug 07 Sept 27 Sept
20.5 Temporal patterns of solutes Figure 20.13 Increased concentrations of sulfate in a headwater stream
in central Wales after summer drought conditions. Such flushes also
result in streamwater acidification episodes. (Source: adapted from Evans
Solute concentrations in rivers vary over time because et al., 2008)
the hydrological processes that generate runoff within
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20.5 Temporal patterns of solutes
droplets of seawater are incorporated into precipitation generated, with lower base cation concentrations, thereby
(Figure 20.14). These sea-salt events can have a dramatic diluting the groundwater inputs.
effect on river water composition since chloride ions cause Temporal patterns in solute concentrations in river
an increase in specific conductance. If the soil has a low water are studied at three different timescales: from short-
base content, sodium ions in the precipitation exchange term changes of the order of a few hours during storm
with hydrogen and aluminium ions adsorbed onto soil cat- events, to annual patterns occurring over days and months
ion exchange sites, resulting in a flush of acidified waters and long-term changes occurring over decades. Some of
with high concentrations of toxic aluminium ions which the patterns of variation and the processes responsible are
can kill fish. examined below for each timescale.
Third, catchment size and heterogeneity affect solute
concentrations. In large catchments, solute concentrations
20.5.1 Patterns of solutes in storm events:
in the main river channel represent the sum of solute pro-
short-term changes
cesses operating in the individual tributary catchments,
each of which may differ considerably in their individual Considerable research effort in solutes has focused on
concentrations. storm events. Dramatic changes in solute concentrations
Finally, changes in hydrological pathways in catchments occur and a significant proportion of solute fluxes are
over time affect solute concentrations in river water as dif- transported during storm events. The relationship between
ferent pathways have different solute signatures. Ground- solute concentrations and river discharge is of particular
water and throughflow deep within the soil are the major interest for incorporation into hydrological models. Stud-
source of base cations to river water from mineral weath- ies of solute patterns in river water during storm events
ering. Therefore base cation concentrations in river water have found significant variations between solutes, and also
are normally higher in drier conditions when these hydro- between individual storm events and between catchments
logical pathways are the main source of river water. Base for the same solute. The response of individual solutes
cation concentrations decline in wetter conditions since during storm events varies because of the different magni-
more runoff from macropore flow and overland flow is tude and location of solute stores within a catchment and
Figure 20.14 Stormy weather conditions, here at Loch Ard Gorge, southern Australia, result in the incorporation of sea salt into precipitation over
coastal areas.
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Chapter 20 Solutes and water quality
the extent to which they are accessed by the hydrological Figure 20.16 illustrates how anticlockwise and clockwise
pathways that generate storm runoff. hysteresis loops can develop for solute concentrations and
Nevertheless, three generic relationships have been iden- river discharge. Anticlockwise loops occur when solute
tified between solute concentrations and discharge: posi- concentration is higher on the falling limb of the storm
tive, negative and hysteresis. Positive relationships between hydrograph compared with the rising limb. This could
solute concentrations and discharge occur when solutes are be caused by displacement into the river channel of soil
washed rapidly into the river channel by overland flow and water containing high solute concentrations by rainfall
shallow throughflow. In Figure 20.15, dissolved organic car- percolating through the soil. Clockwise hysteresis loops
bon (DOC) concentrations increase with discharge owing are formed when a higher solute concentration occurs on
to the flushing of organic matter from more organic-rich the rising limb of the storm hydrograph compared with
surface soil horizons in the catchment. Negative relation- the falling limb. This can arise when solutes are flushed
ships between solute concentrations and discharge occur from ground and vegetation surfaces and surface soil
for solutes that are mainly derived from mineral weathering horizons at the start of storm events. An example of the
and transported to the river in deep soil throughflow and use of hysteresis plots in identifying sources of runoff as
groundwater flow. During storm events, inputs from these catchment land-use changes over time can be found in
hydrological pathways are diluted by runoff generated from Murphy et al. (2014).
near-surface inputs. This effect is evident in Figure 20.15
where calcium concentrations decrease as discharge
20.5.2 Annual patterns of solute concentrations
increases owing to dilution by near-surface throughflow
with lower calcium concentrations. Annual patterns of solutes in catchments occur because
More complex hysteresis relationships occur between of systematic seasonal changes in hydrological pathways,
solute concentrations and river discharge during storm weather and biological and human activities. In temperate
events when very different solute concentrations are mea- latitudes, with drier summers and wetter winters, solutes
sured at the same discharge on the rising and falling limbs that occur mainly in deep soil throughflow and groundwa-
of the storm hydrograph. This results in hysteresis loops ter hydrological pathways cause river water solute concen-
when solute concentration is plotted against discharge. trations to be higher in summer. During the winter such
1 200
Precipitation
mm h-1
0.10 1 000
Discharge (mm h-1)
0.08 800 Ca2+ (mmolc L-1)
20
0.06 600
0.04 400
0.02 200
0 0
1 000
0.08 800
Discharge (mm h-1)
DOC (mmol L-1)
0.06 600
0.04 400
0.02 200
0 0
22 Sept 25 Sept 28 Sept 16 Oct 17 Oct 18 Oct 19 Oct
Figure 20.15 Solute concentrations and discharge in storm events in a stream draining a mixed hardwood forested catchment in the Adirondack
Mountains, New York State, USA. (Source: adapted from Christopher et al., 2008)
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20.5 Temporal patterns of solutes
(a) Anticlockwise (b) Clockwise Annual cycles of biological activity also affect concen-
hysteresis loop hysteresis loop
trations of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus
Solute Solute in river water. In temperate latitudes, the lowest nitrate
concentration concentration concentrations in river water occur in the summer grow-
Discharge
Discharge ing season because uptake from soil water by plants and
Concentration
microorganisms is at a maximum (Figure 20.17). Maxi-
Discharge
mum stream nitrate concentrations occur in the autumn
as the result of reduced demand from plants and also
increased production of nitrate by nitrifying bacteria in the
soil, stimulated by wetter soil conditions. Seasonal changes
Time
in biological activity and hydrology are also responsible
for the seasonal pattern in DOC concentrations in stream-
water, in which highest concentrations occur in late sum-
mer. This pattern is attributed to higher concentrations
of DOC in soil and soil water during summer, due to the
Concentration
stimulation of DOC production by soil microorganisms in
warmer temperatures and increased concentration of soil
water DOC resulting from lower rainfall and higher evapo-
transpiration (Tipping et al., 2007), followed by flushing
Discharge of DOC from the soil when higher rainfall occurs in late
Low concentration on High concentration on summer.
rising limb rising limb In climates where a snowpack accumulates in winter
High concentration on Low concentration on
falling limb falling limb
(Figure 20.18), the melting of the snowpack in spring
causes extremely high solute concentrations in river water.
Figure 20.16 Schematic diagram of the formation of (a) anticlockwise and
This is caused by the release of dry deposited solutes, accu-
(b) clockwise hysteresis loops for solute concentrations in storm events.
mulated on the surface of the snow during the winter, and
also by flushing of solutes from the soil that have remained
solutes are diluted as a greater proportion of the runoff in a frozen state during the winter. High levels of alu-
occurs as near-surface flow. Evaporation can also cause minium and acidity, released into rivers during snowpack
higher solute concentrations in summer than in winter. melting, can be particularly damaging to fish populations,
In contrast, solutes that accumulate on ground and vege- although the toxicity of aluminium is lowered in streams
tation surfaces from dry deposition during drier summer rich in dissolved organic carbon (Laudon et al., 2005).
conditions exhibit maximum annual concentrations in Seasonal variations in human activity such as winter
river water in the autumn when they are flushed into the ploughing of fields, spring application of fertilizer and
river by increasing rainfall. salting of road surfaces in winter may all cause distinct
1.4
Nitrate concentration (mg–N L-1)
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1964 1969 1974 1979 1984 1989 1994 1999 2004
Figure 20.17 Monthly nitrate concentrations in a headwater stream in the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New Hampshire, USA. Stream nitrate
concentrations are consistently lower in the growing season (May to September). (Source: adapted from Judd et al., 2007)
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Chapter 20 Solutes and water quality
(a)
10 000
Electrical conductivity (mS cm-1) and
sodium concentration (mg L-1)
1 000
100
10
1
Cond
Na
0.1
June Sept Dec Mar July
(b)
8.5
8.0
Figure 20.18 In climates where a snowpack accumulates in winter, such
as at Kaitumjaure lake, northern Sweden, solutes are released into river
7.5
water when the spring snowmelt occurs.
pH
7.0
annual patterns of solute concentrations. Some of the
6.5
effects of winter applications of road salt in Sweden on
soil water composition are shown in Figure 20.19. In win- 6.0
July Sept Dec Mar June
ter months soil water electrical conductivity and sodium
concentrations increased, whilst pH decreased, resulting in (c)
higher zinc concentrations in soil water. 50
45
40
concentration (mg L-1)
35
20.5.3 Long-term patterns of solute
Dissolved zinc
30
concentrations 25
20
Changes in solute concentrations in rivers and lakes over 15
decades are difficult to evaluate because of the frequent 10
5
unavailability of records of sufficient quality and length.
0
The main causes of long-term patterns of solute concen-
ne
ly
ar
b
c
ay
v
g
r
pt
Jan
Ap
No
De
Fe
Au
Ju
M
Se
Ju
trations in rivers and lakes are climatic variability and
climate change, land management change and changes Figure 20.19 Electrical conductivity, pH and concentrations of sodium and
zinc in soil water sampled throughout the year 4 m from a road in central
in human polluting activities from point and non-point
Sweden.
sources and their interaction with processes internal to (Source: after Bäckström et al., 2004)
the aquatic system. A case study is provided in Box 20.5.
Another example of long-term degradation and recov-
ery of water quality is the acidification of freshwaters in activities since the 1980s as the result of international
many parts of north-west Europe and North America agreements to reduce emissions, some acidified fresh-
that occurred from the eighteenth century as the result waters have started to recover, with acid neutralizing
of atmospheric pollution from fossil fuel combustion capacity (ANC) values returning towards earlier modelled
for domestic, industrial and transport purposes. With values as shown for upland freshwaters monitored in the
the decrease in atmospheric emissions and deposition of UK (Figure 20.20).
acidifying sulfur and nitrogen compounds from human
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20.5 Temporal patterns of solutes
260
240 Reference ANC
220 ANC at start of monitoring
200 ANC mean 2005–2007
180
160
140
ANC (meq L-1)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
Y
N
R
DG
YN
U
RG
R
GA
GH
R
NC
CC
K
AH
NY
FR
RT
T
TT
HR
GW
LG
BL
TIN
HA
CH
AR
LA
M
NA
HA
OA
AN
CO
DA
BE
NA
LO
RL
BE
RN
ET
SC
BU
UK Acid Waters Monitoring Network river and lake sites
Figure 20.20 Acid neutralizing capacity (ANC) values at UK Acid Waters Monitoring Network upland river and lake sites modelled in 1860 (reference
v alues) and measured at the start of monitoring (1988–1990) and in 2005–2007. ANC indicates the ability of water to resist acidification by a strong
acid. The ANC values in this figure were calculated from the alkalinity, dissolved organic carbon and ionic aluminium concentrations of the water samples.
(Source: Kernan et al., 2010)
The precise causes of long-term patterns of solute use and management. It is evident from Figure 20.20 that,
concentrations in rivers and lakes are often difficult to although ANC values are returning towards historical val-
identify because of the interaction of causal factors. For ues at some sites, the rate of recovery of freshwaters from
example, climate change often results in changes to land
Long-term changes in phos- 1990s resulted in a reduction of total phosphorus from lake surface sediments
phorus concentrations in phosphorus loads to the loch (lake) from in late summer and early autumn. In Loch
20 tonnes per year in 1985 to 8 tonnes Leven this seasonal cycle in phosphorus
Loch Leven
per year in 2005 (Carvalho et al., 2012). release is driven by diffusive release from
In Loch Leven, central Scotland, increas- However, significant improvements in anoxic conditions and wind disturbance.
ing phosphorus loads from point source loch water quality, in particular the low- Counteracting this effect, climate change
discharges from industry and wastewater ering of chlorophyll a concentrations acted to improve water quality through
treatment works and non-point source (Figure 20.22), lagged behind the reduc- the flushing of water column phosphorus
agricultural runoff resulted in frequent tion in external phosphorus loads. The and algae from the loch during wet sum-
algal blooms from the 1970s to the extended time required to achieve water mers and increased grazing of algae by
1990s (Figure 20.21). Implementation quality targets in Loch Leven is attributed zooplankton during warmer springs.
of a catchment management plan in the to ‘internal loading’ – the release of
BOX 20.5 ➤
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Chapter 20 Solutes and water quality
➤
(a) 110
100
Total phosphorus (og L-1)
90
80
70
60
50
Water quality target
40
30
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
(b) 100
90
Chlorophyll a (og L-1)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20 Water quality target
15
10
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year
Figure 20.22 Annual mean concentrations of (a) total phosphorus and
(b) chlorophyll a in Loch Leven, 1968–2008, in comparison to the water
quality targets of the catchment management plan. (Source: after
Figure 20.21 Summer algal bloom in Loch Leven, central Scotland, Carvalho et al., 2012)
before catchment management measures became effective.
(Source: Mark Boulton/Alamy Stock Photo)
BOX 20.5
acidification is variable. Suggested reasons for the slower 5. Other confounding stresses, such as the uptake of neu-
recovery at some sites include the following: tralizing base cations from the soil by forestry planta-
tions and climate change. For example, recovery from
1. Limited recovery of the bases in the soil to neutralize acidification of some freshwaters in the UK since the
acidic inputs. 1980s has been associated with the decreased frequency
2. The continued release of sulfur from soil, even though in occurrence of sea-salt events, a natural cause of the
deposition of sulfur compounds from human activities freshwater acidification. The frequency of occurrence
has decreased. of sea-salt events affecting freshwaters in the western
3. The release of nitrate from catchment soils offsetting UK is associated with the Arctic Oscillation, similar to
the effects of lower acidifying sulfate concentrations in the North Atlantic Oscillation (see Chapter 6), which
freshwaters. affects weather patterns in the northern Atlantic Ocean.
4. A slower increase in water pH than expected because of Figure 20.23 shows the positive association between the
increasing dissolved organic carbon concentrations. strength of the Arctic Oscillation and chloride concen-
trations in freshwaters in the western UK. It is predicted
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20.5 Temporal patterns of solutes
2.0 1.2
Mean standardized annual mean Cl
concentration (14 sites)
1.5
Mean annual AO index (Nov–Oct) 0.8
1.0
0.4
Mean standardized Cl
0.5
AO index
0 0
-0.5
-0.4
-1.0
-0.8
-1.5
-2.0 -1.2
1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008
Figure 20.23 Standardized annual mean freshwater chloride concentrations at 14 river and lake monitoring sites near the western coast of the UK and
the mean annual Arctic Oscillation (AO) Index for 1989–2007. The two parameters are closely positively associated indicating that the occurrence of
sea-salt events in freshwaters is linked with regional circulation patterns. The recovery from acidification of many freshwaters during this time period
may be partly explained by the reduced intensity of the AO index, resulting in fewer sea-salt events.
(Source: Kernan et al., 2010)
that, due to climate change, the Arctic Oscillation may Box 20.6 highlights the significant upward long-term trend
become stronger in coming decades, resulting in more in river and lake water DOC concentrations and examines
frequent sea-salt events and freshwater acidification. its causes and consequences.
What is the Cause of carcinogenic trihalomethanes when the 3. Increasingly aerobic conditions in
Increased Dissolved Organic standard method of disinfecting drinking peatlands, arising from higher air
water with chlorine is applied to DOC-rich temperatures and/or lower rainfall,
Carbon Concentrations in
water. remove constraints on the activity of
Northern Hemisphere Surface A number of explanations have been enzymes that decompose organic mat-
Waters? proposed for the observed increases in ter to produce DOC (Freeman et al.,
Many studies have reported significant DOC concentrations: 2001).
increases in the concentration of dissolved 1. Rising air temperatures are creating 4. More intensive land management
organic carbon (DOC) in lakes and rivers in a larger soil store of DOC due to activities, such as land drainage, forest
the northern hemisphere since the 1980s enhanced microbial decomposition of planting and harvesting, burning and
(Figure 20.24). These observations have soil organic matter. livestock grazing (such as in the UK
raised concerns about the degradation of uplands), have resulted in greater DOC
2. Rising atmospheric CO2 concentra-
soil carbon stores, reduced photosynthesis mobilization.
tions are stimulating plant growth,
and oxygen production by phytoplankton 5. Reductions since the 1980s in the
resulting in increased production of
(Solomon et al., 2015), and also about deposition of acidic non-marine sul-
compounds exuded from plant roots
drinking water treatment and quality fur compounds and sea salts have
that are rich in DOC.
because of the formation of potentially reduced the acidity and ionic strength
BOX 20.6 ➤
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Chapter 20 Solutes and water quality
➤
could result in increased measured DOC
concentrations or changes in hydrolog-
ical flow paths could mean that more
flow occurs through DOC-rich surface
organic soils.
There is much debate and ongoing
research concerning the explanation and
interpretation of the observed increase
in DOC concentrations in rivers and lakes,
but it is unlikely that there is a single
explanation applicable to all situations.
Clark et al. (2010) suggest that the expla-
nations proposed are not incompatible,
but interact with each other and are
influenced by catchment properties so
that the causes of increased DOC con-
centrations vary between catchments. For
example, in regions where acid deposition
was high in the past, the main cause of
Figure 20.24 Brown waters due to high DOC concentrations in a river draining the South Pen- increasing DOC concentrations is likely to
nines, England. be decreasing non-marine sulfur depo-
sition. In contrast, in peat-dominated
of soil water, resulting in increased compounds for export from the soil. It catchments where the natural rate of
mobility of DOC in organic soils. may also increase microbial activity and sulfate reduction in waterlogged anaero-
6. Sustained atmospheric nitrogen depo- nitrogen mineralization in organic soils bic conditions exceeds sulfur inputs from
sition may decrease the activity of causing an increase in DOC production. atmospheric deposition, decreasing sulfur
DOC oxidizing enzymes in soils, result- 7. Changes in catchment hydrology in deposition is unlikely to cause increased
ing in the greater availability of DOC which either decreases in water flow DOC concentrations.
BOX 20.6
20.6 Spatial patterns of solutes
Reflective questions
Solute concentrations and fluxes in rivers and lakes vary
➤ Thinking about dilution and other processes, do solute
over space as well as over time owing to differences in cli-
concentrations always decline as discharge increases?
mate, geology, topography, soils, vegetation and land man-
What are the reasons for your answer?
agement. The significance of the factors controlling spatial
➤ What effects could climate change have on solute pat- patterns of solutes depends on the scale of observation.
terns at the storm event, annual and long-term timescales At the global scale, climate and geology account for most
and how would you explain the processes which cause the of the variation in solute concentrations, although human
effects you have identified? activities are increasingly influential. At the regional scale,
the factors of soil, vegetation and land management are
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20.6 Spatial patterns of solutes
more important. The influence of these different sets of
controls on spatial patterns of solutes will be examined at
the global and regional scales in the following sections.
20.6.1 Global patterns of solutes
Global non-anthropogenic controls on solute concentra-
tions and fluxes in river water have been analyzed by Wall-
ing and Webb (1986). Solute concentrations in rivers often
increase with mean annual temperature because of greater
evaporative loss from river systems, thereby increasing
river solute concentrations. The total ionic flux, however,
increases with mean annual runoff and slope steepness in
rivers. This is because it is the rate of water movement at
Figure 20.25 One source of diffuse pollution from agriculture is runoff
the weathering front that largely determines the rate of from farmyards and roofs when faecal material from animals and birds,
solute release. There is also a marked difference in ionic sediment and spillages of oil, pesticides and hydrocarbons are washed off
fluxes between rock types. Ionic fluxes in rivers draining by rainfall.
catchments developed on different geologies are in the
order: sedimentary 7 igneous extrusive 7 igneous intru-
sive and metamorphic. Pristine freshwaters are seldom
20.6.2.1 Agricultural land management
found today so Meybeck (2003) argues that the main pro-
cesses affecting river systems globally are anthropogenic, The main effects of agricultural land management on
in particular river damming, eutrophication, chemical con- solute concentrations in river water are an increase in
tamination and decreased river flow due to irrigation. concentrations of nutrients and pesticides. Increased con-
centrations of these may arise from point sources such as
leakage of pesticides, silage, slurry and milk wastes from
20.6.2 Regional patterns of solutes
storage facilities, or from diffuse pollution, such as from
At the regional scale, land use is the dominant control on farmyards (Figure 20.25). Sources of diffuse pollution are
solute concentrations in river waters. Land use affects sol- numerous and are summarized for nitrogen and phospho-
ute concentrations by altering the magnitude and mobility rus in Figure 20.26. Where fertilizer or manure applica-
of solute sources in the catchment and also by altering the tions exceed crop nutrient requirements, or are applied on
hydrological pathways that transport solutes to the river frozen ground or just before heavy rainfall, leaching of sol-
channel. As examples the effects of agricultural and urban uble nitrogen and phosphorus occurs from the soil. Arti-
land uses on solute patterns are discussed below along ficial land drainage can increase the percolation of water,
with consideration of emerging water contaminants. water residence time and also improve soil aeration. These
factors increase nitrate leaching from the soil because there
Ploughing of
N N grassland
P P P, N in eroded soil
K K Manure transported by
overland flow
N, P leaching if Crop residue NO3– produced
fertilizer/manure by soil biomass
exceeds crop
requirements
Stream
N, P Subsurface drainage
leaching channels
Figure 20.26 Diffuse sources and transport of nitrogen and phosphorus from agricultural land to river channels.
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Chapter 20 Solutes and water quality
is more opportunity for leaching to occur and conditions
are more favourable for nitrate production by microbial
activity. Ploughing grassland for conversion to crops also
increases nitrate leaching from the soil for similar reasons.
Decomposition of crop residues results in the release of
nitrogen and phosphorus in the soil, which may be trans-
ported into river courses. Finally, soil erosion transports
nutrients attached to soil particles from agricultural land
to river channels. This transport pathway is particularly
important for phosphorus. Rural Best Management
Practices (BMPs) or Rural Sustainable Drainage Systems
(RSuDs), such as buffer strips, swales, ponds, wetlands and
sediment traps are increasingly promoted to reduce agri-
cultural non-point source pollution (Figure 20.27). Figure 20.27 Ponds and wetlands receiving drainage from a mixed arable
and livestock farm. (Source: ImageBROKER / Alamy Stock Photo )
20.6.2.2 Urbanization
public parks and road verges (Table 20.4). They also result
Urbanization typically results not only in increased flood
from the dramatic changes in catchment hydrological
frequency and magnitude but also in increases in concen-
pathways brought about by urbanization. Traditionally,
trations of metals, nutrients, pesticides and organic matter
urban drainage engineering aimed to remove runoff as rap-
in river water. These elevated concentrations arise from
idly as possible from urban surfaces to prevent inundation.
an increased magnitude of solute sources such as metals
This aim was achieved through the use of nearly impervi-
deposited from tyre breakdown and corrosion of vehi-
ous surfaces for car parks, highways and roofs, from which
cle brake linings, and intensive pesticide use on gardens,
water drained rapidly into a wastewater treatment works
Table 20.4 Sources of selected solutes in urban areas
Vehicle use Pesticide use Industrial/other use
Copper Metal corrosion Algicide Paint
Wood preservative
Electroplating
Lead Fuel Paint
Batteries Lead pipe
Zinc Metal corrosion Wood preservative Paint
Tyres Metal corrosion
Road salt
Chromium Metal corrosion Paint
Metal corrosion
Electroplating
Nitrogen Combustion of fuel Fertilizers Cleaning operations
Animal excrement
Chloroform Formed from salt Insecticide Solvent
PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) Electrical insulation
(Source: after Novotny and Harvey, 1994; and Makepeace et al., 1995)
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20.6 Spatial patterns of solutes
or a nearby river. However, this flushed solutes into urban works manufacturing plastic pellets and products, and
rivers during storm events, often in toxic concentrations, secondary, from the breakdown of plastic-containing
as dry deposited solutes are washed from impervious wastes. The predominant main environmental impacts of
surfaces. Solute pollution in urban rivers is worse during microplastics in freshwater researched to date are inges-
medium-sized storm events, occurring two or three times tion by organisms, resulting in physical effects, increased
a year, since sufficient runoff is generated to mobilize dry stress and transfer of toxic chemicals within or adsorbed
deposited solutes from urban surfaces but there is not to the material. Nanomaterials have highly varied chemi-
enough water to dilute solute concentrations. Urban BMPs cal structures, including nanotubes, nanosilver and TiO2
or SuDs have been introduced since the late twentieth (titanium dioxide) nanoparticles (NPs). NPs are highly
century to reduce the pollution of urban rivers and also reactive due to their high surface area-to-volume ratio,
reduce the risk of small- and medium-sized floods. These which can result in chemical, physical and biological
include structures such as ponds, wetlands and porous transformation and adsorption, with implications for
paving that can increase the storage of runoff in the catch- their toxicity and fate in the aquatic environment. Studies
ment and allow water quality improvement by physical, have shown the release from washing of 3.4% by weight
chemical and biological processes. Today SuDs are one of TiO2 NPs added to textiles as a UV filter and for its
component of urban green infrastructure which provides a antimicrobial properties, with 7 96% removal of TiO2
distributed and integrated vegetated network (Ellis, 2013). NPs in wastewater treatment plants. Another class of
As well as SuDs, green infrastructure includes rain gar- emerging contaminants is disease-causing microorgan-
dens, street planters, tree pits and biofiltration systems for isms and viruses, such as Cryptosporidium and Esche-
managing urban storm runoff and providing other multi- richia coli O:157. Whilst both these pathogens have point
ple benefits, such as trapping atmospheric pollutants and sources to the water environment from sewage discharge,
contributing to improved physical and mental health. leaking septic tanks and faecal inputs from waterfowl,
diffuse sources from agricultural land use are reported
to be significant, in particular washoff from livestock
20.6.2.3 Emerging contaminants
faeces deposited directly by sheep or cattle, or through
In the past few decades there has been increasing pro- manure-amended soil. Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs)
duction of numerous synthetic organic chemicals, such are synthetic chemicals with a wide range of uses, includ-
as plastics, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, microbial disin- ing the manufacture of fabric coatings, Teflon, adhesives,
fectants and personal care products, for use in industry, fire-fighting foams and greaseproof food packaging.
agriculture, medical treatment and household products. Reported pathways by which PFCs enter the aquatic envi-
While many of these chemicals have undoubted benefits, ronment include wastewater discharges and leaching from
their occurrence in aquatic systems from point and diffuse wastes produced by manufacturing plants, stormwater
sources may result in adverse impacts for aquatic ecology runoff from urban areas, leachate from landfill, e-waste
and human health. Point sources by which these emerging and battery recycling sites, ski trails due to the use of
contaminants enter the aquatic environment include dis- PFCs in ski waxes and atmospheric deposition in remote
charges of wastewater from sewage treatment works or locations from the transport of volatile precursor com-
industry and farm effluents, while diffuse sources include pounds. PFCs are persistent, water-soluble compounds
agricultural and highway runoff, septic tank soakaways that bioaccumulate and have been classified as likely to
and landfill leachate. Examples of emerging contami- be carcinogenic to humans (Post et al., 2012). Because of
nants considered here are microplastics, nanomaterials, their chemical structure, PFCs are highly stable and per-
microorganisms and perfluorinated compounds, each sistent in the environment, with some studies detecting
with differing sources and transport pathways into the PFCs in over 50% of drinking water samples tested. The
aquatic environment. Microplastics (plastic particles occurrence and effects of another emerging contaminant,
65 mm) have recently started to be studied in freshwaters endocrine disrupting chemicals, is discussed in Box 20.7.
as well as in marine systems, with surveys reporting mean For more information about these and other emerging
values of 14 000 - 43 000 km - 2 water surface area at contaminants the comprehensive referenced reviews of
sites worldwide (Eerkes-Medrano et al., 2015). Sources of Richardson and Ternes (2014) and Eerkes-Medrano et al.
microplastics in freshwater are primary, from industrial (2015) should be consulted.
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Chapter 20 Solutes and water quality
New Solutes of Concern: environment, both synthetic and naturally pharmaceuticals and contraceptives.
Endocrine Disruptors occurring, which may have damaging com- Although wastewater treatment processes
bined effects even at exposure to very low may be effective in removing some EDs,
Endocrine disruptors (EDs) disturb the concentrations over long periods of time. removal rates differ between specific pro-
endocrine system in animals by block- Consequently no standards have yet been cesses and EDs and also vary seasonally.
ing, mimicking or disrupting hormone developed for maximum allowable ED con- Since EDs typically occur at very low con-
functions, resulting in a range of effects, centrations in waters. EDs enter the water centrations (nanograms per litre, ng L -1)
including sex determination in foetuses, environment from both diffuse sources, in water, sophisticated and expensive
brain development in babies and the such as surface runoff from intensive procedures and instruments are required
growth and activity of organs in adults. The agricultural activities in which veterinary to detect individual EDs and determination
entry of EDs into the water environment products and pesticides are used and of EDs in water samples is not routine,
has been associated with adverse impacts leakages from septic tanks and landfill The first US-wide survey of 100 pharma-
on health and reproduction in wildlife and sites, and point sources, in particular dis- ceuticals and other organic wastewater
humans, including even in the next gen- charge from wastewater treatment works contaminants (many of which are EDs) in
eration. Consistent proof of a causal link containing EDs originating from personal drinking water sources detected 63 of the
between exposure to synthetic EDs and care products such as soaps, detergents, compounds in at least one water sample
effects is difficult. There are hundreds of perfumes and sunscreens, and excreted and a median of four compounds at each
thousands of different EDs present in the
70
with at least one detection of a compound in group
60
Surface water sites
Percentage of surface or groundwater sites
Groundwater sites
50
40
30
20
10
0
)
)
)
1)
)
)
)
(1
)
6)
(6
)
(1
(4
3)
(3
4)
25
(2
)
(3
)
(1
)
t(
11
(5
12
(
nt
s(
s(
H
nt
ds
es
s(
er
rs
ls
nt
an
s(
PA
s
s(
lve
t
a
ite
e
ze
ug
oi
th
tic
lla
an
ct
xid
fu
ug
ici
ur
er
So
i
ol
/o
dr
pe
tic
fe
io
rd
s/
st
vo
tio
dr
St
ab
tib
ics
sin
ta
re
in
as
n
Pe
fla
An
n
tio
et
es
re
An
Pl
et
Di
ct
tio
tm
nd
/r
ip
sm
e
se
rip
Fir
cr
es
sa
en
In
Co
es
sc
Dy
ce
rg
pr
re
te
n
rp
n-
ra
De
No
ag
he
Fr
Ot
Figure 20.28 Detection of organic wastewater compounds by general use category in a survey of 49 surface water and 25 groundwater drinking water
sources throughout the USA in 2001. All steroids analyzed are naturally occurring. (Source: adapted from Focazio et al., 2008)
Box 20.7 ➤
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20.7 Modelling solutes and water quality
➤
site. The most frequently detected organic fire retardants, plasticizers, insect repel- main sources are surface waters (into
wastewater contaminants by type of prod- lent, detergent by-products, disinfectants which direct discharge of wastewater efflu-
uct are shown in Figure 20.28 and include and cosmetics. The contaminants were ent occurs) and there is less potential for
steroids, prescription and non-prescription detected more frequently in surface water degradation and removal of contaminants
drugs, fragrances, antibiotics, pesticides, than groundwater, probably because the in surface waters (Focazio et al., 2008).
Box 20.7 ➤
concentrations in river water. An example of this type of
Reflective questions model is the MAGIC (Modelling Acidification of Ground-
water In Catchments) model (Cosby et al., 2001) which
➤ How do the types, sources and dominant transport
was developed to predict the long-term effects on soil and
processes of solutes from urban and agricultural land
surface water chemistry of acid deposition. The model
compare and contrast?
assumes that the concentration of solutes in surface waters
➤ How would you design an investigation to identify the is governed by atmospheric deposition, soil weathering
effects of different land uses on water quality? reactions, uptake of solutes by biomass and runoff. A
series of chemical equations simulates the reactions of sol-
utes in the soil, including cation exchange and adsorption.
The model is a lumped model which assumes that the catch-
20.7 Modelling solutes and water quality ment is homogeneous, with uniform soil properties and
precipitation inputs.
Models are widely used to predict solute concentrations in Application of the MAGIC model to a catchment
catchments, rivers and lakes for catchment management requires data for soil physical and chemical properties,
and planning. This may include simulating the effects of rainfall/runoff characteristics, precipitation chemistry
pollution incidents on river water quality, for example. As and base cation weathering rates. The MAGIC model
with all models, solute models require field or laboratory was applied to predict the chemistry of the surface waters
measurements for model calibration and validation to from 1860 (prior to industrialization) to 2100 of 59 lakes
evaluate the success of the model (see Chapter 1). Since in south-west Scotland that have been affected by acidi-
solute concentrations are controlled by many hydro- fication (Helliwell and Simpson, 2010). The simulations
logical, soil, chemical and biotic factors, solute models took account of changing acid deposition and land use
must also include simulations of these processes. Future over time. Figure 20.29 shows the distribution of simu-
developments in solute and water quality modelling are lated pH values between the lakes for different years from
anticipated to involve integration of open source models 1860 to 2100. The model results show that lake water pHs
representing hydrological, biogeochemical and ecological decreased from 1860 to the lowest values in 1970 when pH
processes at different scales with real-time environmental values in approximately half of the lakes were less than 5.5
observations from distributed remote and in situ sen- (a critical threshold for salmonid fish). From 1970 surface
sor networks and citizen scientists (Hipsey et al., 2015). water pH has increased over time so that by 2100 it is pro-
Examples of solute modelling at two different scales are jected that pH values less than 5.5 will occur in only 17%
discussed below: the catchment and the watercourse. of the lakes.
20.7.1 Modelling solutes in catchments 20.7.2 Modelling solutes in watercourses
Many catchment solute models have been developed. It is often necessary to develop models of the processes
For example, it may be necessary to predict the effect controlling water quality within rivers and lakes, partic-
of land-use change or atmospheric pollution on solute ularly for operational purposes, for example to respond
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Chapter 20 Solutes and water quality
1860 to a pollution spillage into a river, or to set concentration
30 100%
limits for polluters that are licensed to discharge pollution
25
into watercourses. An example of this type of model is
No. of sites
20
15 50% the WASP (Water quality Analysis Simulation Program)
10 model which was developed by the United States Envi-
5 ronmental Protection Agency (US EPA) to predict the
0 0% effect of natural phenomena and human-made pollution
on water quality. The processes of advection, dispersion,
1970
30 100% point and diffuse pollutant inputs and exchange between
25 river reaches are simulated in the model. Based on these,
No. of sites
20 WASP can predict concentrations of many water qual-
15 50%
ity parameters, including different forms of nitrogen
10
and phosphorus, dissolved oxygen, algae, mercury and
5
0 0% organic chemicals. The interactions between different
water quality parameters in the eutrophication model
2000
100%
within WASP are shown in Figure 20.30. The WASP
30
25 model was applied by Yenilmez and Aksoy (2013) to
assess the effectiveness of different measures to reduce
No. of sites
20
15 50% nutrient concentrations in Lake Uluabat, Turkey, after
10 1-year and 10-year time periods. The results suggested
5 that sediment dredging conducted across the whole lake
0 0%
was the most effective short-term measure in reducing
2015 phosphate concentrations in lake waters, although dredg-
30 100%
ing on this scale would likely impact adversely on the lake
25
ecology. Combining partial sediment dredging with catch-
No. of sites
20
15 50% ment-wide measures to reduce phosphorus load to the
10 lake, such as improved wastewater treatment and reduced
5 fertilizer application, was almost as effective after 1 year
0 0% and was the most e ffective means of reducing phosphate
concentration after 10 years.
2030
20 100%
15
No. of sites
10 50% Reflective question
5 ➤ A model is being developed to predict the effect of urban-
0%
ization on solute concentrations in the river draining a
0
catchment. What do you think are the key processes and
2100 solutes to include in the model, and why?
30 100%
25
No. of sites
20
15 50%
10
5
0 0%
4.5
4–
6.5
6–
7–
5–
5.5
4.5
6.5
–5
–7
7.5
5.5
–6
pH
Figure 20.29 Histograms (left-hand y-axis) and cumulative frequencies
(right-hand y-axis) of surface water pH for selected years from 1860 to
2100 in 59 lakes in Galloway, south-west Scotland, simulated using the
MAGIC model. (Source: after Helliwell and Simpson, 2010)
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20.8 Summary
External Light
Temperature
loads & flow
CBOD (1) Phytoplankton Ammonia
Organic
nitrogen
CBOD (2) Detritus Dissolved
oxygen Nitrate
Organic
phosphorus
Benthic
CBOD (3) Phosphate
algae
Salinity
Sediment diagenesis
Figure 20.30 Interactions between different water controlling parameters and controlling factors in the eutrophication module within the WASP (Water
Quality Analysis Simulation Program) model. CBOD is the carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand and is represented by three different compartments
within this model. CBOD is measured in the same way as BOD (see Glossary) apart from the activity of bacteria that oxidize nitrogen, which is suppressed
in the water sample in the determination of CBOD. (Source: United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA))
20.8 Summary solutes and hydrological pathways controls the downstream
solute and water quality patterns. Different solute concentrations
This chapter demonstrates the importance and relevance of are contained and modified by different hydrological pathways.
solute hydrology and water quality to physical geography and Slow-moving water that has a long soil or substrate residence
environmental science. Chemical, biological and physical factors time will tend to have very different solute contents and concen-
affecting solute behaviour and water quality include solute form, trations from water that has moved more quickly over or through
pH, redox potential, temperature and pressure, particulates and the catchment. This faster-moving water may have solute con-
interactions with microbiological activity. The behaviour of solutes centrations that closely match that of the input precipitation. It
in all components of the catchment hydrological system is import- is because of this that solutes are often used as flow tracers in
ant in determining the spatial and temporal variation of solute catchments in order to identify the pathways through which the
flux and solute concentration. Solute flux is the concentration of water has travelled.
a solute multiplied by the discharge. Precipitation, evaporation/ Spatial patterns of solutes and water quality at the global and
evapotranspiration, interception, soil water, groundwater and regional scales are caused by differences in climate, topography,
river and lake processes are important in determining both solute geology, soil, vegetation and land use and management. Temporal
concentrations and fluxes. In addition the interaction between
➤
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Chapter 20 Solutes and water quality
➤
patterns of solutes and water quality at the storm event, annual management, planning and operational purposes. While many
and long-term timescales are the result of changes in the relative models help us with our predictions, a complete understanding
dominance of runoff production processes within the region or of solute and water quality cannot be attained without appreci-
catchment of study and by changes to inputs or stores of solutes ating the interaction of geology, climate, soil, biotic and human
within the system. Antecedent conditions (e.g. soil moisture con- activities with catchment hydrology. Such an understanding is
tent) and land management or environmental change may affect necessary to predict the effects of land management and climate
the way in which water moves across the catchment as well as change on solutes and water quality. Furthermore, adverse and
the volume of water moving across the catchment. In addition unexpected consequences for human health, environmental
inputs of fertilizer or changes in forestry practice and urban resources and terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems can occur
land use may change the amount of certain solutes available when our well-intentioned management interventions attempt
for movement and removal. Modelling solutes and water quality to manipulate solute behaviour without taking account of these
within catchments and individual water bodies is required for interactions.
Further reading Meybeck, M. (2003) Global analysis of river systems: from
earth system controls to Anthropocene syndromes. Philosophi-
cal Transactions of the Royal Society B, 358, 1935–1955.
A global overview of the effects of human activities on rivers is
Boyd, C. (2015) Water quality: An introduction, 2nd edition. given in this paper.
Springer, New York.
An overview of water quality from a chemistry perspective, giv- Novotny, V. (2003) Water quality: Diffuse pollution and water-
ing more detail on the physical and chemical processes involved shed management. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
in determining water quality. A comprehensive and authoritative tome on diffuse pollution;
a book to dip into, rather than to read from cover to cover.
Kendall, C. and McDonnell, J.J. (1998) (eds) Isotope tracers in
catchment hydrology. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, see: wwwr- Whitehead, P.G., Wilby, R.L., Battarbee, R.W., Kernan, M. and
camnl.wr.usgs.gov/isoig/isopubs/itchinfo.html. Wade, A.J. (2009) A review of the potential impacts of climate
The definitive textbook on this topic, beginning with chapters change on surface water quality. Hydrological Sciences Journal,
that explain the fundamentals of isotope geochemistry, fol- 54, 101–123.
lowed by chapters examining the use of isotopes in all compart- A thoroughly referenced review which demonstrates that
ments of the catchment hydrological system. climate change is likely to cause deterioration in water quality.
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C H A PTER 2 1
Drylands
David S.G. Thomas
School of Geography, Oxford University Centre for the Environment, University of Oxford
Learning objectives devoid of human interest and occupation (Figure 21.2).
Over 5000 years ago, early Egyptian civilizations developed
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
and flourished in a desert setting, as did those of Mesopo-
tamia. Stone tools, found in many dryland contexts, are
➤ understand what aridity is and what causes drylands and deserts
testimony of even earlier human (or hominid) engagement
in these regions. This is exemplified by the incredible
➤ describe where dryland areas are located today and the diversity
extensive stone tool scatters found in parts of the Kalahari
of environments that drylands represent
Desert, Botswana (Figure 21.3), and the discovery in 1969
➤ understand the main processes that have shaped drylands and of the remains of ‘Mungo man’ in the Willandra Lakes
operate within them region of dry interior Australia, and dated to c. 40 000
➤ understand why drylands are important regions for people and years ago.
how their importance may change in the future The key to all these ‘occupations’ is an association with
water: either in terms of now-dry former lake basins, testi-
mony to past wetter climates or major inflows from wetter
21.1 Introduction regions; or, as with the civilizations of Mesopotamia and
Egypt, major rivers bringing water into drylands were the
Dryland environments are diverse (Figure 21.1), compris- key to the development of societies in otherwise hostile
ing much more than the sand-dune-covered landscapes regions. More generally, the ability to find strategies to cope
that frequently feature in the media. In total, dunefields with seasonal and longer moisture deficits contributed to
are only a small part of the diverse environmental condi- the successful and sustainable development of migratory
tions present in the world’s drylands, which can embrace pastoral lifestyles throughout North Africa, the Middle
barren rocky mountainous zones and desert plains, dry East and central Asia and, in the waterless Kalahari of
saline lake beds and river valleys. This diversity reflects southern Africa, to the evolution of a hunter–gatherer life-
variations in moisture availability, structural settings, par- style by the San, or bushmen. These persisted as the major
ent rocks, ecological characteristics and local geomorphic forms of human use for many thousands of years, and in
conditions. Nor is it the case that deserts and drylands are some cases are still the dominant lifestyle today.
M21 An Introduction to Physical Ge 83575.indd 557 24/05/2017 18:56
Chapter 21 Drylands
Figure 21.1 Three different dryland landscapes in the space of a few hundred metres, Namib Desert, looking due south. At the northern edge of the
Namib sand sea, which contains mega-dunes that can reach heights of over 300 m (background), there is an abrupt transformation to a rocky and
stoney plain, where processes such as salt weathering operate on the largely bare rock surfaces (foreground). This sharp transition occurs because of
the east–west-orientated Kuiseb Valley. This valley, which has flowing water in it for no more than a few days a year, is a linear oasis fed by rains that
fall in the highlands to the east of the desert. The small annual flow of the river is sufficient to inhibit the northward extension of the sand dunes, and
therefore to preserve a distinction between the southerly sand desert and northerly stoney desert. There is enough seepage water in the valley sedi-
ments to support plants all year round.
Explorers and travellers from western Europe began In the Kalahari desert it took the Anglo-Swedish explorer
increasingly to visit African and Asian drylands regions Charles Anderson two attempts, heading from the west,
from the eighteenth century onwards, although first in 1850 and 1853, to reach Lake Ngami, a relatively small
arrivals were several centuries earlier. Drylands were fre- body of water fed by rivers from the more humid north.
quently viewed with disdain and fear, and sometimes as A year before his first effort Ngami had been visited, from
barriers in the quest for more hospitable environments. the east, by David Livingstone. Anderson nearly lost his
life on his first attempt, through lack of water and get-
ting disorientated. When he eventually reached the lake
three years later he noted that ‘whether my expectations
had been raised to too high a pitch, or that the grandeur
of this inland sea had been exaggerated by travellers, I
must confess that, on closer inspection, I felt rather dis-
appointed’ (Andersson, 1856). In contrast to well-watered
and well-vegetated temperate areas, the deficit of water,
as Anderson initially found, often proved a major obstacle
to movement, while the paucity of plant cover presented
desert landscapes as spectacular and bizarre. This contrib-
uted to reports about deserts that emphasized the unusual
aspects, which continue to fuel the images portrayed in the
media today.
During the twentieth century, technologies evolved so
Figure 21.2 Innovative living in drylands: a troglodyte house in the Mat-
that today, in the twenty-first century, drylands support
mata loess plateau, Tunisia. The even-grained but massive wind-blown over 2 billion people, almost a third of the global popu-
dust deposits of loess have provided an ideal medium in which to exca- lation. Drylands possess many cities with populations in
vate underground houses. The rooms that lead off this central courtyard excess of 2 million, including the extensive urban areas
maintain cool, even temperatures even at the hottest times of the year.
of such metropolises as Los Angeles and Beijing. Half of
There are many examples of human ingenuity being used over the mil-
lennia to cope with the harsh environmental conditions that can exist in Africa’s total population lives in drylands, while dryland
dryland regions. countries and regions are amongst those with the highest
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21.1 Introduction
(a) Figure 21.3 (a) Extensive stone tool scat-
ters occur in parts of the Kalahari Desert,
Botswana, including in the vicinity of the dry
lake bed of former Palaeolake Makgadikgadi,
a feature representing the past occurrence
of a lake of up to 66 000 km2 in this dryland
context (Burrough et al., 2009). The tools
are of uncertain age at present but are likely
dominated by Middle Stone Age material,
possibly from ∼90940 000 years ago. (b)
Not only are there scatters of ‘regular’
artefacts in this basin, but several giant ‘han-
daxes’, amongst the largest on Earth, have
been found. These may in fact be cores, from
which smaller pieces have been fashioned
for tools, rather than being implements
themselves.
(b)
(a)
annual population growth rates today. For example, the
(b)
population growth rates in dryland countries include 8.1%
in Oman 3.0% in Afghanistan and 1.8% in Mongolia,
compared with a global average of 1.13% per annum
(World Bank 2014 data).
There is clearly an important social dimension to
understanding how dryland environmental systems func-
tion. The widespread availability of satellite imagery from
the 1970s onwards (Figure 21.4), together with a marked
increase in systematic environmental research in drylands,
have contributed both to a more comprehensive view of
the diversity of deserts and drylands on the one hand, and,
on the other hand, to a recognition that the processes that
occur in these areas are not unique, differing from those Figure 21.4 Satellite image of part of the Lake Eyre Basin, Simpson
in other environments in the frequency and magnitude Desert, Australia. In the upper right (NE) area of the image sand dunes
of occurrence, rather than in type. This chapter explores can be seen running approximately N–S, but they are cut through by
dryland characteristics, landforms and the dominant ephemeral river channels that enter Lake Eyre. Unusually dry, heavy rain in
May 2009 caused rivers to flow and enter the lake basin, forming a delta
processes that have shaped, and continue to shape, these feature. (Source: NASA image created by Jesse Allen, using Landsat data
extensive and important regions. provided by the United States Geological Survey)
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Chapter 21 Drylands
21.2 Aridity 21.2.1 Drylands
The driest, or hyper-arid areas, which can be regarded as the
The main characteristic of deserts and drylands is clearly ‘true deserts’, have P/PET values of less than 0.05. These
moisture deficiency. This does not mean that precipita- areas, which also have periods in excess of 12 months
tion does not occur. Rather, it is erratic: it can be spread without rainfall being recorded, include large tracts of
unevenly through the year, contributing to a long ‘dry the central Sahara, the Arabian Peninsula and the coastal
season’, can be patchy in where it occurs in a given region Atacama and Namib Deserts (Figure 21.5). Arid areas have
and can have a high propensity not to fall in any given P/PET values between 0.05 and 0.2 and include areas of
year, contributing to uncertainty. Deserts and drylands central Australia and the northern and southern fringes of
are not necessarily hot (another common image), though the Sahara. Annual rainfall may be up to 200 mm where it
some certainly are. Winters can be cool, even cold, and for occurs predominantly in winter months and up to 300 mm
example in parts of interior North America and Asia, win- where it is principally a summer occurrence. Much of the
ter snowfall can be an important precipitation source that Sahel belt of Africa, large areas of the western interior of
feeds, on melting, streams, rivers and groundwater during North America, north-east Brazil and areas of Mediterra-
spring and summer. Clear cloudless skies can lead to high nean Europe are semi-arid. P/PET values fall between 0.2
diurnal temperature ranges of several tens of degrees Cel- and 0.5, and rainfall may be up to 500 mm a year in winter
sius. Of all the climatic characteristics of these regions, it is rainfall areas and up to 800 mm in summer rainfall areas.
the annual overall net negative moisture balance, or aridity, Whether hyper-arid, arid or semi-arid dryland regions are
that is the defining characteristic of deserts and drylands. all susceptible to large year-to-year variations in precipita-
A number of methods exist for measuring the annual tion (Figure 21.6) and are susceptible to drought events. As
moisture balance at any location, all of which require a rule of thumb, the human occupation and agricultural
meteorological data, preferably collected over a number use of drylands increases from hyper-arid to semi-arid,
of years so that mean values, year-to-year variability and just as do natural vegetation amounts. In the early 1990s
any trends can be determined. Data on monthly precipi- UNEP added dry–subhumid areas (P/PET = 0.590.65) to
tation (P) and monthly potential evapotranspiration (PET) the areas that it regarded as drylands, because such regions
are required for the moisture balance to be calculated. experience similar problems, including susceptibilities to
Direct measurements of PET are not widely available, so drought, as semi-arid areas (see Middleton and Thomas,
that methods for its determination from other climate data 1997). These areas include the Canadian Prairies, parts of
have been used, even data from weather stations that col- Kenya and southern Russia.
lect only rudimentary information such as mean monthly
temperature and the number of daylight hours.
Moisture balance values of less than 1.0 indicate an
annual excess of PET over P, a moisture deficit. In prac-
tice, areas where values fall below 0.5 are regarded as
drylands. Since the 1950s and the work of Perivail Meigs
(1953), areas that are too cold for seasonal crop growth
have been excluded from the classification of drylands.
This convention was introduced by UNESCO in its arid
lands programme, which was concerned with areas that
support human populations, however sparsely. This means
that tundra and extremely low-latitude areas, where actual
precipitation amounts are very low, are not included in
the classification. For example, the Dry Valleys area of
Antarctica is extremely arid but temperatures are so low
that this area does not meet the crop growth criterion Figure 21.5 Barren rocky landscape in part of the coastal Atacama
mentioned above. Where P/PET values are below 0.5, Desert, Chile. This is one of the driest places on Earth, where the most
a number of subdivisions have been introduced since the effective geomorphic agent is neither the work of water nor the wind, but
rather it is the effect of the rapid uplift of the Andes region due to tec-
late 1970s by organizations such as the United Nations in
tonic processes. This induces some slope instability, with Earth movement
its Environment Programme (UNEP), so that regions with and gravity being the most effective geomorphic agents operating to
different degrees of aridity can be distinguished. shape the long-term development of the landscape.
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21.2 Aridity
of dryland rainfall, this variability can occur at a very
local scale so that annual rainfall totals can vary dra-
matically over distances of a few kilometres. Perhaps
the only certain thing about drylands is that all regions
are drought-susceptible and any dryland area has the
potential to experience hyper-arid conditions in any
year. Dryland environments represent a significant,
but difficult to habitate, part of the globe. Droughts
in Africa, and the resultant social consequences, are
frequently reported in the media, for example through
the 1970s and 1980s in the Sahel belt of Africa, and in
2015–2016 in parts of southern Africa. When precipi-
tation fails, consequences can be dramatic even in dry-
lands in the developed world. For example, the Province
Figure 21.6 In 2009, abnormal dry-season rains saw over half of the of Saskatchewan, in the Canadian Prairies, experienced
mean annual rainfall of the Kalahari, Botswana, fall in two days in June. in 2002 its driest recorded year ever, with both winter
Consequently water dominated the landscape of the ‘dry season’ in that snowfall and summer rains at very low levels. This had
year, filling parts of the Makgadikgadi Basin in central Botswana, leading
to dry-season vegetation growth and irregular wildlife migrations.
drastic effects on this agriculturally important region,
both for crop production and for farming communities.
Considered together, the different types of dry- Understanding the causes of aridity, and the processes
land cover around 40% of the Earth’s land surface operating in drylands, is therefore more than of aca-
(Figure 21.7). The stated area varies in different demic interest.
accounts, for two reasons. First is that the data on which
area calculations are based is difficult to generate, partly
21.2.2 Causes of aridity
because of the lack of climate data for some desert
regions, and also because year-to-year climate variabil- The distribution of drylands shown in Figure 21.7 yields
ity makes the use of annual data or mean data poten- some clues to explain their distribution. At the global scale
tially significant in affecting the results. Second is that there are four main contexts in which drylands occur:
some figures include dry sub-humid areas, while others in subtropical regions (see Chapter 8); at considerable
do not. Table 21.1 shows the current data used by the distance from the oceans with an interior continental
United Nations (e.g. in its information for the 2010–2020 location (see Chapter 8); in mountain rain shadow zones
‘Decade for deserts and the fight against desertification’; (see Chapter 9); and on certain western coastlines of land
see UN, 2015). masses. Some dryland areas meet more than one of these
As well as aridity, one of the principal characteristics criteria. For example, the central Sahara is subtropical, has
of drylands is uncertainty about whether precipita- high continentality and is affected by mountain zones such
tion will occur. High inter-annual rainfall variation is as the Tibesti Massif and the Tamgat Mountains, while
therefore common. Since convection is a major cause the Namib Desert is both coastal and subtropical. Thus
causative factors may be combined or cumulative, which
Table 21.1 Dryland area and population data (data compiled from vari-
may lead to moisture deficits that are greater than if only
ous UN sources, 2014 data) one factor applied.
Each of these four factors contributes to climatic con-
ditions leading to low precipitation. Subtropical areas are,
Area (km2) % Global Total % Global
land area population population
in climatological terms, regions of stable, descending air,
giving rise to the subtropical high-pressure belts. Such sta-
Hyper-arid 9.8 6.6 101 336 1.7 ble, descending air masses are not conducive to precipita-
Arid 15.7 10.6 242 780 4.1 tion, although the seasonal movements of the intertropical
convergence zone (ITCZ; see Chapters 6 and 8) can lead
Semi-arid 22.6 15.2 855 333 14.4
to rainfall affecting marginal areas. Subtropical drylands,
Dry subhumid 12.8 8.7 909 972 15.3
which include the large dryland belt of North Africa
Total 60.9 41.3 2109 421 35.5
and Arabia, comprise extensive hyper-arid/arid core
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Chapter 21 Drylands
Hyper-arid
Arid
Semi-arid
Dry-subhumid
Figure 21.7 Global distribution of drylands. (Source: UNEP, ISRIC, CRU/UEA, after UN, 1992)
areas, which are barely affected by ITCZ movements, and south-west Africa and South America. The lower atmo-
smaller marginal areas with semi-arid and dry–subhumid sphere is cooled by the cold oceans, suppressing sea sur-
conditions. In these areas rainfall is unreliable and unpre- face evaporation and therefore rainfall. Often fogs form in
dictable, with a high incidence of droughts. This is illus- these conditions. These can drift onshore and make up the
trated by the problems experienced by the Sahel belt which major precipitation source in these extremely dry deserts.
lies on the southern side of the Sahara Desert. Similar effects, but to a lesser extent, affect south-western
Continentality contributes to aridity because areas Australia.
that are a considerable distance from the oceans are The causes of aridity and dryland conditions are there-
not penetrated effectively by moisture-bearing weather fore relatively simple to understand, but for any dryland
systems, even when they fall outside the subtropics. Con- area the interaction of factors may be complex. Different
tinentality is a major cause of dryland conditions in the combinations of P and PET levels can give rise to similar
interior of North America, and central Asia. As well as overall aridity levels, which is further complicated by the
having low precipitation levels, these areas also tend to various degrees of seasonality that occur in different areas.
experience very cold winter months owing to their great Drylands caused by cold ocean currents and subtropical
distances from warmer ocean conditions. Snow can be effects tend to have lower seasonal temperature contrasts
an important feature of winters in continental drylands than continental drylands, where winters can be extremely
while overall PET rates are lower than those of subtropi- cold and summers very hot. Given that subtropical dry-
cal drylands. lands are relatively close to the equator, seasonal contrasts
Areas on the lee side of mountain barriers can have rain are related more to the ITCZ movements (which affect
shadow dryland conditions generated by the orographic rainfall) than to temperature. It can therefore be more
rainfall effects of the mountains (see Chapter 9). This usu- appropriate in these cases to talk of wet and dry seasons,
ally enhances the level of aridity that would otherwise be rather than of summer and winter. Where continentality
caused by subtropical or continentality effects. For exam- adds to subtropical effects such as in the Kalahari Desert
ple, the Rocky Mountains, in the United States, create a of interior southern Africa, both seasonal temperature and
rain shadow on their easterly side that enhances continen- precipitation contrasts can be marked. Table 21.2 attempts
tality effects, while the Great Divide in eastern Australia to show the approximate percentages of the world’s
adds to interior aridity due to continentality/subtropical drylands with different temperature regimes. This both
impacts. complements the classification based on aridity type and
The narrow, north–south-orientated, hyper-arid Namib further illustrates the great range of background environ-
and Atacama Deserts, respectively, in Namibia and Chile, mental conditions that are embraced by the term ‘dryland’
are a result of the impact of cold ocean currents that or ‘desert’. Table 21.2 shows just how climatically diverse
bring Antarctic waters to the ocean surface offshore of drylands can be.
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Table 21.2 A simple classification of dryland climates Table 21.3 Characteristics of main dryland soil orders
Mean monthly
Soil order Characteristics
temperature (°C)
Temperature Percentage of Coldest Warmest
regime global drylands months month Aridisol All-year-round dryness and/or salinity
Alfisol Moderate base saturation, some seasonal moisture
Cold winter 24 6 0 10–30 Entisol Little-altered sedimentary material lacking
Cool winter 15 0–10 10–30 horizonation
Mild winter 18 10–20 10–30 Mollisol Base and organically rich
Hot 43 10–30 7 0 Vertisol Deep-cracking clay soil
soil classification system (see Chapter 17). Entisols are
little more than sedimentary material and therefore are
dependent on the nature of the parent material for any
Reflective questions nutrient content that they possess. Aridisols and alfisols
➤ How may drylands be defined and characterized? are moisture deficient though the latter may be seasonally
able to support plant growth. The heavy clay vertisols are
➤ How is aridity calculated? either extremely dry or saturated, both conditions that are
➤ Dryland areas embrace a range of climatic regimes. What not conducive to most plants. Mollisols are more suited to
is their uniting characteristic? plant growth owing to their higher organic and base con-
tent, but they are relatively scarce in occurrence.
➤ How do different mechanisms that generate aridity An additional factor that potentially impacts upon
operate? plant growth is the susceptibility of soils to crusting in dry-
➤ Can you provide some examples of dryland areas world- lands. This crusting occurs through the effects of concen-
wide that are caused by these different mechanisms? tration of minerals in surface layers due to high evaporative
rates, through raindrop impact during high-intensity storm
events, or in the form of biological crusts. Salt crusting can
be a common feature of dryland soils, where evaporation
21.3 Dryland soil and vegetation systems and limited flushing by rains can lead to the accumulation
of, for example, gypsum and halite (see Chapter 14), which
As well as having their own ecological significance, plant respectively can result in the development of crusts known
communities act at the interface between the land surface as gypcretes and salcretes (Nash, 2011). Hard-to-see biolog-
and the elements of climate and weather that contribute ical crusts, formed by algae or cyanobacteria, are also now
to geomorphic processes. In drylands, the variability and recognized as an important surface feature in some dry-
uncertainty of moisture availability, high seasonal, and lands (Thomas and Dougill, 2007). Subsurface enrichment
also diurnal, temperature ranges, and the deficiencies of of dryland soils has also been widely noted, particularly
nutrients that some soil systems have are all major stresses but not exclusively by calcium carbonate (forming cal-
upon plant growth. We have already considered the broad cretes) and silica (forming silcretes, Figure 21.8). Both the
climatic conditions present in drylands, so that it is now processes of formation and precise chemical composition
necessary to review desert soils prior to moving on to a of these features, which collectively are known as duric-
consideration of plant systems. rusts, can be complex (see Nash, 2011).
21.3.1 Dryland soils 21.3.2 Dryland vegetation
Table 21.3 shows the principal characteristics, relevant to Despite climatic and soil stresses in drylands, such areas
plant growth, of the main dryland soil types recognized are not always as devoid of plants as common percep-
in the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) tions suggest. Hence it is better to consider dryland plant
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Figure 21.9 Welwichia mirabalis, a rare plant adapted to the hyper-arid
conditions of the Namib Desert. The spacing between plants reflects the
Figure 21.8 Green silcrete outcrop, Makgadikgadi Basin, Botswana. scarcity of water and the extensive root networks that draw moisture
from a wide area.
communities in terms of their adaptations to moisture
and temperature stresses rather than in terms of their
absence. While hyper-arid areas often appear to be largely
plant-less, even they can offer niches that can favour the
development of well-adapted plant communities, includ-
ing lower plant orders such as algae and lichens. At the
other end of the dryland environment spectrum, dry
subhumid and semi-arid areas can, particularly during
the wet season, have almost total plant coverage of the
landscape (see Chapter 10). Figures 21.9 – 21.11 show
examples of different degrees of plant cover in dryland
environments.
21.3.2.1 Characteristics of dryland plants
Figure 21.10 Clumped perennial grasses in the dune landscape of the
While general hot desert biome characterization is dis-
Nebraska Sand Hills, USA.
cussed in Chapter 10, particular attention is devoted
here to plant survival strategies in such regions. At a very
simple level all plants can be classified as hydrophytes,
mesophytes or xerophytes. Hydrophytes are wetland plants
that can tolerate permanently saturated soils, and there-
fore they are not found in drylands other than in very
specific contexts such as the Okavango Delta of northern
Botswana and other ‘wetlands in drylands’, which are
sourced with water inflowing form more humid areas.
Mesophytes exist in environments with 10–20% soil mois-
ture. This is between the field capacity and the wilting point
(see Chapter 17, especially Figure 17.4). These are the
plants commonly found in temperate regions and also in
the ‘wetter’ dry–subhumid and semi-arid dryland areas.
Xerophytes are the true dryland plants, being able to tol- Figure 21.11 Mixed tree–bush savanna in dry–subhumid western Zimba-
erate extreme moisture deficiencies and to survive for very bwe. The tree in the foreground is a specimen of Acacia karoo.
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21.3 Dryland soil and vegetation systems
prolonged periods in situations with less than 20%, and as important component of the plant communities that
little as 5%, soil moisture. are present. Desert systems possess perennial vegetation
Xerophytes possess a number of coping strategies to that rarely exceeds 10% cover and may comprise a mix
withstand seasonal and longer droughts. Lower plants of shrubs and grasses. A flush of herbaceous and grass
such as lichens and algae are able to tolerate desiccation annual growth follows rainfall events, but the total ground
by entering a dormant state when moisture is absent, cover is unlikely to exceed 50%. Contracted or extreme
responding rapidly to an active state when moisture desert systems possess vegetation in only the most favour-
returns. Many grasses, whether annual or perennial spe- able locations, such as ephemeral channel floors, where
cies, have bulbs and rhizomes and avoid drought by con- deep-rooted or salt-tolerant plants tap groundwater to
fining growth and reproduction stages to the wet season depths that may be many tens of metres.
and lying dormant in the dry season and during droughts. Since the 1990s it has been recognized that dryland
Larger plants such as trees and shrubs, and succulents that plant communities do not conform to Clementsian suc-
include cacti, can remain active during dry seasons and cession principles (see Chapter 11) because of the ways
droughts through having a range of strategies for evading, that they are adapted to deal with environmental stresses.
resisting or enduring moisture deficiencies. Table 21.4 Given that the resources that support plants, especially
summarizes the range of drought adaptations present moisture, vary through time in drylands, biomass levels
among dryland plants. do not simply increase over time; rather they can vary,
The drought strategies of plants have a significant effect and communities can even ‘crash’ at times when distur-
on the degree of plant cover that is afforded to the ground bance occurs and stresses are high. Different plant types
surface, and the temporal variability of that cover. Plant respond to stress in different ways (Table 21.4). When
spacing allows both moisture and nutrients to be used a stress or disturbance ceases, that is, when moisture
opportunistically. Various classification systems have been becomes available again, communities can recover in a
produced in an attempt to capture the variability of dry- spectacular fashion. A consequence of this is that dry-
land vegetation systems. This variability can be extremely land landscapes can vary dramatically over time in terms
complex since moisture, temperature and nutrient factors of the degree of plant cover they support, with varia-
can combine in a myriad of different ways. One simple tions due to differences in antecedent rainfall amounts.
but effective scheme that embraces the principal influences Savanna systems commonly display this type of instabil-
divides dryland vegetation systems into three categories: ity. This is no better illustrated by the recovery of Sahel
savanna, desert and extreme desert. plant communities after the extreme drought of the
Savannas occur in semi-arid regions, with 10–30% 1970s–1990s, when the desert appeared to be advancing
cover of shrubs that may often be in dwarf form. Perennial at the expense of savanna. Following the recovery of rain-
grasses may provide extensive cover during wet periods fall levels in subsequent years, ‘regreening’ has occurred,
but may die back to little more than root stock in times though not without spatial variations in the degree and
of stress. In some regions, succulent species are also an extent of recovery (Kaptué et al., 2015).
Table 21.4 Dryland plant adaptations to drought stress
Strategy
Escape drought Evade drought Resist drought Endure drought
Plant types Annuals and ephemerals Perennials Perennials Perennials
Plant examples Grasses and some herbs Trees Cacti and other succulents Shrubs
Characteristics Dormancy/death during dry Tap deep water by extensive Store water in stems and roots Reduce transpiration, for
season, surviving as seeds root networks example by small leaf area/
waxy leaf surfaces
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Chapter 21 Drylands
is a tectonically ‘quiet’ region. Ephemeral river systems,
Reflective questions which often have their headwaters in wetter areas next to
the central deserts, are common. The abundant availability
➤ Why can some plants survive in arid conditions? of sediment for transport by wind has generated extensive
➤ What are the main soil types that are found in dryland sand-dune systems. The Sahara and eastern Arabia are
areas, and what are their principal characteristics? major dryland regions with significant landscape diversity.
These include recently tectonically active areas that
have contributed to the development of mountains
(Figure 21.12), and extremely dry continental basins
21.4 Geomorphological processes
that have accumulated eroded sediments that have been
in drylands reworked under extremely arid conditions into sand dunes.
Dryland landscapes and landforms can also retain
21.4.1 Dryland landscapes legacies from different climatic regimes in the Quater-
Dryland landscapes are as diverse as those found in any nary and even Tertiary periods. Thus in the south-west
other global climatic zone. This reflects the range of struc- United States, dry lake beds, or playas, represent the sites
tural (tectonic and geological) settings found in the regions of previously permanent lakes that existed during wetter
that experience dryland climatic conditions. It also reflects climatic regimes in the late Quaternary. Even though the
the interactions between climate and landforms, which vegetation cover of the dune systems in central Australia
determine both the specific geomorphic processes that and the southern Kalahari Desert is often relatively sparse,
occur and their rates and effectiveness of operation. Some establishing the age of sand deposition using luminescence
researchers have attempted to quantify the main landform dating (e.g. see Hesse 2015) has shown that the dunes have
types present in different areas, with the results providing accumulated episodically during the last tens of thousands
useful illustrations of the diversity of dryland landscapes of years in response to times when conditions were even
and the relative importance of different geomorphic pro- drier and windier than at present.
cesses (see Chapter 1 in Thomas, 2011). Three contrasting The examples in Table 21.5 show that dryland land-
dryland regions are illustrated in Table 21.5. scapes are composed of features that result from the effec-
The south-west United States, known as the basin and tive operation of a range of geomorphic processes. These
range region, is a high relative relief environment, which processes are not in themselves unique to dryland regions.
is reflected in the large extent of mountainous areas and However, the manner in which rock weathering, slope and
intervening desert flats. The relatively sparsely vegetated channel processes and aeolian (wind-blown) processes
mountain surfaces can generate high runoff rates when operate is greatly influenced by dryland climatic condi-
rain falls. Therefore alluvial fans are an important fea- tions, both directly and through their effect upon plant
ture at the junction between mountains and flats. The cover. We will now consider these three sets of geomor-
Australian dryland interior has altogether much flatter phic processes, with particular emphasis on the elements
terrain, and in contrast to the south-west United States important to drylands.
Table 21.5 Percentage estimates of different landscapes within three dryland areas
SW USA Australia Sahara
Mountains 38 16 43
Alluvial fans 31 0 1
River plains and channel systems 5 13 3
Playas/dry lakes 1 1 1
Sand dunes 1 40 28
Undifferentiated flats 21 18 10
Other 3 12 14
(Source: adapted from Thomas, 1997a)
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21.4 Geomorphological processes in drylands
rock weathering regimes. Flaking rock surfaces are widely
seen in drylands and have long been regarded as ample evi-
dence of favourable conditions for rock weathering occurring
in drylands. However, it must not be forgotten that different
rock types and structures vary in their weathering potential
and susceptibility (see Chapter 14 for more detailed treatment
of this topic). In recent decades field measurements and labo-
ratory simulations have been enhancing our understanding of
how these factors may influence weathering processes.
Insolation, or thermal weathering, has been widely cited
as a major form of desert rock weathering, occurring effec-
tively under the influence of high rock surface diurnal tem-
perature ranges, which may exceed 50°C. This is thought
to cause the expansion and contraction of rock particles
Figure 21.12 Rapid uplift since the mid-Tertiary period has formed the and minerals, with different minerals experiencing different
northern Hajar Mountains in the Mausandam Peninsula of Oman and expansions and contractions, creating stresses that weaken
Ras al Khaimah, United Arab Emirates. This has created a situation where, rocks and loosen particles. The role of temperature change
despite being extremely arid, runoff has generated deep wadi develop-
ment (middle ground of photograph). A wadi is a river bed that remains
alone as the principal cause of this type of weathering,
dry except in wet weather. which often takes the form of granular disaggregation, has
been questioned. This is because the presence of moisture,
even in extremely small quantities, may be vital in contrib-
21.4.2 Rock weathering in drylands
uting to rock breakdown through its influence upon the
The presence of bare or relatively bare rock surfaces in movement and crystallization of salts and in extreme cases
dryland hills, mountains and plains (Figure 21.1), the high on the occurrence of interparticle freeze–thaw processes.
diurnal temperature ranges that drylands can experience, and Even in the extremely dry Namib Desert, fog (which con-
the excess of evapotranspiration over precipitation, which can tributes a higher percentage of total precipitation than rain-
lead to salts becoming concentrated in surface locations, have fall in parts of this desert) and dew fall are common and
all been considered as significant factors controlling dryland can provide sufficient moisture to effect such processes.
1 Formation of surface salt blisters 2 Formation of polygonal salt plates by 3 Lateral growth of polygons and vertical
crystallization from subsurface brines salt pinnacles Dry wind
Point of intense Forms plate margin
evaporation and ramparts. May develop
continuous salt into salt pinnacles
crystal growth as preferential
Salt Broken crystallization site
polygon blister Plates about
1 cm thick
Void Mud
Cracks extending to
subsurface mud
4 Thickening and marginal trimming 5 Development of thrust polygons 6 Extrusion of mud pinnacles
Periodic
rain
Plate margins
trimmed by Brine on plate Mud squeezed
solution crystallizes causing through void by
thickening Plates now up loading of
to 30 cm thick thick plates
Thermal
expansion Flow of
of mud plastic
wet mud
Figure 21.13 Salt crust development sequences on a playa surface. (Source: after Shaw and Thomas, 1997, based on a diagram originally in Krinsley, 1970)
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Chapter 21 Drylands
Salt weathering is also a significant process in drylands. agencies (see Figures 14.15 and 14.16 in Chapter 14). How-
Salt accumulation in surface sediments and rocks is favoured ever, these landforms tend to be restricted to relatively even-
by both high evaporation rates and limited leaching oppor- grained rock types that permit the movement of salt-laden
tunities, supplemented in some cases by wind-borne salt waters, or to the zone of capillary rise. Salt precipitation on
(Figure 21.13). Salt weathering is a mechanical process that flat, drying surfaces such as the floors of ephemeral dryland
occurs principally through three mechanisms: crystallization lakes and pools can contribute, through crystallization, to
when temperature increases lead to the growth of salt crys- surface disruption and cracking that persists and develops
tals, hydration when moisture inputs cause the salt volume until the next rainfall and flooding event (Figure 21.14).
to increase and thermal expansion when salts increase in
volume on heating. Individual salts have different suscep-
21.4.3 Hillslope and channel processes
tibilities to these processes. Sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) is a
good example of a salt that is both common and has a sol- Although rainfall totals are, by definition, low in dry-
ubility that declines in line with falling temperatures to the lands, two factors mean that water can be a very effective
point when crystallization occurs. It also experiences a sub- medium for downslope sediment transport in drylands.
stantial increase in volume when wetted (Goudie, 1997): if First, rainfall events are frequently intense. For example,
this occurs in a crack or fissure in a rock then this can force rainfall in subtropical drylands is often associated with
rock breakdown. The overall impacts of salt weathering and high rates of convection and thunderstorms. Second, vege-
the occurrence and importance of different salt weathering tation cover is often only partial and at the end of the dry
processes have been the subject of much experimentation season when rains begin, biomass and ground cover are
and debate. What is certain is that temperature and mois- usually at their lowest levels. Runoff is therefore rapidly
ture changes are closely interlinked with salt weathering, generated in many dryland environments (Figure 21.15),
and that insolation weathering and salt weathering effects but is rarer, for example, in areas where sandy sediments
are not necessarily discrete processes. dominate and infiltration rates are high.
As well as contributing to the overall rock weather- In the areas where runoff is readily generated, it is
ing, these processes can contribute, through repetitive usually in the form of infiltration-excess overland flow (see
occurrence, to the development of particular weathering Chapter 18). At one extreme this occurs when the ground
landforms. Cavernous and tafoni (honeycomb) weather- surface is bare rock. However, the effect also applies to
ing features have often been ascribed to salty weathering soft unconsolidated sediments where raindrop impact can
Figure 21.14 The crustal surface of Sua salt pan, in the Makgadikgadi basin, Botswana. This salt lake receives some summer (wet season) inundation
with shallow surface water. Evaporation after rains cease usually dries the basin out, with poligonal crusting patterns developing as clays and salts
expand. This can expose dry fine sediments beneath that can become the source of major dust storms.
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21.4 Geomorphological processes in drylands
Runoff Infiltration and
no overland flow
Hammada
pe
slo
Flood
Hilltop
ep
plain
Runoff Sand
Ste
Rock field Dunes
e
lop Submesic
Wadi bed t le s
Gen species and
Slope relic
Psammophile species
True desert species
Wadi bank True desert species
Wadi
Submesic
species
(+ trees)
Figure 21.15 Elements of the hydrological cycle in drylands and the ability of different sub-environments to generate runoff. A hammada is a flat rocky
area blown free of sand by the wind. (Source: after Shimda et al., 1986)
further enhance the effect by promoting surface sealing raindrops and thereby prevent sealing, but also because
and crusting. Sealing and crusting usually result from the roots increase the presence of macropores in soils and
breakdown of soil aggregates under raindrop impact, and sediments.
the washing of the finer particles into the voids between Although overland flow may be readily generated owing
larger ones (see Chapter 8). Overall infiltration rates tend to high rainfall intensities, rainfall totals are usually low
to be higher where larger plants are present, not only in individual storm events, but exceptions occur, as noted
because leaves and leaf litter on the ground act to intercept in Figure 21.6. Furthermore, evaporation rates are high
Figure 21.16 Gullied and eroded deposits in Badlands National Park, South Dakota, USA. (Source: Tom Olson/Shutterstock.com)
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Chapter 21 Drylands
and surface vegetation cover is patchy. Therefore during 800
Desert
many storm events overland flow is discontinuous. Often shrub Grassland Forest
Sediment yield (t km-2 yr-1)
only in the case of higher-magnitude or longer-duration 600
rainfall events does overland flow actually connect to chan-
nel systems. Dryland soils are often poorly developed and 400
stony. Slopes with almost non-existent soils are commonly
mantled by coarse rock debris. Recent research has shown 200 Reservoir data
that the macro-roughness of slopes, which includes both Stream data
the distribution of plants and that of stones, is a critical 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
determinant of the continuity and nature of overland flow.
Mean annual effective precipitation (mm)
Even when flow does not reach channel systems, rill devel-
opment is a common feature of dryland hillslopes (see Figure 21.17 The Langbein and Schumm (1958) curve, relating mean
Chapter 15). In sediments and rock types that are suscep- sediment yield to mean effective rainfall (effective rainfall is that which
tible to very efficient overland flow generation, gullies and produces runoff and is not lost to evapotranspiration or the soil mois-
ture store). Drylands generate the highest sediment yields according to
even extensive badland systems can develop such as that this model, which was based on the average values of measurements of
shown in Figure 21.16. sediment yields in different environments. (Source: after Langbein and
The relative bareness of hillslopes means that in global Schumm, 1958)
terms sediment yields in drylands are the greatest of all
environments. This was illustrated by the ground-breaking
work of the American geomorphologists Langbein and relatively bare slopes in dryland catchments, sediment
Schumm in 1958 (Figure 21.17). Rapid runoff means that transport, unlike in humid regions, is usually transport
flood hydrographs for dryland rivers peak early, with the limited rather than sediment supply limited. There is, how-
highest-magnitude events capable of doing considerable ever, a major downside to this efficiency: dams and other
structural damage. impoundment structures can have relatively short life
The key features of dryland channels are summarized spans compared with their counterparts in wetter regions.
in Table 21.6. With the exception of perennial rivers in Owing to the irregular nature of channel flow and
drylands that have their sources in neighbouring humid high seepage (also called transmission) losses, many
areas, channel flow is usually of short duration, irregular dryland river systems do not terminate at the coastline.
and frequently does not result in flow from the channel Inland-draining river systems are called endoreic. Some of
head to the end of the system. Two factors account for these systems may end at inland salt pans, or playas, for
this. First, the localized nature of dryland rainfall means example at Lake Eyre in Australia (Wang et al., 2014) and
that a flow event may only receive a contribution from a the Makgadikgadi pans in the Kalahari (see Figure 14.6;
small part of the catchment, which may not even include Burrough et al., 2009). Although surface water may fill
the main headwater channels. Second, high infiltration these basins after flow events or at the end of the wet sea-
losses through the bed may occur owing to unsaturated son, evaporative losses eventually result in drying out and
conditions prior to flooding. Owing to the presence of the concentration of salts at the surface.
Table 21.6 Some major characteristics of ephemeral dryland channel systems
Flow features Geomorphic and ecological implications
Irregular and unpredictable Wide channels, short-distance changes in channel form
High event-to-event variability Channel systems may change rapidly and channel systems in a region may
vary markedly
High water losses to evaporation and through the stream bed Flow-limited transport rates
Flow may not travel far down the channel system
Subsurface moisture may be important for subsequent plant growth
Peaked hydrograph Rapid flow onset during rainfall events. Flow may also end quickly
High velocities (7 4 m s -1
) common High sediment loads (bed load and/or suspended load)
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21.4 Geomorphological processes in drylands
21.4.4 Aeolian processes and forms
The wind can be an effective agent of sediment transport,
provided that sediment suitable for aeolian entrainment
is available. Limited vegetation cover in drylands and the
propensity for weathered sediment to accumulate in desert
basins, because of the disjointed and ephemeral nature of
flow in fluvial systems, explain why aeolian processes can
be effective in these areas. The modern scientific investiga-
tion of aeolian processes and sand-dune development has
its roots in the work of Brigadier Ralph Bagnold who began
observations in the North African deserts in the 1930s and
1940s. His seminal work on the physics of blown sand and
desert dunes is still regarded as the baseline against which
modern investigations are compared (Bagnold, 1941).
Only about 20% of drylands are covered by aeolian
sand deposits and dunes. Many dunes occur in more veg-
etated semi-arid and dry–subhumid areas and are often
relict from past drier climatic conditions at those sites. Silt,
which has a mean particle diameter of 0.002–0.063 mm,
Figure 21.18 Dune plumes emanating from east–west-orientated dry val-
is finer than sand, which has a mean particle diameter of leys in the Skeleton Coast of Namibia. Dust events such as these occur in
0.063–2.0 mm. Being much smaller and lighter than sand, the dry windy months (July–September) when strong easterly winds blow.
aeolian silt (or dust) is often lifted several kilometres up (Source: Jacques Descloitres, MODIS Rapid Response Team, NASA/GSFC)
into the atmosphere (Figure 21.18) and is therefore fre-
quently transported beyond dryland areas and ultimately critical part of a number of major global processes (see
deposited in the oceans or other land areas (see also Box 21.1). In some regions thick deposits of wind-blown
Figure 16.7 in Chapter 16). Aeolian dust presents a range silt, known as loess, have accumulated, often on the mar-
of hazards within drylands, but is now also seen to be a gins of dryland areas and frequently banked up against
Desert Dust: A Dry lake beds are a particularly decades, the drying-out of the Aral Sea
Beneficial Hazard important source of dust to the atmo- due to over-
sphere, because these are fluvial system exploitation of its river inflows for irri-
Silt-sized particles, transported in the end points where fine suspended sedi- gation is a not-able example of human
atmosphere by suspension as dust, are a ment has accumulated during times of actions that have had major negative
significant component of dryland geomor- past wetter climates, or which are replen- human consequences. The shrinking of
phic systems. Locally in drylands dust is ished today by seasonal or ephemeral the sea to less than 30% of its former area
widely documented as a hazard, and dust inflows. Lake beds may be exposed to the has exposed 36 000 km2 of former lake
storms are known to disrupt transport by atmosphere because of climate change. sediments, heavily polluted with chemical
road and air, through reducing visibility and For example, major lakes are known to fertilizer residues, to the wind. Dust-storm
clogging mechanical parts, as well as being have existed in parts of the Sahara, Kala- frequencies are high, with high rates of
a health hazard. The highest recorded hari and the south-western United States lung disease and cancer incidences in
annual frequencies of dust-storm days are during the past 20 000 years. Lake beds Uzbekistan at least partially attributable
from parts of central Asia, where over 100 may also be exposed to the atmosphere to the ‘Aral Sea dust effect’ (O’Hara et al.,
dust-days a year have been recorded in because of human activity. In recent 2001).
parts of Iran and Uzbekistan.
Box 21.1 ➤
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Chapter 21 Drylands
➤
The ability to monitor the movement with meteorological and surface data to Recently, the export of dust from the
of dust in the atmosphere by TOMS (Total understand the controls on dust emis- Sahara has been attributed a major role
Ozone Mapping Spectrometer) satellite sion. The Sahara produces approximately in the complex functioning of the Earth’s
data has, since the 1990s, revolutionized 66% of all the dust present in the Earth’s environmental system. Using satellite data,
the understanding of long-distance dust atmosphere, with the Bodele Depres- Koren et al. (2006) have calculated that
movement from drylands. Subsequently, sion, in the dry Lake Chad Depression 40 million tons of dust is transported by
a range of satellite borne sensors (e.g. on in the central Sahara, responsible for the wind from the Sahara to the Amazon
the MODIS platform) and land-based sen- about half of this (Figure 21.19). The Basin each year, with this dust being a crit-
sors that record the optical depth of dust Bodele is particularly favoured for dust ical source of nutrients for the fertilization
in the atmosphere have greatly enhanced generation because of its topographic of the Amazon rainforests. Dust is also now
the data available on dust events. It has setting, whereby strong dust-generating seen as a critical, but poorly understood,
been possible to identify major persistent winds are focused onto the dry, erodible, component of the atmosphere which influ-
transport pathways and the Earth’s major former lake bed. Dry river valleys, where ences climate in multiple and varying ways,
dust sources in drylands, as well as the fine surface sediment is replenished by including affecting solar radiation receipt
occurrence of individual dust-raising occasional floods, are also very significant and adsorption.
events, which can then be associated dust sources in some drylands.
Figure 21.19 Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer annual mean aerosol index data for 1980 to 1992. Red areas are of greatest dust concen-
trations, with the red area in the central Sahara being the Bodele Depression. (Source: Image courtesy of Sebastian Engelstaedter; Background
image courtesy of NASA from Blue Marble: Land, Surface, Shallow Water, and Shaded Topography, http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/view_rec
.php?id=2433)
Box 21.1
Sand Transport motion due to the high-velocity impact of and sandy a surface is, aeolian entrain-
a descending saltating grain. Sand move- ment will not take place even under high
Sand is transported primarily by saltation
ment is affected by the particle size (or wind velocities if the surface is protected
(a hopping motion) and creep (a rolling
mass), the wind strength and any forces (e.g. by vegetation).
motion) (Figure 21.20). A process called
(including gravity and pore space moisture) However, the relationship between
reptation is also sometimes referred to
that resist entrainment (see Chapters 15 surface cover and entrainment is complex,
(e.g. Anderson and Haff, 1988), which
and 16). Additional to these forces are as noted by Wiggs (1993) and others.
represents grains set into a low hopping
ground surface conditions. However dry This is because air moving over a surface
Box 21.2 ➤
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21.4 Geomorphological processes in drylands
➤
develops a velocity profile whereby the Turbulence is now seen as a vital part velocity profile) that enable entrainment
surface imparts a frictional drag on air of the entrainment process (Weaver and to occur. As shear velocities increase, the
immediately adjacent to the surface, Wiggs, 2011) with small variations in sand transport rate rises exponentially.
including a very thin (often less than 1 mm surface topography, introduced by factors Once entrainment has commenced, the
thick) zone of zero wind velocity, known including variations in particle size and impact of descending saltating grains
confusingly as the aerodynamic roughness the occurrence of a partial vegetation contributes further to particle movement
length or z0. It is necessary for these fric- cover, and variable surface heating by the on the surface. Sandy surfaces are usually
tional effects to be overcome for particles Sun, contributing to the development of rippled during aeolian transport events,
to be mobilized, picked up by the wind, a turbulent velocity profile that enables which is a reflection of the impact of
and moved vertically into faster-moving air particle entrainment to be effected. or saltating grains on the ground surface.
away from the immediate surface. This pro- 2-mm diameter sand particles on a bare, Ripples are usually transient features,
cess may be enhanced when air flow is not dry surface, a wind velocity of about with their size and spacing changing
laminar but is turbulent (see Figure 16.3 in 5 m s - 1 is sufficient to generate shear frequently and rapidly in response to
Chapter 16 for a diagrammatic explanation velocities (usually labelled as u* and a gustiness and subtle directional changes
of laminar and turbulent flow). term used to describe the gradient of the in the wind.
Suspension
Wind Saltation
Reptation
Creep
Figure 21.20 The processes of sediment movement by the wind.
Box 21.2
hills. Somewhat paradoxically, however, silt can be less area on Earth, its topography means that there are a num-
readily entrained by the wind than larger sand particles, ber of discrete sand seas within it. The relatively low relief
principally because the small grains pack down better of much of the Arabian Peninsula and the southern Afri-
on the ground surface, thus offering more resistance to can and Australian interiors results in larger overall sand
the forces of entrainment. Sand transport processes are seas in these areas, with the Kalahari sand sea extending to
described in Box 21.2. almost 2.5 million km2.
While sand deposits, usually in the form of dunes, can A sand dune forms when, at a specific location,
occur as individual features, the vast majority of aeolian the rate of arrival of sand in entrainment by the wind
sand deposits are found in spatially extensive (greater than exceeds the rate of loss. This occurs when surface
2 km2) accumulations known as sand seas (or ergs) ‘roughness’ changes. At its most obvious level, this net
(Figure 21.21). Recent modelling studies (e.g. Baas and deposition can occur when moving sand meets an obsta-
Nield, 2007; Zhang et al., 2010) show that interactions cle that disrupts wind flow or reduces wind velocities,
between adjacent dunes can be very important in influenc- such that the capacity to transport sand is reduced.
ing dune forms and sediment movement characteristics: Obstacles that cause this to occur can range from hills,
indeed, dunefields and sand seas, rather than sand dunes, against which a dune may bank up, to a small plant or
could arguably be regarded as the ‘main’ unit of aeolian rock located within the transport pathway. Roughness
landform development. changes can occur in ‘open’ locations, when a change
Sand seas occur at the end of regional-scale sand in surface moisture or even the particle size of sediment
transport pathways. This reflects the resultant direction on the ground, can impede transport. Once sand accu-
of sand-transporting winds, and topographic factors. mulates, the accumulation itself becomes the obstacle,
Although the Sahara Desert may be the largest dryland such that a feedback occurs in the aeolian system that
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Chapter 21 Drylands
Sand seas
Active
Probably limited activity
Fixed
Loess
Major deposits
Thin or uncertain deposits
Figure 21.21 Global distribution of sand seas and other aeolian deposits. (Source: after Snead, 1972; and
Thomas, 1997b)
enhances deposition (Figure 21.22). If sand transport Warren, 1996). Sand dunes occur in a variety of forms,
direction changes frequently, the accumulation may not and have a variety of names that reflect both scientific
persist and may be destroyed and reworked, but if there factors and local knowledge. For example, barchan is
is a single dominant direction, or if there are different Turkish for ‘active dune’, and is widely applied to mobile
directions but each has a sufficiently long duration, the
accumulation will grow. As this occurs, the feature will Flow expansion
begin to intrude into the lower atmosphere, which can A. Sand patch initiation
lead to modification of air flow patterns and strengths.
Of particular note is that wind velocities often increase
(through compression of flow lines) as dune intrusion
B. Wind-ripple protodune
occurs. This allows sediment to be transported up the
windward dune slope but eventually can limit the vertical
accretion of the dune. Wind velocities can eventually cre-
ate sufficient shear to move all of the sediment arriving at
C. Streamlined protodune
the dune crest through the system. As this occurs, steep-
ening of the leeside of the dune can lead to air flow being
Time
separated from the dune surface, the development of a Flow separation
cell of reversed air flow, and the formation of a steep slip
D. Protodune
face (Figure 21.23), at the angle of repose for dry sand, as
shown in Figure 21.22.
Dunes can form rapidly, in a matter of hours, or
Slipface
slowly over days, weeks or years. The rate depends on
E. Dune with slipface
the sand transport capacity of the wind and on sedi-
ment availability. Dune size is partially dependent on
sediment availability and is also a function of dune type Figure 21.22 The stages of dune initiation and development. (Source:
and the duration of accumulation (Livingstone and after Kocurek et al., 1990)
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21.4 Geomorphological processes in drylands
Figure 21.23 The slip face of a transverse dune in the United Arab Emirates.
Figure 21.24 Barchan dunes, approximately 2 m high, encroach (from left
to right) onto a highway in Ras Al Khaimah, United Arab Emirates.
crescent-shaped transverse dunes (Figure 21.24); seif is
Arabic for a ‘curved sword’, and is sometimes applied to
linear dunes with sinuous crests (Figure 21.25). In some
environments sand transport occurs from a single dom-
inant direction, in others, seasonal changes occur. This Figure 21.25 The end of a giant linear dune ridge in the Central Namib
Sand Sea. This dune is part of the same system shown in Figure 21.26.
is a principal factor in determining the type of dune that
develops. Chapter 9 details the main dune types (e.g. see
Figure 9.11). Often dunes are found in extensive dune Of the main dune types identified in Figure 16.11 and
fields within sand seas (Figure 21.26). This is probably discussed in Chapter 16, star dunes usually attain the
due to the area of dune development possessing more greatest size (Figure 21.27). This is because they develop in
than a single obstacle that encourages sand deposition. It the depositional centres of sand seas, where net sediment
is also because a single dune modifies the wind environ- accumulation and sand-transporting wind directional
ment, creating downwind flow perturbations that encour- variability are greatest. Linear dunes in the Namib Desert
age further deposition. may exceed 100 m in height but in other regions such as
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Chapter 21 Drylands
Figure 21.27 Star dunes, Namib sand sea. (Source: Marzia
Figure 21.26 High dune ridges forming part of the Namib Sand Sea. The Franceschini/Shutterstock.com)
ridges, though orientated into quasi-linear patterns in this eastern part
of the dune field, also have star-like peaks that rise over 300 m above the unidirectional wind environments and are therefore able
interdunes. The complexity of pattern reflects the seasonal changes in to migrate forward more readily. Sand supply is again an
the wind regime in the area, and shows that, in reality, sand dunes often important factor in respect of the maximum size attained
do not present themselves as neat ‘textbook’ examples. At the bottom of
by dunes in any area, and this in turn plays a major role in
the image the dunes extend to the floor of Sossus Vlei, which occasion-
ally experiences flowing water emanating from rains in the neighbouring the migration rate. All other factors being equal, a larger
Naukluft Mountains. (Source: image courtesy NASA/GSFC/MITI/ERSDAC/ dune will take longer to ‘roll’ forward. Net migration rates
JAROS, and US/Japan ASTER Science Team, 2002) that have been recorded include over 60 m yr - 1 for a 3 m
high barchan dune in Mauritania (Sarnthein and Walger,
1974), and 20 m yr - 1 for a 6 m high dune in the Algodones
the Kalahari and central Australia, they are more usually dune field, California (Norris, 1966). In 2013, the media
10–15 m high. Sediment availability is an important fac- widely reported a study of a barchan dune moving at
tor in determining the size of these features, which can in 15 m a year that engulfed and then ‘passed over’ an old
some situations extend uninterrupted for tens, and some- Star Wars film set in Tunisia (Lorenz et al., 2013). Dune
times hundreds, of kilometres. Transverse dunes are more movement may be highly seasonal and dominated by
mobile than other dune types, since they form in more changes over a few days or weeks of the year.
Figure 21.28 Wind-eroded soft sedi-
ments on the northern edge of Chott
El Jerid, Tunisia. These features are
commonly called yardangs, and are
formed by the abrasive effects of sal-
tating sand and suspended dust.
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21.4 Geomorphological processes in drylands
Figure 21.29 Wind erosion of an abandoned building
in Mokka, Yemen, which has been abraded at the foot
of the tower. (Source: Jorg Hackermann / Shutterstock
.com)
Not all sand sea surfaces are devoid of vegetation, while maximum height of saltation and is usually concentrated
some dune types, especially parabolic and nebkha dunes, in the lower 50–100 cm of rock surfaces. Buildings located
expressly form in association with a partial vegetation cover. in sand transport pathways are especially susceptible to
A partial vegetation cover may even enhance sand transport wind blasting, such as that shown in Figure 21.29. Dust
since the turbulence of lower wind layers is enhanced over particles are therefore largely responsible for the wholesale
rough surfaces, and turbulent winds can be more effective in smoothing of hills into features that are known as yardangs.
initiating sediment entrainment. Various attempts have been
made to establish the vegetation cover limits on sand move-
ment. The issue has relevance not only to understanding
dune dynamics but also to understanding the potential risks
of wind erosion from agricultural fields. Factors including
the spacing of individual plants, plant height and structure
all influence vegetation–wind–entrainment interactions, as
well as ambient wind strengths. Grasses, and plant litter,
are more effective than shrubs and bushes in limiting sand
transport. About 90% of sand movement occurs in the low-
est 50 cm of the atmosphere. Given the complex array of
plant and surface variables that can affect sand transport,
a single simple threshold percentage plant cover separating
entrainment-susceptible surfaces from stable surfaces does
not exist. However, sand transport (assuming winds exceed
threshold velocities) tends to increase rapidly once plant
cover falls below around 15%, but can still take place to a
limited degree with covers of about 30%.
Sand and dust particles in entrainment can act as an
effective abrasional agent, creating wind erosion features
when they come into contact with immovable objects that
are less resistant than the moving particles themselves.
When abrasion is persistent, wind-sculpted landforms can
result (Figure 21.28). These may range from smoothed sur-
faces of individual stones (termed ventifacts) to the smooth-
Figure 21.30 Large yardang formations in central Lut Desert, south-east-
ing and rounding of whole hills. Since sand particles largely ern Iran as seen from space (Source: Jesse Allen, NASA/GSFC/MITI/ERS-
move in saltation, the abrasive effect is limited to the DAC/JAROS, and U.S./Japan ASTER Science Team).
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Chapter 21 Drylands
As dust can be transported over long distances, extensive during the Quaternary period (see Chapter 4). Drylands
yardang fields, streamlined in the direction of sediment have expanded and contracted in the past (Figure 21.31).
transport, can result, and have been observed in satellite For example, during the last glaciation many dryland
imagery both in the Lut Desert of Iran (Figure 21.30) and regions were more extensive for periods lasting several
on the Tebesti Plateau in the Sahara Desert. hundreds to thousands of years. A colder climate meant
a more arid climate. Presently well-vegetated dunes in
the sand seas in the northern Kalahari, central Australia
Reflective questions and in the Sahel were once more dynamic features. Dust
emissions from the Sahara were greater than at present,
➤ What influences the large-scale nature of dryland as evidenced by significant aeolian dust concentrations
landscapes? in ocean sediment cores from the mid-Atlantic Ocean
➤ How significant is insolation weathering in drylands? and the Caribbean. Not all drylands were more exten-
sive at this time, since the global circulation changes
➤ If drylands are moisture deficient, why do we need to con- associated with major climatic shifts led, for example,
sider the work of water in sediment transport? to more effective precipitation falling over the presently
➤ Why can the wind be an effective geomorphological agent arid south-western United States and in the currently
in drylands?
hyper-arid Atacama Desert of Chile. During the Holo-
cene (the last 11 700 years; Chapter 5) evidence from the
American mid-west, which is presently highly productive
agriculturally, shows that arid episodes occurred on a
21.5 Environmental change in drylands number of occasions that were of sufficient duration to
permit marked sand-dune development in some localities.
Drylands are diverse, dynamic environments. Seasonal Box 21.3 describes the types of evidence for expanding
climatic variability and the occurrence of drought events and contracting dryland conditions.
are normal elements of these regions. Longer, more per- Today drylands are susceptible to change brought
sistent changes have also affected these regions as a result about by the combined impacts of human activity and
of the major climatic shifts the Earth has experienced climate change. Human activities, particularly in the face
Dune areas
Ice cap limits 2000 km
Figure 21.31 The maximum extent of major sand seas during the Late Quaternary period. When this map was first published in 1978 it was assumed
that all these sand seas attained their maximum extent at the last Glacial Maximum. However, better dating control today indicates a more complex pic-
ture of the timing of the maximum activity of some of these sand seas. (Source: after Sarnthein, 1978 and Cooke et al., 1993)
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21.5 Environmental change in drylands
Figure 21.32 Irrigation crop circles in the desert,
Wadi As-Sirhan Basin, Saudi Arabia. The water comes
from deep, but ancient, groundwater which is not
renewed by rainfall. The image is a false colour sat-
ellite image in which new vegetation appears bright
green while dry vegetation or fallow fields appear rust
coloured. Dry, barren surfaces (mostly desert) are pink
and yellow. (Source: Robert Simmon and Jesse Allen,
United States Geological Survey and NASA)
Indicators of Long-Term Envi- pollen) tend to be poorly preserved in many • Wind-blown dust accumulations in
ronmental Change in Drylands drylands, so there is a greater reliance on offshore ocean sediment cores.
other data sources especially geomor-
Past environmental changes, over hundreds phic and sedimentary data, than in other
• Wind-eroded hills in presently
and thousands of years, can be determined humid environments.
regions. In recent years however, some
from a range of available data sources or innovative proxy records have been used in • Evaporite deposits in lake sediment
‘proxy archives’. These include the char- palaeoenvironmental work, including pollen sequences.
acteristics of preserved sediments and and geochemical records extracted from (b) Evidence of expanded humid
the occurrence of landforms that today the middens made by small rodents, and conditions:
are either inactive or out of equilibrium
with present environmental processes.
geochemical data from muds preserved at • Dry valley networks in present
depth in now-dry salt lakes. The following drylands.
The timing of changes can be established are examples of data sources that indicate
either in a relative sense (‘younger than’ or (a) the greater extent of dryland conditions
• Valleys crossed by active sand dunes.
‘earlier than’) or numerically through the in the past and (b) the expansion of more • Flow stone development in caves in
application of a radiometric dating tech- humid conditions in the past into presently drylands.
nique. These include radiocarbon dating, arid areas, though their interpretation can • Humid plant species’ pollen and
luminescence dating and uranium–thorium be complex and controversial (Thomas and geochemical tracers preserved in
dating (see Chapters 4 and 5 for further Burrough, 2012): sediments in dry salt lakes.
information about these techniques). Dif-
(a) Evidence of expanded dryland (c) Evidence of conditions changing
ferent methods are applicable over differ-
conditions: through time:
ent time periods. For example, radiocarbon
dating can be applied to organic remains • Stabilized, vegetated or degraded • Geochemical signatures from mid-
spanning the past 30–40 000 years, while desert sand dunes. dens and faecal remains of rodents
luminescence dating can be applied to • Dunes crossing river valleys, now with wide environmental tolerances
quartz sands over a time range in excess breached by more recent fluvial (e.g. packrats in North America and
of 200 000 years and possibly up to 1 mil- action. hyrax in southern Africa).
lion years old. Organic materials (such as
Box 21.3
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Chapter 21 Drylands
of growing dryland populations, attempt to increase nat- sorts of problem can lead to enhanced desertification.
ural resource and ecosystem use, and manage the inherent Desertification is described in Box 21.4.
uncertainty and variability of drylands. Both these affect Although most dryland rivers flow only ephemerally,
the operation of environmental processes. For example, they are increasingly subject to human management. This
expansions of agriculture in drylands often rely on the management may have a number of motivations includ-
extraction of groundwater, which is then used to support ing attempting to control flood surges, especially where
livestock or in irrigation systems that support crop growth rivers enter urban areas, and to regulate flow in order to
(Figure 21.32). This attempts to overcome the temporal make water, via dams and reservoirs, available in the dry
variability in rainfall but, as well as positive effects, also season. The high suspended load of dryland rivers during
results in a lowering of groundwater tables and a concen- flow periods means that dams often have a relatively brief
tration of salts (through evaporative effects) in the soil. An effective life span before siltation causes reservoir capacity
outcome is often that such agricultural systems are unsus- to diminish significantly. Furthermore, the changes in base
tainable; water resources become depleted and the soil level brought about by a dam can increase upstream flood
unsuitable for crop growth. This is a particular problem in risks considerably. This problem can be further enhanced
a range of dryland areas such as south-east Spain, where in urban areas where the natural peakedness of flood
irrigation schemes implemented in this semi-arid area in hydrographs is further increased by the rapid rates of run-
the 1970s and 1980s are now proving unproductive. These off delivered from paved surfaces.
Desertification including climatic variations and human erosion and internal changes. Wind and
actions’. This definition recognized the water erosion can both be enhanced by
Dryland environments are increasingly
natural environments in which deserti- land-use practices, particularly if natural
subject to human pressures while at
fication occurs, its human agency, and vegetation systems are disturbed, leaving
the same time being vulnerable to the
that the propensity for human actions slopes vulnerable to water erosion during
impacts of naturally varying climatic
to cause degradation is often enhanced storm events or sandy sediments vulner-
conditions, especially drought. The expan-
during droughts when stresses are at their able to wind action. Internal degradation
sion and intensification of agricultural
greatest. This is illustrated by the fact embraces physical and chemical changes.
systems in drylands, particularly from
that desertification received wide global The former includes soil crusting and com-
the mid-twentieth century, have led to a
attention during the late 1970s when paction, which can again result from veg-
marked increase in environmental pres-
human pressures in the environment had etation removal that increases the effect
sures and stresses, notably during periods
been exacerbated in the Sahel region by a of raindrop impact. The latter includes the
of drought. The result of these pressures
decade of drought. processes of nutrient depletion. This is a
can be desertification. This is an often
Desertification is closely associated particular problem in developing world
misunderstood and abused term, but
with unsustainable land management drylands where chemical fertilizers are
is used to describe land degradation in
practices which affect both the soil and expensive and often beyond the means
drylands. Misunderstanding often arises
vegetation. Vegetation degradation of subsistence farmers. Salinization also
because natural environmental (especially
includes the loss of natural plant cover affects irrigated lands whereby the irriga-
plant system) responses to drought, from
through the lowering of water tables, and tion waters evaporate, leaving salts behind
which recovery usually occurs, have been
the replacement of palatable grasses used which in turn render the soil intolerant to
confused with longer-term and more per-
by livestock with unpalatable weeds or plants.
sistent negative changes.
bushes, owing to excessive grazing levels. Establishing the extent of desertifica-
The United Nations Convention to Com-
Distinguishing natural dryland ecosystem tion has proved problematic, particularly
bat Desertification (UNCCD) defines the
variability from longer-term changes at the global level. What is now known for
issue as ‘land degradation in arid, semi-arid
is, however, difficult. Soil degradation certain is that the image, widely used in
and dry-subhumid areas [the “susceptible
in drylands takes on two main forms:
drylands”] resulting from various factors, Box 21.4 ➤
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21.5 Environmental change in drylands
➤
the 1970s and 1980s to portray the prob- 5170 million ha (about 20%) as degraded. this does suggest that dryland degradation
lem, of mobile sand dunes advancing over Of this, water erosion was the dominant may have been overestimated or confused
productive land is misleading, and only degradation process in 45% of the area with natural environmental variability in
locally applicable (Thomas and Middleton, affected, wind erosion 42%, chemical deg- the past, and that rather than being an
1994). The Global Assessment of Soil Deg- radation 10% and physical degradation 3%. extensive problem, it most severely affects
radation (GLASOD) commissioned by the Figure 21.33 shows the approximate global localized degradation hot spots. It is inter-
UN in the late 1980s and early 1990s was extent of human-induced soil degradation esting that, with the decade 2010–2020
the first systematic attempt to establish in drylands. designated by the United Nations (UN)
soil degradation worldwide, and has been The GLASOD survey also assessed the as the ‘Decade for deserts and the fight
used to evaluate the extent of dryland severity of the problem, noting that 80% against desertification’, UN data suggest
degradation (Middleton and Thomas, and 92%, respectively, of water and wind that, globally, 24% of the land area is
1997). GLASOD identified 1035 million ha erosion was only light or moderate. Not- degrading, but of this only 22% is in dry-
out of a total susceptible dryland area of withstanding the limitations of the survey, lands (UN, 2015).
High and very high
Low and medium
Figure 21.33 Global map of dryland human-induced soil degradation. Because of the way data are carto-
graphically represented, the extent of the degradation can appear greater than the extent of the affected
areas (see Thomas and Middleton, 1994). (Source: UNEP, ISRIC, CRU/UEA, after UNEP, 1997)
Box 21.4
Human-induced global warming also impacts on dry- moisture deficits. Climate change models can also be used
lands. Global climate model (GCM) predictions are by no to drive other models of how dryland landscapes may
means uniform, but ‘double atmospheric CO2 models’ do change in the twenty-first century. Two recent studies have
provide an insight into possible major changes during the done this for African drylands: one (Thomas et al., 2005)
next 50–100 years. One approach to overcome the effects of using GCM outputs to see how the currently vegetated
using different GCMs is to compare the outputs of differ- stable dune systems of the Kalahari may respond to climate
ent models, which allows areas of agreement and disagree- change, the other (de Wit and Stankiewicz, 2006) focusing
ment to be highlighted. Table 21.7 shows possible changes on how drainage systems, and thereby people’s access to
for three dryland areas, derived from the integrated anal- water, may alter. In the first case, the net drying trends
ysis of three GCMs. These changes show that not only predicted for interior southern Africa in most GCMs, cou-
will the direct effect of precipitation changes impact on pled with increased wind transport energy, lead to a major
dryland areas, but in many cases the effect of temperature reactivation of dune systems to an extent greater than
change on evapotranspiration rates enhances the predicted experienced at any time in the past 14 000 years. In the
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Chapter 21 Drylands
Table 21.7 Global climate model predictions of dryland climate change under doubled atmospheric CO2 levels. Predictions are integrated
from three major GCMs
Southern Europe
drylands bordering
the Mediterranean* Southern African Australia*
drylands
Summer temperature change (°C) + 496 + 294 + 294
Winter temperature change (°C) + 296 + 294, + 496 in the Karoo region + 294
Summer precipitation change Decrease Decrease Varied, mainly increased
Winter precipitation change Varied, decrease Slight decrease Increase in east, decrease in west
Soil moisture change Significant decrease Significant decrease Increase in east, decrease in west
*‘Varied’ refers to situations where models disagree.
(Source: adapted from Williams and Balling, 1995)
second, major changes in drainage system density in parts
of north and southern Africa are modelled by the end of Reflective questions
the twenty-first century, enhancing dryland conditions and
potentially impacting negatively on human populations. ➤ Why is aridity likely to have been more extensive during
Drylands, which are already difficult environments to live glacial periods?
in given the temporal and spatial variability of the opera- ➤ Why is desertification a controversial characteristic of
tion of environmental processes, may well become more some dryland areas?
uncertain environments before the end of this century.
21.6 Summary conditions. Often this means that growth and seedling dispersal
are done within very short periods whenever water is available
The chapter demonstrates that far from being simply sandy and then dormancy might ensue for the majority of the time. A
wastelands, deserts and drylands are complex and diverse envi- range of other plant adaptions can be identified in dryland envi-
ronments that are subject to a wide range of geomorphological ronments which allow conservation of moisture.
processes and are increasingly subject to human impacts. The Dryland landscapes are characterized by high rates of rock
chapter has explored the definition of drylands and the mea- weathering via salt, temperature and moisture processes. These
surement and causes of aridity in order better to understand and weathering processes result in a great deal of readily erodible
explain dryland diversity. Deserts and drylands are not necessarily material that can be transported by wind and water. However,
hot. Aridity is a result of a range of factors which include subtropi- because rainfall events tend to be of short duration, there is a
cal anticyclonic conditions, mountain lee orography and continen- surplus of sediment supply over sediment transport. Neverthe-
tality. Drylands vary in their water balance (precipitation/potential less, when dryland rivers flow they tend to have high sediment
evapotranspiration). They are often classified as hyper-arid, arid yields which create problems with reservoir infilling. Infiltration
and semi-arid, and cover 40% of the Earth’s surface. rates and overland flow are highly variable, depending on local-
Dryland soils are typically subject to severe moisture deficits ized crusting or vegetation cover. Wind transport, deposition and
and with high evaporation rates often develop surface crusts. erosion are important features of drylands and distinctive dune
Vegetation systems in drylands are naturally adapted to the
➤
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Further reading
and abraded rock forms can be identified. Drylands are dynamic dryland landscapes via a range of mechanisms. Changes to local
landscapes both over long timescales due to Quaternary climatic vegetation and soil structure and abstraction of groundwater are
changes and over short timescales related to natural sediment localized impacts but anthropogenically enhanced global warming
and vegetational processes. However, humans are impacting may also alter dryland landscapes and their spatial extent.
Further reading Thomas, D.S.G. (ed.) (2011) Arid zone geomorphology: Pro-
cess, form and change in drylands, 3rd edition. John Wiley &
Sons, Chichester.
This is a detailed textbook that covers all aspects of geomor-
Lorenz, R.D., Gasmi, N., Radebaugh, J., Barnes, J.W. and Ori, phology in drylands, including the role of vegetation and the
G.G. (2013) Dunes on planet Tatooine: observation of barchan nature of, and evidence for, long-term environmental change.
migration at the Star Wars film set in Tunisia. Geomorphology,
201, 264–271. Thomas, D.S.G. and Middleton, N.J. (1994) Desertification:
A study of dune migration with a link to popular culture. Exploding the myth. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester.
Explains the complexities and controversies associated with
Nicholson, S.E. (2011) Dryland climatology. Cambridge explaining and assessing desertification.
University Press, Cambridge.
This volume covers much more than climatology, providing a Williams, M. (2014) Climate change in deserts. Cambridge Uni-
framework that integrates vegetation, geomorphology and life versity Press, Cambridge.
and change in dryland regions. This book explores the long-term evolution of deserts though geo-
logical time to the present, considering the role that major global
climate changes have played in the desert landscapes of today.
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C H A PTER 2 2
Coasts
Gerd Masselink
School of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth
Learning objectives people live within 10 m of sea level (McGranahan et al.,
2007) and 21 of the 33 mega cities (with more than
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
8 million people; projected top 5 for 2015: Tokyo, Mum-
bai, Lagos, Dhaka and Karachi) can be considered coastal
➤ understand the spatial extent of the coastal zone and its impor-
cities (Martinez et al., 2007). As many as 20 million of
tance for society
these people live below normal high-tide levels, while
over 200 million people are exposed to flooding during
➤ appreciate the significance of considering coastal landforms as
temporary extreme sea-level events produced by storms
‘morphodynamic systems’, in which coastal processes and mor-
(Nicholls, 2010).
phology mutually interact at a variety of temporal and spatial
The coast is a very dynamic environment and this
scales
presents many challenges to coastal communities. The
➤ identify the main factors that control and drive coastal processes most serious threat is that posed by sea-level rise and
and landforms in a variety of settings it is appropriate to discuss this hazard at the start of
➤ describe the dominant coastal types and understand the key the chapter. At present, sea level is rising at a rate of
processes responsible for their development 3.2 mm yr - 1 and the predicted rise in sea level for 2100 is
➤ evaluate the suitability of a range of coastal management strat- expected to be between 26 and 82 cm (Box 22.1). The two
egies and be aware that natural coastlines are more resilient to most obvious consequences of rising sea levels are coastal
sea-level rise than those that are managed flooding and erosion, and the key factor that determines
how severely coastal environments and communities are
affected is the rate of sea-level rise. Therefore, many
22.1 Introduction coastal researchers are concerned with quantifying how
fast sea level is presently rising and whether this trend is
Coastal environments are arguably the most important likely to continue in the future. Sea-level rise is one of the
and intensely used of all areas settled by humans. The main topics addressed by the Intergovernmental Panel
most obvious use of coastal environments is providing liv- on Climate Change (IPCC), a large international and
ing space and the coast is clearly a preferred site for urban- interdisciplinary group of leading scientists whose remit
ization. Globally, it is estimated that about 600 million is to report on the environmental and societal causes
M22 An Introduction to Physical Ge 83575.indd 584 24/05/2017 19:00
22.1 Introduction
Sea-Level Rise (3) glaciers in Greenland; (4) Greenland because the IPCC has only limited confi-
ice sheet; (5) Antarctic ice sheet; and (6) dence in the model results.
The 5th Assessment Report (AR5) of the
land water storage. The contributions of Using sophisticated computer models,
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
these factors to the sea-level rise over the effect of different emission scenarios
(IPCC) addresses at length the causes and
1993–2010 have been quantified and com- on climate change and sea-level rise by
implications of the current and future rise
pared with the modelled contributions in 2100 has been predicted (Figure 22.2).
in sea level (www.ipcc.ch/). Figure 22.1
Table 22.1. It is encouraging to see that the The rise in global sea level by 2100 will
shows the change in global sea level over
sum of the observed contributions to sea- be in the range from 26–45 to 55–82 cm
the last 300 years and predictions for the
level rise (2.8 mm yr - 1) matches quite well depending on the emissions scenario. An
next century according to the IPCC report
the observed sea-level rise (3.2 mm yr - 1). alternative approach to predicting future
(Church et al., 2013). The sea-level curve
Thermal expansion is the main contribu- sea level is the so-called semi-empirical
shows a stable sea level from 1700 to 1800,
tor to the current rise in global sea level approach, which regards a change in sea
a modest rate rise of about 1 mm yr - 1
(1.1 mm yr - 1), closely followed by the level as an integrated response of the
around 1850, and the rate of sea-level
melting of glaciers (0.76 mm yr - 1). The entire climate system, without explicitly
rise increasing to about 3 mm yr - 1 more
total modelled sea-level rise (plus observed attributing sea-level rise to its individual
recently. According to the predictions, the
changes in land water storage) closely physical components. According to such
rate of sea-level rise is expected to increase
matches the observations. Modelled con- models, the sea-level rise predictions are
even more in the future.
tributions of the Greenland and Antarctic generally 0.5–1 m higher than that shown
AR5 identifies six main contributing
ice sheets are not included in Table 22.1 in Figure 22.2.
factors to the current sea-level rise: (1)
thermal expansion of the ocean water; (2)
glaciers except in Greenland and Antarctica;
Table 22.1 Global mean sea level budget (mm yr - 1) over 1993–2010
time intervals from observations and from model-based contributions.
Uncertainties are 5 to 95% shown in brackets
1.2
Source 1993–2010
1
Observed contributions to global
mean sea-level (GMSL) rise
0.8
Thermal expansion 1.1 [0.8 to 1.4]
Sea level (m)
0.6 Glaciers except Greenland and Antarctica 1.76 [0.39 to 1.13]
Greenland ice sheet 0.33 [0.25 to 0.41]
0.4
Antarctica ice sheet 0.27 [0.16 to 0.38]
Land water storage 0.38 [0.26 to 0.49]
0.2
Total of contributions 2.8 [2.3 to 3.4]
0 Observed GMSL rise 3.2 [2.8 to 3.6]
–0.2 Modelled contribution to GMSL rise
1700 1800 1900 2000 2100
Thermal expansion 1.49 [0.97 to 2.02]
Year
Glaciers except Greenland and Antarctica 0.78 [0.43 to 1.13]
Figure 22.1 Compilation of paleo sea level data from salt marshes
Glaciers in Greenland 0.14 [0.06 to 0.23]
(purple line and symbols), tide gauge data (orange, blue and
green lines), altimeter data (light blue line), and central estimates Total modelled plus observed land water 2.8 [2.1 to 3.5]
and likely ranges for projections of global mean sea-level rise for storage
RCP2.6 (blue) and RCP8.5 (red) scenarios, all relative to pre-in- (Source: IPCC 5th Assessment Report, Chapter 13, Table 13.1, p. 1151, Church
dustrial values. (Source: IPCC 5th Assessment Report, Chapter 13, et al., 2013)
Figure 13.27, p. 1204, Church et al., 2013)
Box 22.1 ➤
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Chapter 22 Coasts
➤
1.2 Figure 22.2 Global mean sea-level rise
Sum 2081–2100 relative to 1986–2005
Thermal expansion rojections from process-based models with
p
Glaciers likely ranges and median values for global
1.0 Greenland ice sheet (including dynamics) mean sea-level rise and its contributions
Antarctic ice sheet (including dynamics)
in 2081–2100 relative to 1986–2005 for
Land water storage
emission scenario SRES A1B used in the
Global mean sea level rise (m)
0.8 Greenland ice-sheet rapid dynamics
Antarctic ice-sheet rapid dynamics 4th Assessment Report (AR4) and the four
Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP)
0.6 scenarios. SRES A1B represents an emission
scenario that is balanced between fossil-in-
tensive and non-fossil energy sources; RCP2.6,
0.4 RCP4.5, RCP6.0 and RCP8.5 are the four
greenhouse gas concentration trajectories
adopted by the IPCC for AR5. They are named
0.2 after a possible range of radiative forcing val-
ues in the year relative to pre-industrial values
( + 2.6, + 4.5, + 6.0 and + 8.5 W m - 2). (Source:
0.0
IPCC 5th Assessment Report, Chapter 13,
Figure 13.10, p. 1180, Church et al., 2013)
A1B RCP2.6 RCP4.5 RCP6.0 RCP8.5
Year Year Year Figure 22.3 Map of rates of
1960 1980 2000 1960 1980 2000 1960 1980 2000 change in sea surface height
500
(geocentric sea level) for the
Sea level (mm)
250 period 1993–2012 from sat-
0 ellite altimetry. Also shown
are relative sea-level changes
–250 (grey lines) from selected
San Francisco Charlottetown Stockholm 14
–500 tide gauge stations for the
12 period 1950–2012. For
Charlottetown Stockholm 10
Sea level change (mm yr–1) comparison, an estimate of
San Francisco 8
6 global mean sea-level change
Manila 4 is also shown (red lines) with
2 each tide gauge time series.
0 (Source: IPCC 5th Assessment
–2 Report, Chapter 13, FAQ13.1,
Antofagasta Pago Pago –4
–6 Figure 1, p. 1148, Church
–8 et al., 2013)
–10
–12
500 –14
Antofagasta Manila Pago Pago
Sea level (mm)
250
–250
–500
1960 1980 2000 1960 1980 2000 1960 1980 2000
Year Year Year
Assessing the impacts of sea-level rise Earth’s surface, Rowley et al. (2007) have in sea level averaged across the globe
on our society, and formulating sustainable determined that for a sea-level rise of 1 m, and that local sea-level change can be
strategies to manage these, are obviously of an area of 1.1 million km2 will be inundated, quite different due to non-global factors
great importance. An initial, and admittedly affecting 108 million people. For a sea-level such as land-level change and ocean
rather crude, approach is to quantify the rise of 2 m, these numbers increase to circulation. Figure 22.3 shows a map of
extent of the land inundated and the num- 1.3 million km2 and 175 million people. the observed sea-level change over the
ber of people affected by rising sea level. It is worth emphasizing that the period 1993–2012 obtained from satellite
Using a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the observed global sea-level rise is the rise altimetry and some example time series of
BOX 22.1 ➤
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22.1 Introduction
➤
local sea-level change observed from tide Oscillation (see Chapter 6). Large devia- of a large ( 7 1 km thick) continental ice
gauges. The relatively large, short-term tions between global sea-level rise and sheet at the end of the last Ice Age. The
oscillations in local sea level are due to local sea-level change are due to land- greater rate of sea-level rise relative to
the natural climate variability; for example, level changes. The steady fall in sea level the global mean at Manila is dominated
the large, regular deviations at Pago Pago recorded at Stockholm is caused by uplift by land subsidence caused by intensive
are associated with the El Niño-Southern (isostacy) of this region after the melting groundwater pumping.
BOX 22.1
and effects of climate change. In 2014, the IPCC pub- coastal environments that may be able to build up verti-
lished its 5th Assessment Report (AR5; www.ipcc.ch/; see cally faster than sea-level rises provided they are in their
Box 22.1). natural state.
To manage the effects of sea-level rise, as well as The overall objective of this chapter is to present an
other anticipated consequences of climate change such up-to-date overview of the main types of coastal envi-
as increased storminess and changes to the prevailing ronments and their governing processes. Before we start,
wave direction, we need to have a good understanding of however, it is important to indicate what we, as physical
coastal processes. Of particular importance is the notion geographers, mean by the terms ‘coasts’ and ‘coastal’,
that different types of coastline respond differently to because these terms are rather ambiguous and mean dif-
rising sea levels (Masselink and Gehrels, 2013) and that ferent things to different people. For most holidaymakers
coastal environments, especially those unaffected by the coast is synonymous to the beach; for birdwatchers
humans, have a capacity to deal with the impacts of sea- the coast generally refers to the intertidal zone; while
level rise. This ability to respond to the consequences of for cartographers the coast is simply a line on the map
sea-level rise is referred to as resilience and many natural separating the land from the sea. The spatial boundaries
features contribute to coastal resilience by providing of ‘our’ coastal zone are defined in Figure 22.4 and its
ecological buffers (coral reefs, salt marshes and mangrove boundaries correspond to the limits to which coastal pro-
forests) and morphological protection (sand and gravel cesses have extended during the Quaternary geological
beaches, barriers and coastal dunes). A critical role in period (see Chapters 4 and 5). During this period, which
determining the resilience is played by the sediment bud- lasted from approximately 2.6 million years ago until
get. A coastline with a positive sediment budget may present, sea level fluctuated many times over 100 m verti-
build up, rather than erode, under rising sea-level condi- cally due to expansion and contraction of ice sheets. The
tions. For example, the sediment deposition rate in salt landward limit of the coastal system therefore includes
marshes and tidal flats often exceeds the rate of sea-level the coastal depositional landforms and the marine ero-
rise; therefore, these environments may be able to ‘keep sion surfaces formed when the sea level was high (slightly
up’ with rising sea l evels. Coral reefs are also examples of above present-day sea level) during warm interglacial
Coastal plain Shoreface Continental shelf Continental slope
Barrier
Estuary Beach
Quaternary
sediments
Wave base
Shelf
break
Quaternary coastal morphology
Figure 22.4 Spatial boundaries of the coastal zone. (Source: after Masselink and Hughes, 2003)
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Chapter 22 Coasts
periods. During cold glacial periods sea level was low (see Chapter 16). The resulting pattern of erosion and
and so coastal processes were close to the edge of the deposition can be assessed using the sediment budget
continental shelf. The seaward limit of the coastal system (see Box 22.2). If more sediment enters a coastal region
is therefore defined by the edge of the continental shelf, than leaves it, then the sediment balance is positive and
called the shelf break, which typically occurs in water deposition will occur and the coastline may advance. A
depths of approximately 130 m. negative sediment balance will occur if more sediment
leaves a coastal region than enters it and net erosion
will ensue, with possible coastline retreat.
22.2 Coastal morphodynamics 3. Morphology – the surface of a landform or assemblage
of landforms such as coastal dunes, deltas, estuaries,
Coastal landforms and processes can be considered over
beaches, coral reefs and shore platforms is referred to
a variety of temporal and spatial scales (time and space),
as the morphology. Changes in the morphology are
ranging from the response of wave ripples to large wave
brought about by erosion and deposition.
groups on a timescale of minutes, to the infilling of estu-
aries following the drowning of river valleys due to sea- As the coastal system evolves over time, its evolution
level rise over millennia. Regardless of the scale involved, is recorded in the sediments (clay, silt, sand and gravel) in
a vital element in the coastal response is the presence of the form of the stratigraphy. It is important to realize that
strong feedback between form and process. The mor- stratigraphic sequences are a record of the depositional
phodynamic approach, introduced by Wright and Thom history and that erosional events are represented only by
(1977), formalizes this feedback by considering a coastal gaps in the stratigraphic record.
morphodynamic system comprising three linked elements Coastal systems exhibit a certain degree of auton-
(Figure 22.5): omy in their behaviour, but they are ultimately driven
1. Processes – this component includes all coastal pro- and controlled by environmental factors, often referred
cesses that affect sediment movement. Hydrodynamic to as ‘boundary conditions’. The three most important
(waves, tides and currents) and aerodynamic (wind) boundary conditions are geology, sediments and external
processes are important. Weathering contributes sig- forcing (wind, waves, storms and tides), with sea level
nificantly to sediment transport along rocky coasts, serving as a meta-control by determining where coastal
either directly through solution of minerals, or indi- processes operate. When contemporary coastal systems
rectly by weakening the rock surface to facilitate fur- and processes are considered, human activity should
ther sediment movement. Biological, biophysical and also be taken into account. In fact, along many of our
biochemical processes are important in coral reef, coastlines, human activities, such as beach nourishment,
salt marsh and mangrove environments (Masselink et construction of coastal defences and land reclamation,
al., 2011). are far more important in driving and controlling coastal
2. Sediment transport – a moving fluid imparts a stress dynamics than the natural boundary conditions, and
on the bed, referred to as ‘bed shear stress’, and if cannot be ignored (Figure 22.6). It can even be consid-
the bed is mobile this may result in the entrainment ered that, through climate change, humans are altering
(‘picking up’) and subsequent transport of sediment the boundary conditions themselves!
Static boundary conditions
Sea level
(geology, sediments)
Coastal morphodynamic system
External forcing Sediment
Hydrodynamics Morphology
(wind, waves, tides, currents) transport
Figure 22.5 Coastal morphodynamic system with its energy input and boundary conditions.
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22.2 Coastal morphodynamics
it very difficult to predict coastal development over long
timescales.
The feedback between morphology and processes is
fundamental to coastal morphodynamics, and can be neg-
ative or positive. Negative feedback acts to oppose changes
in morphology. For example, beach erosion during storms
generally results in the development of an offshore bar.
Wave breaking on the bar significantly reduces the amount
of wave energy reaching the shoreline, thereby limiting
further beach erosion. However, many coastal systems do
not always behave that predictably and often the feedback
between morphology and processes is positive, rather than
Figure 22.6 Aerial photograph of Jumeirah Palm Island in Dubai – an
extreme example of a coastal environment created by humans. The
negative. Positive feedback pushes a system away from equi-
diameter of the outer crescent is 5 km and its length is 12 km. (Source: librium by modifying the morphology such that it is even
Marat Dupri/Shutterstock.com) less compatible with the processes to which it is exposed.
A morphodynamic system driven by positive feedback
A characteristic of coastal morphodynamic systems seems to have a ‘mind of its own’ and exhibits self-forcing
is the presence of strong links between form and process behaviour. An example of positive feedback is the infilling
(Cowell and Thom, 1994). The coupling mechanism of deep estuaries by marine sediments due to uneven flows
between processes and morphology is provided by sed- between an incoming tide and an outgoing tide. In a deep
iment transport and is relatively easy to comprehend. estuary, flood currents are stronger than ebb currents and
There is, however, also a link between morphology and this tidal ‘asymmetry’ results in a net influx of sediment and
processes to complete the morphodynamic feedback loop. infilling of the estuary. As the estuary is being infilled, the
For example, under calm wave conditions sand is trans- tidal asymmetry increases even more as friction effects are
ported on a beach in the onshore direction, resulting in enhanced by the reduced water depths. In turn, the increase
beach accretion. As the beach builds up, its seaward slope in tidal asymmetry speeds up the rate of estuarine infilling.
progressively steepens and this has a profound effect on This constitutes positive feedback between the estuarine
the wave breaking processes and sediment transport. At morphology and the tidal processes, resulting in rapid infill-
some stage during beach steepening, the hydrodynamic ing of the estuary. Eventually, tidal flats and salt marshes
conditions may be sufficiently altered to stop further start developing in the estuary and this marks a reversal in
onshore sediment transport. Owing to the close coupling feedback. As the intertidal areas become more extensive, the
between process and form in morphodynamic systems it flood asymmetry of the tide progressively decreases so that
is often not clear whether the morphology is the result of the estuarine morphology approaches steady state as sedi-
the hydrodynamic processes, or vice versa. This makes ment imports and exports balance each other.
Sediment Budgets budget involves accounting for the sedi- of sediment moved per unit of time
ment volumes (m3) rather like you would (kg s - 1, m3 yr - 1). If the sediment fluxes
Morphological change directly results from
account for money. Key components of the are known, sediment budgets can be used
sediment transport processes. Sediment
sediment budget are the sediment fluxes, to predict how the morphology changes
budgets help us to understand the differ-
which represent the direction and amount through time in a quantitative fashion.
ent sediment inputs (sources) and outputs
of sediment transport by certain processes Consider, for example, an estuary with
(sinks) involved (Figure 22.7). A sediment
and which are expressed as the quantity a surface area of 1 km2 (this is the same
Box 22.2 ➤
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Chapter 22 Coasts
Figure 22.7 Qualitative exam-
Longshore Headland Headland
Inputs
ples of coastal sediment bud-
movement
gets. (a) Riverine sediment
Outputs Longshore
Cliff erosion movement Cliff erosion may be deposited into an
estuarine embayment, which
Onshore/ may also receive sediment
offshore Onshore/ River from the seaward direction
Tidal River sediment
movement offshore
exchange sediment through tidal processes. (b)
movement
On a deltaic coast, riverine
sediment contributes to the
Drift-aligned coastal sediment budget, and
Barrier progradational is moved up the drift-aligned
Storm beach-ridge
Longshore overwash coast, giving rise to a beach-
cut plain
movement Longshore ridge plain. (Source: adapted
Swash-aligned movement from Carter and Woodroffe,
Dune
Dune transgressive Storm 1994)
formation
formation shoreline cut
(a) (b)
as 1 000 000 m2) that receives an annual If the average depth of the estuary is entering the estuary does not change
input of sediment from marine and fluvial 10 m, then the estuary will be infilled in while the estuary is infilling. It therefore
sources of 10 000 m3 per year. If it is fur- ignores feedback between morphology
depth 10 m
ther assumed that this sediment is evenly = and process, which is one of the main prin-
accretion rate 0.01 m yr - 1
spread over the estuary floor, then the ciples of morphodynamic systems. Never-
depth of the estuary will decrease by = 100 years(22.2) theless, such simple calculations can still
Of course, this simple illustration tell us a lot about environmental change in
sediment input 10 000 m3 yr - 1
= assumes that the amount of sediment coastal zones.
surface area 1 000 000 m2
= 0.01 m yr - 1 (22.1)
Box 22.2
Adjustment of coastal morphology to changing condi- 22.3 Coastal processes: waves
tions involves a redistribution of sediment which requires
time. The time required for the adjustment to occur is known Ocean waves are the principal agents for shaping the coast
as the relaxation time. The relaxation time strongly depends and driving nearshore sediment transport processes. Of
on the volume of sediment involved in the adjustment of course, wind and tides are also significant contributors,
morphology and is related to the size of the landform. Large and are indeed dominant in coastal dune and estuarine
coastal landforms, such as coastal barriers, have longer relax- environments, respectively, but the action of waves is domi-
ation times than small morphological features, such as beach nant in most settings. Waves are generated by wind and the
cusps. Generally, the relaxation time exceeds the time between stronger the wind, the larger the waves. Not surprisingly,
changes in environmental conditions. It is therefore unlikely therefore, there is a strong climatic control on the global
that a ‘steady-state equilibrium’ (see Chapter 1) is ever distribution of wave heights, with the largest waves found
reached, particularly for large coastal landforms. at the stormiest latitudes around the ‘roaring forties’ (40°
north and south).
It is important at the outset to make the distinction
Reflective questions
between regular and irregular (or random) waves. The
➤ How do negative and positive feedback affect our ability motion of regular waves is periodic, that is the motion
to make long-term predictions of coastal development? is repetitive over space (Figure 22.8a) or through fixed
periods of time (Figure 22.8b). Regular waves can be
➤ What does a morphodynamic approach to coasts involve?
described in terms of a single representative wave height H,
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22.3 Coastal processes: waves
(a) (b)
hx @ H/2cos 1 2p x 2 ht @ H/2cos 1 2p t 2
L T
H H
hx x ht t
L T
Figure 22.8 Schematic showing a regular wave train. (a) The spatial variation in water level hx is mea-
sured at a single moment in time along the direction of wave travel. From such data the wavelength L
can be derived. (b) The temporal variation in water level ht is measured at a single location in space over
a representative time period. Such data enable the determination of the wave period T. The wave height
H can be derived from both types of wave data. (Source: Masselink and Hughes, 2003)
wavelength L and wave period T. The wave height is the widely used (Komar, 1998). Based on the ratio of water
difference in elevation between the wave crest and the wave depth h to deep-water wavelength Lo, we can identify three
trough, the wavelength is the distance between successive different wave regions, each characterized by different
crests (or troughs) and the wave period is the time it takes water particle motions under the waves (Figure 22.10):
for the wave to travel a distance equal to its wavelength.
Of these three parameters, the wave period is the easi- 1. Deep water (h/Lo 7 0.5) – as waves travel across the
est to determine in the field: simply count and time the sea surface, the water particles beneath undergo an
passage of a large number of waves (at least 10) past a almost closed circular path. The particles move forward
fixed point and divide the time by the number of waves. under the crest of the wave and move seaward under
The wave steepness is also an important parameter and, is the trough of the wave. The diameter of the orbits
given by the ratio of wave height to wavelength H/L. decreases with increasing depth until at some distance
Natural waves are, however, highly irregular, below the water surface, referred to as the wave base,
and a range of wave heights and periods are present the wave motion ceases. The wave base is thus defined
(Figure 22.9). To properly describe the wave conditions as the depth below which wave motion cannot stir bed
of irregular waves in quantitative terms, statistical tech- sediment. In deep water, the wavelength L is given by
niques are required. For example, a widely used measure gT2/2p and the wave speed or celerity C is given by
of the wave height is the significant wave height Hs, which gT/2p where g is the gravitational acceleration.
is defined as the average of the highest one-third of the 2. Intermediate water (0.5 6 h/Lo 6 0.05) – with
waves. The significant wave height can be obtained by decreasing water depth, the wave motion extends to the
recording a time series of water depth and multiplying the seabed and the surface waves are much affected by the
associated standard deviation by four. presence of the seabed. As a result, the water particles
now follow an elliptical path with the ellipses becoming
22.3.1 Linear wave theory flatter and smaller as the seabed is approached. At the
The behaviour of ocean waves can be estimated using linear seabed, the water particles merely undergo a horizon-
wave theory. The equations associated with this theory are tal to-and-fro motion. In intermediate water depths,
1.8
Hs @ 0.41m
1.7
Water depth (m)
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (s)
Figure 22.9 Example 2 minute time series of water depth showing ‘real’ waves measured just outside the surf zone in 1.5 m
water depth on a sandy beach. These highly irregular and asymmetric waves are characterized by a significant wave height Hs
of 0.41 m and a period of 4–5 s.
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Chapter 22 Coasts
waves propagate from deep to shallow water, they get closer
Wave peaking as together and slow down.
Orbital wave H/L increases
motion
22.3.2 Wave processes in intermediate water
Wave base Wave shoaling is the process whereby the waves change in
Elliptical Horizontal height as they travel into shallower water and start feeling
wave motion
wave motion the seabed. This process is particularly pronounced just
before wave breaking at the seaward edge of the surf zone,
Figure 22.10 Motion of water particles under waves according to linear
wave theory. H and L refer to wave height and wave length, respectively. where the waves are suddenly seen to ‘pick up’ and become
steeper. The increase in wave height due to wave shoaling
L and C are not easily computed and fall between the can be explained through consideration of the energy
values obtained by using the deep- and shallow-water associated with wave motion and is explained in Box 22.3.
equations. Perhaps more importantly, waves also change their
3. Shallow water (h/Lo 6 0.05) – very close to the shore, shape during shoaling. In deep water, waves are charac-
all water motion consists of horizontal movements terized by a sinusoidal shape (as shown in Figure 22.8)
to-and-fro which are uniform with depth. In shallow and the water particle velocities associated with the
water, L and C are given by T2(gh) and 2(gh), wave motion are symmetrical, meaning that the onshore
respectively. velocities are of equal strength and duration as the off-
shore velocities. However, as the waves enter shallower
The deep- and shallow-water wave equations are straight-
water, they become increasingly asymmetrical and
forward to apply. For example, think about a wave with a
develop peaked crests and flat troughs (Figure 22.11;
period of 10 s. In deep water, the wavelength and wave velocity
see also Figure 22.9). The associated flow velocities
are only dependent on the wave period and application of the
also become asymmetric with the onshore phase of
relevant equations gives L = 156 m and C = 15.6 m s - 1.
the wave being stronger, but of shorter duration than
In shallow water, the water depth also needs to be considered.
the offshore phase of the wave. The development of
For a water depth of 1 m and a wave period of 10 s the rel-
wave-asymmetry is very important from a sediment
evant equations yield L = 31 m and C = 3.1 m s - 1. The
transport point of view because it promotes the onshore
example highlights a fundamental characteristic of waves: as
transport of sediment particles. In fact, without the
Wave Energy Flux where r is the density of water, g is the 1 2kh
gravity and H is the wave height. The n = J1 + R (22.4)
and Shoaling 2 sinh(2kh)
wave energy is expressed as the amount
The rate at which wave energy is carried of energy per unit area (N m - 2) and is where sinh is sine hyperbolic. The parame-
along by moving waves is known as the more appropriately referred to as the wave ter n increases from 0.5 to 1 from deep to
wave energy flux and is the product of energy density. Wave energy depends on shallow water. This means that deep-water
the amount of energy associated with the square of the wave height. A doubling waves travel at twice the speed of the
the waves and the speed at which this of the wave height therefore results in energy (n = 0.5), whereas shallow-water
energy travels. The total wave energy E a four-fold increase in wave energy. The waves travel at the same speed as the
is given by speed by which this energy is carried along energy (n = 1). The wave energy flux P is
is not the same as the speed of the individ- then given by
1
E = rgH2(22.3) ual waves, but is given by Cn, where C is the
8 P = ECn(22.5)
wave speed and n is given by
Box 22.3 ➤
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22.3 Coastal processes: waves
As waves travel from deep to shallow equation and rearranging the result produces After inserting the appropriate deep-
water, the change in the wave height due equation (22.6): and shallow-water wave speed, this equa-
to shoaling can be calculated by examin- tion becomes
ing the wave energy flux P. Assuming that C1n1 1/2
H2 = ¢ ≤ H1(22.6) (gT/2p) 1/2
energy losses due to bed friction can be C2n2 H2 = a0.5 b H1 (22.8)
ignored, the wave energy flux remains con- 2gh
If we would like to compute the wave
stant during wave propagation. This can be Assuming a deep-water wave height of
height in shallow water, where n = 1,
expressed as 1 m and a period of 12 s, the wave height
from the wave height in deep water,
where n = 0.5, the equation can be sim- in 2 m water depth becomes 1.45 m,
P = (ECn)1 = (ECn)2 = constant
plified to representing a significant increase.
where the subscripts 1 and 2 indicate two
different locations along the path of wave C1 1/2
H2 = ¢0.5 ≤ H1(22.7)
travel. Substituting the wave energy in this C2
Box 22.3
sea floor) and this causes a reduction in the wave energy and
wave height. Focusing of the wave rays is known as wave con-
vergence and occurs when waves travel over a localized area
of relatively shallow water such as a shoal on the sea floor
and causes an increase in the wave energy and wave height.
22.3.3 Wave processes in shallow water
When the water depth becomes too shallow for a stable
wave to exist, the wave breaks. Wave breaking occurs when
a wave becomes too steep and the horizontal velocities of
the water particles in the wave crest exceed the velocity
Figure 22.11 Asymmetric waves in shallow water just prior to breaking
of the wave and the wave disintegrates into bubbles and
characterized by peaked wave crests and broad wave troughs. Note also foam. Waves break in a depth slightly larger than their
a rip current (see S ection 22.3.4) in the centre of the image and the height and the region on the beach where waves break
surfers for scale. is known as the surf zone. Wave breaking is an import-
ant process, because when waves break, their energy is
development of wave asymmetry, beaches would not released and is used for generating nearshore currents
exist because there would be no mechanism to transport and s ediment transport. A continuum of breaker shapes
sand and gravel to the shore. occurs in nature; however, three main breaker types are
Wave refraction is another important process that takes commonly recognized (Figure 22.12):
place during shoaling. It occurs because the part of the wave
that is in shallower water travels slower than the part of the 1. Spilling breakers are associated with gentle beach
wave in deeper water. This results in a rotation of the wave gradients and steep incident waves. A gradual
crest with respect to the bottom contours, or, in other words, peaking of the wave occurs until the crest becomes
a bending of the wave rays. The resulting change in wave unstable, resulting in a gentle forward spilling of the
direction causes the wave crests to be more aligned parallel to crest (Figures 22.12a and b).
the bottom contours, reducing the wave angle. Irregular sea- 2. Plunging breakers occur on steeper beaches than
bed topography can cause waves to be refracted in complex spilling breakers, with waves of intermediate steepness.
ways and produce significant variations in wave height and The shoreward face of the wave becomes vertical, curl-
energy along the coast. Spreading of the wave rays, referred ing over and plunging forward and downward as an
to as wave divergence, occurs when waves propagate over a intact mass of water. Plunging breakers are the most
localized area of relatively deep water (e.g. depression in the desirable type of breaker for surfers, because they offer
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Chapter 22 Coasts
(a) (c) (e)
Plunging wave Surging wave
Spilling wave
(b) (d) (f)
Figure 22.12 The three main types of breakers: (a, b) spilling, (c, d) plunging and (e, f) surging. (Source: photos courtesy Rob Brander, UNSW)
the fastest rides and as they plunge over they produce When waves break, they produce wave set-up, which is a
‘tubes’ (Figures 22.12c and d). rise in the mean water level above the still water elevation
3. Surging breakers are found on steep beaches with of the sea. In popular terms, wave set-up is conceived as a
low-steepness waves. The front face and crest of piling up of water against the shoreline due to the waves
surging breakers remain relatively smooth and the wave and is caused by the breaking waves driving water shore-
slides directly up the beach without breaking ward. As a general rule of thumb, the set-up at the shore-
(Figures 22.12e and f). line is 20% of the offshore significant wave height. At the
shoreline, surf zone waves propagate onto the ‘dry’ beach
Breaker type can be predicted based on a consideration
in the form of swash. Swash motion consists of an onshore
of the wave characteristics and the gradient of the beach
phase with decelerating flow velocities (uprush) and an
using the Iribarren number, also known as the surf similar-
offshore phase characterized by accelerating flow velocities
ity parameter (Battjes, 1974):
(backwash). For a number of reasons such as infiltration
tan b effects, advection of sediment and turbulence from the
j = (22.9)
2Hb/Lo surf zone into the swash zone, the uprush is a more effi-
cient transporter of sediment than the backwash, and this
where tan b is the gradient of the beach and the subscripts onshore swash asymmetry is responsible for maintaining
‘b’ and ‘o’ indicate breaker and deep-water conditions, the beach gradient. Wave set-up and swash motion allow
respectively. Small values for j are attained when the beach waves to reach considerable elevations above mean sea
has a gentle gradient and the incident wave field is charac- level (Figure 22.14). The vertical elevation above mean sea
terized by a large wave height and a short wavelength (or a
short wave period). Large values of j are found when the
beach is steep and the incident wave field is characterized
by a small wave height and a long wavelength (or a long
wave period). Spilling breakers occur for j 6 0.4; plunging
breakers for j = 0.4 to 1; and surging breakers for j 7 1.
For large values of the Iribarren number (j 7 1), the
incident wave energy is not dissipated by breaking, but is
reflected at the beach, very much like light is reflected off a
mirror. The proportion of reflected energy increases with
j and is generally modest on beaches, unless they are very
steep. When waves encounter the vertical face of a seawall,
however, wave reflection approaches 100%. This may give
rise to standing wave motion in front of the seawall and/or
complicated criss-cross wave patterns (Figure 22.13).
Figure 22.13 Reflection of breaking waves at the vertical face of a sea-
wall giving rise to a criss-cross wave pattern.
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22.3 Coastal processes: waves
with increasing incident wave energy level. The strongest
currents are therefore encountered during storms. There
are three types of wave-induced currents and these sys-
tems dominate the net water movement in the nearshore
(Figure 22.16):
1. Longshore currents are shore-parallel flows within
the surf zone. They are driven by waves entering
(a)
Plan view
sts
re
ec
av
Figure 22.14 Storm wave breaking on Chesil beach, Dorset, UK, showing W
significant wave runup.
Surf zone
level reached by waves is called wave runup and on gravel Longshore current
beaches the runup height can be larger than the significant
wave height. The field data plotted in Figure 22.15 shows
a runup height of more than 10 m with a significant wave
height of 6–8 m. Such high wave runup may result in dune
erosion and coastal flooding.
(b)
Cross-section
22.3.4 Nearshore currents Surf zone
Onshore mass
In the surf zone, incident wave energy is lost, or dissi- transport in
waves
pated, due to wave breaking. Much of this energy is used
for generating nearshore currents and sediment transport,
ultimately resulting in the formation of distinct coastal Bed return
flow
morphology. Nearshore currents derive their energy from
wave breaking and the intensity of these currents increases
14
(c)
Plan view
12
10 Rip head
8
R2% (m)
Rip neck
6
Bar Bar
CSL Dec2012
Surf zone
4 CSL Dec2014
LOB Feb2014
LOB Mar2012 Longshore feeder current
2 LOB Nov2012
SLP Feb2013
SLP Oct2013
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Hs(m) Figure 22.16 Quasi-steady currents in the surf zone: (a) shore-parallel
longshore currents due to obliquely incident waves, (b) vertically segre-
Figure 22.15 Measurements of vertical wave runup R2% plotted against gated bed return flow or undertow and (c) horizontally segregated rip
the significant wave height HS collected on three different gravel beaches currents as part of the nearshore cell circulation system. (Source: after
in south-west England. (Source: Tim Poate, Plymouth University) Masselink and Hughes, 2003)
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Chapter 22 Coasts
the surf zone with their crests aligned at oblique are generally stronger during low tide than during high
angles to the shoreline. Longshore currents increase tide. Recent research into rip currents has revealed that
with the incident wave energy level and the angle of under some conditions the longshore feeder and rip
wave approach, and may reach velocities in excess of current develop into a larger rotating surf zone eddy, as
1 m s - 1. They are also affected by alongshore winds shown in Box 22.4.
and can be particularly strong when strong winds
Nearshore currents are capable of transporting large
are blowing in the same direction as the longshore
quantities of sediment. This is partly due to their often sig-
current.
nificant flow velocities, but also because sediment entrain-
2. The bed return flow, often somewhat misleadingly
ment is considerably enhanced by the stirring motion of
referred to as undertow, is an average flow near the
the breaking waves. The amount of sediment transported
bed flowing offshore. The current is part of a cir-
by longshore currents is known as the littoral drift and is
culation of water characterized by onshore flow in
generally of the order of 10 000 to 100 000 m3yr - 1. Such
the upper part of the water column and seaward
large transport rates have a major effect on coastal mor-
flow near the bottom (Figure 22.16b). Measured
phology and shoreline change.
bed return velocities are typically 0.190.3 m s - 1, but
under extreme wave conditions may reach values of
up to 0.5 m s - 1.
3. Rip currents are strong, narrow currents that flow sea-
Reflective questions
ward through the surf zone in channels and present a
significant hazard to swimmers (Figures 22.11, 22.16c ➤ Why is it important to distinguish between different types
and 22.17). They consist of onshore transport of water of breaking waves?
between rip currents, longshore feeder currents and
➤ What are the changes that occur to ocean waves when
offshore transport of water in the rip itself. Maximum
they travel from deep to shallow water?
current velocities associated with circulation of water
in rip currents may reach up to 2 m s - 1 under extreme ➤ What is the best course of action when caught in a rip
storm conditions when so-called ‘mega-rips’ form. current?
Typical rip current velocities are 0.591 m s - 1 and flows
Figure 22.17 Rip current systems at low tide on San Bou beach, Minorca, Spain. (Source: Melba Photo Agency /
Alamy Stock Photo)
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22.4 Coastal processes: storm surge, tides and tsunami
GPS Drifters and RIP Current Australian and Florida beaches, respec- in the south-west of England is shown
Circulation tively. However, it has proven difficult to in Figure 22.18. Contrary to the rip flow
characterize the flow pattern associated pattern illustrated by Figure 22.16c,
Global Positioning Systems (GPS) are now with rip currents due to their spatial and which shows rip currents that flow
routinely used in coastal research for sur- temporal variability. MacMahan et al. straight out to beyond the surf zone, the
veying coastal landforms and recording (2009), Austin et al. (2010) and Scott et al. GPS drifters suggest the presence of a
morphological change. Due to advances (2014) used specially designed drifters large anticlockwise rotating eddy con-
in GPS technology, which have led to a equipped with GPS units (Figure 22.18a) tained within the surf zone. By conduct-
reduction in GPS size and an increase in to characterize rip circulation. By repeat- ing similar experiments under a range of
their positional accuracy, they are now edly releasing large numbers of these GPS beach, wave and tide conditions valuable
also widely used in society (e.g. SatNavs in drifters into the surf zone and combining data can be collected to improve our
cars). An innovative use of the latest gen- the multiple drifter tracks, a representa- understanding of rip currents. In turn,
eration of GPS devices is the measurement tive characterization of the current pat- this information can be disseminated to
of rip currents. terns associated with rip currents can be the lifeguarding communities so they
Rip currents are the main hazard for obtained. can provide a better service and reduce
surf zone users and are responsible for An example of the output produced the number of rip-related drownings on
about 80 and 100 drownings per year on by this research on a macro-tidal beach beaches.
-400
(a) (b)
-500
-600
Longshore (m)
-700
-800
-900
1 m s-1
-1 000
400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
Cross–shore (m)
Figure 22.18 (a) Twelve GPS drifters awaiting deployment on Perranporth Beach in the south-west of England. (b) Rip circulation pattern obtained
from a 2 h deployment of the 12 drifters, representing a total of 39 drifter tracks. The black arrows represent flow patterns obtained from at
least five drifter tracks, whereas the red arrows represent isolated drifter tracks. The sinuous white band represents the region of wave breaking
obtained using a video camera and the contours show bathymetric elevation. (Source: images courtesy of Martin Austin , Bangor University)
Box 22.4
22.4 Coastal processes: storm surge, surges generally last several days, tides occur daily or twice
tides and tsunami daily and tsunami represent water-level fluctuations of
around 10 minutes.
Although ocean waves are the principal agents for shap-
ing the coast and driving nearshore sediment transport,
22.4.1 Storm surge
the contributions of storm surge, tides and tsunami are
also significant and require consideration. These three During severe storms, the water level near the shore can
processes represent changes in the water level of the order be significantly elevated compared with tidal predictions,
of metres, but their timescales vary considerably. Storm and the difference between the measured and the predicted
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Chapter 22 Coasts
water level is the storm surge (Figure 22.19). Storm surge 6
Wick Observed water level
2.5
2.0
Predicted water level
levels can be in excess of 5 m under extreme conditions, 4
Storm surge residual 1.5
Surge residual (m)
such as during hurricanes or cyclones, leading to extensive 1.0
ODN (m)
2
0.5
coastal flooding and erosion. The maximum storm surge 0 0
associated with the 2005 hurricane Katrina appears to –2
–0.5
–1.0
have been in excess of 8 m, whereas the maximum storm –4 –1.5
6 2.5
surge in the UK during the 2013 storm surge was just in Aberdeen 2.0
4
excess of 2 m (Figure 22.19). The amount of storm surge 1.5
Surge residual (m)
1.0
ODN (m)
at the coast depends on three main factors: 2
0.5
0 0
1. Low pressure – sea level will rise approximately 1 cm –0.5
–2
for every 1 millibar fall in air pressure. Storms are –1.0
–4 –1.5
always characterized by low pressure and hence the 6
North shields
2.5
2.0
water level under a storm is always raised. 4
1.5
Surge residual (m)
2. Onshore wind – if the wind is directed shoreward it can 1.0
ODN (m)
2
0.5
pond water against the coast, causing an increase in the 0 0
water level. –2
–0.5
–1.0
3. Coastal topography – the effect of the storm surge on –4 –1.5
6 2.5
the coast depends greatly on coastal configuration. Whitby 2.0
4
Relatively low-gradient, funnel-shaped coastal settings 1.5
Surge residual (m)
1.0
ODN (m)
are particularly prone to extreme surges. Examples of 2
0.5
these are the Bay of Bengal or the North Sea. Straight 0 0
–0.5
coastlines and promontories are generally less sensitive –2
–1.0
to storm surge. –4
6
–1.5
2.5
Wick
Immingham 2.0
4 Aberdeen
1.5
Surge residual (m)
1.0
ODN (m)
2
22.4.2 Tides North Shields
Whitby 0.5
0 Immingham 0
The tidal rise and fall of the ocean surface are barely –2 Lowestoft –0.5
–1.0
noticeable in the deep ocean, but on shallow continental –4 –1.5
6 2.5
shelves, along coastlines and within estuaries, tidal pro- Lowestoft 2.0
cesses can be the dominant morphological agent. The two 4
1.5
Surge residual (m)
1.0
driving forces for ocean tides are the gravitational attrac-
ODN (m)
2
0.5
tion of the Earth–Moon system and the Earth–Sun system, 0 0
with the latter being almost half that of the former. The –2
–0.5
–1.0
theory of tides is rather complicated and it is more useful –4 –1.5
4th Dec. 2013 5th Dec. 2013 6th Dec. 2013 7th Dec. 2013
to describe how tides are manifested along our coasts,
than concern ourselves about how they are generated. In Figure 22.19 Observed water level (i.e. with meteorological forcing),
predicted water level (astronomical tide) and surge residual (observed
fact, the ‘proper’ theoretical explanation of tides involving
level – predicted level) at six tide gauge stations (see inset for locations),
bulges of water at either side of the Earth, known as the UK National Tide Gauge Network, 4–7 December 2013. The storm surge
equilibrium tide theory, does not provide much insight into (maximum positive surge residual) increases in a southward direction
the actual characteristics of ocean tides other than their from 6 0.5 m at Wick to 7 2 m at Lowestoft. These values are higher
than the infamous 1953 North Sea storm surge. (Source: Spencer et al.,
dominant periods (12.5 hours for the lunar component
2015; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2015.04.002; Creative Com-
and 12 hours for the solar component). mons licence https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/legalcode)
According to the more practical explanation of tides,
the dynamic tide theory, the global tidal water motion
is broken up into a large number of tidal systems con- the southern hemisphere and anticlockwise in the north-
strained by the coastal topography. In these systems, ern hemisphere. The difference in water level between
known as amphidromes, the tide travels around the cen- high and low water is the tidal range, and is practically
tre of the amphidrome as a wave. Owing to the Coriolis zero at the centre of the amphidrome and maximum at
effect (see Chapter 6), the tidal wave travels clockwise in the edge. Figure 22.20 shows the three amphidromes in
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22.4 Coastal processes: storm surge, tides and tsunami
wave and the local topography can significantly modify
the tidal water motion.
2m Along most coasts, tides cause a twice-daily rise and
10
11
fall in the water level (some coasts have mainly once-daily
00 tides, but these are relatively rare). The tidal range varies
1
greatly around the world and it is common to distinguish
3
2 between micro- (6 2 m), meso- (2–4 m) and macro-tidal
3m (7 4 m) ranges (Figure 22.21). The largest tidal ranges are
3 2 generally associated with rather complex coastal config-
1
4 00 urations, such as semi-enclosed basins like the North Sea
5
6 11 and Irish Sea, funnel-shaped bays like the Bay of Fundy,
10
4m 7
8
9 Canada, and regions with wide continental shelves and
5m island groups such as around north-west Australia.
6
7 The tidal range also varies over time, mainly due to the
5
3
4 interaction between the tidal forces of the Earth–Moon
2m
11 1 2
3m
system and the Earth–Sun system. When the Earth, Moon
4m and Sun are all aligned, during either a full or new moon,
the tidal forces of the Moon and the Sun are combined,
resulting in extra-large tides, known as spring tides. When
the Moon is at a right angle to the Earth with respect to
the Sun, however, the tidal forces of the Moon and the Sun
Figure 22.20 Map showing amphidromes in the North Sea. The dashed are competing, resulting in extra-small tides, known as
lines are lines of equal tidal range, whereas the solid lines show how the neap tides. The Moon revolves around the Earth in 28 days;
tidal wave propagates in an anticlockwise direction around the centre therefore, a spring-to-spring tidal cycle (or neap-to-neap
of the amphidrome. The numbers indicate where the tide is at the same
tidal cycle) takes 14 days to complete (Figure 22.22).
stage in the tidal cycle (in hours). Along a line labelled ‘1’, for example,
the tide is 1 hour into the tidal cycle. (Source: after Pethick, 1984) Associated with the rising and falling tides are tidal cur-
rents whose strength increases with the tidal range. At any
the North Sea. At a particular location, the observed one place, ebb- and flood-tidal currents vary in strength
tidal range depends on which is the influential amphi- and duration. This is especially the case for estuaries (see
drome and how far it is away from the centre. It should Section 22.7.3), but also along open coasts, in deep water
be noted that even the situation shown in Figure 22.20 and even on beaches. Therefore, over time there exists a
is a simplification, because interaction between the tidal tidal current (the tidal movements do not balance out over
Tide range environments
62m (micro) 2—4m (meso) 74m (macro)
Figure 22.21 World distribution of mean spring tidal range. (Source: after Davies, 1980)
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Chapter 22 Coasts
Spring tides Neap tides Spring tides Neap tides
4
Predicted tide level (m ODN)
-2
-4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Date in May 2000
Figure 22.22 Predicted high- and low-tide levels for Immingham, England, over a one-month period (May 2000). The phases of the Moon are
indicated by the solid (new moon) and open circle (full moon). Spring tides occur around the new and full moon, whereas neap tides occur half-
way between these Moon phases. ODN refers to Ordnance Datum Newlyn, which is approximately mean sea level in the United Kingdom.
time) and this is known as the residual tidal current. These shoal, and become shorter in wavelength and larger in
currents are important because they induce a net move- height. This process is identical to the shoaling process of
ment of nearshore sediment that may contribute signifi- wind waves (see Box 22.3). By the time tsunami reach the
cantly to coastal morphological development. coastline, they can be several tens of metres high and in a
period of only a couple of hours they can cause enormous
property damage and loss of life. Chapter 3 provides more
22.4.3 Tsunami
detail on tsunami processes.
Often a tsunami is referred to as a ‘tidal wave’. However,
this term is inappropriate because tides and tsunami differ
from each other in many respects, particularly in the way
that they are generated. Tides are generated by astronom-
Reflective questions
ical forces involving the Earth, Moon and Sun, whereas a ➤ How are neap and spring tides generated?
tsunami is generated as a result of the displacement of a
➤ What factors control the magnitude of a storm surge?
large water mass by any of the following three mechanisms
(Masselink et al., 2011):
1. A displacement of the seabed by a submarine earth-
quake. The 2004 Sumatra earthquake produced a tsu-
22.5 Coastal classification
nami that killed more than 100 000 people.
Coastal landforms have often been classified to provide
2. A large landslide into the ocean, perhaps during a vol-
useful ways to help assess the different forcing factors and
canic eruption. The 1883 Krakatau eruption produced a
controls such as sea-level history, geology, climate, waves
tsunami that killed more than 36 000 people.
and tides that lead to the great variety of coastal land-
3. An impulse generated by a meteorite impact striking
forms we encounter (Bird, 2000). Most early classification
the ocean. This generation mechanism has not occurred
schemes were based on the realization that coastal landforms
in recent historical time, but mega-tsunami events
are largely the product of sea-level variations. Such clas-
recorded in the geological record have been attributed
sifications distinguish between submerged and emerged
to meteorites (Bryant, 2001).
coasts. Typical submerged coasts are drowned river and
In the open ocean tsunami typically have a wavelength glacial valleys, often referred to as rias and fjords, respec-
of a few hundred kilometres and a height less than a metre. tively. Coastal plains are characteristic of emerged coasts.
They travel at the shallow-water wave speed given by Another type of classification distinguishes between pri-
2(gh) which for a typical water depth of 5 km implies a mary and secondary coasts. Primary coasts have a config-
speed of around 700 km h - 1. When they cross the edge uration resulting mainly from non-marine processes and
of a continental shelf, however, they rapidly begin to include drowned river valleys and deltaic coasts. Secondary
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22.6 Wave-dominated coastal environments
coasts, on the other hand, are coasts that have a configu- 22.6 Wave-dominated coastal
ration resulting mainly from marine processes or marine environments
organisms. Examples of such coasts are barrier coasts,
coral reefs and mangrove coasts. The most easily recognized landform of wave-dominated
The main shortcoming of these early classifications is coasts is the beach. However, beaches are only one com-
that the emphasis on geological inheritance and sea-level ponent of wave-dominated coasts. The underwater slope
history leaves only limited concern for the hydrodynamic that lies seaward of the beach, known as the shoreface, is
processes. The morphology of depositional coastal envi- also dominated by wave processes and actually occupies
ronments (those consisting of mud, sand and gravel, rather a much larger area than the beach. Coastal dunes behind
than eroding rocky shores) responds to the relative dom- beaches are also common elements of wave-dominated
inance of river, wave and tidal factors (Boyd et al., 1992). coastal environments. Dunes, beaches and shorefaces are
A diagram can be constructed that expresses the relative strongly linked by sediment transport pathways and col-
importance of river outflow, waves and tidal currents lectively they make up ‘coastal barriers’, which are consid-
(Figure 22.23). In this diagram, deltas are positioned at ered the basic depositional elements of wave-dominated
the fluvial point of the triangle because a fluvial sediment coasts (Roy et al., 1994). We will first discuss the dynamics
source dominates, while prograding, non-deltaic coasts of barriers and then move on to beaches and dunes.
are located on the opposite wave–tide side of the triangle,
because sediment is moved onshore by waves and tides.
Estuaries occupy an intermediate position, because they
22.6.1 Barriers
have a mixed sediment source and are affected by river,
wave and tidal factors. Different coastal typologies can A large variety of barrier types exist, including barrier
be identified, reflecting the degree of fluvial, wave or tide islands separated by tidal inlets and fronting wide shallow
dominance, and it is this classification that will be used for lagoons, spit systems, continuous barrier systems that are
the remainder of this chapter. Specifically, the next three backed by a coastal plain, lagoon or estuary, and mainland
sections will discuss the dynamics of wave-, tide- and beaches or welded barriers on steep coasts with very little
fluvial-dominated coasts, followed by rocky coastlines. additional barrier morphology (Figure 22.24). Most bar-
rier systems are made up of sand, but gravel barriers are
also frequently found, especially at higher latitudes where
River
glacial processes over the last few hundred thousand years
Prograding:
fluvial have produced vast quantities of gravel-size material.
sediment It is useful to distinguish between two fundamentally
Deltas source
Fluvial power
different types of barrier coasts: swash-aligned barriers
increasing
Embayed: and drift-aligned barriers. Swash-aligned barriers are
Estuaries mixed
sediment oriented parallel to the crests of the prevailing incident
source waves (Figure 22.25a). They are closed systems in terms
Wave Tide
Lagoons dominated dominated of longshore sediment transport and are characterized by
a curved planform shape and rocky headlands at either
Prograding:
Strandplains Tidal flats side of the barrier. The long-term average shoreline con-
marine
sediment figuration of swash-aligned barriers is relatively constant
Wave Relative power Tide source
wave/tide since the net littoral drift is zero. However, short-term
changes in incident wave conditions such as seasonal or
Figure 22.23 Process-based coastal classification based on the relative
importance of wave, tide and river processes. (Source: after Boyd et al., inter-annual changes in the prevailing wave direction will
1992) induce minor adjustments in the planform shape, known
as beach rotation.
Drift-aligned barriers are oriented obliquely to the
crest of the prevailing waves. The shoreline of drift-
Reflective question aligned coasts is primarily controlled by longshore
➤ What is the point of classifying coastlines in distinct sediment transport processes (Masselink and Hughes,
types? 2003) and such coasts are sensitive to changes in littoral
drift rates. A spit is a classic example of a drift-aligned
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double
strand tombolo
plain baymouth welded
hooked
wave-dominated spit barrier barrier
barrier island
mixed-energy baymouth
barrier island recurved spit cuspate
spit barrier pocket
looped barrier
barrier
Figure 22.24 Hypothetical coastline illustrating main barrier types that occur in nature. Attached forms include welded barriers, pocket barriers, cuspate
barriers, double tombolos, baymouth barriers and various spits. Detached forms are mixed-energy and wave-dominated islands. Strand plains are char-
acterized by a multiple-barrier planform in a progradational setting. Arrows denote littoral drift and dark shading represents submerged and low-lying
back-barrier areas. (Source: Van Heteren, 2014)
(a) (b)
Figure 22.25 Two different types of coastal alignments. (a) A swash-aligned embayed beach on Hanalei Bay, Kauai, Hawaii. (b) Drift-aligned spit on Van-
couver Island, Canada. (Source: (a) Henk Meijer / Alamy Stock Photos; (b) Canada Photos / Alamy Stock Photos)
barrier and is a narrow accumulation of sand or gravel, which there is beach and nearshore sand underlain by silt
with one end attached to the mainland and the other and clay that had been deposited on what was formerly the
projecting into the sea or across the mouth of an estu- continental shelf.
ary or a bay (Figure 22.25b). Spits grow in the littoral
drift direction and can exist only through a continuous
22.6.2 Beaches
longshore supply of sediment. If this sediment sup-
ply ceases, the spit will eventually subsume itself and A beach is a wave-deposited sand or gravel landform found
disappear. along marine, lacustrine and estuarine shorelines. It rep-
Transgressive barriers are those that migrate landward resents the upper part of the shoreface and is generally
under the influence of rising sea level and/or a negative characterized by an overall concave-upward shape. On
sediment budget (Figure 22.26a). Transgressive barriers most beaches, deviations to the concave profile may occur
consist mainly of tidal delta and/or washover deposits, and in the form of smaller-scale features and it is the presence
are underlain by back-barrier estuarine or lagoonal depos- of these features that gives beaches their distinctive mor-
its. Sediments deposited in seaward environments end phology (Figure 22.27).
up on top of sediment that originated in more landward Wave and current ripples of all shapes and sizes are
environments (transgressive sequence). Regressive barriers generally present on the beach at low tide, a testament to
or strandplains are those that develop under the influence wave and current action at high-tide levels (Figure 22.27a).
of a falling sea level and/or a positive sediment budget Berms result from the accumulation of sediment at the
(Figure 22.26b). Here landward sediments are deposited landward extreme of wave influence by swash processes
on top of more seaward ones (regressive sequence). The (Figure 22.27b). They protect the back of the beach and
barrier is generally overlain by wind-blown sand, below coastal dunes from erosion under extreme wave conditions.
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(a) Figure 22.26 (a) Model of trans-
Flood tide delta Sea level gressive barrier during sea-level
rising
rise. Transgressive barriers are
almost entirely composed of tidal
delta and washover deposits. The
in
pla barrier migrates into estuarine and
tal
as efac
e lagoonal environments as sea level
Co shor
rier rises. (b) Model of regressive barrier
Bar
during sea-level fall. The surface of
Lagoon the regressive barrier forms a wide
strandplain, generally without estu-
aries. (Source: after Roy et al., 1994)
Ravinement surface
c.10m c.1000m
Tidal inlet deposits Relict estuarine muds
(b)
Abandoned
highstand estuary
tal plain Former high sea level
Coas
Sea level
falling
in
dpla
an
Str
Regressive beach and
Erosio shoreface sand
c.10m c.1000m n surf
ace
The seaward part of the berm is often steep and is termed zone is often flat and featureless. But when the upper part
the beachface. Its equilibrium slope is thought to reflect of the intertidal zone is relatively steep, because it is com-
the balance between differences in uprush and backwash. posed of coarse sediments for example, a distinct break
Onshore uprush forces are often greater than backwash in slope is generally found separating the steep upper part
forces. This results from energy losses due to bed friction from the low-gradient, low-tide terrace (Figure 22.27c).
and infiltration of water into the beach during the uprush, Beaches respond to changing wave conditions and of
which is promoted by coarse and permeable sediments. greatest significance is the exchange of sediment between
The equilibrium beachface gradient is therefore posi- the upper beach and the surf zone, and the development
tively correlated with the beachface sediment size and the of berm and bar profiles (Figure 22.28). Under calm con-
steepest gradients occur on gravel beaches (Figure 22.27c). ditions, sediment transport in the nearshore zone tends
Beach cusps are rhythmic shoreline features formed by to be in the onshore direction, resulting in a steepening
swash action and may develop on sand or gravel beaches of the beach profile. If bars are present, these tend to
(Figure 22.27d). The spacing of the cusps is related to the migrate onshore and become part of the beach, resulting
horizontal extent of the swash motion and may range from in the development of a steep beach with a pronounced
about 10 cm on lake shores to 50 m on exposed ocean berm. Such beaches are referred to as reflective beaches,
beaches. The surf zone on energetic beaches is often char- because a significant part of the incoming wave energy
acterized by a nearshore bar morphology which can also is reflected back from the shoreline. In contrast, ener-
be rhythmic in planform (Figure 22.17). Rhythmic beach getic wave conditions induce offshore sediment transport
morphology (ripples, beach cusps, nearshore bars and rips) with prolonged high-wave conditions, resulting in the
are considered self-organizing features, resulting from feed- destruction of the berm and the formation of a flat beach
back between beachface morphology and swash processes. with subdued bar morphology. The surf zone is likely
On beaches subjected to large tidal ranges, the intertidal to be wide with multiple lines of spilling breakers. The
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(a) (b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 22.27 Features of the beach: (a) large intertidal current ripples associated with rip feeder currents exposed at low tide; (b) actively developing
berm near the high-tide level; (c) gravel high-tide beach fronted by sandy low-tide terrace; and (d) beach cusps. (Source: (d) David Chapman / Alamy
Stock Photos)
majority of the incoming wave energy is dissipated during Onshore transport and beach accretion
during calm wave conditions
the wave-breaking process and these beaches are known
as dissipative beaches. Most beaches fall within these two
extremes and are characterized by nearshore bar mor- Swell profile
phology over which a significant amount of wave energy Berm
Mean sea level
is being dissipated due to wave breaking. The upper part
of intermediate beaches is, however, rather steep and Bar Trough
reflective. Therefore these beaches are referred to as inter- Bar
mediate beaches.
Storm profile
Depending on the wave conditions, beaches tend to
move from one beach type to the other (Wright and Short, Offshore transport and beach erosion
1984). Along some coastlines, stormy conditions in the during storm conditions
winter and calm conditions during summer give rise to a
seasonal cycle of beach change comprising a winter profile Figure 22.28 Idealized beach profiles with and without bars. Storm
conditions induce offshore transport, beach erosion and the formation
with a nearshore bar and a summer profile with a berm,
of a nearshore bar. Calm wave conditions result in onshore sediment
although this will vary in any given year. Depending on transport, beach accretion and the formation of a berm. (Source:
the wave conditions, beaches tend to move from one beach Aagaard and Masselink, 1999)
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22.6 Wave-dominated coastal environments
type to the other (Wright and Short, 1984). The occurrence linked to that of the beach (Sherman and Bauer, 1993).
of different types of beach morphology can be parameter- Their formation requires an energetic wind climate and a
ized by the dimensionless fall velocity given by suitably large supply of sand. Onshore winds capable of
inducing sediment transport must occur for a significant
H
Ω = (22.10) amount of time. Dunes protect the coast from erosion by
wsT
providing a buffer to extreme waves and winds. Extreme
where H is the wave height, ws is the sediment fall velocity storm activity inevitably results in elevated water levels
(the speed at which a sediment particle falls through still and beach erosion, and may lead to coastal flooding.
water) and T is the wave period. Reflective beaches tend However, well-developed dune systems dissipate the
to develop when Ω 6 1.5, intermediate beaches are char- energy of storm waves through dune erosion. The sand
acterized by Ω = 1.595.5, and dissipative beaches form eroded from the dune system will be transported off-
when Ω 7 5.5. shore, but will eventually return to the beach under fair
weather conditions. As the sediment is returned to the
beach, wind processes may result in renewed dune devel-
22.6.3 Coastal dunes
opment. Maintenance of coastal dune systems is thus an
Coastal dunes are common features in wave-dominated important component of coastal protection and manage-
coastal environments and their dynamics are closely ment (see Box 22.5).
Effect of Coastal Dunes on Island, a barrier island in Florida, to hur- the morphological change and sedi-
Impact of Hurricanes of ricane Dennis (Priestas and Fagherazzi, ment volumes involved was obtained
2010). (Figure 22.29). The digital elevation
Sandy Barriers
Dennis made landfall as a category 3 model (DEM) from before the storm
A key aspect of the response of sandy hurricane on 10 July 2005, near Pensac- shows fragmented foredunes along the
barrier systems to extreme storm events ola, Florida, 280 km west of St. George western part of the study area, but a
is the destruction of foredunes. As long Island on the Gulf of Mexico. Sustained well-developed foredune ridge with up
as the foredunes remain proud above winds from Dennis at landfall were to 4 m high dunes along the eastern
the storm run-up level, sediment will be reported at 51953 m s - 1 and the storm part (Figure 22.29a). By comparing the
transported offshore from the seaward surge at St. George Island was reported DEMS from before and after hurricane
face of the dunes and upper beach area, to be 2.5 m. Washover deposits as a result Dennis, elevation change maps (ECMs)
to be deposited lower on the beach. But if of the high storm surge translated large can be constructed, which provide an
the foredunes are relatively low, they will amounts of sediment to the back barrier, accurate picture of the storm response
be overtopped and overwashed, resulting and where St. George Island is narrow (Figure 22.29b). The ECM indicates that
in onshore sediment transport from the those deposits extended into St. George most of the dunes were flattened during
upper beach area and dunes, and in the Sound. the storm (up to 3 m erosion; blue areas
development of overwash deposits at Using elevation data obtained using in Figure 22.29b) with deposition of
the back of the barrier. The latter barrier LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging), up to 2 m occurring in the back-barrier
response pattern characterizes trans- a widely used technique for rapidly region (red areas in Figure 22.29b).
gressive barrier systems and is illustrated assessing storm impact along the hur- Some deposition also occurred on the
in Figure 22.29, which documents the ricane-prone south-east coast of the lower beach along the eastern part of
response of a 2 km section of St. George United States, an accurate picture of the study area.
Box 22.5 ➤
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Chapter 22 Coasts
(a) 4
150 3.5
Distance (m)
3
300 2.5
2
450 1.5
1
600
0.5
300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100
Distance (m)
2
(b) St. George Sound
1
150
Distance (m)
0
300
-1
450
Gulf of Mexico -2
600 -3
20
(c) Net volume change
10
0
-10
-20
-30 -5200 m3 -3500 m3
-40
300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100
Volume change (m3m-1)
20
15
(d) Back-barrier volume change
10
5
0
Figure 22.29 (a) Digital elevation model (DEM) of 2 km
-5
+3400 m3 +2100 m3 section of St. George Island State Park before the storm
-10
-15 (May 2004). (b) Elevation change map (ECM) indicating the
300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 morphological change that occurred due to hurricane Den-
nis. The morphological change is also expressed in the net
15
10 (e) Beach–dune area volume change volume changes per unit metre width for the whole barrier
5 -8300 m3 -5600 m3 (c) and for the landward (d) and seaward (e) parts of the
0
barrier. The western part of the barrier (shaded) experi-
-5
-10 enced increased sub-aerial erosion due to lower foredune
-15 elevations compared with the eastern part. The colour bars
-20
-25
in (a) and (b) are in metres elevation and elevation change,
300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 respectively. (Source: images courtesy Anthony Priestas;
Distance (m) modified from Priestas and Fagherazzi, 2010)
The erosion of the seaward part of the noteworthy is that the sediment losses from continuous foredunes. These results convinc-
barrier (beach and dunes) and the depo- the beach–dune area and the gains in the ingly demonstrate the benefits of maintain-
sition on the landward part (back-barrier back-barrier region for the western part ing well-developed foredunes: not only do
region) can be quantified by considering of the study, where the dunes were least foredunes limit the net sediment lost due to
the change in the sediment volumes developed, are significantly greater than storms, but they also inhibit the development
(Figures 22.29c–e). What is particularly for the eastern area with higher and more of overwash and barrier retreat.
Box 22.5
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22.6 Wave-dominated coastal environments
Coastal dunes generally begin to develop around the Damag e to the vegetation, for example due to a storm
drift line above the spring high-tide line. Here, tidal litter or by humans (e.g. trampling), may result in the forma-
(seaweed and driftwood) represents an obstacle to the tion of saucer-shaped depressions in the dunes, known
wind, promoting the formation of shadow dunes with tails as blow-outs (Figure 22.30a). If the vegetation does not
stretching out downwind. Shadow dunes cannot reach re-establish itself, the blow-outs may grow in size due
elevations higher than that of the obstacle, but ongoing to wind erosion. In coastal areas with strong winds, the
accumulation of sediment can occur following the estab- blow-outs may develop into parabolic dunes that migrate
lishment of pioneer plant species. These plant species are in the direction of the dominant wind. Under extremely
all characterized by a high tolerance to salt, an elaborate energetic wind regimes, transgressive dune fields may
root systems that can reach down to the freshwater table develop and these landforms are most similar to desert
and rhizomes that grow parallel to the upper dune surface. dunes (Figure 22.30b).
The sand-trapping ability of the pioneer plants enables Figure 22.31 shows, conceptually, how the different
the shadow dune to grow upwards and outwards, and types of coastal dunes are related. Key factors that control
given suitable conditions (onshore winds and adequate this variety include wind speed and direction, abundance
sand supply) and sufficient time, the shadow dunes will of sand, coastal sediment budget (eroding or accreting)
coalesce, forming a foredune ridge. Foredunes can grow and, perhaps most importantly, the role of vegetation.
quickly reaching a height of several metres over a period Vegetation is fundamental for developing stable foredunes;
of 5–10 years, but on rapidly prograding coasts a foredune disturbance to the vegetation is necessary to form the
ridge plain may develop with a series of relatively low mobile dune forms such as blow-outs, parabolic dunes and
foredunes. transgressive dune fields.
(a) (b)
Figure 22.30 Two different types of coastal dune systems. (a) Complex dunes system along the west coast of the Netherlands, comprising incipient foredunes,
a dune scarp, several blow-outs and a reasonably well-vegetated older dune system further inland. (b) Transgressive dunes along Algoa Bay, Eastern Cape,
South Africa, that are clearly migrating from top to bottom in the picture in response to the prevailing wind direction. (Source: (a) Frans Lemmens / Alamy
Stock Photos (b) Homebrew Films Company / Getty Images)
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Chapter 22 Coasts
Relative distance inland
Relict foredunes
Foredunes Blowouts High width/length Low width/length Transgressive
parabolic dunes parabolic dunes dune field
Dominant wind Increasing wind velocity
direction
Figure 22.31 Schematic showing spectrum of coastal dune morphologies, ranging from
foredunes, to blowouts, to parabolic dunes, to transgressive dunes, generally with increasing
onshore wind velocity. (Source: adapted from Bird, 2000)
around 6000 years ago, infilling of the estuaries occurred
Reflective questions as a result of the influx of sediments from both marine
and terrestrial sources. Most estuaries can be divided into
➤ Use the Google Maps search engine to compare the bar- three zones: the inner zone, central zone and outer zone
rier islands of the Dutch Wadden Sea in the Netherlands
(Figure 22.33). These three zones are unique with respect
with those of the New Jersey coast in the United States.
to their energy regime, sediment type and morphology
Why are the Dutch barrier islands shorter?
(Masselink et al., 2011). River processes dominate at the
➤ What is the difference in stratigraphy between transgres- head of the estuary and their influence decreases towards
sive and regressive barrier systems? the mouth of the estuary. Marine processes are most
important at the mouth and their role decreases towards
➤ Given the large wave energy level and the smoothing the head. The energy regime in the inner zone is therefore
action of tides that beaches are exposed to, why are most river-dominated, in the outer zone it is marine-dominated
beaches not flat and featureless? (waves and tides) and in the central zone it is mixed (tide
➤ In what way are coastal dunes different from terrestrial and river processes).
desert dunes described in Chapter 21?
22.7.1 Wave- and tide-dominated estuaries
22.7 Tide-dominated coastal There are many types of estuaries and a popular distinc-
environments tion is that between wave- and tide-dominated estuaries
(Figure 22.34; Dalrymple et al., 1992). It is important to
Estuaries are the main tide-dominated coastal landform point out, however, that a spectrum of estuarine types
and represent zones of mixing between fluvial and marine exist and that many estuaries display wave- and tide-domi-
processes (Figure 22.32). The development of present-day nated feature to varying degrees.
estuaries started when coastal river valleys were flooded Wave-dominated estuaries are found in coastal
as sea level rose following ice melt at the end of the last regions subjected to relatively high levels of wave energy
glacial period. Following stabilization of the sea level (Figure 22.35). The outer zone consists of a barrier
Figure 22.32 Panoramic view of the mouth of the Avon estuary, South Devon, UK, illustrating where the river
meets the sea. (Source: Roland Gehrels, York University)
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22.7 Tide-dominated coastal environments
(a)
32‰ salinity Facies boundary between
estuarine sand body and
Limit of tidal
normal marine sediments
influence
Wave 0.1‰
processes salinity
River
Marine Tidal
processes
sediment processes
Fluvial
sediment
Facies boundary between
marine (tidally) influenced
and fluvial sediments
(b)
Estuary
Outer Central Inner
Marine s
100 urrent 100
pro
(waves cesses River c
Relative energy (%)
& tide
s)
Marine- River-dominated
e
50 50
r
in
ve
dominated
ar
Ri
M
Mixed-energy
0 0
Figure 22.33 (a) Plan view of an estuary showing sediment and hydraulic boundaries. (b) Chart showing
the changing mix of wave, tide and river processes along the estuary axis. (Source: after Dalrymple et al.,
1992, SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology))
(a) (b)
Figure 22.34 Two different types of estuaries. (a) River Clarence, New South Wales, Australia, which is a good example of a
wave-dominated estuary, characterized by narrow entrance due to barrier, open lagoon and bay-head deltas where the river
discharges into the lagoon. (b) Deep Creek, near Broome, Western Australia, which is a classic example of a tide-dominated
estuary with funnel-shape configuration, mud flat and mangroves and meandering channel. (Source: (a) Auscape Interna-
tional Pty Ltd / Alamy Stock Photo; (b) Bernhard Edmaier / Science Photo Library)
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Chapter 22 Coasts
system and a tidal inlet, often with an ebb-tide delta of the flood-tide delta. Eventually, fluvial and marine
and a flood-tide delta at the landward and seaward sands bury the central basin muds.
side, respectively. The outer zone is dominated by wave Tide-dominated estuaries are found in coastal regions
processes, but their effects decline rapidly with dis- experiencing relatively large tidal ranges and therefore
tance from the inlet due to wave breaking over both the strong tidal currents (Figure 22.36). The scouring action
barrier and tidal deltas. The tidal energy also decreases of the tidal currents keeps the entrance of the estuary
away from the coast, because the narrow tidal inlet relatively open and gives tide-dominated estuaries their
restricts the tidal water motion between estuary and typical funnel shape. The strong tidal currents in the
sea. A distinguishing characteristic of wave-dominated outer zone shape the sediments into linear sand bars sep-
estuaries is the very low energy level in the central zone. arated by tidal channels. Waves are of secondary impor-
If the estuary is relatively young, a deep central mud tance, but their influence can sometimes extend further
basin accumulates the finest sediments; if the estuary is into a tide-dominated estuary due to its funnel shape.
mature, then the central zone is infilled and dominated Wave energy in the central basin is insignificant, whereas
by salt marshes or mangrove flats also composed of pre- tidal energy is still relatively high. Therefore, the central
dominantly muddy sediments. If the river entering the zone of tide-dominated estuaries is more energetic than
estuary at the head carries significant amounts of sed- that in wave-dominated estuaries. A single meandering
iment, a bay-head delta can be found in the inner zone. channel is commonly found in the central zone and this
Wave-dominated estuaries infill through seaward pro- channel is tide-dominated for most of the time, but is
gression of this bay-head delta and landward extension significantly influenced by river processes during times
Estuary
(a) Marine-dominated Mixed-energy River-dominated
100 100
Relative energy (%)
Wa
ts
ves
n
rre
cu
50 50
r
ve
Ri
al currents
Tid Total energy
0 0
(b)
Tidal
limit
Shallow B
a Wash-
marine r overs
r Central basin
C i C’
e Flood- Bay-head Alluvial
r tidal delta valley
Inlet delta
Alluvial
sediments
(c)
Mean sea level
C C’
Central Bay-head delta
Shore- Flood-tidal basin
face Barrier/ delta
tidal inlet
Figure 22.35 (a) Chart showing the change in energy regime along the axis of a wave-dominated estu-
ary. (b) Plan view of the estuary showing positions of principal morphological features. (c) Section view
along the estuary axis showing stratigraphy. (Source: after Dalrymple et al., 1992, SEPM (Society for
Sedimentary Geology))
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22.7 Tide-dominated coastal environments
of high discharge. The central zone is again a sink for between the two water masses. On the basis of the
fine sediment and includes extensive intertidal morphol- mixing process, we can identify three types of estuaries
ogy, such as tidal flats and salt marshes. Because tidal (Dyer, 1998) as described below.
currents remain strong, even up to the head of the estu-
ary, fluvial sediments become progressively mixed with
22.7.2.1 Stratified estuaries
estuarine sediments in the inner zone and there is no dis-
crete fluvial delta. The infilling of tide-dominated estu- Stratified estuaries tend to have fresh river water sitting
aries is often rapid and occurs through a steady seaward on top of saline seawater, separated by a sharp interface,
migration of the inner, central and outer zones along the known as the halocline (Figure 22.37a). The saltwater near
drowned valley. the bed is in the form of a salt wedge, which becomes
thinner towards the landward end of the estuary. Stratified
estuaries commonly occur along micro-tidal coasts with
22.7.2 Estuarine mixing
low to intermediate river discharge. The river discharge
An important process occurring in estuaries is the mixing should be sufficient to develop a fresh surface water
of salt- and freshwater masses that are delivered to the mass, but should not be so large as to expel the saltwater
estuary by tide and river flows, respectively. The mixing from the estuary. If the tidal or riverine flows become too
is accomplished by the turbulence associated with river dynamic, turbulence is generated and the stratification
and tidal flows and is opposed by the density difference breaks down.
(a) Estuary
Marine-dominated Mixed-energy River-dominated
100 100
rgy
Tota e n
Relative energy (%)
l e ents
curr
nts R iver
urre
50 Tidal c 50
Waves
0 0
(b)
Meandering
Straight Straight
Tidal
Tidal Mudfla limit
sand t
bars
C C’
Alluvial
Salt marsh
valley
Sand
flat
Alluvial
sediments
(c) Mean high tide
C C’
Tidal
Tidal fluvial
Sand flat meanders
Tidal sand bars
Figure 22.36 (a) Chart showing the change in energy regime along the axis of a tide-dominated estuary.
(b) Plan view of the estuary showing positions of principal morphological features. (c) Section view
along the estuary axis showing stratigraphy. (Source: after Dalrymple et al., 1992, SEPM (Society for Sed-
imentary Geology))
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Chapter 22 Coasts
22.7.2.2 Partially mixed estuaries 22.7.2.3 Well-mixed estuaries
In partially mixed estuaries there is a more gradual salin- In well-mixed estuaries the mixing is so effective that the
ity gradient, but still with freshwater at the surface salinity gradient in the vertical direction vanishes entirely.
and saltwater near the bed (Figure 22.37b). However, If such mixed estuaries are sufficiently wide, the Coriolis
there tends to be a more mixed layer in the central part force (see Chapter 6 for an explanation of this process)
of the water column. The salinity decreases towards starts to play a significant role in affecting the water
the landward end of the estuary both at the surface circulation. Its effect on outflowing river water is to push
and at depth. Partially mixed estuaries develop if the the flow to the margin of the estuary (Figure 22.37c)
tidal energy is sufficient to cause mixing of the fresh- and may result in a horizontal separation of river water
and saltwater, and are typical of meso- to macro-tidal and seawater. This segregation is best developed on the
coasts. flooding tide when the fresh- and saltwater masses are
Figure 22.37 Diagram illustrating three main types of
(a)
Minimal mixing Predominantly fresh estuaries based on density stratification: (a) stratified;
of fresh and salt downstream flow (b) partially mixed; and (c) well-mixed estuary. Water masses
are indicated by shading on the front face of each block.
Large river Salinity contours (arbitrary scale) are indicated by thin
input
lines on the side face of each block in (a) and (b) and on
Fre
sh the top face of the block in (c). In (a) and (b) vertical mix-
Sa ing is indicated by thin arrows and non-tidal currents are
lt
indicated by thick arrows. (Source: after Pethick, 1984)
Small
tidal input
Tip of salt
Weak upstream wedge
flow of saltwater
(b)
Interfacial mixing
produces brackish Weak
layer downstream flow
Small river
input
Fre
sh
Bra
cki
sh
Large Sa
lt Limit of salt
tidal input
intrusion
Dominant
upstream flow
(c)
River flow
Fre
sh Tidal flow
Sa
lt In wide (70.5km), well-mixed
estuaries, horizontal flow
segregation occurs on the
flood tide (arrangement is for
northern hemisphere)
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22.7 Tide-dominated coastal environments
opposed and the effect of the Coriolis force is to separate known collectively as salt marsh (Figure 22.38), and in
the two flows. (sub)tropical environments by mangroves (see Figure 16.23
Wave-dominated estuaries are usually stratified, in Chapter 16). Both salt marshes and mangroves exhibit
whereas tide-dominated estuaries are either partially a distinct zonation across the upper intertidal zone with
mixed or well mixed. the most salt-tolerant species (the ‘pioneers’) lowest in the
tidal frame, and the least salt-hardy species near the High-
est Astronomical Tide (HAT) level.
22.7.3 Ebb- and flood-dominance
Despite the obvious difference between these two types
The total volume of water entering an estuary on the of ecosystems, their functioning from an estuarine evo-
flooding tide is called the tidal prism and can be estimated lutionary point of view is very similar: both significantly
by multiplying the tidal rise in water level in the estu- affect the tidal flows and through a variety of mechanisms
ary during high tide by the surface area of the estuary. enhance sediment deposition of clastic material, mainly silts
Ignoring the contribution of the freshwater discharge and and muds. In addition, in both systems there is a steady sup-
evaporation, this same volume of water leaves the estuary ply of organic detritus (roots, stems, leaves and branches)
during the falling tide. The duration and strength of the which also contributes to sedimentation. Vertical accretion
flood and ebb flow, however, are significantly different in rates are highly variable, both spatially and temporally, and
most estuarine systems. Estuaries or channel sections that are of the order of millimetres per year. Generally, sedimen-
display a flooding tide that is larger in velocity magnitude tation rates exceed current and even projected rates of sea-
and shorter in duration than the ebbing tide are said to be level rise, enabling these intertidal environments to keep up
flood-dominant, whereas those that display an ebbing tide with rising sea level. Salt marshes and mangroves thus pro-
that is largest in magnitude and shortest in duration are vide a good example of natural resilience to sea-level rise.
said to be ebb-dominant.
Flood- or ebb-dominance often translates directly to
net landward or seaward sediment transport, respectively
(Friedrichs and Aubrey, 1988). Even a small difference in
the velocity magnitude between the flood and ebb tide
can lead to a large difference in the total amount of sed-
iment transported by each, and therefore a net sediment
transport. In general, flood-dominant estuaries tend
to infill their entrance channels by continually pushing
coastal sediment landward and as a result are often inter-
mittently closed, whereas ebb-dominant estuaries tend
to flush sediment seaward from their entrance channels
and as a result are often stable. There are a number of
mechanisms that can generate tidal flow asymmetry, and
hence ebb- or flood-dominance. The two most important
are tidal distortion (which is the change of the tidal wave
Figure 22.38 Well-developed salt marshes found along the inner bends
shape due to shoaling, typical of long estuaries, and leads
of the tidal channel of the Avon estuary, South Devon, UK. (Source: photo
to flood-dominance) and a high proportion of intertidal courtesy Roland Gehrels, York University)
areas such as salt marshes and tidal flats (which are more
typical of small, wave-dominated estuaries and lead to
ebb-dominance).
Reflective questions
22.7.4 Salt marsh and mangroves ➤ How do the morphodynamics of wave- and tide-domi-
nated estuaries differ?
The lower intertidal zone in most estuaries is devoid of
vegetation due to excessive bed shear stress preventing ➤ To what extent do you agree with the statement that
seedlings taking anchor in the sediment. The upper inter- estuaries are rather short-lived features on a geological
tidal zone is less energetic, however, and in temperate envi- timescale?
ronments is colonized by salt-tolerant grasses and reeds
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Chapter 22 Coasts
22.8 Fluvial-dominated coastal through the delta wedge is then a general fining in the
environments seaward direction and a general coarsening upwards in the
vertical direction (Reading and Collinson, 1996). Based on
Coastal deltas are accumulations of sediment deposited the relative magnitude of river, wave and tide power, Gallo-
where rivers enter into the sea. River sediments may also way (1975) proposed a classification scheme of deltas with
accumulate at the head of coastal embayments if the three end-members (Figure 22.40). This model has recently
coastline is drowned (bay-head delta), but these deposits been extended by Hori and Saito (2008).
are also controlled by estuarine processes and were briefly Fluvial-dominated deltas are associated with large
discussed in the previous section. In deltas, the amount of catchments, river discharge into protected seas with min-
sediment delivered into the coastal margin by a river system imal nearshore wave energy, and a small tidal prism. The
outpaces the ability of the marine processes (waves and freshwater river effluent is generally less dense than the
tides) to remove these sediments, causing the coastline to saltwater in the receiving basin, and the river water flows
advance seaward. Since deltas are mainly associated with out on top of the receiving water. If the outflowing river
large river systems, they occupy only a relatively small pro- water is denser than the water in the receiving basin, for
portion of the world’s coastline. In Europe, for example, example due to extremely high suspended sediment con-
there are only six delta systems of significance (Danube centrations, the river water will flow out along the seabed.
Delta in Romania, Ebro Delta in Spain, Po Delta in Italy, Buoyancy limits the mixing between river and basin waters,
Rhine/Meuse Delta of the Netherlands, Rhone Delta in allowing the river sediment to be transported further into
France and Volga Delta in Russia). Nevertheless, deltas are the receiving basin before settling to the bed. As a result,
very important from a societal point of view because they the morphology of river-dominated deltas is characterized
are characterized by relatively large population densities. by pronounced seaward protrusions, a classic example of
Although the detailed morphology of deltas varies from which is the so-called ‘bird foot’ of the Mississippi Delta.
one example to the next, depending on the delta regime, Wave-dominated deltas are typically found in open-coast
there are three morphological units common to almost settings with a steep shoreface gradient, causing the deltaic
all deltas (Figure 22.39). The delta plain is the sedimentary coastline to be exposed to energetic waves. The action of
platform that covers recent seaward advance, the delta front
represents the seaward front of the delta that is located in Mississippi
relatively shallow water and is being reworked by wave and
tidal processes, and the pro-delta is situated at the toe of
the delta front in relatively deep water and is generally out Fluvial processes
of reach of wave processes. The delta builds out because
Elo
the river continuously delivers sediment to the coastline.
ate
ng
Modern
ng
ate
The coarsest sediments are deposited close to the river Danube
Elo
Mississippi
mouth and the finer sediments settle out further seaward. Po Mahakam
As the delta front progrades horizontally, the delta plain Danube
ate
Fluvial
Lob
aggrades vertically. The resulting sediment distribution dominated Yukon
Mahakam
Delta plain Delta front Pro-delta Ebro
Nile Orinoco
River Land Wave Tide
Distributaries Niger Mekong
dominated dominated
Est
Marshy delta surface
te
Rhône Yalu
uar
Nile
spa
Kelantan Colorado Fly
nei
Cu
Brazos Ganges—Brahmaputra
San Francisco Copper Kiang—Langat
Topset beds
Wave processes Tidal processes
Foreset beds San Copper Fly
Francisco
Bottomset beds
Figure 22.39 The three generic morphostratigraphic units found in
all fine-grained deltas: delta plain (topset beds), delta front (foreset Figure 22.40 Classification of fine-grained deltas proposed by Galloway
beds) and pro-delta (bottomset beds). (Source: after Haslett, 2000) (1975). The end-member types are fluvial-, tide- and wave-dominated.
(Source: from Briggs et al., 1997)
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22.8 Fluvial-dominated coastal environments
waves at the river mouth induces strong mixing between the that display increasing wave-dominance in their morphology
river flow and the receiving water. There are therefore lim- including the Ebro delta, Rhone delta and Nile delta.
ited buoyancy effects and the sediment transporting capacity Tide-dominated deltas develop when the tidal prism is
decreases rapidly away from the mouth of the river, resulting larger than the fluvial discharge and are commonly found
in the formation of a distributary mouth bar across the river along meso- and macro-tidal coastlines. In such settings,
mouth. When waves approach with their crest parallel to strong tidal currents flow in and out of the river mouth,
the coastline they are refracted symmetrically around the also causing strong mixing between the river effluent
distributary mouth bar. When they approach obliquely, how- and the receiving water. Elongated bars in the mouth
ever, they cause longshore transport and spit growth, with of the delta often result, separated by tidal channels. A
the river entrance constantly migrating downdrift. Regard- fundamental difference between tide-dominated deltas
less, the characteristic feature of wave-dominated deltas and tide-dominated estuaries is that in the former case
is a relatively straight, only weakly protruding coastline. the bottom contours at the mouth of the river bend out
Figure 22.41 shows examples of three Mediterranean deltas (indicating advance of the landform out to sea), whereas
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 22.41 Three examples of Mediterranean deltas that represent increasing wave-dominance, at the expense of river dominance – there is no sig-
nificant tidal influence in the Mediterranean. (a) Ebro delta, Spain, characterized by its two large spit systems. (b) Rhone delta, France, also characterized
by spit systems, but an overall smoother coastline. (c) Nile delta, Egypt, which has the smoothest coastline, with only minor protrusions where the two
main branches of the river discharge into the sea. (Source: (a) Planet Observer / Science Photo Library; (b) Jesse Allen, using data provided courtsey of
NASA / GSFC / METI / ERSDAC / JAROS, and U.S. / Japan ASTER Science Team; (c) Planet Observer / Science Photo Library)
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Chapter 22 Coasts
in the latter case they bend in (indicating retreat of the Humans can modify the sediment supply in a river
landform inland). through actions on land such as building of dams, sed-
Delta development relies heavily on an active sediment iment abstraction and water abstraction for i rrigation.
supply by the river. If this supply is less than the sedi- This can lead to delta erosion since these interventions
ment removal and dispersal by wave and tidal processes, all reduce the sediment supply to the delta and may
the deltaic shoreline will erode. A natural cause for cause the deltaic shoreline to erode. Erosion problems
this to happen is through delta switching, which occurs in deltas are exacerbated by the fact that delta systems
when the active region of coastal accumulation switches are generally subsiding due to the weight of the del-
from one location on the delta to another. The interval taic deposits on the Earth’s crust and hence experience
between switching varies from hundreds to thousands a relative sea-level rise. Not surprisingly, most deltaic
of years, depending on the size of the delta, and many shorelines are currently displaying large erosion rates,
contemporary deltas have gone through several stages of with the Nile Delta being the best-documented example
delta switching during the past few thousand years. For (Stanley and Warne, 1998). Deltas are amongst the most
example, the Mississippi Delta has had four major delta vulnerable coastal environments to sea-level rise and
lobe switches over the past 5000 years, the last of which extreme storm events as demonstrated by the devasta-
occurred approximately 800 years ago (Figure 22.42). tion caused by hurricane Katrina in 2005
Delta switching occurs due to an overextension of the (see Box 8.1 in Chapter 8).
presently active distributaries, which reduces their compe-
tency to convey sediment across the delta plain. At some
stage, the existing channel (or channel network) is aban-
Reflective questions
doned in favour of another more competent channel (or
channel network) cut through a shorter, steeper section ➤ What is the difference between a tide-dominated delta
of the delta plain. When this happens, the former area of and a tide-dominated estuary?
active delta formation becomes completely inactive with
➤ What are the distinguishing morphological features of
respect to fluvial processes and may undergo subsequent
fluvial-, wave- and tide-dominated deltas?
erosion by waves and tides.
Baton Rouge LA MS
N
New
Orleans
St. Bernard
Atchafalaya
Balize
Maringouin
ope
LaFourche
tal sl
Teche ti nen
Con
Delta lobe Age
Maringouin 7500—5000 years BP
Teche 5500—3800 years BP 0 50
Saint Bernard 4000—2000 years BP
Miles
LaFourche 2800—800 years BP
0 50
Balize 1000 years BP to present
Atchafalaya present to— Kilometres
Figure 22.42 Outlines of the five delta lobes that make up the Mississippi Delta. The youngest delta lobe is the
Atchafalaya, which is not yet fully occupied by the river. (Source: adapted from Pilkey, 2003)
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22.9 Erosive coasts
22.9 Erosive coasts solely in terms of contemporary processes and sea level
(Trenhaile, 2010).
Rocky coasts are continually being cut back by the sea and Sunamura (1992) categorized rocky coast morphology
are characterized by erosional features. The erosive nature into three main types: sloping shore platform, sub-hor-
of rocky coasts results in often stunning coastal scenery izontal shore platform and plunging cliff, as shown in
(Figure 22.43), but makes it difficult to deduce their evolu- Figure 22.44.
tionary history, because the different evolutionary stages
are not preserved in the stratigraphy. Along depositional
22.9.1 Rocky coast processes
coasts we can usually observe relatively quick morpholog-
ical changes using measurements, maps and aerial photo- Rocky coast erosion is accomplished by a wide range of
graphs. However, in rocky coastal settings there tends to processes, often working together (see Trenhaile, 1987, for
be a very slow rate of change. This slow rate of change a comprehensive overview of these processes). In terms
averaged over long periods does not mean that changes of their function in controlling rocky coast morphology,
cannot be dramatic and sudden. Moreover, rocky coastal these processes can be grouped into three main types:
features, especially when carved into resistant rocks, are mass movements, rock-breakdown processes and marine
often polygenetic (i.e. the product of more than one sea rock-removal processes.
level) and rocky coast morphology can rarely be explained
(a) (b)
(d)
(c)
Figure 22.43 Examples of rocky coastlines: (a) plunging limestone cliffs at the Bill of Portland, Dorset, UK; (b) relict coastal cliff along the south coast
of Iceland; (c) ‘washboard’ surface due to near-vertical shale layers of the shore platform at Hartland Quay, North Devon, UK; and (d) rock arch in small
island of the coast of Land’s End, north Cornwall, UK.
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Chapter 22 Coasts
(a)
Blowhole
High-water
Cave
Debris level
Pothole Low-water
Notch level
Arch
Stack
Sho
re p
latf
orm
(b)
Blowhole Ramp
High-water
Cave Pool level
Low-water
Notch Stack level
Pothole rop
Sho
re p ard d
l atfo Seaw
rm
(c)
High-water level
Plunging cl
Low-water level
iff
Figure 22.44 Three major morphologies on rocky coasts with their characteristic erosional features: (a) sloping
shore platform, (b) sub-horizontal shore platform and (c) plunging cliff. (Source: after Sunamura, 1992)
Mass movements are common along rocky coasts movements that involve movement of material with a
owing to the prevailing steep, and therefore unstable, high liquid content. All types of mass movements are
slopes. A spectrum of mass movements can occur on episodic and occur more commonly in winter than in
rocky coasts, depending primarily on the properties of summer due to increased rainfall and undercutting of
the rock (lithology and structure). They include rock- the base of the rocky slopes by wave processes. The
falls which are characteristic of hard rocks, landslides principal roles of mass movements are the downwearing
which typically occur in thick, fairly homogeneous of cliffs and the introduction of cliff material into the
deposits of clay, shale or marl, and flows which are mass nearshore zone.
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22.9 Erosive coasts
There are a host of physical, chemical and biological Chapter 8) of the debris. Between these two extremes lies
processes that weaken and loosen rock material, which an infinite range of slope forms, each of which depends
then becomes available for removal by marine processes. on the relative rates of sediment supply and removal at the
Their relative importance depends principally on wave shoreline (Pethick, 1984).
energy level, climate and rock type. Mechanical wave The main factor that controls cliff erosion is the hard-
action (abrasion and hydraulic action) is the main ero- ness of rock. A rock’s resistance to erosion is mainly
sional agent in most swell and storm-wave environments. determined by its lithology, although factors such as wave
In sheltered areas and on particularly susceptible rocks, energy and cliff height are also considered significant.
weathering is probably the major erosive mechanism As an example, typical cliff erosion rates for granite,
along rocky coasts. Physical weathering breaks down rock shale and glacially deposited materials (glacial till) are
through the formation and subsequent widening of cracks 60.001 m yr - 1, 0.0190.1 m yr - 1 and 1910 m yr - 1,
in the rock. These can occur due to frost action, alternat- respectively (Sunamura, 1992). It is telling to translate
ing cycles of wetting and drying and the growth of salt these recession rates to predictions of cliff retreat over the
crystals. Chemical weathering of rocks is most significant next 100 years: granitic cliffs can expect to retreat by less
in hot, wet climates. Finally, bio-erosion is the removal than 0.1 m, while glacial till cliffs are likely to be cut back
of rock by organisms and is most important in tropical by 100 to 1000 m. The number for the glacial till cliffs may
regions due to the enormously varied marine biota and the appear excessive. However, the glacial till cliffs along the
abundance of calcareous substrates. Chapter 14 provides Holderness coast in eastern England have retreated by
more detail on weathering processes and Chapter 15 deals almost 3 km since Roman times, representing a cliff retreat
with slope stability. rate of 1.5 m yr - 1. It is further noted that cliff retreat
Mass movements and weathering weaken the rock and is a highly episodic process and that cliff recession rates
produce loose rock material that becomes available to represent long-term averages. In other words, cliffs do not
marine processes for removal. Without the export of this erode at a uniform rate, but can go through phases of little
material, rocky coasts stop evolving and simply develop erosion followed by a sudden phase of erosion.
into weathered terrestrial slopes. The larger the waves,
the greater the efficiency of the cross-shore and longshore
22.9.3 Shore platforms
sediment transport processes to remove loose material and
keep rocky coasts ‘fresh’. Shore platforms are erosional features that develop when
erosion of a rocky coast and the subsequent removal of
the debris by waves and currents leave behind an ero-
22.9.2 Coastal cliffs
sional surface, forming a horizontal or gently sloping
Coastal cliffs can be defined as ‘steep slopes that border rock surface in the intertidal zone (Figure 22.43c). They
ocean coasts’ and occur along approximately 80% of the are often referred to as ‘wave-cut platforms’, but this
world’s coastlines. A bewildering variety of cliff profiles term should not be used because it assumes that shore
are found in nature and this reflects the large number of platforms result from wave action, which is not always
factors involved in the development of coastal cliffs. In true because weathering processes also significantly
addition to rock type and sea-level history, the relative contribute to shore platform formation (Stephenson,
roles of marine or land processes are crucial in determin- 2000). The rate of platform lowering depends mainly on
ing cliff morphology. If the ability of marine processes the hardness of the rock and averages between 0.1 and
to remove the debris exceeds the supply of material by 2 mm yr - 1 (Trenhaile, 1987). Shore platform formation is
mass-wasting and weathering processes, sediment will not intrinsically linked with cliff erosion, and the rate of ver-
accumulate at the base of the cliff. In this case, the angle tical lowering of the cliff base (top of the shore platform)
of the cliff profile depends mainly on the structure and is 2–5% of the horizontal cliff recession. The junction
lithology of the rock. If, on the other hand, the supply between the shore platform and the cliff is usually close
of debris exceeds the capacity of removal at the base of to the high-tide level and sometimes a high-tide beach is
the cliff, the material accumulates into a talus slope (see present at this location. Shore platforms also form along
Chapter 15). Note also difference between vertical cliff cohesive coasts where they front clay cliffs. These shore
of active cliff (Figure 22.43a) and talus slope at the base platforms are generally covered by a thin layer of sand/
of the abandoned sea cliff (Figure 22.43b). The result- gravel material, but become exposed when severe storms
ing angle of the cliff profile is the angle of repose (see remove this veneer.
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Chapter 22 Coasts
coastal management plans or shoreline management plans,
Reflective question which chart out a course for the future development of
a stretch of coast and/or assist in resolving current man-
➤ What are the main factors controlling coastal cliff erosion agement problems. Legally binding initiatives are a very
and shore platform lowering? powerful means to direct practices in the coastal zone. For
example, the Dynamic Preservation Strategy adopted by
the Dutch national government in 1991 (Koster and Hillen,
1995) included a legal provision that prescribed that the
22.10 Coastal zone management
Dutch coastline be maintained at its 1990 position, irre-
spective of uncertain future developments. In other words,
Coastlines are the most important and intensely used
land losses due to coastal erosion are considered unlawful
of all areas settled by humans for a number of reasons,
and have to be compensated for by beach nourishment. On
including historical settlement, trading or political link-
a local level, councils can use by-laws to control activities
ages, climate, availability of fertile alluvial soils, proximity
in the coastal zone.
to fish stocks and, more recently, aesthetic and recreational
From a geographical point of view, the main issue asso-
reasons (Carter, 1988). From a human point of view,
ciated with ICZM is to protect the coast from erosion and
the coastal zone is a resource to be used and exploited,
flooding. Both these aspects are particularly relevant at the
whereas from an environmental perspective, the coastal
moment, because 70% of our sandy coastlines are eroding
zone is an environment often adversely affected by human
(Bird, 1985) and sea level is rising at an increasing rate.
activities (French, 1997). The coastal zone is used for var-
There are four principal management options available
ious activities, ranging from nature conservation to waste
to cope with coastal erosion and flooding due to sea-level
disposal, with most coasts supporting multiple activities.
rise:
Interactions inevitably occur between two or more coastal
uses, and management is required to plan and coordinate 1. No active intervention – this option is viable only if the
the different uses of the coastal zone to avoid conflicts. In coastline under question is undeveloped and nothing is
the past, coastal management was mainly concerned with at stake by giving up the land to coastal erosion.
single issues that could be dealt with by a single authority. 2. Managed realignment – this option involves the relo-
This is no longer the case. The increased complexity of cation of coastal communities and industry, with a
coastal management issues, and the varying spatial and prohibition on further development. In this strategy,
temporal scales at which they operate, bring in many dif- risks are minimized and costs of protection are avoided.
ferent organizations with an interest in the management of However, social and economic costs associated with
a coastline. These organizations typically include admin- relocation and compensation are potentially high. The
istrative authorities (councils, government agencies and retreat option requires a strong governmental role with
environmental organizations), industry and other interest supportive legislation.
groups (residents and tourism). For effective management 3. Accommodation – this allows continued occupancy
of the coast, an integrated approach should be adopted and use of vulnerable coastal areas by adapting to,
and the term ‘integrated coastal zone management’ (ICZM) rather than protecting fully against, adverse impacts. It
is used to indicate this approach. means learning to live with the sea-level rise and coastal
Any ICZM initiative requires sustainability so that flooding. Accommodation options include elevating
human activities should be non-destructive and the buildings, enhancing storm and flood warning systems,
resources we exploit should be renewable. It is clear there- and modifying drainage. The accommodation option
fore that many coastal practices are not sustainable. How- can also involve changing activities, such as changing
ever, Kay and Alder (1999) noted that sustainability is not farming practices to suit the new environment, or
a set of prescriptive actions but a ‘way of thinking’ about simply accepting the risks of inundation and increas-
our use of the coastal zone and the resulting impacts. Gen- ing insurance premiums. The accommodation option
erally the concept of sustainability to coastal management requires high levels of organization and community
has resulted in a management approach with a longer-term participation.
view and more holistic perspective. 4. Hold the line – this option involves physically protect-
The output of ICZM consists of both legal policies and ing the coast through hard engineering with structures
advisory initiatives. The latter are generally in the form of such as seawalls and groynes or soft engineering through
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22.10 Coastal zone management
beach nourishment, for example. Protection has clear a socio-economic perspective). Certainly in developed
social, economic and political advantages, because countries there seems to be an increased push by national
assets and investments are safeguarded while economic governments to pursue these more sustainable coastal pro-
activity can continue largely unhindered. Protection is tection strategies.
the most expensive option to implement and maintain, Notwithstanding the desire to maintain the dynamic
and is only economically justifiable if the land to be nature of coasts, there will always remain a large role
protected is of great value. for coastal protection measures for the simple reason
that many coastal areas are too valuable to be given up
The first three strategies are based on the premise that
(Figure 22.45). When properly designed and constructed,
increased land losses and coastal flooding will be allowed
hard engineering structures do serve an important pur-
to occur and that some coastal functions and values will
pose: storm surge barriers, such as constructed across the
be changed or lost. On the other hand, these strategies
Thames and in the south-west of the Netherlands, have
help to maintain the dynamic nature of the coast and
prevented serious flooding on several occasions; sea walls
allow it to adjust to rising sea levels naturally. It is ben-
and breakwaters protect coastal development from dam-
eficial to allow as many coastal regions as possible to
age during extreme wave events (Figures 22.45a and b);
retreat naturally, because erosion of these natural areas
and groynes are successful to some extent in trapping
will liberate sediments, which may lessen the impact of
sediments and maintaining a beach. The ‘side effects’ of
sea-level rise on those areas that are not allowed to retreat
hard engineering are considerable, however, and it is well
naturally. The overall outcome is an increase in the resil-
established that, following the construction of hard coastal
ience of the coastal system to sea-level rise. Hence, the
structures, erosion problems on the downdrift unpro-
first three options are most sustainable from a geomor-
tected coastline are often exacerbated (or even created;
phological point of view (although not necessarily from
Figure 22.45c). Soft engineering practices, in the form of
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 22.45 Examples of coastal engineering measures: (a) and (b) seawall fronting gravel beach of Torcross, Devon, UK, before and
after the 2013/2014 storms which resulted in 3–4 m of beach lowering in front of the seawall; (c) Jetties are designed to prevent the
silting up of tidal inlets and harbour entrance channels by blocking the littoral drift. In the photo, the littoral drift direction is from right
to left. (d) The ‘sand engine’ along the west coast of the Netherlands, near the Hook of Holland, is an experimental mega-suppletion of
20 million m3 of sand. The spit feature is supposed to evolve naturally over the next few decades, providing slow-release beach nourish-
ment to the up-drift coast. (Source: (c) Aart Kroon, Copenhagen University (d) Frans Lemmens/Alamy Stock Photo)
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Chapter 22 Coasts
beach nourishment or beach recharge, largely circumvent nourishment and treatment will have to be repeated at reg-
the main problem associated with hard engineering. The ular intervals. To reduce sediment losses following beach
artificial placement of a large amount of sediment, either nourishment, groynes may be placed at the boundaries of
on the underwater slope or on the beach itself, protects the nourished area. On the whole, beach nourishment is
not only the recharged coast, but also the neighbouring more aligned with sustainable coastal management and is
coastline, because sediment transport processes will now very widely used (Bird, 1996).
redistribute the nourished sediment (Figure 22.45d). This Storms can cause major challenges for coastal zone
redistribution also represents a major downside of beach management and an example is given in Box 22.6.
CoASTAL IMPACTS oF ATLANTIC Ireland to Portugal, the south-west measured at the tip of Cornwall over the
SToRMS duRING 2013/2014 coast of England was particularly and period 1 October 2013 to 1 April 2014.
repeatedly impacted due to the storm The 22 storm events that occurred over
WINTeR
tracks crossing Ireland and England. this 6 month period had an average
The Atlantic coast of Europe experi- Figure 22.46 illustrates the inshore wave peak and mean Hs of 8.1 m and 6.1 m,
enced an unprecedented sequence of conditions during this period using two respectively, and an average duration of
very energetic wave conditions during photographs during one of the storms 28.7 hours. For 10 storms, the peak Hs
the 2013/2014 winter. Although coastal and presents the time series of the exceeded 8 m and during two storms
impacts were widespread, ranging from offshore significant wave height Hs the peak Hs exceeded 10 m. During all
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 22.46 (a) Huge, parallel-incident storm waves (estimated breaking wave height of 8 m) breaking right at the base of the gravel beach
at the south-eastern end of Chesil Beach, Dorset, UK, during the storm of 5 February 2013. (b) Very large, obliquely incident storm waves (esti-
mated breaking wave height of 4 m) on Slapton Sands, south Devon, also during the storm of 5 February 2013 (photo represents a video snap-
shot from a camera station deployed from a cliff at the northern end of the beach. (c) Time series of significant wave height Hs measured at the
tip of Cornwall, UK, over the period 1 October 2013 to 1 May 2014. A total of 22 storms were identified over this period (red circles), where a
storm is defined as a wave event during which the maximum Hs exceeds the 1% exceedance wave height of 5.9 m, and where the start and the
end of the storm event occurs when Hs exceeds or falls below 4.5 m (roughly the 5% exceedance wave height), respectively (horizontal lines).
The size of the red circles is proportional to the duration of the storm. (Source: (a) Richard Broome; (b, c) Masselink et al., 2016; http://onlineli-
brary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/esp.3836/full; under creative commons licence https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/legalcode)
Box 22.6 ➤
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22.11 Summary
➤
these storms, the wave direction was damage to coastal infrastructure. Erosion of the 2013/2014 winter storms for
south-westerly to westerly, as is typical for of coastal dunes was also widespread and three selected sites. The morphological
Atlantic storms. many beaches lost considerable quanti- response at Bude, north Cornwall, is rep-
During the 2013/2014 winter, practi- ties of sediment, exposing the underlying resentative of beaches on the north coast
cally all coastal towns and villages in the rocky shore platforms or coastal protec- of south-west England and displays 1–2
south-west of England were affected, more tion structures (Masselink et al., 2016). m of beach lowering across the entire
than once, by coastal flooding and/or Figure 22.47 shows the coastal impacts intertidal (Figure 22.47a). Where there is
limited morphological response evident,
this is because there is only a very thin
veneer of sediment on top of a shore
platform (upper section of the north-
ern part of Bude). The storm response
at Sidmouth, south Devon, and Carylon,
south Cornwall, both shows alongshore
redistribution of sediment; at Sidmouth
the presence of multiple coastal defence
structures (offshore breakwaters, groynes
and seawall) created several sediment cells
(Figure 22.47b), whereas Carlyon beach
experienced a beach-wide rotation (Fig-
ure 22.47c). Many beaches on the south
coast of south-west England exhibited a
rotation due to the strong eastward littoral
drift driven by the Atlantic storm waves.
The key factor that determines whether
Figure 22.47 Elevation change derived from LiDAR for three beaches in south-west England
offshore or longshore sediment transport
showing impacts of 2013/2014 winter storms: (a) Bude, north Cornwall, flown on 8 October
2010 and 1 March 2014; (b) Sidmouth, south Devon, flown on 4 March 2013 and 9 February occurs is the angle of the breaking waves
2014; and (c) Carlyon, south Cornwall, flown on 21 March 2012 and 1 April 2014. (Source: (compare left and right photographs in
Masselink et al., 2016; http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/esp.3836/full, under Figure 22.46).
creative commons licence https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by=/4.0/legalcode)
BOX 22.6
Reflective questions ➤ What are the problems associated with using hard
➤ What are the main factors involved in deciding on the best engineering structures for coastal protection?
coastal management strategy for a particular stretch of
coast?
22.11 Summary therefore includes the coastal depositional landforms and the
marine erosion surfaces formed when the sea level was high
The boundaries of the coastal zone correspond to the limits to (slightly above present-day sea level) during warm interglacial
which coastal processes have extended during the Quaternary periods, and the seaward limit is defined by the edge of the
geological period. The landward limit of the coastal system ➤
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Chapter 22 Coasts
➤
continental shelf which typically occurs in water depths of the sediment supply and sea level. Estuaries are the dominant
approximately 130 m. Coastal environments are arguably the most tide-dominated coastal landform and represent zones of mixing
important and intensely used of all areas settled by humans. At between fluvial and marine (wave and tidal) processes. On a
the same time, they are currently at great risk from coastal erosion geological timescale, estuaries are rather short-lived features
and flooding due to climate-induced sea-level rise and storms. because they are characterized by relatively rapid infilling by
Over the last few decades, global sea level has been rising at a rate fluvial and marine sediments. Deltas are accumulations of sedi-
of 3 mm yr - 1 and over the next 100 years this rate may increase ment deposited where rivers enter into the sea. Waves and tides
to 6 mm yr - 1. To deal with these global changes presents a real significantly affect river outflow processes and play a significant
challenge for coastal zone management and must be informed by role in determining the delta morphology. Rocky coasts are erod-
a sound understanding of coastal processes and dynamics. ing coasts and the main factor controlling the erosion rate is the
Coastal morphologies are controlled and driven by a set of strength of the rocks relative to that of the eroding waves. The
environmental boundary conditions, including sea-level change, two dominant rocky coast landforms are (co-evolving) cliffs and
geology, sediment supply and external forcing (wind, waves and shore platforms.
tides), and changes in these boundary conditions will modify Effective management of the coast requires an integrated
coastal processes and morphology. The current paradigm of approach that considers all coastal users and stakeholders, at
coastal research is the so-called ‘morphodynamic approach’, the same taking a long-term view to come up with sustainable
which considers coastal systems and their dynamics to be mutu- solutions and policies. The term ‘integrated coastal zone manage-
ally linked by negative and positive feedback. The presence of ment’ (ICZM) is used to indicate this approach. An important remit
positive feedback between coastal form and process makes of ICZM is to address problems associated with coastal erosion
it difficult to predict coastal evolution, especially over longer and flooding, and there are two fundamentally different types
timescales. of management approaches available. On the one hand, there
At the most basic level, coastal environments can be divided are strategies that allow some loss of coastal land, functions and
into clastic (comprising mud, sand and gravel) and rocky coasts. values, but help maintain the dynamic nature of the coast. On the
Clastic coastal environments are depositional and their mor- other hand, there are strategies that protect the coastline using
phology responds to the relative dominance of wave, tidal and hard and soft engineering techniques. Allowing coastal regions to
fluvial factors. Barriers are the basic depositional elements of retreat naturally increases the resilience of the coast to sea-level
wave-dominated coasts and comprise the underwater shoreface rise and is preferable. However, in many instances the coastline
and the above-water beach and dunes. They can be swash- under threat is simply too valuable to be sacrificed and coastal
aligned or drift-aligned, and respond strongly to changes in protection must be sought.
Further reading Haslett, S. (2008) Coastal Systems, 2nd edition. Routledge,
London.
Undergraduate textbook on coastal systems with good bal-
ance between coastal processes, morphology and management
Davidson-Arnott, R.G.D. (2010) Introduction to coastal issues.
processes and geomorphology. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge. Masselink, G., Hughes, M.G. and Knight, J. (2011) Introduc-
A useful coastal text with comprehensive treatment of all tion to coastal processes and geomorphology, 2nd edition.
coastal environments and processes. Hodder Education, London.
This text is co-written by the author of this chapter and pro-
Harris, P.T. and Heap, A.D. (2003) Environmental management vides an excellent continuation for further studies into coastal
of clastic coastal depositional environments: inferences from an processes and morphology.
Australian geomorphic database. Ocean & Coastal Manage-
ment, 46, 457–478. Masselink, G. and Gehrels, W.R. (eds) (2014) Coastal environ-
Very readable paper illustrating the application of classification ments and global change. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford.
models to coastal zone management. Very comprehensive and advanced-level text on coastal pro-
cesses and environments with all chapters written by leaders in
the field.
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C H A PTER 2 3
Glaciers and ice sheets
Tavi Murray
Department of Geography, Swansea University
Learning objectives large volumes of water on land, thereby reducing the
amount in the oceans. During phases of maximum ice
After reading this chapter you should be able to: advance, global sea levels fell by 130 m. The amount of
water stored in glacial ice today is equivalent to approx-
➤ describe different types of ice masses and their characteristics imately 75 m of global sea-level rise. Most of the water
is stored in the great ice sheets of Antarctica and Green-
➤ explain the concepts of glacier mass balance
land. For example, the West Antarctic and Greenland ice
➤ explain how glaciers move downslope sheets individually contain the equivalent of about 5 and
➤ describe how water moves through a glacier and understand why 7 m of sea-level rise. During the twentieth century global
the water system is important in glacier dynamics sea level rose by ∼19 cm, and the rate of sea-level rise
➤ understand glacier thermal regimes and their effect on glacier has accelerated over the last two centuries: it is currently
dynamics and glacier water systems approximately 0.32 cm per year (IPCC, 2013). Much of
➤ explain how glaciers and ice sheets are reacting to climate change
the sea-level rise is due to simple expansion of the water
contained in the seas and oceans as it has warmed, but
➤ explain how glaciers erode their beds and modify sediments, and
just over 50% is attributed to the melting of glaciers and
understand the differences in the sediment deposited via a range
ice sheets (see Box 22.1 in Chapter 22).
of mechanisms
Glaciers can be used as valuable resources. For exam-
➤ describe typical landscapes of glacial erosion and deposition ple, glacial runoff is used to generate electricity in a num-
ber of countries such as Norway, Canada and Switzerland
and in many regions it is an important water source for
23.1 Introduction agriculture. In the Karakoram Himalayas, glacial meltwa-
ter makes a major contribution to the Indus and Yarkand
Over the past 2.6 million years there has been repeated
Rivers and hence to the livelihood of 130 million people
expansion and contraction of glaciers and continental-
(Hewitt, 1998). An advantage of glacially fed water sys-
scale ice sheets in the middle latitudes. Today glaciers cover
tems is that the water supply actually increases during hot
about 10% of the Earth’s land surface, although they are
summers, which are generally times of increased need. In
currently shrinking in most areas. These ice masses store
M23 An Introduction to Physical Ge 83575.indd 625 24/05/2017 19:04
Chapter 23 Glaciers and ice sheets
addition skiing is a popular pastime, and in many areas 23.2 Glaciology
this occurs on the surface of glaciers. The engineering
of ski lifts and safe operation of these ski areas requires The aim of this section is to develop an understanding of
knowledge of glacier dynamics. Increasingly oil, gas and glaciers and ice sheets, the controls on glacier extent and
mineral extraction is taking place in glaciated environ- the effect of climate change on them, the evacuation of
ments. Furthermore icebergs are calved from glaciers, water through glacier hydrological systems and the pro-
meaning that world shipping is affected by changes in ice cesses and rates of ice flow.
dynamics at major outlet glaciers.
Changes in glacial extent have also affected the Earth’s
climate, for example by altering the Earth’s albedo, and 23.2.1 Types of ice mass
glaciers have made major modifications to much of the There are a wide variety of ice masses including ice sheets,
Earth’s landscape by eroding, transporting and depositing ice caps and valley glaciers. The largest ice masses are
sediment. These processes have helped shape the landscape known as ice sheets, which cover continental-size regions
over much of the middle latitudes in places where today (Figure 23.1). Typically an ice sheet is 1–3 km thick. The
there are no glaciers or ice sheets. Where they do occur, Antarctic ice sheets cover approximately 12.3 * 106 km2
these landscape change processes operate at a variety of and the Greenland ice sheet covers around 1.8 * 106 km2
rates and over a range of scales. This chapter discusses gla- (Vaughan et al., 2013). The bases of the Greenland and
cial systems, glacial processes and the effects of glaciation East Antarctic ice sheets lie largely above sea level and are
on the landscape. known as terrestrial ice sheets, whereas a marine-based ice
Figure 23.1 Subglacial and sea-bed topography for Greenland and Antarctica. Marine-based areas are extensive in Antarctica and also occur in some
troughs in Greenland. Cross-sections through overlying ice show (A) Jakobshavn Isbrae and (A′) Kangerdlugssuaq Glacier; (B) Thwaites Glacier and
(B′) Siple Coast; (C-C′) Totten Glacier. All cross-sections have ice grounded below sea level. (Source: from Vaughan et al., 2013, IPCC AR5 WG1,
Chapter 4, Figure 4-18, Cambridge University Press)
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23.2 Glaciology
Figure 23.2 Schematic diagram of a marine-based ice sheet such as the West Antarctic ice sheet. Most ice
from the interior is fed through the fast-flowing ice streams to the ice shelves where the mass is lost largely
through iceberg calving and some basal melt beneath the ice shelves. (Source: after Alley, 1991)
sheet has its base below sea level such as large areas of the Antarctica, which flows at approximately 850 m yr - 1.
West Antarctic ice sheet (Figure 23.2). In Antarctica, the ice streams feed ice shelves which are
Ice sheets flow relatively slowly and most of the mass formations of floating ice as shown in Figure 23.2. Ice is
reaches the ice sheet margins through smaller, fast-flow- lost from the ice shelves by melting into the ocean below
ing ice streams or outlet glaciers as shown in Figure 23.2. or when iceberg calving occurs (Figure 23.3). This is when
An ice stream is a fast-flowing ‘river’ of ice within more large chunks of ice are released from an ice shelf or outlet
slowly moving ice sheet walls whereas an outlet glacier glacier and float into the ocean.
is a fast-moving section of ice surrounded by rock. An Ice caps are smaller than ice sheets, but still cover
example of an ice stream is Whillans ice stream, West considerable areas. For example, Vatnajökull, situated in
south-east Iceland, covers some 8100 km2. Many mountain
regions are glaciated with valley glaciers, which are much
smaller in area. Different regions and different types of
ice mass have characteristic flow rates, thermal and hydro-
logical systems. Most mountain glaciers are currently
shrinking.
23.2.2 Where do glaciers occur?
Glaciers are formed wherever the snow that falls in winter
does not melt over the subsequent summer. This suggests
that there are two fundamental requirements for the for-
mation of glacier ice: precipitation in the form of snow
(the percentage of precipitation in an area falling as snow
is known as the nivometric coefficient) and low tempera-
Figure 23.3 Large iceberg in the process of being calved from
tures. Neither is sufficient on its own. For example, 23
Helheim Glacier, south-east Greenland. Ice flow is from left to right, 000 years ago the majority of Canada and the northern
and the ice cliff marks the change between the glacier and the fjord, United States was glaciated (see Figure 4.11 in Chapter 4),
which is covered by icebergs. The entire glacier is about 5 km wide but Alaska remained largely free of glacier ice because
and the calving front is up to 100 m high. Photograph taken by
automatic camera during the Network of Sensors project (see also
the precipitation in this area was very low (a cold arid
Section 25.2.2 in Chapter 25). For a video of calving from this glacier region). Further factors that control the distribution of
see: www.youtube.com/watch?v=ovMhspvwpmw snow and ice include latitude, altitude, relief, aspect and
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Chapter 23 Glaciers and ice sheets
Table 23.1 Present-day glacial coverage. There are glaciers on every con-
tinent on Earth. Total world coverage is approximately 14.76 * 106 km2
Area
6
: 10 km 2 %
South polar region 12.25 83
North polar region 2.10 14.2
North America 0.104 0.7
South America 0.03 0.2
Europe inc. Scandinavia 0.03 0.18
Asia 0.103 0.7
Low latitude inc. Africa 0.003 0.2
Pacific/Australasia 0.001 6 0.1
(Source: data from IPCC, 2013)
Figure 23.4 Photograph of a typical alpine glacier at the end of summer.
The snowline has retreated up the glacier leaving exposed ice close to
the glacier margin. The lower part of the glacier, the ablation zone, is
continentality or the distance from the ocean. Glaciers
melting, and has lost mass over the year. Downslope of the ablation zone,
differ greatly in locations where different factors are the previous extent of the glacier can clearly be seen in the sediment and
dominant. For example, the ice masses of Antarctica are erosion patterns. The upper part of the glacier, the accumulation zone,
characterized by very low surface temperatures and low has retained snow and has gained mass over the year.
precipitation. These are examples of polar glaciers, which
occur at high latitudes. The glaciers of the European Alps
The division between the accumulation and ablation
occur in a relatively warm climate characterized by very
zones occurs at the equilibrium line (see Figure 23.11). The
high precipitation rates. These are examples of alpine gla-
mass of water that is added to or lost from a glacier over
ciers, which exist because of their high altitude. Table 23.1
a year is known as the mass balance. A glacier is said to be
gives a summary of the current glacial coverage.
in positive mass balance if it is gaining in mass over a year
and in negative mass balance if it is losing mass. For a typ-
23.2.3 Glacier mass balance ical alpine glacier, mass balance is primarily a function of
Examination of glaciers in late summer generally shows winter precipitation and temperature, and summer solar
that the snowline (where fresh snow still lies) has retreated radiation and temperature.
up the glacier and that the lower region of the glacier is When calculating mass balance it is better to use the
bare ice. An example can be seen in Figure 23.4. This lower mass of water gained or lost rather than the volume
region is known as the ablation zone and despite it becoming of change because of the extreme differences between
snow covered in winter it experiences net mass loss during the densities of snow, firn and ice (Table 23.2). Despite
the year (see also Figure 23.11 below). Ice may be lost by this, several techniques of estimating the mass balance
melting at the glacier surface or base and by iceberg calving. actually measure the volume balance, because the mass
Most ice loss in Antarctica occurs through iceberg calving, change of a glacier is very difficult to measure (see
whereas in Greenland about equal mass is lost through sur- Box 23.1). In many regions, such as Svalbard in the Nor-
face melting and glacier calving (IPCC, 2013). The region wegian High Arctic, small mountain glaciers are losing
of the glacier that experiences net mass gain through the mass to the ocean. For two glaciers at Svalbard an accel-
year is known as the accumulation zone (Figure 23.4). In this eration in mass loss has been demonstrated (Kohler et al.,
zone some or all of the snow that falls in winter survives the 2007). At Midtre Lovénbreen, for example, the thinning
summer season to form firn, which is wetted and compacted rate for 1936–1962 was 0.15 m yr - 1, while for 2003–2005
snow more than a year old. it was 0.69 m yr - 1. The values are given as depths
Slowly this firn becomes denser and forms ice when all because the volume loss is averaged over the glacier’s
the connecting air passages become closed. Often annual area. In other words, the glacier is losing 0.69 m depth of
layers of ice can be detected as a result of the differences in ice per year averaged over its whole area.
ice formation during the winter snow season and summer The accumulation area of a glacier can be broken down
dry season as shown in Figure 23.5. into a number of zones although not all of these zones are
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23.2 Glaciology
Figure 23.5 Ice cliff showing annual layers of snow and ice in the Antarctic ice shelf. (Source: Armin Rose/Shutterstock.com)
Table 23.2 Typical densities of snow and ice. Snow is largely unaltered present on all glaciers. The dry-snow zone is an area where
since deposition. Firn is wetted snow that has survived at least one sum- there is no surface melt, even in summer. Most alpine
mer. Firn becomes ice when there are no longer any interconnecting air
passages glaciers do not have a dry-snow zone as some melting
occurs, but much of Antarctica and the central region of
Material Density (kg (kg m −3)) the Greenland ice sheet are characterized by no melting.
New snow 50–70 The region where the entire snowpack is saturated at the
Damp or settled snow 100–300 end of the summer is known as the wet-snow zone. Water
Depth hoar 100–300 that refreezes at the base of the snowpack is known as
Wind-packed snow 350–400 superimposed ice. Because this ice has formed by refreezing
Firn 400–830 rather than compression, it has slightly different chemical
Very wet snow or firn 700–800 and physical properties than glacier ice. Superimposed ice
Glacier ice 830–910
formation is an important component of glacier mass bal-
Water 1000
ance in High Arctic glaciers such as those in Svalbard and
(Source: from Cuffey and Paterson, 2010)
the Canadian Arctic.
Weighing the Ice Sheets From Center, is an exciting method for moni- Earth’s gravity field (Figure 23.6b). The
Space toring ice sheet mass balance from space. gravity field allows calculation of changes
GRACE consists of two satellites orbiting in ice sheet mass (Figure 23.7) once cor-
Measuring the mass balance of the major the Earth (Figure 23.6a), which are sepa- rection for glacial isostatic rebound and
ice sheets is a difficult task, mainly because rated by a distance of around 220 km. The other factors is made. Figure 23.8 shows
of their large size. The Gravity Recovery distance between them varies slightly as some spatial maps of ice mass change for
and Climate Experiment (GRACE), funded the satellites pass over anomalies in the years since 2002.
by NASA and the German Aerospace
Box 23.1 ➤
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Chapter 23 Glaciers and ice sheets
Figure 23.6 The GRACE (Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment) satellite system. (a) Schematic diagram of the satellites which orbit the
Earth; variations in the gravity field cause small changes in their distance apart. (b) The production of a gravity field anomaly map for the Earth.
(Source: University of Texas Center for Space Research/NASA)
500
0
Cumulative mass change [Gt]
–500
–1000
–1500
–2000
–2500
–3000
–3500
2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016
Year
Figure 23.7 Time series of ice mass changes for the Greenland ice sheet estimated from GRACE monthly
mass solutions for the period from April 2002 to April 2015. Each symbol is an individual month and the
orange asterisks denote April values for reference. (Source: Tedesko et al., 2015, www.arctic.noaa.gov/
reportcard/greenland_ice_sheet.html)
Box 23.1 ➤
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23.2 Glaciology
Figure 23.8 Spatial changes in mass since 2002 for the Greenland ice sheet in cm of water equivalent
from GRACE. Post-glacial rebound has been removed. (Source: NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, Felix W.
Landerer (NASA/JPL CalTech) and Marit Jentoft-Nilsen)
Box 23.1
23.2.4 Transformation of snow into ice and contains water; cold ice is at temperatures below
the pressure melting point and does not. The ‘thermal
Glacier ice is formed from compacted snow. The processes
regime’ of a glacier exerts a fundamental control over
that result in this transformation depend on whether there
the water system and over the range of processes that can
is water present in the snowpack. Changes are slow in the
operate at the bed of the glacier. Furthermore, the prop-
absence of water and result from packing changes and
erties of warm and cold ice vary strongly. For example,
settling, changes in the ice crystal size and shape resulting
the deformation rate of ice increases by about ten times
from sublimation, and deformation of the crystals. The
between - 30 and - 10°C. Many other properties of the
presence of water results in much faster changes, because
ice are temperature or water-content dependent, such as
melting, percolation and refreezing occur in the snowpack.
the speed and attenuation of acoustic or electrical waves
The transformation of snow to ice may take only a few
through the ice. This allows us to detect the thermal
years where the snowpack becomes saturated (e.g. 3 to
structure within glaciers using radar. An example of the
5 years at the Upper Seward Glacier, Yukon Territory),
thermal structure of a glacier is shown in Figure 23.9.
but more than 100 years in Antarctica or Greenland. See
Generally three types of thermal regime are recognized.
Cuffey and Paterson (2010) for further details of the trans-
The first is a temperate glacier, which consists of warm ice
formation processes.
throughout except for a layer, between 10 and 15 m in thick-
ness, that is seasonally warmed and cooled by temperature
23.2.5 Glacier thermal regime variations at the surface (this layer is analogous to the active
There is an important distinction between cold and layer in permafrost, see Chapter 17). Typical examples of
warm ice. The melting point of ice reduces with increas- temperate glaciers are those in the European Alps, the south
ing pressure. At atmospheric pressure the melting point island of New Zealand and the Canadian Rockies. The
is 0°C, whereas beneath 1 km of ice the melting point second thermal regime is a cold glacier, which consists
is about - 0.7°C. Therefore, the greater the thickness entirely of cold ice. A typical example might be Meserve
of an ice mass, the more likely it is to be at the pressure Glacier in Antarctica. The final type is a polythermal glacier,
melting point. Warm ice is at the pressure melting point which comprises both warm and cold ice (Figure 23.9).
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Figure 23.9 Radar images of Storglaciären, Arctic Sweden showing thermal regime. Warm ice near the glacier bed contains water and scatters the radar
producing a reflection of the radar waves. Because the glacier consists of both cold and warm ice it is known as a polythermal glacier. Further informa-
tion can be found in Gusmeroli et al. (2012).
It is the temperature of the bed that is critical. If the of supraglacial channels (Figure 23.10a). These channels
bed of a glacier is cold then there will not be a basal water transport water efficiently owing to their smooth ice walls.
system and the occurrence of sliding and deformation of The water may continue to be routed to the glacier front
basal sediments will be greatly reduced. Geothermal heat across the glacier surface, which is common for High
(from inside the Earth) and heat generated by basal fric- Arctic glaciers, or may enter the glacier to flow englacially
tion may warm the bed of a glacier, producing an active (within the glacier).
basal water system even in regions where the surface Although a small amount of water may percolate
temperature is very cold such as beneath the Whillans ice directly through the ice in small veins along the boundar-
stream, West Antarctica. ies of individual ice crystals, the rate of this percolation
is negligible. Most water flowing through a glacier does
23.2.6 Glacier water systems so through a system of englacial channels as shown in
Figure 23.11. Water typically enters the glacier through
Water is produced at the surface of many glaciers in sum- moulins (Figure 23.10b) that tend to form where crevasses
mer from the melt of both snow and ice. Additional water (fracture cracks in the ice) cut the drainage path of suprag-
may be input at the surface directly due to rainfall. For lacial water. Moulins usually descend rapidly to depth as
many alpine glaciers the most important water source is semi-vertical shafts linked by short horizontal channels.
from surface melt. Small amounts of water are also pro- Englacial channels may intersect the glacier bed and flow
duced by geothermal heating or as the glacier slides over along the floor of the glacier. Direct studies beneath glaciers
its bed or deforms sediments. Some of these sources are are difficult and so many of our ideas about the configura-
seasonal (such as surface melt), whereas other sources will tion of subglacial (beneath the glacier) water
persist throughout the year (such as basal melting). systems are derived from largely theoretical considerations.
Unless it refreezes, supraglacial (surface) meltwater Four main morphologies have been proposed, namely:
will percolate downwards through any snow or firn and (i) flow in a thin sheet; (ii) flow through a network of chan-
will flow at the surface of the glacier ice. The rate of nels; (iii) flow through linked cavities; or (iv) flow through a
water flow through snow or firn is fairly slow. Once the braided system of ‘canals’ at the glacier bed (Figure 23.12).
ice surface is reached, water will flow downslope along Study of subglacial drainage is an important branch of
the ice surface and will emerge at the snowline as a series
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(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 23.10 (a) Deeply incised supragla-
cial stream at the surface of the Greenland
ice sheet. (b) A moulin on the Greenland
ice sheet. Supraglacial water flows into the
body of the glacier down moulins that lead
to englacial channels. Eventually the water
may reach the bed. (c) The water outlet at
many alpine glaciers is a single or a small
number of channels. This suggests that the
lower region of this type of glacier is often
drained by a channelized drainage system.
(Source: photos (a and b) courtesy of Adam
Booth; photo (c) courtesy of Mike Crabtree)
Accumulation area Ablation area
Snow melt
percolation Equilibrium line
Firn
Water-saturated
zone
Bedrock
Moulin
Crevasses
Englacial
Englacial channels Supraglacial
channels meltwater
channels
Subglacial
sediments Subglacial
channels
Groundwater
flow Percolation
Figure 23.11 Schematic showing a typical temperate glacier hydrological system.
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glaciology, because glacial meltwater is used to generate parallel to ice flow, rather than exposing entire water
electricity and for agriculture, and because the water system systems.
has a profound effect on glacier dynamics. R-channels are melted upwards into the glacier ice,
which can be much more rapidly thermally eroded than the
bedrock. R-channels form because the ice melts owing to
23.2.6.1 Sheet flow
frictional heat generated by water flow. These channels can
One evacuation route for basal water is thought to be close up because of ice creep, especially in winter. An import-
through a thin film or sheet, just a micrometre (thou- ant attribute of R-channels is that an increase in water flux
sandth of a millimetre) to a millimetre in thickness. The decreases the water pressure in steady-state conditions. This
thickness of the sheet is thought to vary, being thinnest inverse relationship between pressure and flux suggests that
over bumps in the bed because of the higher pressure at large R-channels will ‘capture’ small R-channels. Thus,
their upstream side. Thicker films cannot develop because water in R-channels will be concentrated in a small number
enhanced melting would result in the formation of subgla-
cial channels. Flow through sheet flow is typified by very
(a)
high water pressures, and research on bedrock at Blackfoot
Ice
Glacier, USA, showed that sheet flow occurred over about Water
80% of the glacier bed (Walder and Hallet, 1979). The Bedrock
role of sheet flow is thought to be small for most alpine
(b) Cross-section
glaciers, perhaps transporting water into a channelized
Ice R-channel
system. Sheet flow is thought to be dominant only beneath
ice masses where the majority of basal water is derived N-channel
from subglacial melting due to geothermal heating, sliding
or bed deformation rather than surface meltwater.
23.2.6.2 Channelized flow Ice and water
flow
Water that descends from the glacier surface in englacial
conduits will arrive at the bed at discrete locations and is Plan view
unlikely to become dispersed into a thin sheet. This water
will tend to flow at the bed in conduits or channels (c)
Linked
(Figure 23.12b). Evidence for channelized systems comes
cavities
from the rapid rate of transfer of dye from moulins to the
outlet stream at some glaciers and from the observation
that many alpine glaciers have one or a few major out-
let channels emerging at their margins (Figure 23.10c).
Subglacial water can also be inferred to be exiting from
Ice flow
discrete channels at the margins of many tidewater gla- Water flow
ciers from the sediment-rich plumes that can be seen on Plan view
photographs and remotely sensed images. Glacier out-
burst floods from subglacial sources (see Box 23.2) occur (d)
through efficient channelized water systems. Canals
Two types of channels are thought to exist beneath Ice
glaciers, namely Nye (N) channels and Röthlisberger (R)
Subglacial sediment
channels (Figure 23.12b). N-channels are incised into the Ice and water flow
Plan view
bedrock, and R-channels are melted upwards into the ice.
N-channels are fixed in space and can be preserved on Figure 23.12 Conceptual forms of the basal water system. Water may
exposed bedrock surfaces. However, they may be destroyed flow at the bed of a glacier (a) through a sheet of water; (b) through a
channel system eroded either down into the bed (Nye channels) or up
by subglacial erosion due to ice sliding and may be slow
into the ice (Röthlisberger channels); (c) through a tortuous series of
to form because water erodes rock inefficiently. When they linked cavities; or (d) through canals, which are thought to be braided in
are seen they tend to form short channels approximately their plan form.
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120
100
pressure (%)
Flotation
80
60
40
198 200 202 204 206 208 210
Day number 1992
Figure 23.13 Water pressure variations measured by a basal water sen-
sor during summer at Trapridge Glacier. Figure shows the percentage of
the flotation pressure (which is the pressure at which the ice will float
on its own water). Day 198 is 17 July. Note the diurnal pressure peaks
corresponding to high-water input during the late afternoon.
of large channels and hence there is a tendency to form a
tree-shaped channel network (Figure 23.12b).
Variations in surface melt drive variations in basal
water pressure on both diurnal and longer timescales
(Figure 23.13). Diurnally, water pressures are typically
highest in the afternoon and lowest in the early morning as
a result of melt cycles. In particular, abundant surface melt
is routed to the glacier bed during spring, resulting in high
water pressures until the water system evolves sufficiently
to evacuate the water. Conversely, the beginning of winter
is characterized by low basal water pressures. These char-
acteristics result in an increase of sliding rate in spring and
early summer at most alpine glaciers and lowest sliding
rates during the winter.
23.2.6.3 Linked cavities
Figure 23.14 Extensive subglacially eroded sediments at the margin of
An alternative model of water flow across a hard bed is Trapridge Glacier, Yukon Territory, Canada. These sediments used to lie
beneath the ice. The presence of such sediments is thought potentially
through linked cavities (Figure 23.12c) that are formed to affect both the glacier dynamics and the morphology of the water
downstream of bedrock bumps as the glacier slides over its system.
bed. These consist of a tortuous system of basal cavities,
typically less than 1 m high and from less than 1 m to 10 m glacial till in the middle latitudes suggests that the beds of
in length, linked by narrow connections less than 0.1 m in many major ice sheets in the past were soft. Furthermore,
height. While the cavities have a large volume, water flow soft beds have been identified beneath a number of con-
through the system is at high pressure and is very slow, so temporary glaciers, including Breiðamerkerjökull, south-
thermal erosion is inefficient. This means that the water east Iceland, Storglaciären, Sweden, and Trapridge Glacier,
system cannot increase its discharge rapidly in response Yukon Territory.
to increased input. Sediments are not just deformable; many also have
greater permeability than rocks. This means that water
23.2.6.4 Canals can drain through the bed. However, for most ice masses
the sediment is too fine to drain the volume of water pro-
The models of a glacier hydrological system described so duced, in which case some form of additional drainage
far have assumed that there is hard and impermeable bed- system must develop. Two drainage systems are postu-
rock beneath the glacier. However, as glaciers retreat they lated to form over soft sediments. The first is essentially
often expose extensive glacial sediments, suggesting that the same as the R-channel system that forms over a hard
many glaciers may be underlain by soft and potentially bed. The second system is analogous to N-channels over
deformable beds (e.g. Figure 23.14). The wide coverage of bedrock; however, in this case the channels are eroded
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downwards into the basal sediments (Figure 23.12d). a few large channels. As a result a canal drainage system
These channels are wide and shallow and are known as is thought to consist of shallow, wide channels distributed
‘canals’. Sediment deformation will tend to close canals, more or less evenly across the bed and connected in a
which must be balanced by erosion of the bed if channels braided pattern. Canals are thought to be most likely to
are to remain open. Unlike in R-channels, water within a form where low-slope glaciers overlie soft sediment.
large canal is at a higher pressure than in a small canal. Under large ice sheets, many lakes have been found.
There is therefore no tendency for flow to concentrate in Box 23.2 provides examples from Antarctica.
Sub-ice-sheet lakes beneath the ice sheet is very dynamic. deep, and is situated beneath 4 km of ice
in the Antarctic The water in these lakes is in complete in East Antarctica. It is the fifth largest
darkness, the ambient pressure is very lake on the plant and has potentially
Around 400 lakes have been mapped high, and the waters may be isolated over been undisturbed by light for 15 million
beneath the Antarctic ice sheet using long periods of time. However, life has years. Drilling was undertaken to sample
radio-echo sounding (Siegert et al., 2005) been found in these unique biological the lake waters in 2012 but when the
and seismic surveys (Woodward et al., habitats, such as at Lake Whillans which hole was complete, water gushed up and
2010a). As the lakes fill and drain under covers 60 km2 and is about 800 m below mixed with chemicals that were being
the ice sheet the surface elevation of the the ice surface (Fox, 2014). Lake Vostock used to keep the borehole open. Hence
ice changes and this has been mapped was the first subglacial lake to be iden- water samples were contaminated. In
using satellite techniques (e.g. Wingham tified from radar and satellite imagery. 2015 a new borehole was drilled and
et al., 2006; Fricker et al., 2007), and The lake is the largest discovered, around samples are being analyzed to test for life
shows that the subglacial water system 250 km * 50 km in size and up to 800 m and chemistry.
Box 23.2
23.2.7 Glacier dynamics 23.2.7.1 Internal deformation of ice
In order to transfer ice formed from snow that accumu- Stress applied to ice causes it to deform, which is often
lates in the upper reaches of all glaciers to the ablation known as creep (see Box 23.4). The rate of deformation
zone it must flow downslope. To maintain constant glacier depends on a wide variety of factors including temperature,
geometry, the mass transferred down the glacier should crystal orientation and ice impurities. Creep is the dominant
equal the mass lost by melting or calving. The balance flow mechanism for cold glaciers, although the creep rate is
velocity is the velocity required to maintain the ice mass in much lower for cold ice than for warm ice. Once the pressure
equilibrium (i.e. without change to its geometry). Those melting point is reached at the glacier bed the processes of
glaciers where the actual and balance velocities are similar sliding and deformation of basal sediments can also occur.
are said to be in balance with the current climate, and are
unlikely to experience major changes in flow rate unless
23.2.7.2 Sliding at the glacier bed
the climate changes.
There are three mechanisms by which glaciers flow. If the bed of a glacier is cold, there is a strong bond
These are internal deformation or creep, sliding and bed between ice and bed that tends to prevent sliding. If, how-
deformation. The driving force for glacial flow is gravity, ever, the bed is at the pressure melting point, this bond is
which is resisted by frictional forces at the sides and bed not present and the presence of liquid water reduces fric-
of the glacier. The gravitational driving force exerts stress tion. As a result the glacier can slide over its bed. Sliding is
on the ice, which can be divided into two components, the process by which many of the geomorphic features we
the normal stress and the shear stress. Both increase with associate with glaciers are formed, and is the most efficient
depth in the glacier (see Box 23.4). process for glacial erosion. The rate of sliding is controlled
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Glacier Lake Outburst Floods summer before the moraine dam finally melt. One of the largest floods from Vatna-
(GLOFs) failed in August 2002, causing the second jökull occurred in 1996, after an earthquake
largest glacial lake outburst flood in histori- of magnitude 5 on the Richter scale. Sub-
Lakes are common at the margins of cal times (Figure 23.15). sidence bowls 100 m deep and cracks in
retreating temperate glaciers. Lakes can be Many rapidly retreating mountain the glacier surface showed that extensive
dammed by glacier ice, by glacial moraines, glaciers are forming lakes behind moraine melting was occurring at the base of the
or the water can be created underneath dams, threatening villages downstream. An glacier along a fissure 5–6 km long and an
the glacier ice by a volcanic eruption or example of a glacier lake outburst flood eruption cloud emerged a few days after
geothermal heating. These lakes tend to occurred in Bhutan in the Himalayas where that extending to a height of 3 km. Meltwa-
drain rapidly and cause a glacier lake out- there are more than 2000 glacial lakes, many ter from the eruption flowed into the 10 km
burst flood. A typical glacial lake outburst of which are increasing in volume as glaciers diameter Grímsvotn subglacial lake at a rate
flood has a total discharge of water and melt. In 1994, the Lugge Lake in northern of 5000 m3 s - 1.
debris up to 50 million m3 and a flood- Bhutan drained, releasing 18 million m3 The water stored in Grímsvotn produced
wave that may be up to 10 m high. These of water. The floods killed 17 villagers and an outburst flood, with a 4 m high wave
floods may cause widespread damage and affected 91 households downstream. crossing the floodplain. During the course
destruction downstream, in some cases for Glacial outburst floods from a subglacial of the flood two bridges were destroyed or
hundreds of kilometres. lake occur regularly from beneath Vatna- badly damaged, as were phone and power
Lakes dammed by glacier ice can form jökull in south-east Iceland. Vatnajökull is a lines. Large chunks of ice were broken from
when a glacier surges (see Section 23.2.7.5) temperate ice cap of about 8100 km2, the glacier margin and carried across the
or advances. One such flood occurred when and the volcanic fissure system of the floodplain. The water peak flow was esti-
Hubbard Glacier advanced and blocked Mid-Atlantic Ridge (see Chapters 2 and 3) mated to be 45 000 m3 s - 1 and the esti-
Russell Fjord in Alaska in 2002. This formed lies beneath the western portion of the ice mated damage was US$15 million to roads,
Russell Lake, which rose 24 m over the cap where it causes substantial subglacial bridges and other infrastructure.
Figure 23.15 Outburst flood from Russell Lake, formed by the advance of the Hubbard Glacier to block the Russell Fjord.
(Source: USGS)
Box 23.3
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by the drag at the bed, which results from two factors. of the obstacle, so ice melts here. The melted water then
These are the bed roughness, which results in form drag, flows around the obstacle to the low-pressure downstream
and the rock–rock friction that results from the interaction side where it refreezes because the melting point is higher.
between sediment that is lodged in the basal ice This mechanism therefore allows the ice to slide past the
(Figure 23.16) and the bed, which is known as frictional obstacle. The downstream refreezing releases latent heat
drag. The morphology of the basal water system and the (see Chapter 4), which results in a downstream tempera-
basal water pressure also strongly influence the rate of ture rise, so that heat is conducted upstream through the
glacier sliding by decoupling the glacier from its bed. High obstacle where it assists in melting. This process of melting,
basal water pressures enhance the rate of glacier sliding. transfer of water, heat conduction and refreezing is known
Glacier beds are not smooth and basal sliding requires as regelation (Figure 23.17a). Regelation is limited by the
that ice is transferred around obstacles. Basal sliding occurs rate of heat conduction upstream, which is most efficient
by two mechanisms under such rough conditions. These for small obstacles. The regelation process is important in
are regelation and enhanced creep, which are shown in the formation of basal ice and the entrainment of debris at
Figure 23.17. If ice flows around obstacles at the bed, most the ice base.
of the shear stress is supported on the upstream side of The second mechanism of basal sliding is known as
the obstacles. This results in excess pressure upstream of enhanced creep. The presence of the obstacle causes an
the obstacle and lowered pressure on the downstream side. increased compressive stress on its upstream side. Glen’s
Increased pressure lowers the ice melting point upstream flow law (see Box 23.4, equation 23.3) shows that the
creep rate is proportional to the third power of the stress.
Hence increased stress greatly increases the local creep rate
(Figure 23.17b). The magnitude of stress enhancement is
thought to be related to the size of the obstacle so that the
mechanism works most effectively for large obstacles.
Because regelation is most efficient for small obstacles
and enhanced creep for large obstacles there is a critical
obstacle size which provides the majority of the resistance
to glacial flow. This critical obstacle size is thought to
lie between 0.05 and 0.5 m in diameter. The total sliding
(a) Regelation Ice
Water
Pressure
Refreezing melting
Heat
Water layer
Rock
(b) Enhanced creep Ice
Compressive
Tensile stress
stress
Rock
Figure 23.17 Sliding of glacier ice over a rough bed by (a) regelation
and (b) enhanced creep. Regelation occurs where increased pressure
causes melting on the upstream side of the obstacle. Water flows around
the obstacle and refreezes on the downstream side. Heat released by
Figure 23.16 Laminated basal ice exposed at the margin of Trapridge refreezing is conducted upstream through the obstacle. Enhanced creep
Glacier, Yukon Territory. The sequence shown is ∼60 cm in height. Ice flow results because of enhanced compressive and tensile stresses around the
was from right to left. obstacle.
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23.2 Glaciology
velocity is equal to the sum of the velocity due to regela- stream, West Antarctica, high-resolution seismic surveys
tion and that due to enhanced creep. undertaken in the mid-1980s showed a 5–6 m thick sediment
layer that was laterally continuous for at least 8 km. This
layer was thought to be deforming throughout its thick-
23.2.7.3 Deformation of basal sediments
ness and this helps explain why the ice stream flows so fast
Sliding theories usually assume that a glacier overlies despite its low-slope angle (Alley et al., 1986; Blankenship
undeformable and impermeable bedrock. However, where et al., 1986). Furthermore, at Breiðamerkerjökull, south-east
an ice mass overlies soft sediments, deformation of these Iceland, deformation of the bed was shown to cause 88% of
sediments can contribute to surface flow. At Whillans ice the total surface motion (Boulton and Hindmarsh, 1987).
Stress, strain and ice if a is small and the glacier has a shallow determines how non-linear the response
deformation surface and bed slope then the glacier will of ice is to an applied stress and is typically
be thicker. taken to be 3.
Stress is defined as a force acting per unit The stress applied to glacier ice causes Glacier ice differs from the laboratory ice
area and has units of pascals (Pa). For a it to deform, and the rate of deformation on which this result is based (Figure 23.18).
glacier, the normal stress, s (which is the can be calculated from the flow law of ice Glacier ice is polycrystalline and the orien-
stress exerted at right angles, or ‘normal’, (known as Glen’s law). This flow law was tation of the crystals will vary. Glacier ice is
to the slope), can be calculated from determined in the laboratory and relates inhomogeneous and can also contain water,
#
s = rgh(23.1) the strain rate, e, to the basal shear stress, air bubbles trapped as the snow becomes
t: ice, and both soluble and insoluble impuri-
where r is the density of ice (Table 23.2), # ties. These can all change the properties of
g is the acceleration due to gravity e = Atn(23.3)
the ice as can the strain history of the ice.
(9.8 m s - 2) and h is the ice thickness. For The creep rate of ice is sensitively depen- In general, polycrystalline ice deforms less
ice 100 m thick, the normal stress is about dent on the temperature of the ice, and readily than a single crystal as reorientation
880 kPa. the value of A is about 1000 times greater must occur.
The theoretical basal shear stress (the at 0°C than it is at -50°C. The value of n
stress exerted at an angle parallel to the
slope), t, beneath an infinite parallel slab
glacier is calculated from the bed slope
(equal to the surface slope), a, and its
thickness using
t = rgh sin a(23.2)
For a typical glacier 100 m thick and with
surface slope 4°, the shear stress will be
about 57 kPa. Equation (23.2) allows us
to predict certain geometric characteris-
tics of a theoretical glacier. If we assume
that the ice is perfectly plastic (does not
deform until its yield strength but then Figure 23.18 Thin section through glacier ice viewed through cross-polarizing filters. Each
has infinite strain rate) then we can set grain appears a different colour because of its different alignment. Also clearly seen are small
the basal shear stress in equation (23.2) air bubbles in the ice (seen as small round inclusions). These air samples provide a record of
past atmospheric conditions. This thin section is from 333 m depth in the GISP2 core drilled
to the yield strength of ice. This then tells
at the summit of the Greenland ice sheet. (Source: photo courtesy of A. Gow)
us that the thickness is controlled by the
angle a, such that if a is large (the glacier
is steep), then it will be thin. Conversely,
Box 23.4
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23.2.7.4 Relative importance of glacier flow Height
mechanisms
Glacier motion is made up from contributions of Ice
ice deformation, sliding and sediment deformation (internal deformation)
(Figure 23.19). The relative importance of each at a par- Sliding
ticular site depends on the thermal regime, the availability Bed
and distribution of meltwater and the composition and (basal deformation)
morphology of the bed. At Trapridge Glacier, Yukon Ter- Velocity
ritory, Canada, measurements have been performed using
Figure 23.19 Mechanisms of glacial flow. The surface velocity of a glacier
instruments installed through boreholes into the glacier is made up from components due to internal deformation of the ice, slid-
bed designed to measure sliding and sediment deformation ing at the ice–bed interface and deformation of subglacial sediments.
together with measurement of surface speed. The surface
of Trapridge Glacier moves approximately 10 cm day - 1, are thought to do so by either fast sliding or fast sed-
of which sliding makes up about 4 cm day - 1 and sediment iment deformation. Several fast-flowing glaciers, such
deformation about 6 cm day - 1. The contribution at this as Columbia Glacier, Alaska, and Whillans ice stream,
site from internal ice deformation is less than 1 cm day - 1 West Antarctica, are discharging more ice than they accu-
(Blake, 1992). mulate. In contrast, Kamb ice stream, West Antarctica,
which switched from a fast to slow flow mode approx-
23.2.7.5 Glacier velocity, glacier surging and fast gla- imately 250 years ago, flows at about 5 m yr - 1, and is
cier flow currently gaining mass.
Surge-type glaciers switch between long periods of
Glacier flow velocities vary considerably depending on the slow (or quiescent) flow and flow 10–1000 times faster
basal thermal regime, glacier mass balance, bed conditions (the surge). It is unclear whether the trigger that enables
and bed geometry (Clarke, 1987). Temperate valley gla- ice streams to switch between fast and slow flow is exter-
ciers typically flow at velocities of a few tens of metres per nally or internally controlled, but it appears that surging
year, while cold-based continental glaciers may have max- glaciers show internally driven switching, independent
imum velocities of the order of 1–2 m yr - 1. The normal of external forcing. Most theories explain the change
range of valley glacier velocities is considered to be 10–100 in velocity from slow to fast and vice versa as caused by
m yr - 1 typically associated with basal shear stresses of the a change from an efficient to an inefficient basal water
order of 40–120 kPa. For example, White Glacier, in the system. Such a change can occur because the basal drain-
Canadian Arctic, flows at about 30 m yr - 1. Often glaciers age system alters from a channelized to a linked cavity
can be quite inaccessible and so it is difficult to determine water system. If the glacier overlies a soft bed then the
glacier velocity in many locations. However, using satellite paths through sediments by which water is evacuated
technology it may be possible to measure glacier flow and are thought to be destroyed by shear deformation, which
glacier topography. Box 23.5 provides information on one traps pressurized water at the bed causing high water
such technique. pressures and fast flow.
A smaller class of fast-flowing glaciers exists, with Glacier surging involves the release of ice stored in
velocities of the order of 100 to over 1000 m yr - 1, which the upper portion of a glacier (reservoir zone), allowing
includes ice streams, tidewater terminating glaciers and it to flow down the glacier rapidly into the receiving
surging glaciers. Jakobshavn Isbræ, West Greenland, zone. For example, Variegated Glacier, Alaska, flowed
thought to be Earth’s fastest continuously flowing ice up to 65 m day - 1 during its 1982–1983 surge (Kamb
mass, flowed at just over 11 km yr - 1 in 2009, and sev- et al., 1985). Glaciers surge repeatedly, with a periodic
eral other Greenland outlet glaciers have recently been and relatively constant surge cycle between 20 and 500
measured to flow at rates of 6–12 km yr - 1 at their years. The fast flow or active phase is short, typically
calving fronts. Whillans ice stream, West Antarctica, 1–15 years. The surge often results in rapid advance of
flows at ∼800 m yr - 1 and the Rutford ice stream, Ant- the front margin of the glacier as shown in Figure 23.20,
arctica, flows at 400 m yr - 1. Most fast-flowing glaciers sometimes by several kilometres in a few months or
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23.2 Glaciology
years. For example, the Hispar Glacier in the Kara- crevassed (Figure 23.20d). Tributary glaciers can be
koram Himalayas is reported to have advanced ‘2 miles sheared off, resulting in looped patterns of medial
in 8 days’ and the Hassanbad Glacier in the same region moraines (Figures 23.20b and c). The slow-flow phase is
advanced ‘9.7 km in 2.5 months’ (Hewitt, 1998). Strand often characterized by frontal retreat and wasting ice.
lines are often left marking the former pre-surge ice During slow-flow periods the ice builds up in the reser-
surface in the reservoir zone (Figure 23.20c) and the ice voir zone ready for the next surge, which often results in
surface typically becomes intensively and chaotically the formation of a bulge of ice.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 23.20 The effects of surging. (a) Aerial photograph showing the glacier Abrahamsenbreen, Svalbard, in 1969. The glacier surface is uncre-
vassed and tributary glaciers can be seen compressing the main trunk. (b) The same glacier in 1990 after a major surge. The glacier surface is highly
crevassed and the moraine loops have been extended down the flow. The margin has advanced by ∼3 km. (c) Glacier surges cause downdraw in the
upper region of a glacier (the reservoir zone). At this glacier, Sortebræ in East Greenland, downdraw was measured to be up to 200 m, and (d) large
crevasses opened in the lower part of the glacier. (Source: (a) air photo 569 1493 and (b) air photo 569 3134, © Norwegian Polar Institute; (c) and
(d) Danish Lithospheric Centre)
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Measuring glacier dynamics dynamics. If repeated imagery is available for in the second image (Figure 23.21). By
from space then the movement of features such as repeating this process across the whole
crevasses on the glacier can be tracked glacier surface and with knowledge of the
Glaciers are often situated in remote and automatically between the images. An area time gap between the images, a map can
inaccessible regions, making remote sens- of the glacier is chosen in the first image be built up of the glacier’s dynamics.
ing an attractive method for studying their and then the equivalent area is searched
(a) (b)
Figure 23.21 (a) Figure showing conceptually how tracking between two satellite images works. The rock (non-moving) areas in two images
separated in time are co-registered (aligned spatially). Patches from one image are then matched in the second image allowing the displacement
of features such as crevasses to be measured. (b) Speed map of the glacier Glydenlove in south-east Greenland from tracking on SAR imagery.
(Source: courtesy Suzanne Bevan)
Box 23.5
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23.2 Glaciology
Although only about 1% of Earth’s glaciers are surge- everywhere, however. In a few regions atmospheric warm-
type they tend to be more common in certain regions ing has increased precipitation, resulting in mass gain. The
including Iceland, Svalbard, Karakoram, Pamirs, Tien major ice sheets are in general thickening in their central
Shan, Yukon–Alaska, Greenland and the Andes. These region, because of the increased snowfall, and thinning
environments range from continental to maritime and the around their periphery (e.g. see Figure 23.8). Some basins
glacier thermal regimes from temperate to subpolar. Only of the West Antarctic ice sheet which are grounded below
cold-based glaciers have not been observed to surge. sea level are thinning rapidly, as are many outlet glaciers
in Greenland (see Box 23.6). Furthermore, a number of ice
shelves on the Antarctic Peninsula have collapsed and the
23.2.7.6 Glaciers in a warming climate
glaciers feeding into them have accelerated. Many outlet
Global climate is warming, although the spatial pattern is glaciers in southern Greenland have also speeded up. In
not uniform and this warming is causing widespread melt- most mountainous regions small glaciers are retreating
ing and retreat of glaciers. This loss of ice is resulting in and contributing to sea level despite the increase in precip-
sea-level rise (see Section 23.1). Mass loss is not happening itation in some areas.
Accelerating glaciers speed up. The remainder of the mass loss glaciers speeded up in 2004–2005 by
in Greenland occurs through fast-flowing tidewater 60–100%. This speed up was accompa-
glaciers that calve icebergs into glacial nied by rapid thinning of 70–100 m and a
Greenland is the largest island on Earth fjords. In west Greenland, Jakobshavn frontal retreat of several km. Subsequently
and its ice sheet contains around 7.2 m Glacier was seen to accelerate in 1997 in 2006, the glaciers slowed and partially
of sea-level rise equivalent. Around half at the same time as ocean temperatures readvanced, however, they remain at
of the mass loss from the Greenland ice increased over the continental shelf speeds faster than in 2000. Other glaciers
sheet is meltwater, which mainly runs off (Holland et al., 2008). In south-east in the south-east region also appear to
from the surface, but in some areas lakes Greenland, the two largest glaciers are have responded in the same manner and
form that may drain through the glacier to Helheim (Figure 23.3) and Kangerd- it is likely that changes in ocean tempera-
the bed and cause the ice sheet’s flow to lugssuaq (Figure 23.22). Both of these ture are responsible.
(a) (b)
Figure 23.22 Map of surface elevation change on Kangerdlugssuaq Glacier over a 1750 km2 area between July 2001 and July 2006. (b) Map of
surface elevation change on Helheim Glacier (see also Figure 23.3) over a 1040 km2 area between June 2002 and August 2005. (Source: from
Stearns and Hamilton, 2007)
BOX 23.6
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Chapter 23 Glaciers and ice sheets
Reflective questions
➤ A mining company suggests disposing of waste down ➤ A ski company decides that in order to prolong the ski
crevasses of a temperate glacier, arguing that the material season it will move snow from the accumulation zone of
would be held for many thousands of years before being a glacier to the ablation zone. Can you comment on this
released into the environment. Do you agree with this proposal with a view to the long-term future of the ski
assessment? resort?
➤ Can you explain the major differences between a warm- ➤ In the Delta River Valley, Alaska, the Alaska oil pipeline
and cold-bedded glacier in terms of thermal structure, passes within hundreds of metres of glaciers, including
hydrology and dynamics? several surge-type glaciers. Why might this be a problem?
23.3 Glacial geological processes and sandstones between 70 and 210 MPa, and even shales and
glacial sediments tuffs have strengths greater than 10 MPa. It would appear
that only the thickest glaciers overlying the weakest rocks
The aim of this section is to develop an understanding of will cause fracturing. Yet there is direct evidence that
the main geomorphic processes operating beneath glaciers, crushing does occur. This can result from the effects of
concentrating on the themes of erosion and deposition stress concentration because of stones in the basal ice, the
and emphasizing the characteristics of the sediments exploitation of pre-existing weaknesses and joints in the
deposited. bedrock, and from repeated cycles of loading and unload-
ing. Freeze–thaw weathering (see Chapter 14) in front of
the glacier can fracture rock that the glacier subsequently
23.3.1 Processes of glacial erosion advances over. Finally the removal of large amounts of
Glacial erosion has resulted in some of the most spectac- rock by glacial erosion can cause fracturing due to pres-
ular scenery on Earth. Deep, previously glaciated valleys sure release. Bedrock crushing is enhanced by (i) thick ice,
and fjords and lofty alpine ridges and horns are the typical (ii) the presence of particles entrained within the basal ice,
scenery brought to mind. Enormous volumes of rock have (iii) cold patches at the bed and (iv) large fluctuations in
been removed from these regions, transported by ice and the basal water pressure. The products of bedrock crush-
water and deposited in lower-lying areas. This section ing are typically large, angular rocks.
outlines the processes by which these landscapes of ero-
sion are formed. These processes have long been poorly 23.3.1.2 Plucking and quarrying
understood, partly because of the inaccessibility of the
subglacial environment and partly because of the complex Once the bedrock is crushed it can be entrained (picked
interactions between the ice dynamics, thermal regime and up) into the glacier ice. The process by which a glacier
hydrological system, which strongly affect the processes of removes large chunks of rock from its bed is known as
erosion; however, recently remote sensing through the ice plucking or quarrying. Entrainment can result from
has revealed some of these sub-ice landscapes in detail for freeze-on at the bed, by ice regelation around the rock or
the first time. by incorporation into the ice along faults. Freeze-on can
occur at the downstream side of obstacles at the bed where
water refreezes as the glacier slides by regelation.
23.3.1.1 Glacial crushing
Glacial crushing is the direct fracturing of bedrock 23.3.1.3 Glacial abrasion
because of the weight of ice above it. The thickest ice that
has existed on Earth was around 5 km thick, which results Glacial abrasion occurs when glaciers slide relative to the
in a normal stress of about 44 MPa (Box 23.4). However, material beneath them. Rock particles held within basal
most rocks are stronger than this. For example, granites ice (Figure 23.16) are dragged over the glacier bed. This
have unconfined compressive strengths of 140–230 MPa, slowly scratches and wears the surface, rather like a piece
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23.3 Glacial geological processes and glacial sediments
of sandpaper wears wood. The rate of erosion due to 23.3.1.5 Erosion rates
abrasion is controlled by three factors. These are the con-
tact pressure between ice and its bed, the rate of sliding The rate at which glaciers and ice sheets denude bed-
and the concentration and nature of particles within the rock varies greatly owing to changes in basal tempera-
basal ice. ture, glacier velocity and properties of the bedrock. In
Abrasion rates increase as particle concentration within one experiment, marble and metal plates were installed
basal ice increases. Furthermore, fresh rough particles beneath valley glaciers to measure the rate at which they
are more efficient tools of erosion than smoothed parti- were abraded (Boulton, 1979). The plates were abraded
cles. Hence abrasion rates are higher in locations where at rates between 0.9 and 36 mm yr - 1. Other estimates are
basal melting brings a continual supply of fresh parti- derived from measurements of the sediment output from
cles descending towards the bed. The relative hardness glacial systems in streams and in basal ice. These measure-
between entrained debris and the underlying bedrock will ments suggest total erosion rates of between 0.073 and
influence abrasion rates. For example, a glacier that flows 165 mm yr - 1. The best global estimate is approximately
from a hard to soft rock will have entrained hard rock 1 mm yr - 1, which is equivalent to 1 km per million years.
pieces which will then efficiently abrade the softer rock However, these estimates are for valley glaciers and do not
downslope. Finally, erosion is more effective in locations include ice sheets. It should be emphasized that in some
where the fine sedimentary product is removed by meltwa- situations ice may have a protective role and bedrock may
ter flushing. Otherwise the fine sediment can clog or coat be eroded at much slower rates than would have otherwise
particles that are acting as abrasion tools. The sediment been the case. Indeed, recent evidence from cosmogenic
resulting from abrasion is very fine and when suspended isotope data suggests that denudation by large ice sheets
in water is known as glacial flour. Glacial abrasion causes was minimal for large areas at least during the advance of
striations (see below) and smooths particles.
the last glacial (Fabel et al., 2002).
23.3.1.4 Mechanical and chemical erosion by basal 23.3.2 Entrainment and transport
meltwater Freeze–thaw and other processes result in material falling
Meltwater at the bed of a glacier can cause erosion by from rock slopes onto the surface of glaciers where it is
mechanical or chemical processes. The rate of both is transported downstream by the ice (Figure 23.23). If the
highly dependent on the nature of the glacial water sys- material falls onto the glacier in the accumulation zone it
tem, the flux through it and the sediment or solute load- will become buried, and either will be transported within
ing. Subglacial mechanical erosion occurs by the same
processes as erosion in a surface channel flowing over
bedrock. This operates by corrasion (mechanical wearing Ablation Accumulation
and grinding), cavitation (pressure changes due to bubble zone zone
collapse in turbulent flow) and corrosion (chemical weath-
derived debris
Supraglacially
basal zone
Supraglacially
ering). Glacial meltwaters are efficient at erosion, because derived debris Supraglacially derived
they typically flow at high velocities and often have high transported debris transported
on surface englacially c
viscosity because of their large suspended sediment
load and cold temperature. Mechanical erosion forms
smoothed bedrock, potholes and N-channels. Chemical
erosion by meltwater at the bed results in the decompo-
Bedrock
sition of minerals into their ionic constituents. The pro-
cesses operating include solution, hydrolysis, carbonation,
hydration, oxidation and reduction, and cation exchange Subglacially derived debris
Compressive remains at bed
(see Chapters 14 and 20). All of these processes act at the region
surface of particles. The rate of chemical erosion at the basal debris
surface in
bed is enhanced by the influx of fresh surface water, by the
c
shear bands
presence of freshly abraded surfaces and by the presence
of dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2), which has an enhanced Figure 23.23 Transport paths of debris through glacial system. (Source:
solubility at low temperatures. after Boulton, 1978)
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Chapter 23 Glaciers and ice sheets
the body of the glacier (englacially) or may descend to the The glacial system can be thought of as a conveyor belt
bed. If material falls onto the surface in the ablation zone transporting ice and sediment downslope, modifying the
it will remain at the surface and be transported passively sediment particles as they are transported. As particles
as supraglacial sediment. Material that is only buried travel down the glacier they are abraded for progressively
partially will also be transported passively as englacial longer time periods and break down to finer and finer par-
sediment and may emerge in the ablation zone as a result ticles. However, experiments in grinding mills show that
of ice melt. Sediment is also transported within the basal the breakdown of sediment particles ceases once particles
ice layer. reach their terminal mode, the size of which depends on the
Basal material may also become entrained within faults mineralogy (Haldorsen, 1981). As the material is further
close to the margin or basal crevasses (Figure 23.24a). abraded more of the particles reach this terminal mode,
Medial and lateral moraines are made up of supraglacial but the material does not break down to finer particles. As
material and the particles are typically coarse and angular a result of abrasion the particle size distribution of basal
(Figure 23.24b). Particles that are eroded from the bed, or sediments often becomes bimodal (two peaks in the distri-
descend to the bed, become rounded and worn through bution; in this case there are lots of pebble-sized material
abrasion (Figure 23.24a). and lots of fine-clay-sized material, but with less of all
Figure 23.24 (a) Basally derived material entrained in a fault in glacier ice. Basal material is actively transported and becomes rounded and finer. Ice flow
was from right to left. (b) Supraglacial sediment is typically coarse and angular. Both supra- and englacial material are transported passively and so little
modification occurs. Medial and lateral moraines are made up of supraglacial sediment.
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23.3 Glacial geological processes and glacial sediments
70
300–500 km transport
60
Percentage from total dolomite
50
Rock fragments
40 Mineral grains
75 km transport
30
0–3 km transport
20
10
Particle -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9+ Ø
size 64 8 0.125 0.016 0.002 <0.001 mm
Figure 23.25 A typical particle size distribution for glacial till is bimodal or multimodal. The Φ index is shown (see Chapter 16) on the x-axis along
with values in mm. The two peaks in the distribution of the sediment sizes collected can be seen. There is more fine-grained (0.1 mm diameter) and
pebble-sized (50 mm diameter) material than other particle sizes. This develops from the processes of glacial erosion that occur progressively with
transport distance. With progressive distance from the ice mass centre, successively higher percentages of rock fragments are reduced to a smaller
particle size. (Source: after Dreimanis and Vagners, 1971)
the other size fractions) (Dreimanis and Vagners, 1971) most likely to occur beneath thick ice, where basal water
(Figure 23.25). pressures are low, on the upstream sides of obstacles,
and in regions where basal melt rates are high. Boulder
clusters will form because of preferential lodgement on
23.3.3 Deposition
the upstream side of obstacles at the bed. Lodgement tills
It is important to understand the processes and nature form at the ice base from material that has been in trans-
of glacial deposits, because they cover about 70–80% of port in the basal zone. As a consequence the particles are
mid-latitude regions, which represents some 8% of the typically rounded, are often striated and the sediment size
Earth’s total land surface. Deposition of particles from the distribution is often bimodal (see above).
‘glacier conveyor belt’ is an active process and alteration The processes of lodgement may be size selective. A
of the sediment properties continues as the particles are glacier slides over its bed by regelation and by enhanced
deposited. The sediment consequently develops character- creep. Since regelation is most efficient when obstacles
istics that result from the particles’ source, transport route are small, whereas enhanced creep is most efficient when
through the system and their mode of deposition. The obstacles are large, these processes will selectively keep
resulting sediments are often referred to by the process of particles of the critical size entrained within the glacier
their deposition, as this has the strongest influence on their ice. The forces keeping small particles in motion within
properties. This is known as a genetic classification. The ice are relatively low because the glacier regelates around
generic term for sediment deposited directly from a glacier small particles easily, and the forces keeping large particles
is a till. in motion are low because the ice creeps around the parti-
cles easily.
23.3.3.1 Lodgement till
23.3.3.2 Deformation till
Lodgement of particles occurs when the frictional drag
between a particle and the glacier bed exceeds the shear Many glaciers are thought to overlie deforming soft sedi-
stress resulting from the moving ice (Box 23.4). The fric- ments. The processes operating beneath such glaciers are
tional drag on a particle depends on the contact pressure recorded in the tills that they deposit. Deformation rear-
between it and the bed. This means that lodgement is ranges particles and reorientates them. Examination of the
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Chapter 23 Glaciers and ice sheets
Ice flow
(a) Minor folding
0.5 mm
Increasing deformation
Boudins
(sausage-shaped
extensional feature)
(b) Tectonic laminations
and boudins
0.05 mm
(c) Homogenized diamicton
Figure 23.26 The effect of deformation on tills. (a) At low strain minor folding occurs. Photograph: small-scale faulting in clay layers that shows that this
sediment was deformed only to very low strain. (b) At intermediate strain dramatic features can be formed, depending on whether the strain is com-
pressive or extensive. (c) At high strain the till can appear to be completely homogenized and massive. Photograph: shear zones in sediment that has no
features apparent on the macroscale. Two directions of shearing are evident. Matrix-supported till from Criccieth, North Wales. (Source: after Hart and
Boulton, 1991; photos courtesy of (a) Sarah J. Fuller and (c) Andy J. Evans)
tills can reveal structures that allow the strain history to both a flow parallel and a transverse component. The
be reconstructed (e.g. Figure 23.26). At low strain minor sediment typically comprises basal material, containing
folding and faulting can occur. As the strain increases, the rounded and striated pebbles and rocks, and if the sed-
features formed can be quite spectacular. Compressive iment has experienced high strain there is likely to be a
features include folds and some faults, whereas exten- wide range of lithologies because material will have trav-
sion results in the formation of boudins (Figure 23.26b). elled long distances. However, it can be difficult to distin-
As the strain increases still further, the features become guish a deformation till from a lodgement till, and there is
progressively attenuated and tectonic laminations can be controversy about the origin of several deposits.
formed. Finally at high strains, likely to be typical where
deformation is a significant component of ice flow, the
23.3.3.3 Meltout till
till can appear homogenized. However, the sediment may
still have many structures visible at the microscopic scale Meltout till forms when ice surrounding sediment melts.
(Figure 23.26). Deformation tills can have high porosity In general, the term is used to describe deposits from sub-
(% of void space) because dilation (expansion) occurs as glacial meltout. Supraglacial meltout usually results in
the sediment deforms. Particle fabrics (the alignment of high water contents and therefore reworking of the deposit
coarse particles) are typically stronger for intermediate often occurs. Meltout till usually forms beneath stagnant
strains than for low or high strain. Often the fabric has ice masses. Meltout till can inherit properties from the
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23.3 Glacial geological processes and glacial sediments
basal ice from which it forms, often being weakly stratified
and maintaining the fabric (Figure 23.27). This is most
likely to occur where the basal ice has a high-sediment
and low-ice content, and where water produced when the
ice melts can drain away freely. The extent of meltout till
therefore depends on the distribution and concentration
of sediment in basal ice, which is in turn controlled by
the thermal regime and strain regime. Basal ice layers are
thickest beneath polythermal glaciers and where a com-
pressive flow regime occurs. Surging glaciers often develop
thick basal ice layers.
23.3.3.4 Flow till Figure 23.28 Mudflow (right to left) at the margin of Trapridge Glacier,
Yukon Territory. Note that the flow has sorted the particles, with coarse
The proglacial environment is very active. In summer, particles migrating to the regions of least strain at the sides, surface and
there is often a continuous supply of water from melting front of the flow. In the background a debris-rich basal ice sequence can
ice. Because many glacial sediments have low permeability, be seen.
they drain poorly. As a result sediment flows are common.
Such flows alter sediment properties, realigning particles,
and cause particle sorting (Figure 23.28). The resulting
deposit is known as flow till. It is estimated that up to 95%
of the marginal area in front of a glacier may comprise
flow till.
23.3.3.5 Deposition from water
Sediments entrained into subglacial water flows may be
transported considerable distances from the ice margin
before deposition. As a result of the differences in time
taken for particles of different sizes to settle through water
(Table 23.3), there is potential for strong sorting of the
deposits, both spatially and temporally. Spatial sorting
occurs because the coarse particles settle close to the ice
margin whereas the finer particles can remain in suspen-
sion and can travel long distances. Temporal sorting occurs
because the outputs of both water and sediment vary on
Table 23.3 Time taken for single grain to settle through 10 m of still
water at 0°C. The very large differences in time between fine and coarse
particles lead to strong sorting both spatially and temporally from a
source
Particle diameter Time
(mm)
Very fine sand 125 21 minutes
Coarse silt 31.25 5.7 hours
Fine silt 7.81 3.8 days
Coarse clay 0.98 7.7 months
Figure 23.27 Meltout till at the margin of Trapridge Glacier, Yukon
Territory. Fine clay 0.06 175 years
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Chapter 23 Glaciers and ice sheets
Ice sheet movement
Reflective questions Maximum glacial
limit
➤ What are the main processes of glacial erosion?
Erosional intensity:
➤ Can you explain the differences between erosion beneath 0 lowest
a warm- and a cold-bedded glacier in terms of the pro- I
II
cesses operating and their relative rates?
III
➤ What are the key differences that you expect to find in IV highest
glacial sediments that allow the differentiation of (i)
supraglacial from basal material and (ii) sediments depos- 100 km
ited in water from those deposited on land?
No data Lake
District
a variety of timescales (e.g. diurnally and seasonally). If
we consider the seasonal variation, flows of sediment and Mersey and
water are highest in the early summer and lowest in the Dee estuaries
winter. The coarse particles are deposited first, in summer,
and the finer particles progressively through the year. This
forms repetitive sequences of deposited sediment that fine
upwards; where such sequences represent annual inputs they
are known as varves (see Figure 16.26 in Chapter 16).
Bristol
London
23.4 The record of glacial change
The aim of this section is to develop an understanding of
the effects of ice on the landscape at all scales from global
Figure 23.29 Pattern of glacial erosion in the United Kingdom. The ero-
to microscale, concentrating on the geomorphic features
sion is greatest in the highest regions that formed the ice centres for
that result from the processes and environments discussed major ice sheets and were glaciated by local glaciers during shorter or
in Sections 23.2 and 23.3. warmer stadials.
truncated, leaving hanging valleys (or hanging troughs) and
23.4.1 Ice sheet reconstruction
truncated spurs. When the glaciers retreat, lakes often form
23.4.1.1 Geomorphology of regions of erosion in the overdeepened basins, which slowly fill with sediment
over time. If the base of the glacial trough lies below sea
Regions dominated by the processes of glacial erosion level then after retreat it becomes inundated and forms a
form some of the most dramatic mountain scenery on fjord. Less extensive glaciers often form corries (or cirques)
Earth. Examples are the Southern Alps of New Zealand, which when they melt leave a depression that can be filled
the Rocky Mountains in North America and the Alps in with water and are known as tarns. Figure 23.30 also
Europe. In general erosion occurs most efficiently beneath shows some depositional features such as moraines that
a warm-based ice mass that is sliding over its bed. Further- are discussed below.
more, erosion requires that the glacier base is in contact Snowdonia, in North Wales, UK, is presently ungla-
with bedrock rather than sediments. This is more likely to ciated but contains evidence of widespread erosion
be the case close to ice divides, at the centre of ice sheets by glaciers. At around 23 000 years ago an ice sheet
or ice caps, and beneath local glaciers in alpine areas. The approximately 1000 m thick formed which was centred
features formed by erosion are usually grouped by scale. on North Wales. The accumulation area of this ice sheet
At the macroscale, glaciers erode great U-shaped valleys was approximately at its maximum extent about 18 000
(see Figure 4.12 in Chapter 4), leaving ridges (or arêtes) years ago. This ice sheet lingered until about 12 000 years
and horns (Figure 23.30). Often side valleys and spurs are ago. Then a second short cold spell refilled the area with
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23.4 The record of glacial change
Cirque debris-rich basal ice over the surface include stoss-and-lee
Arête Horn
glacier
Col forms, roche moutonnées, whalebacks and crag and tail fea-
tures. Stoss-and-lee forms are streamlined features that have
Tarn a gently sloped, glacially smoothed upstream side and a
steeper, plucked, downstream lee side (Figure 23.32a). The
stoss side is often striated. The features vary in size from
Hanging
End
trough
centimetres to many metres in length. Small stoss-and-lee
moraines
forms are often called roche moutonnées. Stoss-and-lee
forms provide evidence of warm-based ice conditions
Cy
clo
and the formation of cavities downstream of obstacles at
pe
an
st
the bed. Whalebacks are a similar shape to stoss-and-lee
air
s
Morainal forms but their steep side faces upstream and their tapered
lake end downstream. Whalebacks probably form beneath
Glacial warm-based ice where the sliding rate is slow enough that
End moraine trough extensive cavitation does not occur behind obstacles at the
Figure 23.30 A landscape of glacial erosion. (Source: Easterbrook, D.J., bed. Crag and tail features form where resistant rock is left
Surface processes and landforms, 1st edition, © 1993. Reprinted with per- standing proud of the surface. Small cavities form behind
mission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ) the more resistant rock either protecting the tail of softer
rock from erosion or allowing infilling to form a rock-cored
drumlin. Steep-sided and smoothed channels are also found
ice between 11 000 and 10 000 years ago. Figure 23.31 on bedrock, providing evidence of warm-based ice and a
shows the morphology of Cwm Idwal. This was one of
drainage system at least partly drained by N-channels.
the first sites where past glaciation was recognized in the
Microscale features (Figure 23.32b) include those
1840s. The corrie shows both erosional and depositional
formed directly by erosion due to the ice, such as stria-
features. The overall corrie shape is governed by erosion,
tions. These are formed by stones and rocks in the basal
it is overdeepened and is currently occupied by a lake.
ice sliding over bedrock and leaving scratches on the
Depositional moraines can be found within the valley
surface. The presence of striations implies a warm-based
(see below).
ice mass, sliding over its bed, and provides a reliable
Mesoscale features are formed by the erosive power
indication of the direction of ice flow. Features related to
of both ice and water. Features formed by the sliding of
striations include repetitive chatter marks, which show that
Figure 23.31 Cwm Idwal, Snowdonia, North Wales. This small valley was occupied by a valley glacier around 13 000 years ago. The glacier advanced to
the terminal moraine (which forms at the front edge of a glacier). A complex suite of other moraines formed, which are discussed in the text. (Source:
Gail Johnson / Shutterstock.com)
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Chapter 23 Glaciers and ice sheets
(a)
Plan view Side view
e s tri ae
s fi n
m erou
Nu Streamlining Plucking
Deep Friction
striae cracks
Zone of triae
per s
Plucked er dee Plucking
Streamlined
Few along
side side
joints
friction cracks
Fine striae
Overall ice flow Overall ice flow
(b)
flow
f ice
tion o
Direc
100 cm
Chatter marks
Crescentic scars
Sandstone Glacial striae
Crescentic gouges
Pebbly Crescentic fractures Glacial groove
sandstone
Shale Reverse crescentic fractures Mini crag and tail
Figure 23.32 Medium- and small-scale ice erosional features: (a) stoss-and-lee form with the typical features expected on a roche moutonnée, which is
the name given to small versions of stoss-and-lee forms; (b) microscale features of glacial erosion. (Source: (b) after Prest, 1983)
the ice moved over its bed with a stick–slip motion. Larger the surface of a rock. Smooth channels (glacial grooves)
crescentric gouges, scars and fractures also form, also typi- and depressions are also found on bedrock surfaces.
cally concave down the glacier, but are less repetitive than
chatter marks. All of these features form by non-uniform
23.4.1.2 Geomorphology of areas of deposition
slip over bedrock. Benn and Evans (2010) provide further
details on these features. Glacial flow direction can also be The geomorphology of areas of deposition is typically
determined using mini crag and tail features that form on more subdued than regions where erosion dominates.
inhomogeneous bedrock. They consist of tails of uneroded Features may be formed by the direct action of ice such
bedrock preserved behind small, more resistant, grains on as moraines, drumlins, flutes, crevasse-fill ridges and kettle
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23.4 The record of glacial change
Glacier margin be formed in front of a retreating glacier marking seasonal
Fluted Push
re-advances of the glacier front.
lodgement moraines
till surface Dump moraines are ridges formed approximately trans-
Debris band
verse to flow from material delivered to the margin of
Ice
a glacier by ice flow. They mark the stationary position
Esker
of an ice margin. The size of dump moraines depends
on the rate of ice flow and the debris content of the ice.
Lodgement Lateral moraines form parallel to the sides of glaciers from
Bedrock till
Natural cavity dumped material and frost-shattered material from the
Kettle holes or
Drumlin valley walls. Hummocky moraines form from the meltout of
abandoned
outwash surfaces supraglacial or englacial material. These landforms tend to
Proglacial
outwash consist of irregular mounds of material.
system Do a web search to find some aerial photographs of
Figure 23.33 Subglacial–proglacial land system showing typical geomor- de Greer moraines. de Geer moraines form linear ridges of
phological features that form at the margin of a retreating ice mass. sediment of about 2–15 m in height. These features are
formed approximately transverse to flow where a retreat-
holes. Except for kettle holes, these features all encode ing ice mass borders on a glacial lake. The features are
information about the dynamics of a retreating ice mass. thought to form by deposition at the margin of active ice
Other features are formed by the action of meltwater, such and mark the position of the winter margin.
as eskers and kames. These features may provide evidence Drumlins are streamlined, elongated hills that form
for the nature of the basal water system of a former ice approximately parallel to ice flow. They are large-scale
mass. Figure 23.33 shows a typical land system that forms features and typical dimensions of a drumlin are 80–100 m
at the margin of a retreating glacier. high and 1–2 km long. They are typically found in groups
Push moraines form when a glacier bulldozes into exist- known as drumlin fields (Figure 23.34). Drumlins can be
ing sediment at the glacier margin and raises it to form a formed from either bedrock or sediment, and they may
ridge. Push moraines often contain evidence of glaciotec- have a core of different composition at their upstream end.
tonic deformation within them and consist of glacially Drumlins allow the direction of ice flow to be determined
derived material. If the material is not glacially derived, from their shape as they typically form with a blunt end
the term ice-pushed ridge is used. Major push moraines pointing upstream and a longer tapered downstream end.
often mark the maximum extent of glacial advance and Eskers are often found together with drumlins and are
allow us to map ice extent. Smaller annual moraines can
Figure 23.34 Satellite image of a drumlin field in Nunavut Territory, Canada. (Source: Science Photo Library / NASA)
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M23 An Introduction to Physical Ge 83575.indd 653 24/05/2017 19:05
Chapter 23 Glaciers and ice sheets
thought to form in R-channels at the glacier bed, although melting, stagnant ice mass becomes filled with sediment,
they can also form in sub-aerial channels. whereas kettle holes are closed topographical depressions
Glacial flutes form parallel to flow. Flutes have a much formed from melting stagnant ice, and are common in sed-
higher elongation ratio than the drumlins discussed above. iments downvalley from a glacier.
Flutes are thought to form by the infilling of cavities on
the downstream side of obstacles at the bed (Figure 23.35).
The size of the flute is probably controlled by the ice
velocity and the nature of the till material. Crevasse-fill
ridges form when a glacier with deep crevasses sinks into
soft, water-saturated sediments. Glaciers typically become
heavily crevassed when they surge, and these features are
common at the margins of surge-type glaciers.
Eskers are formed in ice-walled channels, either basal
R-channels or in sub-aerial channels cut through ice
blocks. An esker consists of a long, narrow ridge of sands
and gravels which overlies till. Eskers are 20–30 m high,
and range from a few to 500 km in length. Eskers formed
in R-channels, which unlike sub-aerial channels may flow
uphill as well as down, represent the relict form of a chan-
nelized water system. They are hence important in under-
standing the basal water system beneath past ice masses.
Eskers are often quarried as a source of gravel and sand.
A kame is a mound of sediment formed when a hole in a
Reflective questions
➤ What are the main landforms of glacial erosion and glacial
deposition?
➤ Which glacial features allow the direction of former ice
flow to be determined?
➤ It is suggested that the Martian ice caps have previously
Figure 23.35 Small-scale fluting formed at the margin of a modern
been much larger than they are at present. What features
glacier. The features formed by the infilling of cavities formed at the
would you look for in order to reconstruct past glacial downstream side of each boulder. The largest boulder is about 0.5 m in
extent on Mars? diameter. Ice flow is away from viewer. (Source: John Shaw)
23.5 Summary glacier’s mass balance determines whether a glacier is gaining or
losing mass overall. Snow is added in the glacier’s accumulation
This chapter outlines the wide range of ice masses, such as ice area and some is transformed into glacial ice. There are a range
sheets, ice caps, valley glaciers, ice streams and ice shelves and of feedbacks between the glacier water system, glacier dynam-
their characteristics, and describes how ice modifies the land- ics and glacial thermal regimes. In summer, ice and snowmelt
scape and how ice masses are responding to climatic change. A
➤
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Further reading
➤
produce large volumes of water in many regions. This water must englacial transport, which is passive and results in coarse, angular
be removed on, within, or beneath the ice, often impacting on deposits; and the low-level route via basal transport, which is
glacier dynamics by increasing rates of basal motion. active.
Glaciers move by three processes: ice deformation, basal Sediments that have been transported in the base of the
sliding and the deformation of soft sediments beneath them. glacier are typically bimodal and the coarser material becomes
Of these, the last two are the most important in modifying the rounded and sometimes striated. Upland areas are typically source
landscape: as the glacier sole scrapes over bedrock this bedrock is areas for ice where erosion dominates and this forms dramatic
eroded by crushing, plucking and abrasion. The glacier then acts alpine landscapes. Lowland areas become covered with thick
as a conveyor belt, moving this sediment downslope, modifying deposits of the resulting sediments. Understanding of the effects
and finally depositing it. There are two transport routes through of glaciation on the landscape can be used when reconstructing
the glacial system: the high-level route via supra-glacial and past glacial extent and conditions.
Further reading Post, A. and LaChapelle, E.R. (2000) Glacier ice. University of
Washington Press, Washington, DC.
There are beautiful photographs of a wide range of glacial fea-
tures and landscapes in this book. It contains mainly Alaskan
Benn, D.I. and Evans, D.J.A. (2010) Glaciers and glaciations, examples.
2nd edition. Hodder Arnold Education, Abingdon.
This book provides excellent and encyclopaedic coverage of all Vaughan, D.G., Comiso, J.C., Allison, I. et al. (2013) Observa-
aspects of glaciers, glacial sediments and glaciated landscapes. tions: cryosphere. In: Stocker, T.F., Qin, D. Plattner, G.-K et al.
It is suitable for courses throughout an undergraduate degree. (eds) Climate Change 2013: The physical science basis. Contri-
bution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of
Clarke, G.K.C. (1987) Fast glacier flow: ice streams, surging the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge
and tidewater glaciers. Journal of Geophysical Research, University Press, Cambridge and New York, NY. Available
92(B9), 8835–8841. online at: www.climatechange2013.org/images/report/
This is a classic review paper covering concepts of balance WG1AR5_Chapter04_FINAL.pdf
velocity and fast glacier flow. The most recent IPCC Cryosphere Observations chapter from
Cuffey, K.M. and Paterson, W.S.B. (2010) Physics of glaciers, Working Group 1 gives a synthesis of glaciological work related
4th edition. Butterworth–Heinemann, Oxford. to the impacts of climate change on ice sheets and glaciers and
This is the glaciology ‘bible’ covering many topics comprehen- their contribution to sea-level rise.
sively, albeit omitting landscapes and sediments. It is aimed at
more advanced undergraduate courses or postgraduates.
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C h a pter 2 4
Permafrost and periglaciation
Tavi Murray
Department of Geography, Swansea University
Learning objectives it is obviously possible to have a periglacial environment
without permafrost. Permafrost usually contains ice
After reading this chapter you should be able to: within pore spaces (Figure 24.1). These ice features in the
ground cause slow movement of the ground itself through
➤ explain the differences between permafrost and periglacial envi- expansion and contraction processes. Because the air tem-
ronments and describe their main characteristics perature usually exceeds 0°C during summer in perma-
frost zones, a thin unfrozen layer (the active layer) can be
➤ describe how ground temperatures in permafrost zones vary with
present at the ground surface even when there are frozen
time and define the active layer, and continuous and discontinu-
layers below this. Currently permafrost affects between 9
ous permafrost
and 12% of the global land surface, while 33% is affected
➤ describe and explain the main geomorphological features that by freeze–thaw processes (Vaughan et al., 2013). The cli-
form in permafrost and periglacial regions and their relict forms, mate change that resulted in the advance and retreat of
as well as those geomorphological features that allow differentia- the major ice sheets during the past 2.6 million years (see
tion between these two environments Chapter 4) also resulted in past periglacial conditions far
beyond the maximum extent of the ice sheets themselves.
It is likely that an additional 20–25% of the Earth’s sur-
24.1 Introduction face has experienced periglacial conditions at some time
in the past (French, 2007). These past periglacial condi-
Periglacial environments are defined as those that are cold tions have left their mark on the landscape by producing
but non-glacial, regardless of their spatial proximity to periglacial landforms.
glaciers. These are environments in which freeze–thaw Freezing and thawing are important geomorpholog-
processes drive geomorphic change. Therefore they ical processes as they drive fundamental changes in the
develop distinctive geomorphological features. Permafrost ground’s mechanical and hydrological properties. Both
refers to soil or bedrock that is perennially frozen over long processes result in a volume change of the ground and
time-scales (greater than a minimum of 2 years). The pres- there is typically a 9% increase in volume on freezing
ence of permafrost means that a periglacial environment (Williams and Smith, 1989). This change in volume can
exists and periglacial processes are occurring. However, result in frost shattering of rock (see Chapter 14). It is also
M24 An Introduction to Physical Ge 83575.indd 656 24/05/2017 19:10
24.2 Permafrost processes
lead to subsidence (Figure 24.2) as frozen ground often
has 10–20% more water within it than unfrozen drained
soil. It is thus necessary for modern construction methods
to take account of permafrost processes. This chapter is
therefore of relevance to a large part of the Earth’s land
surface in terms of understanding landform development
and human interactions with the landscape. It will begin
by discussing permafrost processes before moving on to
discuss permafrost and periglacial landforms and their
formation.
24.2 Permafrost processes
Figure 24.1 Ice layers from the top of the permafrost in Longyearbyen, 24.2.1 The distribution of permafrost
Svalbard. (Source: Ole Humlum, University Centre, Svalbard)
Today permafrost affects 82% of Alaska, 50% of Canada
(Prowse and Ommaney, 1990; Trenhaile, 1990) and large
partly the cause of frost heave, although other processes parts of northern Siberia (Figure 24.3). This is known as
are also responsible. Frost heave is the vertical lifting of the
soil surface and it disrupts structures and road surfaces in
many parts of the world susceptible to permafrost con- Key
Zone of
ditions. Its understanding is therefore of great practical subsea
importance. Most of the ground movement caused by permafrost
frost heave results because water migrates to the freezing Zone of
continuous
zone as the ground freezes. permafrost
Both the temperature and extent of permafrost are
Zone of
sensitive to changes in climate and surface conditions discontinuous
permafrost
(Vaughan et al., 2013). A slight warming or small changes
to the ground surface, such as changes in vegetation cover, Zone of
alpine
can cause dramatic change to permafrost zones. Particu- permafrost
larly important for engineering in permafrost regions is
the thawing that can occur owing to the increased insu-
lation of the ground around a built structure, which can
Figure 24.3 The distribution of permafrost in the northern hemi-
Figure 24.2 Buckling of a railway line built on permafrost in northern sphere. Permafrost covers approximately 26% of the Earth’s surface,
Russia. Frost heave has resulted in deformation of the track. (Source: the large majority of which is in the northern hemisphere. (Source:
Nordroden / Shutterstock.com) after Péwé, 1991)
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Chapter 24 Permafrost and periglaciation
A r c le
Continuous permafrost zone
C ir
tic
c
Southern limit of continuous
permafrost zone
-1 -75
05 C
Resolute
C
Discontinuous permafrost zone
-4 5C
5C Widespread permafrost
Southern fringe of
0
Norman permafrost region
Wells Southern limit of permafrost
-105C
Hay River Permafrost areas at high
altitude in Cordillera south
of permafrost limit
Mean annual air temperature
- 75C
05C
-45C
Cana
d a– US
border
500 km
Figure 24.4 Permafrost zones in Canada. The continuous permafrost zone corresponds approximately to the - 6 to - 8°C isotherm of mean annual air
temperature. (Source: adapted from Williams and Smith, 1989)
polar permafrost and occurs because of low temperatures between the two zones occurs approximately at a mean
at high latitudes. Alpine permafrost occurs because of low annual air temperature of - 6 to - 8°C and often occurs at
temperatures at high altitudes. The major region of alpine about the same location as the treeline. The southernmost
permafrost occurs on the Tibetan Plateau, where some extent of discontinuous permafrost is often taken to coin-
2 million km2 are affected (Figure 24.3). Alpine permafrost cide with the - 1°C isotherm (line of equal temperature),
also occurs in the European Alps and the Rocky Moun- although isolated relict patches of permafrost occur fur-
tains, North America. Permafrost is furthermore found ther south, often in peatlands; this is sometimes known as
beneath the sea, where it is known as subsea permafrost. sporadic permafrost.
The extent of subsea permafrost is not well known, its In both the continuous and discontinuous permafrost
coverage is estimated as ∼0.8% of the global ocean area zones the ground is subject to annual and sometimes diurnal
(Vaughan et al., 2013). Subsea permafrost usually occurs freeze–thaw close to the surface. This forms the active layer
as a remnant of past colder temperatures and rising sea (Figure 24.5). Thawing of the active layer in summer causes
levels which drown frozen ground. considerable difficulties for travel in permafrost regions
A transect south across Canada from the Arctic Ocean when thawed and waterlogged terrain can become almost
towards the United States, as shown in Figure 24.4 and impassable. The active layer varies from a few tens of centi-
24.5, demonstrates differences in the thickness and extent metres in the continuous permafrost zone to 15 m or more
of permafrost. These differences correlate approximately in the discontinuous permafrost zone. Unfrozen regions
with latitude. In the far north, the permafrost is laterally within the permafrost are known as taliks. Taliks are known
continuous and ∼1000 m in thickness (Figure 24.5). This is as open if they are in contact with the active layer and
the continuous permafrost zone, where the frozen ground is closed if they are completely surrounded by permafrost.
broken only beneath lakes, rivers, glaciers and other ther- Some measured permafrost depths are shown in Fig-
mal disturbances. Further south in the discontinuous perma- ure 24.5. At Resolute (see Figure 24.4 for map location),
frost zone the permafrost is not laterally continuous, and it Nunavut, Canada (74°N), the mean annual air temperature
varies from 1 to 10 m or more in thickness. The transition is - 16.4°C. The permafrost thickness is greater than 400 m
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24.2 Permafrost processes
temperature varies in the ground in this upper layer). How-
North
ever, in general Figure 24.7 shows warming with depth.
Continuous permafrost Discontinuous permafrost The main controls on permafrost thickness are the mean
annual surface temperature, ground conductivity and the
Resolute, Nunavut Norman Wells, Hay River, NWT
745N NWT 655N 615N geothermal heat flux. Box 24.3 describes how to estimate
0 -45 cm 1 -2 m
permafrost thickness and the time taken to develop or
2 -3 m
degrade it. Surface albedo can also play a role in perma-
60— 90 m
14 m
Active 45 m
layer frost processes. Dark vegetation cover may absorb more
Talik
400 m
short-wave solar radiation and thus increase local ground
>1000 m?
Permafrost Unfrozen ground
temperature. Furthermore, vegetation cover or buildings
can insulate the ground and cause thinning of permafrost.
The temperature at the Earth’s surface varies between
warmer summers and colder winters. However, deeper in
Figure 24.5 Permafrost in a north–south transect across Canada. The
the soil profile these variations are not so discernible. The
boundary between the continuous and discontinuous permafrost zones
corresponds approximately with the treeline. Taliks are the unfrozen part ground diffusivity and the temperature fluctuation frequency
of the ground within the permafrost. (Source: adapted from Williams and control the depth to which surface temperature fluctua-
Smith, 1989) tions are propagated. Box 24.2 describes the variation of
ground temperature with depth in permafrost zones.
and the active layer is thin, only around 0.45 m thick. At
Norman Wells, North West Territories, Canada (65°N),
the permafrost is about 45 m thick with a moderate 1–2 m
24.2.3 Reconstructing climate change from
thick active layer. At Hay River, North West Territories, permafrost temperatures
Canada (61°N), the mean annual air temperature is Permafrost is ultimately a climatic phenomenon and
- 4.4°C, the permafrost is discontinuous, approximately there will be major changes in its distribution if climate
12 m thick, and there is a 2–3 m thick active layer warms as predicted over the twenty-first century. Because
(Williams and Smith, 1989). large quantities of carbon are stored in the permafrost,
Fundamental changes in ground properties occur when especially in peatlands and tundra regions, changes in
it freezes. These changes include the ground mechanical distribution of frozen ground and the thickness of the
properties (e.g. density, heat capacity, thermal conductivity active layer may result in the release of large amounts
and saturated hydraulic conductivity; see Chapter 18) and of greenhouse gas (e.g. methane) into the atmosphere
electrical properties such as electrical conductivity. These (see below). Permafrost responds to climate change only
changes mean that geophysical survey techniques can be slowly by aggrading or degrading over thousands of
successfully used to map the extent of permafrost and years. It therefore damps out short-period oscillations
massive ice within the ground. These techniques include and records major climatic change of several degrees
seismic reflection surveying, ground-penetrating radar and over long timescales (Figure 24.9). Under equilibrium
electromagnetic induction. These techniques are useful conditions the temperature profile within the ground is
when trying to establish the best locations and methods for linear with depth (assuming a constant ground thermal
engineering structures. The importance of permafrost for conductivity). The ground’s temperature profile can
large engineering projects is discussed using the example therefore be used to extrapolate past surface conditions,
of the trans-Alaska pipeline in Box 24.1. particularly in tectonically stable areas. In most regions
permafrost temperatures have increased in the last three
decades (Vaughan et al., 2013). In Svalbard warming
24.2.2 Ground temperatures and permafrost
of the permafrost has been measured to 60 m depth at
thickness
rates of ∼0.0490.07°C/year (Isaksen et al., 2007), and
Temperatures measured in permafrost boreholes are typ- in Alaska warming has been up to 3–4°C (Osterkamp,
ically lowest close to the ground surface, excluding the 2007). Furthermore, the extent of permafrost is changing.
active layer, and increase with depth, reaching the melting In the Russian European North the southern boundary
point at the base of the permafrost as shown in Figure 24.7 of permafrost has moved ∼80 km further north, while
(Isaksen et al., 2000). This trend may vary in the upper the boundary of the continuous permafrost has moved
permafrost layer (see Box 24.2 for a discussion of how ∼5950 km (Oberman, 2008).
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Chapter 24 Permafrost and periglaciation
The Trans-Alaska Pipeline
(a)
A large portion of the oil and gas PRUDHOE
300 miles BAY
reserves in North America lies along the
500 km
northern coast of Alaska. The Alyeska
oil pipeline (trans-Alaska pipeline) was
BROOKS RANGE
built to transport oil 1300 km from
N
Prudhoe Bay to Valdez at a cost of over R iv e r
k on
Yu
US$7 billion (Figure 24.6a). The pipeline
consists of a 120 cm steel pipe that
carries oil at a temperature of about Fairbanks
65°C; oil at lower temperatures is too T an
an
a R.
viscous to transport through a pipeline.
N GE
RA
CANADA
About 75% of the route overlies perma-
US
KA
frost, which is about 600 m thick near
AS
Prudhoe Bay. The hot temperature of
AL
Valdez Terminal
the pipeline would result in thawing of
the surrounding ground if the pipe were
buried or at the ground surface and this
would result in subsidence and damage
to the pipeline itself. The design cho-
sen was to elevate the pipeline above
the ground, thus minimizing thawing
of the permafrost (Figure 24.6b). The
pipe itself expands as it warms and
contracts as it cools. To allow the pipe
to do this as its temperature changes,
the pipeline was built with bends. The
pipe can move laterally by up to 4 m and
vertically on its supports (Figure 24.6b).
Furthermore, the vertical supports are
equipped with thermal devices that help
cool the permafrost during winter and
prevent summer thawing. Provision was
made for animals to cross the pipeline in
certain places, which meant burying the
pipeline for short distances with refrig-
eration units to prevent thawing of the
ground. Despite its design the pipeline
suffered two ruptures in 1977 and 1986
caused by unexpected settlement of the Figure 24.6 The trans-Alaska pipeline: (a) the route of the trans-Alaska pipeline crosses
ground beneath (Williams, 1986). both the continuous and discontinuous permafrost zones; (b) the design of the trans-Alaska
pipeline allows it to move laterally and vertically with expansion and contraction. The supports
are designed to prevent melting of the permafrost by the pipeline. (Source: (b) Sam Chadwick/
Shutterstock.com)
BOX 24.1
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24.2 Permafrost processes
Temperature (5C) Permafrost is a globally significant carbon store,
- 0 + which is highly sensitive to climate change. In some
Active layer
Ground surface
regions, such as Siberia, permafrost contains large stores
of carbon-rich material including animal bones, roots
Winter temperature
and peats, which are relics of tundra ecosystems from
Mean ground temperature
the last glacial period. As the permafrost melts, this car-
Warmest temperature bon has the potential to be converted rapidly to methane
in year
Coolest temperatures and hence cause climate warming in a positive feedback
in year
(Zimov et al., 2006).
Level of no
Dept h
summer–winter
change 24.2.4 Gas hydrates
A gas hydrate is a crystalline solid in which molecules of
gas are combined with molecules of water. The hydrate
Permafrost of methane is stable at high pressures and low tempera-
tures and so occurs commonly in ocean sediments with
smaller amounts in permafrost regions. Global estimates
of the methane stored in hydrate are around 1016 kg,
which represents one of the largest sources of hydrocar-
bons on Earth: there is about twice as much carbon stored
in gas hydrates than in all other fossil fuels put together.
Increases in temperature or decreases in pressure may
result in the hydrate becoming a mixture of gas and ice
Talik or water. The instability of hydrates may be a hazard
during drilling operations, resulting in blow-outs due to
Figure 24.7 Theoretical temperature profile through material with con- gas build-up following warming via the drilling mecha-
stant thermal conductivity in a region in equilibrium with present condi- nism (Yakushev and Chuvilin, 2000). Hydrates of carbon
tions. (Source: after Isaksen et al., 2000)
Seasonal Variation of Ground For example, the air temperature shows temperature occurs in March delayed by
Temperature a double peak in July/August, which can some 8 months from the air temperature
also be seen at 0.6 m depth in the ground change that caused it.
Figure 24.8 shows the air and ground but delayed by approximately one month. The wavelength of a temperature varia-
temperatures measured at Barrow, Below this depth the detail cannot be tion, l (such as diurnal or annual tempera-
Alaska (71°N). Compare the variation in seen. It becomes more difficult to see the ture variation), is given by:
air temperature with the temperature at maxima and minima at greater depth in
different depths in the ground. The air l = 24pD/f (24.1)
the ground and at 18.2 m there is almost
temperature is the forcing mechanism and no variation in temperature from summer where D is the diffusivity of the ground
the ground temperature is the response to winter. The graphs also show the pro- (Table 24.1) and f is the frequency of the
to this forcing. In general, the response gressive delay in timing of the maxima and perturbation. The thermal diffusivity varies
is damped (the variation in temperature minima as they propagate into the ground. with soil type as shown in Table 24.1. At a
is less) at greater depths in the ground. For example, at 9.1 m depth the maximum depth of one wavelength, the amplitude
Box 24.2 ➤
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Chapter 24 Permafrost and periglaciation
➤
of the temperature change is reduced by a It is possible to estimate the depth in thickness. A final observation is that
factor of about 0.002. Diurnal fluctuations of the active layer at the site shown in at 0.6 m depth the ground temperature
are thus attenuated rapidly and affect only Figure 24.8. The base of the active layer remains constant at 0°C during October
the upper 1 m or so, whereas annual fluc- occurs where the ground temperature and November despite the air temperature
tuations propagate to depths of 15 m or remains below freezing throughout the becoming progressively colder during this
more. The timing of the maximum and min- year. The graphs show that at 0.6 m depth period. This is because of the release of
imum temperature becomes progressively in the ground the temperature is above latent heat of freezing, which prevents the
lagged with depth and the lag increases freezing during July and August. At 2.4 m temperature of the ground dropping below
with decreasing frequency; the velocity of depth the temperature remains below 0°C until all the water at this depth in the
propagation of maxima and minima into freezing throughout the year; the active soil is frozen.
the subsurface is 4Dpf. layer is therefore between 0.6 and 2.4 m
16 Figure 24.8 Typical air and ground tem-
peratures at Barrow, Alaska. Surface
Air temperature
0
temperature fluctuations take longer to
(5C)
-16 have an impact for deeper layers and so
-32 the lag time between surface temperature
increase and ground temperature increase
4 is greater with depth. The magnitude of
the change is also much greater near the
surface and declines with depth. (Source:
0.6 m
0 after Price, 1972)
2.4 m
Ground temperature (5C)
-4
4.6 m
-8 9.1 m
18.2 m
-12
-16
A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J
1951 1952
Table 24.1 Typical thermal properties of soils and constituent components
Mass heat Thermal Thermal
Water content capacity conductivity diffusivity
Material (m3 m −3) Density (kg m −3) (J kg−1 K −1) (W m −1 K−1) (: 10 −6 m2 s −1)
Sandy soil Dry 1600 800 0.3 0.2
0.2 1800 1180 1.8 0.9
Clay soil 0.2 1800 1250 1.2 0.5
Water (0°C) 1000 4180 0.6 0.1
Ice (0°C) 917 2100 2.2 1.2
Air 1.2 1010 0.03 20.6
(Source: after Williams and Smith, 1989)
Box 24.2
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24.2 Permafrost processes
Estimating Permafrost An estimate of the time t taken to form zero initial thickness. Large discrepancies
Thicknesses a thickness of permafrost H from unfrozen in actual thickness compared with this
sediment at 0°C can be obtained from simple model (equation 24.2) can occur,
The controls on permafrost thickness are mainly because of the presence of sur-
the mean annual surface temperature (T), 2kTt
H = (24.3) face thermal disturbances such as water
ground conductivity (k) and the geother- A rLn
bodies and because of the long timescales
mal heat flux (G) and these parameters for the response of permafrost to climate
where r is the density of the ground, L is
can be used to estimate the equilibrium change.
the latent heat of fusion of ice and n is
permafrost thickness, H:
the porosity of the soil (Lock, 1990). Equa-
Tk tion (24.3) is applicable to the early stages
H = (24.2)
G of growth of ice-rich permafrost from Box 24.3
Temperature (5C) dioxide are stable in the Martian ice caps, which exist at
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 very low temperatures (140–155 K or –133 to –118°C).
0
The flooding that appears to have scarred the landscape
50 years
of Mars in the past may have resulted from catastrophic
100
breakdown of these hydrates and associated release of
200
100 greenhouse gases (Kastner et al., 1998).
300
400 Hydrates may become commercially viable as a natural
600
resource. Significant deposits are thought to exist in the
800
1000 Messaryakha gas field in western Siberia, the Mackenzie
200
Delta and Arctic Islands and the Alaska North Shore.
However, hydrates may contribute to future global warm-
ing (Kvenvolden, 1995) both via human extraction and
300 combustion, and as a feedback response to global warm-
Depth (m)
Init
ing. With climate warming methane gas will be released
ial
from permafrost regions as they defrost. Methane is a
tem
per
strong greenhouse gas, and so this may result in positive
atu
400
feedback, leading to warmer global temperatures and
re
dis
release of further gas to the atmosphere. Release of meth-
trib
uti
ane at the end of the last glacial period may have played an
n o
500 important role in the rapid melting of the major ice sheets
(Buffet, 2000).
600 24.2.5 Hydrology in permafrost regions
24.2.5.1 Groundwater flow
Figure 24.9 The effect of climate change on ground temperatures. The Groundwater movement within permafrost regions is
theoretical ground temperature curves show the effect of climate change often restricted by the presence of frozen ground that acts
(in this case a step climate warming) on the measured temperature in as a barrier to flow. At temperatures significantly below
the ground. The figure ignores the active layer. (Source: reprinted with
0°C, the hydraulic conductivity of the ground is greatly
permission, after Proceedings of the Second International Conference on
Permafrost, Yakutsk, USSR (1973) by the National Academy of Sciences, reduced, exerting a retarding influence on groundwa-
courtesy of the National Academies Press, Washington, DC) ter flow. In such regions the freezing of the active layer
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introduces a seasonal aquitard and the underlying per-
220
mafrost represents a perennial aquitard to vertical flow,
200
restricting aquifer recharge and water flow. In these regions
permafrost can act as a barrier to contaminant transport. 180 Snow and
glacier melt
However, at temperatures close to zero there may be little 160 Snowmelt runoff runoff
Glacier
difference between the conductivity of frozen and unfrozen
Discharge (m3 s-1)
140 melt runoff
regions of the ground, allowing water flow through frozen
120 Jökulhlaup
ground and to recharge aquifers. In the discontinuous Glacier
event
100 melt runoff
permafrost zone, water can flow through open taliks. Fur-
thermore, in some regions seasonal freezing of the active 80 Cold spell
after
layer does not reach the depth of the permafrost, allowing 60
snowmelt
groundwater flow through a residual thaw layer above the 40
permafrost confined below the upper frozen part of the
20
active layer. Water can also flow beneath the permafrost in
0
both discontinuous and continuous permafrost zones. The June July August
1974
occurrence and flow of groundwater in permafrost regions
are governed by the same physical processes as in more Figure 24.10 Hydrograph from Sverdrup River, Ellesmere Island, Nunuvut,
temperate regions. Canada, showing a major peak from snowmelt and subsequent peaks
from glacier melt and a glacier outburst flood known as a jökulhlaup. The
basin area is 1630 km2. (Source: after Woo, 1986)
24.2.5.2 River flow
River regimes in periglacial regions are typically very
seasonal with large discharges resulting from the melt of The more peaked runoff characteristics of smaller
winter snow cover during spring. This snowmelt usually rivers result in a high sediment transport rate compared
occurs over a short period of time, typically 2–3 weeks, with rivers with similar total discharges but which have
resulting in a short-lived flood event. In many areas discharge more evenly distributed during the year. For
between 25 and 75% of the total runoff is concentrated example, the River Mecham in Arctic Canada is fed
in a few days. Furthermore, because permafrost retards largely by snowmelt. As a result 80–90% of its annual
downward percolation, runoff is often rapid following a flow is concentrated into a 10-day period during which
snowmelt or rainfall event. In glaciated catchments the peak velocities may reach 4 m s - 1 (Summerfield, 1991).
large and variable flow continues into summer owing to Total sediment yield from the catchment is estimated to be
ice melt and changes in the glacier hydrological system as 22.1 t km - 2 yr - 1 (French, 2007).
shown in Figure 24.10.
Small rivers in periglacial regions flow only during 24.2.5.3 Seasonal features
the summer. However, despite cold winters major rivers
continue to flow all year round under an ice cover. Thus, Seasonal icings are mounds of ice that form in topographic
a distinction should be made between these large riv- lows during winter in locations where groundwater
ers and smaller rivers. The large rivers in the Arctic are reaches the surface (Figure 24.11a). These are essentially
often fed from a mixture of snowmelt plus input from zones where return flow (a component of saturation-
non-periglacial regions and from deep springs within the excess overland flow, see Chapter 18) occurs and freezes.
discontinuous permafrost zone. Their discharge char- Icings also occur in river channels that freeze to their
acteristics are therefore less peaked than smaller rivers beds. Icings are common features downslope of warm-
which are fed solely from snow- and ice melt. The larger based glaciers (see Chapter 23) in Svalbard, Norway.
rivers, such as the Mackenzie River in Canada, and the Icings may form either below or above the ground surface.
Lena, Ob, Yenesei, Kolyna and Indigirka Rivers in Sibe- The ice forming these features is often stratified and may
ria, form an important transport network in the Arctic. comprise candle ice, which consists of vertically orientated
Despite the fact that they flow for most of the year they crystals of over 1 m in length (Figure 24.11b). In some
are typically navigable for only a short annual period regions, for example Yakutia, Siberia, large icings may
between May and October when the surface ice layer form that do not fully melt in the summer and so survive
breaks up. from year to year.
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(a)
Reflective questions
➤ What are the controls on the distribution of permafrost?
➤ How are surface temperature changes reflected by
ground temperatures in permafrost zones?
➤ Aklavik, a town in Canada situated in a permafrost region,
was planned to be replaced in 1954 because of flooding,
subsidence and difficulties in construction due to increas-
ing depth of the active layer. Inuvik was built to replace
Aklavik (although in fact many residents stayed in Aklavik).
What considerations would you use to choose the most
suitable site for a new town like Inuvik?
(b)
➤ What are the characteristics of river regimes in periglacial
environments?
➤ Why are permafrost regions particularly sensitive to cli-
mate change and why might they contribute to further
global warming?
24.3 Geomorphology of permafrost
and periglacial environments
In this section we discuss the geomorphological features
that form in periglacial and permafrost environments
(see Section 24.1 for the distinction). In particular we
will emphasize those features that allow differentiation
between the two. Cold climate environments develop dis-
tinctive geomorphology because of three basic processes:
1. The 9% expansion of water on freezing which causes
frost shattering and in turn adds to scree development.
2. The contraction and cracking of rapidly freezing soils
which forms ice wedges and polygonally shaped surface
features. Figure 24.11 (a) Icing formed downslope of a warm-based glacier in
Yukon Territory, Canada. (b) The icing is made up of stratified ice and
3. The migration of water to the freezing front by suction candle ice such as these elongated crystals. The black lens cap near the
which causes the formation of segregated ice. centre of the photograph provides some idea of the scale of the crystals,
which can be over 1 m in length.
Furthermore, permafrost and periglacial features form
distinctive relict forms, collectively known as thermokarst the past (Figure 24.12). A range of active and relict perma-
because of their similarity to karst (cavernous limestone) frost and periglacial landforms are described in the follow-
features. Thermokarst features are extremely important ing sections.
in reconstructing past climate and the extent of former
glaciers. They form in cold but non-glaciated terrain and
24.3.1 Ground ice features
are thus found at the margins of glaciers and can be used
to demarcate former glacial boundaries. The presence Very large lenses of ice may slowly build up in soil that
of thermokarst features within the United Kingdom and is frozen as a result of the migration of water to the
Europe implies widespread permafrost conditions during freezing front in permafrost regions. These bodies of ice
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Single ice wedges
Ice wedge polygons
Stone polygons and stripes
Chalkland patterns
Involutions
Limit of ice during the
last glacial maximum
(see Chapter 20)
100 km
Figure 24.13 Segregated ice in the Alaskan Arctic. Note lens cap (circled
Figure 24.12 The distribution of periglacial patterned ground in the
in red) for scale. (Source: Richard Waller, Keele University)
United Kingdom. Widespread periglacial conditions occurred beyond
the margin of the Quaternary ice sheets. (Source: after Sparks and
West, 1972)
typically form only in the upper 5–6 m of ground and are
known as segregated ice. Segregated ice may form thin
bands. Where the bands are thick, sometimes up to sev-
eral metres, they are known as massive ice (Figure 24.13).
In both cases the concentration of ice can exceed 50% by
volume. Clearly, the melting of such ground will produce
a large volume of excess water. Such melting can cause
seasonally impassable roads or the collapse of structures.
Coarse deposits such as gravels and sands are highly per-
meable but have low potential to retain water, whereas
finer deposits such as clay have low permeability but high
water retention potential. This means that intermediate
grain sizes, such as silt, have the greatest potential to Figure 24.14 Involutions (frost-disturbed structures) in Pegwell Bay, south-
form segregated or massive ice within the ground and ern England. The involutions are the white/grey-coloured features pro-
truding upwards into the brown soil and indicate the former presence of
are most susceptible to ice heave. When ice-rich ground
permafrost at this location. The structures are related to loading and den-
thaws, involutions often form. Such features are shown sity differences in water-saturated sediments, probably during the thawing
in Figure 24.14. They are disruptions to the sedimentary of ice-rich permafrost. (Source: Julian Murton, University of Sussex)
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24.3 Geomorphology of permafrost and periglacial environments
structure of the ground and these features are often a weakness that tends to reopen annually as the ground
used as a diagnostic for past permafrost conditions. The contracts and hence the ice wedge grows. Ice wedges often
melting of massive ground ice also affects the ground exist in a network of ice wedge polygons (Figure 24.16b),
surface topography and produces thermokarst consisting which currently cover millions of square kilometres of the
of small irregularly shaped thaw lakes and depressions Earth’s surface (Williams and Smith, 1989). Such polygons
known as alas, which form when these thaw lakes drain. can also be identified on Mars (Box 24.4). Ice wedges
These features cover large areas in North America and actively grow in the continuous permafrost zone, forming
Siberia. Similar features have been reported on the planet only in perennially frozen ground, although some wedges
Mars (see Box 24.4). may persist in the discontinuous permafrost zone. When
Ice wedges are V-shaped bodies of ground ice up to ice wedges melt they often leave behind a landform known
1.5 m in width that can extend some 3–4 m into the per- as an ice wedge cast, as shown in Figure 24.18. The ice
mafrost (Figure 24.16a). Ice wedges develop because at is replaced by sediment, occasionally forming polygonal
low temperatures (less than approximately - 15°C) frozen or linear troughs. Such features are easily recognized in
ground contracts as it is further cooled. If this occurs rap- sediment sections that were marginal to the ice sheets in
idly then cracking can occur as shown in Figure 24.17. The Europe and they are reliable thermokarst features for iden-
cracking of the feature is thought to occur in early win- tifying past permafrost conditions.
ter, and the crack fills with water in spring and summer, Pingos are ice-cored mounds up to 55 m high and 500 m
which then freezes. The ice wedge, once developed, creates in length which form in permafrost zones. Examples are
Permafrost and Periglacia- similar life forms have developed on Mars.
tion On Mars However, recent studies have failed to
find active life in the permafrost in the
On the planet Mars, the mean annual Dry Valleys in Antarctica (Goordial et al.,
temperature is -60°C and the planet has 2016), leading to the suggestion that the
a dry periglacial-type climate. Permafrost environment on Mars may be too cold and
currently extends over the planet’s entire dry to support life.
surface, with thicknesses of ∼3.5 km at
the equator and ∼8 km at the poles. Early
in Martian history there is evidence for
warmer climates and liquid water on the
planet surface. At this time freeze–thaw
processes were probably common. Cer-
tainly the surface of the planet provides
evidence for polygonal-patterned ground
similar, but at a larger scale, to that formed
on Earth (Figure 24.15). Furthermore,
the presence of apparent thermokarst
features such as rampart craters, which
resemble those resulting from the melting Figure 24.15 Taken from NASA’s Pheonix
of ground ice on Earth, suggest high ice spacecraft, northern Mars, showing the
contents within the permafrost. On Earth, surface of Mars. The patterns should be com-
pared to similar features on Earth in perma-
microbial life has developed strategies to
frost regions such as shown in Figures 24.23a
cope with extreme conditions, including and b. (Source: NASA/JPL-Caltech/University
within permafrost, and so it is possible of Arizona)
Box 24.4
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Chapter 24 Permafrost and periglaciation
(a) (b)
Figure 24.16 Ice wedge landforms: (a) ice wedge in Svalbard; (b) ice wedge polygons seen from the air. (Source: (a) Ole Humlum, University Centre,
Svalbard; (b) Nature and Science / Alamy Stock Photo)
A B
Frozen Active layer Thawed
Ice
Permafrost
1st winter 1st autumn
2m
C D
Frozen Active layer Thawed
Open
crack Ice
Permafrost
500th winter 500th autumn
Figure 24.17 Formation of ice wedges. Soil will crack if it is cooled quickly
(A). In summer this crack will fill with water (B), which subsequently
freezes and expands the crack. Repeated thaw and freeze events (C) lead
to the formation of an ice wedge (D). (Source: after Lachenbruch, 1962) Figure 24.18 Ice wedge cast in sand and a gravel deposit, near Colches-
ter, England, a sign of former periglacial conditions. (Source:
Permit Number CP17 / 015 British Geological Survey © NERC 2017. All
rights reserved.)
shown in Figure 24.19. The mounds can be either con-
ical or elongated and they contain some segregated ice closed-system or Mackenzie Delta pingos) and hydraulic
and a core of massive ice described as a lens. The top of pingos (Figure 24.19b; formerly known as open-system or
the mound often becomes cracked as the ice core within east Greenland pingos).
the pingo grows. Two types of pingos are recognized: Hydrostatic pingos are caused by the doming of frozen
hydrostatic pingos (Figure 24.19a; formerly known as ground as a result of the freezing of water expelled during
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24.3 Geomorphology of permafrost and periglacial environments
(a) (b)
Figure 24.19 Pingos: (a) Aerial view of a hydrostatic pingo in Bering Land Bridge National Preserve, Alaska; (b) Hydraulic pingo in Svalbard. (Source: (a)
FOR ALAN / Alamy Stock Photo (b) Ole Humlum, University Centre, Svalbard)
(a) talik elimination and the growth of permafrost beneath a
former lake or other water body (Figure 24.20a). The fea-
tures are usually isolated landforms found in continuous
permafrost regions, predominantly in areas of low relief.
Lake
Pingos formed over drained lakes are usually circular in
Unfrozen
shape, whereas pingos over old river channels may be lin-
(talik) ear in form. After the drainage of a water body, a closed
talik may form within the ground, which traps water
Permafrost within the freezing sediments. Migrating water moves to
the freezing front, forming pore and segregated ice (Figure
24.20b). Very high pore water pressures develop that force
(b)
the ground upwards creating the pingo (Figure 24.20c).
Drained lake The growth rate of pingos in the Mackenzie Delta has
Pingo ice Sub-pingo water lens
been measured to be initially quite fast at approximately
1.5 m yr - 1 (Mackay, 1973, 1979) and to decrease with age
so that some of the largest pingos are probably around
100 years old and growing at a rate of 2.3 cm yr - 1
Migration of pore water
(Mackay, 1986). Similar results have been determined in
Advancing permafrost
Siberia. As pingos grow, their sides become steeper, eventu-
ally opening radial cracks at their summits (Figure 24.19),
which expose the ice core and the pingo begins to subside.
(c) Hydrostatic pingos are common on the Mackenzie Delta,
Pingo Sub-pingo where they are found across the delta following switches in
water lens the course of the river. Hydrostatic pingos have also been
reported on the floor of the Beaufort Sea.
Hydraulic pingos form at the foot of slopes and result
Migration of pore water
from the inflow and freezing of groundwater seeping from
upslope (Figure 24.21). These features are most likely
Advancing permafrost to occur in thin or discontinuous permafrost regions. In
Permafrost Svalbard, Norway, the water supply for pingos often flows
from warm-based glaciers upslope as in the example given
Figure 24.20 Formation of a hydrostatic pingo: (a) talik develops beneath a
thaw lake; (b) lake drainage leads to refreezing of the talik; and in Figure 24.21. Hydraulic pingos are usually round or
(c) progressive refreezing of the talik leads to pingo growth. (Source: after elliptical in form and typically smaller than hydrostatic
Mackay, 1983)
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Chapter 24 Permafrost and periglaciation
as snow is more likely to blow off, resulting in even deeper
Warm-based interior
freezing depths. Changing vegetation cover can also play
Basal meltwater
a role in palsa formation. When palsas melt, mounds and
Cold-based margin small lake-filled hollows are formed. Frost blisters are small
Glacier
ice-cored mounds that develop over just a single winter as
a result of groundwater that freezes and uplifts the ground
Pingo Groundwater
05 5C
surface.
-4
Sea
C
05C is-45C
flow
othe
rm The ground surface in periglacial regions is often
characterized by metre-scale organization of topography,
Figure 24.21 Formation of a hydraulic pingo. This figure shows a pingo vegetation or particle size in regular geometric patterns.
forming from drainage from beneath a warm-based glacier in Svalbard. There are two types of patterned ground. These are sorted
(Source: after Liestøl, 1977) patterned ground, such as circles, polygons or stripes, and
unsorted patterned ground defined by topography, such as
unsorted circles and stripes, or by alternation of vegetated
and non-vegetated ground.
Sorted stone circles are typically arranged so that the
fine material occurs in the centre of an area of lowered
relief and coarse material forms an uplifted outer rim as
shown in Figures 24.23a and b (Hallet et al., 1988). Typi-
cally, polygons or circles occur on flat surfaces, and sorted
stripes that are elongated downslope form on low-angle
slopes (Figure 24.23c). On slopes greater than about 30°,
mass movement prevents the formation of patterned
ground. The features probably form by a variety of pro-
cesses. One hypothesis involves convection within the
ground. In summer, saturated soil close to the ground sur-
face warms during the day whereas water at depth remains
Figure 24.22 Palsa in Northern Finland. (Source: Richard Waller, Keele colder. Since water is densest at 4°C the colder water at
University) depth is less dense than the water close to the surface,
and this drives convection. Descending warm water can
pingos, rarely exceeding 35 m in height. They often consist then melt the frozen surface below resulting in an undu-
of multiple mounds (unlike hydrostatic pingos) because lating interface between frozen and unfrozen ground that
as one begins to subside the continuing water supply will is reflected in the surface topography. Sorting of the soil
tend to form another. These features are common in east particles can occur if the soil particles move with the soil
Greenland, central Yukon, Alaska and Svalbard. water (Figure 24.24).
The melting of the ice core of a pingo initially leaves
a small lake, but the final relict form is a central depres-
sion with sediment ramparts, sometimes termed a pingo
24.3.2 Slope processes
scar. Such features have been identified at various loca- Many of the features that form in lowland areas also occur
tions in Europe including the United Kingdom and the in alpine environments above the treeline. However, these
Netherlands. alpine environments are often characterized by exposed,
Palsas are low mounds, 1–10 m high, that form in peat hard bedrock that has been eroded by the action of glacier
in permafrost zones (Figure 24.22). They form where snow ice, and steep slopes. Mountain tops are often covered by
is thin or discontinuous and have a core of segregated ice blockfields of frost-shattered material. Alpine permafrost
generated through suction of unfrozen water migrating to may occur in these areas.
the freezing front. The lack of snow allows the ground to Periglacial activity, in particular repeated freeze–thaw,
freeze to a greater depth than the surroundings and this causes the formation and modification of slope deposits.
ice then survives the subsequent summer, insulated by the Four types of processes cause mass wasting in periglacial
peat above. Repeated winters result in frost heave, and a environments: slopes evolve owing to fracture, debris and
mound forms. This topography causes a positive feedback solifluction flows, creep processes and nivation. Solifluction
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24.3 Geomorphology of permafrost and periglacial environments
(a) (b)
(c)
is especially likely to occur in regions underlain by perma-
frost. During the summer the active layer melts forming
a mobile water-saturated layer. The process results in the
formation of lobes and terraces. Slow creep of the active
layer, at rates of only a few centimetres a year, occurs by
processes of frost creep and a type of solifluction known
as gelifluction. Frost creep occurs because freezing expands
the soil normal to its surface but thawing results in settle-
ment vertically resulting in a net downward movement.
Gelifluction is this slow creep of water-saturated material.
In seasonally frozen soil, movement typically occurs during
spring as the ground thaws from the surface downwards.
Because the underlying permafrost is largely impermeable,
Coarse Fine Coarse Fine
border domain border domain
Active
layer
Permafrost
table
Figure 24.23 Organized topographic features: (a and b) stone polygons,
Svalbard; (c) stone stripes, Svalbard. (Source: photos courtesy Chris Fog- Figure 24.24 Inferred soil circulation patterns resulting in sorted circles.
will, Exeter University) (Source: after Hallet et al., 1988)
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Figure 24.25 Fossil example of a pronivial (protalus)
rampart from the Valldalen area of southern Norway.
(Source: Richard Shakesby, Swansea University)
Table 24.2 Rates of mass wasting by different processes at Karkevagge,
Lapland, 1952–1960
Process Rate Denudation
(t km −1 yr −1) (mm yr −1)
Transport of solutes by 26 0.010
running water
Debris slides and 49.4 0.019
flows
Slush avalanches, 14 0.005
rock debris transport
Rockfalls 8.7 0.003
Solifluction 5.4 0.002
Talus creep 1.5 0.001 Figure 24.26 Ploughing boulder. A prow has built up in front of the boul-
der and a trough has formed upslope of it.
(Source: adapted from Rapp, 1960)
mass movement may occur on very low slopes (as low only along fractures. Snow avalanches may move signifi-
as 1°). Slow creep typically results in the formation of cant volumes of rock debris. Flows of unfrozen material
stepped ridges. Nivation is the localized erosion of a slope are promoted in permafrost regions because the seasonal
caused by a combination of frost action, gelifluction, frost melting of the active layer forms an upper layer of high
creep and meltwater flow at the edges and underneath water content.
snow patches. Nivation commonly occurs in periglacial Periglacial slope processes result in a range of land-
regions and is accentuated in permafrost-free areas. The forms particular to periglacial slopes. Protalus (or pronivial)
combination of processes causes the development of niva- ramparts are linear mounds of coarse sediment that form
tion hollows as the snow patches sink into the hillside. a small distance from the base of a slope (Figure 24.25).
While most of these processes are not unique to peri- Snow persists at the foot of these slopes, particularly in
glacial environments, mass wasting is probably most effi- the shade, which means that when a rockfall occurs boul-
cient in periglacial conditions (Table 24.2). The formation ders tend to slide across the snow and come to rest just
of screes from freeze–thaw fracturing of near-vertical rock beyond the snow bank. Ploughing boulders can also be seen
faces occurs mainly in resistant rocks that are permeable on slopes in periglacial regions as shown in Figure 24.26.
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24.4 Summary
24.3.3 Loess and aeolian activity
Many permafrost regions are characterized by extreme arid-
ity and are defined as polar deserts. In these regions there
is abundant evidence for the transport of material by wind
and for erosion by abrasion of the wind-blown material.
Dust clouds are characteristic of many permafrost regions in
autumn (Sparks and West, 1972). Material is deposited when
the wind velocity drops or when precipitation falls, forming
a silt deposit known as loess. During the past 2.6 million
years, deposits of fine sediment formed on the outwash
plains of the ice sheets, providing a plentiful source of mate-
rial for transport. Intense frost action broke down larger
Figure 24.27 Morenas Coloradas rock glacier in Argentina. (Source: D. material and provided additional material. Erosion by wind-
Trombotto, courtesy USGS). borne sediment and wind entrainment has played a major
role in the middle latitudes. Erosion formed wind-modified
pebbles and blocks as well as stone pavements.
The boulders move slowly downslope, leaving a trough Deposition resulted in loess which covers tens of thou-
upslope and forming a prow of sediment downslope. The sands of square kilometres and is more than 100 m thick in
movement of the boulders, typically a few millimetres per some places. Loess deposits occur in large areas of North
year, is thought to occur because of the different ther- America and Europe that were situated on the southern
mal conditions beneath the boulder compared with its margin of the ice sheets (see Chapter 16).
surroundings.
Rock glaciers, as shown in Figure 24.27, typically consist
of angular debris and have the form of a small glacier.
They often show evidence of flow although there is no Reflective questions
evidence of glacier ice at their surface. Within a rock
➤ How can pingos and ice wedge casts be used to make cli-
glacier there is ice within the pore spaces (interstitial ice),
matic reconstructions?
and the slow flow of these features downslope is due to
this. Some rock glaciers are probably formed from relict ➤ What are the main landforms associated with ground ice
glaciers that have become debris covered, whereas other and how do they form?
features are thought to originate as snow and rock ava-
➤ How do slopes evolve in periglacial conditions?
lanches or ice-cemented rock debris in permafrost regions.
Relict rock glaciers have been identified in the United ➤ What are the unique geomorphological features found on
Kingdom, including one in North Wales (Harrison and periglacial slopes?
Anderson, 2001).
24.4 Summary sensitive to climate change as well as being the possible source of
greenhouse gases that may drive further climate change through
This chapter describes both periglacial environments and perma- gas hydrate and soil carbon release.
frost, their distribution and the processes that occur within them. Periglacial environments are those that are cold but are
Understanding the processes operating and features formed in not glaciated, where freeze–thaw processes drive geomorphic
these environments is important for engineering in permafrost change. Periglacial processes currently affect about 33% of the
and periglacial regions. Furthermore the regions are extremely Earth’s surface, and during the past their impact was even more
➤
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Chapter 24 Permafrost and periglaciation
➤
widespread. This past activity has left a range of landforms that Both permafrost and periglacial regions have a unique geo-
are characteristic of such environments and can therefore be morphology with a range of landforms that develop owing to
used to reconstruct past climates. freeze–thaw cycles and the migration of water towards the freez-
Permafrost refers to ground that is frozen year-round. Perma- ing front. These processes cause expansion and contraction of
frost can be found both at high latitudes and at high altitudes. In the surface layers which results in frost shattering and cracking
the coldest locations it can be over 1000 m deep and continuous of the ground. As ground cracks fill with water and freeze they
except under lakes and glaciers, but in more marginal climates it can expand and eventually large ice wedges can form. These are
is thinner and discontinuous. Frozen ground often contains ice in manifest at the surface by polygonal features. Also characteristic
pores and lenses. The upper ground layer typically melts during the of periglacial regions are stone circles, polygons and, on slopes,
summer and this is known as the active layer. Surface temperature stone stripes. Freezing of water beneath thermal disturbances
fluctuations propagate down through the ground so that there such as lakes or at the base of slopes can cause trapped water
is a delay in response. The lag time increases with depth and the at high pressure which can result in the formation of ice-cored
magnitude of change decreases with depth. Deeper layers respond hills known as pingos. Periglacial slopes are dominated by mass
only very slowly to surface temperature change so that they can wasting and gelifluction and frost creep processes. Slope features
be used to identify former temperature regimes at that site. include rock glaciers and ploughing boulders.
Further reading Williams, P.J. (1979) Pipelines and permafrost: Physical geog-
raphy and development in the circumpolar north. Longman,
Harlow.
An excellent short book describing the making of the Alaska
Ballantyne, C.K. and Harris, C. (1995) The periglaciation of pipeline and other related topics.
Great Britain. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
An excellent book giving detailed explanations of relict perigla- Williams, P.J. and Smith, M.W. (1991) The frozen Earth:
cial features, their distribution and the processes that formed Fundamentals of geocryology. Cambridge University Press,
them. Although it is related to Great Britain the discussion can Cambridge.
equally be applied to other sites. This is the permafrost ‘bible’, although much is at quite a high
level. If you want more information on processes in permafrost
French, H.M. (2007) The periglacial environment, 3rd edition. regions this is the book to look at.
John Wiley & Sons, Chichester.
A clearly written textbook with an excellent range of diagrams
and good use of examples.
Trenhaile, A.S. (2003) Geomorphology: A Canadian perspec-
tive, 2nd edition. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Describes the physical geography of Canada. Many of the
descriptions are of features developed in permafrost and peri-
glacial regions.
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PA RT V I
Monitoring and management
Figure PVI Remote sensing allows us to detect natural and human Part contents
driven changes to the Earth. Here we can see rectangular areas of
deforestation (about 4 km long) on the right-hand side of the image ➤ Chapter 25: Monitoring environmental change
in the Loreto region of Peru, within an otherwise undisturbed Amazon
➤ Chapter 26: Dealing with hazards and environmental change
rainforest. (Source: Jesse Allen and Robert Simmon, USGS/NASA)
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Part VI Monitoring and management
Scope A basic premise of physical geography is the desire to apply the
knowledge we attain to help manage the environment. Elements of
This final part deals with monitoring and management of envi-
environmental change are described in every chapter in this book.
ronmental change and hazards. It is necessary to measure con-
Hazards are also mentioned in every chapter in this book. Issues
temporary environmental change so that we can be aware of the
related to dealing with hazards and environmental change are intro-
global and local nature of such change and also so that we have a
duced in the final chapter of this book.
warning system in place dealing with changes that are occurring
With improved knowledge of physical geography, combined with
and potential hazards to humans. Chapter 25 deals with in situ and
appropriate management actions it is sometimes possible to mitigate
remote sensing methods for collecting and interpreting data on
(reduce or prevent) hazards and environmental change. More com-
environmental change. Technological advances are enabling us to
monly, however, it is adaptation that we seek, enabling us to cope
collect ever increasing volumes of data using a wide range of tools.
with threats and develop resilience and an ability to more rapidly
Remote sensing plays a pinnacle role in monitoring and detecting
recover from an extreme event. However, it is often the poor who are
environmental change, such as alterations in vegetation cover and
most vulnerable to environmental change and adaptation is most dif-
type, ice caps, global and oceanic temperatures and atmospheric
ficult in less developed countries which is why climate change poses
composition.
a greater threat to developing nations.
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C H A PTER 2 5
Monitoring environmental change
Timothy D. James
Department of Geography, Swansea University and Department of Geography and Planning, Queen’s University, Canada
Learning objectives change, we equip ourselves with the ability to better
understand how the Earth works and to develop best prac-
After reading this chapter you should be able to: tice management strategies.
In physical geography, a great many subjects are stud-
➤ differentiate between in situ and remote sensing data collection ied covering a wide range of scales. We study processes
and appreciate the value of each in understanding and monitoring that occur on the microscale (e.g. soils, Chapter 17), the
the processes of environmental change mesoscale (e.g. glaciers and ice sheets, Chapter 23) and the
macroscale (e.g. global climates, Chapter 8). In each case,
➤ understand the role electromagnetic radiation in remote sensing
scientists need to collect suitable data as quickly and effi-
➤ evaluate different methods of remote sensing for collecting envi- ciently as possible using cost-effective methods and with-
ronmental change data out damaging or interfering with the processes they seek
➤ appreciate how the tools of digital image processing are used to to understand. Data collection methods are constantly
extract information from remote sensing data evolving and the rapid increase in computer processing
power, storage capacity and network speed have caused
an explosion in the development of new data collection
25.1 Introduction techniques. For example, consumer-grade navigation sys-
tems are now very inexpensive and can instantly provide
In order to predict how our environment will change in the positions to better than a metre accuracy (Section 25.2.1).
future, it is important we have a solid understanding of the Remote-controlled, unmanned aircraft are undertaking
processes discussed in the rest of this textbook and how surveys that very recently required costly human-piloted
they change over time. It is also important to understand aircraft (Section 25.3.1). In 2007, there were about 50
how they function together in the Earth’s system – the Earth observation satellites in orbit compared to over 150
complex interaction between the atmosphere, hydrosphere, in 2016 and these are producing an unfathomable amount
biosphere and lithosphere. What we have learned so far and
of data every day.
what we still have to learn can be attributed largely to the Monitoring environmental change is an extensive
data we collect. Through the monitoring of environmental subject encompassing a wide range of instruments and
M25 An Introduction to Physical Ge 83575.indd 677 24/05/2017 13:30
Chapter 25 Monitoring environmental change
applications. With this in mind, the aim of this chapter is km above the Earth’s surface) are known with great preci-
two-fold. The first is to provide you with a general introduc- sion. Lillesand et al. (2015) provide an excellent discussion
tion to the various elements of data collection for monitor- of how GPS positions are derived and potential sources of
ing environmental change. The second is to act as a starting error.
point from which you can independently explore as far as With a clear view of the sky, a simple, single frequency,
interest or need takes you. The data required for environ- consumer-grade GPS receiver can provide positional data
mental monitoring are sourced from a wide range of sources of a point accurate to within a few meters. This level
from simple, inexpensive thermometers to complex satellites of accuracy might be sufficient for tracking icebergs or
costing hundreds of millions of dollars. In this chapter we wildlife, for example, but many processes exhibit dis-
first introduce and differentiate between in situ and remote placements too small to be measurable with these instru-
sensing data. This is followed by an introduction to import- ments. Features like a river channel cross-section or a
ant issues relevant to remote sensing, which is a key method melting glacier surface yield changes that require higher
of data collection for monitoring environmental change, accuracy to be measurable and thus sophisticated, sur-
and which forms the focus of the rest of the chapter. vey-quality GPS are required. A dual-frequency GPS with
a special ‘geodetic’ antenna for insulating the antenna
from signals bouncing off the ground (Figure 25.1) are
25.2 In situ data used in a differential configuration to maximize posi-
Measuring an object or phenomenon with an instrument tional accuracy. Differential GPS uses a stationary reference
in direct contact with the subject under study is in situ GPS receiver (called a base station) on a point on the
data collection; in situ is a Latin term for ‘in place’. Many ground whose position is independently known, and a
applications requiring in situ data collection are discussed
in this text. For example, CTD instruments measure the
conductivity (salinity), temperature and depth along vertical
profiles in the ocean (Figure 3.8, Chapter 3). An impeller
meter measures water velocity at a point in a river channel
for determining discharge rates (Box 18.1, Chapter 18). Air
quality monitoring stations contain instruments for mea-
suring airborne pollutants at discrete locations, like those in
Singapore noted in Box 9.4 (Chapter 9).
In situ data collection covers an extensive range of
instruments and applications. It is, of course, impracti-
cal to discuss all relevant measurement techniques in this
chapter especially given the breadth of subject matter cov-
ered in this text. More information on specialized instru-
ments and applications should be acquired through the
recommended readings and the references provided in each
chapter. However, a number of key developments for mon-
itoring environmental change are discussed below.
25.2.1 Satellite positioning systems
The Global Positioning System (GPS) scarcely needs an
introduction nowadays given most people have a GPS
receiver in their cars, mobile phones and even watches.
However, the GPS receivers that scientists use for precise
positioning are very different and these instruments have
revolutionized our understanding of the world around us.
Figure 25.1 A survey-quality dual frequency GPS receiver is deployed
GPS is a satellite-based positioning and navigation system. as a base station in a weather tight case (left) connected to a geodetic
It provides a GPS receiver’s coordinates based on its dis- antenna mounted on a tripod over a known point. The yellow tripod mea-
tance to a constellation of satellites whose orbits (at 20 200 sures about 1 m in height.
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25.2 In situ data
mobile GPS receiver (called a rover) that goes about mea- of the receivers fell into crevasses or off the front of the
suring the feature of interest. Any apparent movement of glacier and while the instruments were lost forever, the
the static base station is known to be error, which is then data was safely stored on shore. The study was uniquely
used to correct the position of the moving rover. Real-time able to uncover some interesting things about glacier flow
differential GPS is the term used when this correction is including that glaciers can flow backwards.
applied instantaneously. Telemetry also makes it possible for organizations to
Fully operation since 1993, the GPS constellation of provide real-time environmental data from around the
satellites is operated by the USA but a number of other world and, in many cases, make these data accessible via
countries are also involved with satellite navigation. Russia the internet. Most national weather services like the UK’s
has operated the GLONASS constellation of navigation Met Office and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
satellites since 1995, providing an alternative and comple- Administration (NOAA) of the USA provide their land
mentary system to the GPS satellites. The Galileo system and marine weather observations online in near real-time.
is being developed by the European Union and hopes to be Similarly, Glacierresearch.org is a highly successful col-
fully operational by the time this text goes to print (http:// laboration lead by the Cold Regions Research and Engi-
galileognss.eu). China also has a global system under neering Laboratory (CRREL) of the US Army Corps of
development and currently operates a regional system, as Engineers where real-time meteorological data and time-
do India and Japan. lapse imagery are available for a number of glaciers in
both Alaska and Greenland.
25.2.2 Telemetry
25.2.3 Environmental sensor networks
Another revolutionary development for environmental
data collection and monitoring has been the widespread An important application of wireless telemetry that
use of wireless telemetry; a system for the automated represents the marriage of environmental science, engi-
transmission of data collected by instruments at remote neering and information technology that has revolution-
locations to distant receiving equipment. Wireless telem- ized environmental monitoring is in the development of
etry can transmit data over local networks using radio or environmental sensor networks (ESNs). ESNs are networks
infrared systems, for example, or globally using mobile of instruments configured to intelligently and simultane-
phone cellular networks or satellite telecommunications. ously collect a suite of data and send their information
Generally, telemetry systems are designed for real-time to a central data server which can be accessed locally or
monitoring over large areas and/or sending back data from remotely. Their purpose is to characterize a system as a
locations that are difficult or expensive to access (e.g. from whole, facilitating the study of key processes across land-
stream discharge gauges or mountain weather stations). scapes (Figure 25.2). They have become possible due to
Wireless data transmission requires a lot of power, which technological advances that have decreased the size, cost
can be an important issue in remote locations. This may and weight of instrumentation while increasing reliability,
be particularly problematic at high latitudes during winter speed and efficiency in power storage and consumption. A
when daylight is short and therefore solar panels are not nice discussion of ESNs is given in Rundel et al. (2009).
able to keep batteries topped up. ESNs can vary between an array of single-parameter
A good example of an application of wireless telem- instruments that cover a large geographical area and net-
etry is a recent study that deployed high-precision GPS works that might cover a smaller area but collect infor-
receivers on the surface of Helheim glacier on the south- mation on a large number of environmental parameters.
east coast of Greenland (Murray et al., 2015). Helheim is An important example of the former is the Global Seis-
a fast-moving, heavily crevassed glacier whose surface is mographic Network (GSN; http://earthquake.usgs.gov),
only accessible via helicopter. In order to record very small which is a group of over 150 globally distributed seismom-
changes in the surface elevation and speed over just a few eters that provide real-time measurements of earthquakes
seconds, 20 GPS receivers were networked via radio link and other seismic activity across the Earth straight to the
to each other and to two receiving stations on the shore. internet. The web portal allows you to interactively browse
Every six seconds each receiver sent the positional data it recent earthquake activity around the world and is worth
had collected to whichever receiving station it could ‘see’ visiting, especially after seeing an earthquake reported in
even via other GPS receivers if necessary. Eventually, many the news.
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Chapter 25 Monitoring environmental change
Figure 25.2 Schematic of an environmental sensor network showing measurements being taken at a range of scales with terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems represented. (Source: after Rundel et al., 2009)
An example of a complex, multi-parameter ESN is the soil, permafrost and vegetation monitoring stations with a
Cape Bounty Arctic Watershed Observatory (CBAWO) focus on long-term monitoring for accurately defining the
located in the Canadian High Arctic on Melville Island, terrestrial and freshwater responses to climate change on
Nunavut (74°54′N, 109°35′W). The observatory’s aim is these High Arctic systems. Figure 25.3 shows a map of the
to investigate the hydrological, landscape and ecosystem two catchments under study and the locations of the mon-
effects of climate and permafrost change, with particular itoring stations across the landscape.
emphasis on intra- and inter-seasonal variations in water,
sediment, carbon, nutrient, contaminant and trace gas
fluxes at two High Arctic watersheds. The station main-
25.3 Remote sensing data
tains numerous meteorological, atmospheric, river, lake, As computer processing power and storage have increased
so has our hunger for data. Scientists are forever demand-
ing data of higher spatial and temporal resolution over
larger areas. Thus remote sensing methods have become
Reflective questions the mainstay of monitoring environmental change on the
meso- and macroscales, and knowledge of these data col-
➤ What type of satellite system would you use to very accu-
lection techniques is key for a comprehensive understand-
rately undertake ground surveys of a small alluvial fan?
ing of physical geography.
➤ Why might a telemetry system be useful for studying The American Society of Photogrammetry and Remote
changes in the bulge, ground temperature and vibrations Sensing defines remote sensing as any technique whereby
around a volcano which is thought to be in the stages information about objects and the environment is obtained
before eruption? from a distance. There are several characteristics of remote
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25.3 Remote sensing data
Figure 25.3 Map and environmental parameter measurement locations at the Cape Bounty Arctic Watershed Observatory (CBAWO) (Source: courtesy
of Scott Lamoureux)
sensing that make it ideal for use in physical geography camera mounted on a tripod. Finally, remote sensing offers
and monitoring environmental change. First, it minimizes the ability to repeat data collection over relatively short
the need for costly field visits. This is especially important periods, thus adding time as a fourth dimension to geo-
when studying environments that are either dangerous graphical studies and allowing environmental change to be
(e.g. natural hazards, political strife), isolated and diffi- detected.
cult to reach (e.g. remote islands or glaciers), or fragile Remote sensing data can take many forms though most
(e.g. periglacial and dune ecosystems). Second, except commonly involve the recording of electromagnetic radia-
for some limitations, remote sensing instruments can be tion from the Earth’s surface to produce images that can be
positioned as far from, or as near to, a surface as required. interpreted and analyzed. The following sections discuss
Thus, they can collect information over a very large area a number of issues relevant to remote sensing instruments
as in satellite imagery or over a very small area such as a that measure electromagnetic radiation.
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Chapter 25 Monitoring environmental change
25.3.1 Platforms UAVs can take the form of fix-wing airplanes or heli-
copter-like craft with rotary blades (Figure 25.4). They can
Typically, the term remote sensing will invoke mental
be so small as to fit in the palm of your hand or be nearly
images of satellites hurtling through space. However, a
as large as a piloted aircraft and capable of flying for thou-
remote sensing platform, the object supporting or trans-
sands of kilometres. Many remote sensing applications that
porting the remote sensing instrument, can take many
once required piloted aircraft can now be undertaken inde-
forms and can be classified as spaceborne, terrestrial or
pendently with relatively little investment. These platforms
airborne. While satellites and other spaceborne vehi-
also provide an alternative perspective for smaller areas of
cles (e.g. the International Space Station) are common
interest that would be impractical for full-sized aircraft.
platforms and important for covering large areas like
So powerful are UAVs as a remote sensing platform that
ice-sheets and mountain ranges, close-range work may
NASA has fully embraced the technology and are a global
simply require the use of a step ladder or basic gantry to
leader in UAV remote sensing with their exciting Ikhana/
support a regular 35 mm camera, for example. In between
Preditor B program (www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/
these two extremes, airborne platforms can carry instru-
aircraft/Ikhana). Similarly, the USGS operates a number of
ments over much larger areas than can be covered from
UAVs for applications in environmental and monitoring,
the ground but are limited by cost, aircraft range and pilot
responding to natural hazards, wildlife inventories, land
fatigue. The choice of platform always presents a compro-
management and assessing the consequences of climate
mise between data scale and cost.
change (http://rmgsc.cr.usgs.gov/uas).
An important recent advance in remote sensing has been
the development of pilotless aircraft that can be operated
25.3.2 Electromagnetic radiation
remotely, self-piloted (autonomous) or some combination
of the two. These platforms known most commonly as All objects on the Earth’s surface are capable of reflecting,
unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) or unmanned aircraft systems absorbing and emitting energy called electromagnetic radi-
(UAS) have revolutionized do-it-yourself remote sensing. ation. The foundations of remote sensing lie in the nature
While most of the world’s association with these drones is of this energy; how it interacts with our atmosphere and
with military applications, these aircraft are revolutionizing
(b)
scientific research and have many important applications in
environmental monitoring.
(a)
Figure 25.4 Unmanned airborne vehicles: (a) fixed-wing; (b) rotary blade. (Source: Kilian Scharrer)
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25.3 Remote sensing data
Ultra-
violet Blue Green Red Near-IR
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 Thermal
Gamma X-rays Visible IR Microwave Radio
10–7 10–6 10–5 10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1 1 10 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109
Wavelength (mm)
Figure 25.5 The electromagnetic spectrum showing a magnified section of the visible bands to which human vision is adapted. (Source: after Lillesand
and Kiefer, 2000)
the surface of the Earth; and in our ability to detect and Scattering of electromagnetic radiation is divided into
record it using remote sensing instruments. It is recom- three types: Rayleigh, Mie and non-selective. Rayleigh scat-
mended that you consult the brief introduction to the tering is caused by atmospheric molecules and particles
principles of electromagnetic radiation on the companion whose diameters are much smaller than the wavelength of
website or that you read Chapter 1, Section 1.2 in Lillesand the incident radiation. As there is an inverse relationship
et al. (2015) for a more detailed discussion. However, a between wavelength and the degree of scatter, shorter
brief overview is provided below. wavelengths are most affected by Rayleigh scattering.
When a remote sensing instrument is pointed at a sur- This accounts for the blue colour of the sky. Mie scattering
face, it is the electromagnetic radiation intercepting the is caused by atmospheric molecules that are of similar
sensor from the surface of interest that is being measured, diameter to the wavelength of the incident radiation. This
recorded and interpreted. In line with the wave model, includes water molecules and dust particles and most
in remote sensing electromagnetic radiation is described strongly affects longer wavelengths like reds. Conversely,
in terms of its wavelength (l) or frequency (f) depending non-selective scattering is independent of wavelength and
on the instrument in use. The relationship between wave- scatters all wavelengths between the visible and mid-in-
length and frequency can be described by: frared. Non-selective scattering is caused by atmospheric
c particles such as water droplets and ice crystals that are
c = fl or f = (25.1)
l much larger in diameter than the incoming wavelength.
The implication of this is that that not all bands of the
where c is the speed of light, ∼3.0 * 108 m s - 1.
spectrum are suitable for remote sensing applications.
Equation (25.1) describes a function where wavelength and
Matter in the atmosphere that scatters and absorbs energy
frequency are continuous rather than discrete variables.
prevents the energy from the Earth’s surface from reach-
The continuum of electromagnetic radiation is the elec-
ing the scanner. This yields bands of the spectrum called
tromagnetic spectrum and the way in which radiation inter-
acts with the atmosphere and with objects on the Earth’s
Atmosphere
surface is dependent on wavelength and thus where it falls Sun
in the spectrum. Wavelengths that share similar proper-
ties are grouped in to spectral bands, like the visible band Scattering
or infrared band. The spectral bands and their location
on the electromagnetic spectrum, shown in Figure 25.5,
Absorption
provide a convenient system of reference for describing
electromagnetic radiation of similar properties. Because
the characteristics of electromagnetic radiation vary from
Transmission
one end of the spectrum to the other, it follows that the Earth
way this energy interacts with matter will also vary. This is
due to the way in which energy from the different parts of Figure 25.6 Schematic diagram illustrating the division of incoming solar
the spectrum are scattered or absorbed by the atmosphere radiation into the three components: scattered, absorbed and transmitted
or transmitted through the atmosphere (Figure 25.6). energy.
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Chapter 25 Monitoring environmental change
transmission bands (or atmospheric windows) where energy fingerprints can be used to identify people, we can use
at a given wavelength gets through the atmosphere and spectral signatures to identify surface features. Figure
absorption bands where it does not. The various transmis- 25.8a gives typical spectral signatures of various types
sion and absorption bands of the atmosphere and the of common surface covers. Notice the high reflection of
various contributing atmospheric molecules are shown in vegetation and the absorption of water in the near-infra-
Figure 25.7. red. Figure 25.8b shows how different types of vegeta-
The way in which natural and artificial objects on tion reflect differently. Notice how much overlap there is
the Earth’s surface distribute incident energy also varies between the curves except in the near-infrared. This is a
greatly. When incident radiation strikes a surface, it is good example of the value of performing remote sensing
reflected, absorbed or transmitted. In terrestrial interac- in bands outside the visible spectrum.
tions the term reflection is used rather than scattering. In the following sections, two classifications of sensing
When referring to reflected energy as a ratio of the inci- instruments will be discussed: passive and active. Passive
dent energy that hits the surface, the term albedo is used sensors measure the naturally occurring radiation that is
where no reflection is 0 and 100% reflection is 1. Emission reflected or emitted from a surface. Alternatively, active
is the term used for indirectly reflected radiation, when sensors provide their own source of illumination. They
incoming radiation is absorbed by an object, converted emit a radiation pulse and measure any radiation that is
to internal heat energy and subsequently emitted at lon- reflected back to the source.
ger wavelengths. Since the emitted radiation has a longer
wavelength than its solar source, this energy is called long-
25.3.3 Image data
wave radiation, whereas the incoming solar radiation and
directly reflected energy is called short-wave radiation. Both Although remote sensing data are not exclusively in the
directly and indirectly reflected radiation are important in form of imagery, this is by far the most common format
remote sensing for characterizing the reflectance charac- and arguably the most useful to physical geography. There-
teristics of a surface. fore, this section discusses the various characteristics of
The reflectance characteristics of an object across the imagery produced by remote sensing techniques.
electromagnetic spectrum are called its spectral signature. You will be familiar with cameras that record
A surface’s spectral signature describes to what extent electromagnetic radiation on a two-dimensional (2D)
electromagnetic radiation is transmitted, absorbed and sensor to produce a 2D image. They use a lens and a
reflected at different wavelengths and, therefore, to some shutter to capture an entire image simultaneously. If this
extent is an indication of its chemical composition and sensor is film it can be used to create analogue images
physical state. Thus, in many ways a spectral signature including diapositives, plates and prints. If this sensor is
is analogous to a fingerprint. Every object reflects nat- electronic like a charge-coupled device (CCD) you will have
ural and artificial radiation in different ways. Just as a digital image. Wolf et al. (2014) defined a digital image as a
UV Visible Reflected IR Thermal (emitted) IR Microwave
100
H2O CO2 O3
H 2O
Atmospheric transmission (%)
H2O
O2
Visible
H2O
CO2 H2O
O2 O3
Green
Blue
Red
0
0.2 mm 0.5 1.0 5 10 20 100 mm 0.1 cm 1.0 cm 1.0 m
Wavelength (not to scale)
Figure 25.7 Atmospheric transmission and absorption bands of electromagnetic radiation. Orange shaded area indicates transmitted energy while green
indicates absorbed energy. (Source: after Scherz and Stevens, 1970)
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25.3 Remote sensing data
(a) (b)
Blue Green Red Near-IR Blue Green Red Near-IR
90 70
Fresh snow Deciduous
80
60
Grass
70
Vegetation 50
60
Aquatic
Reflectance (%)
Reflectance (%)
50 40
40 30 Coniferous
30
Silty water Sandy loam soil 20
20
Asphalt 10
10
Clear water
0 0
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Wavelength (mm) Wavelength (mm)
Figure 25.8 Spectral signatures of: (a) several common surface covers; and (b) vegetation types for the blue to near-infrared (0.4 and 0.9 mm) portion of
the spectrum. (Source: after Avery and Berlin, 1992)
computer-compatible, pictorial rendition divided into a fine, Table 25.1 Bit scale and grey levels
two-dimensional grid of pixels. The term pixel comes from
a contraction of ‘picture elements’ and each represents a Bit scale Range Number of
(depth) of DNs grey levels
finite area in the image. A digital number (DN) is assigned to
each of these pixels to summarize a quantity (often the aver-
1@bit (21) 0–1 2
age reflection) that was recorded for that area. In displayed
6@bit (26) 0–63 64
images, the DNs determine the colour of each pixel accord-
ing to the bit scale of the recorded image and the colour pal- 7@bit (27) 0–127 128
ette used for its display. A colour palette is simply a record 0–255 256
8@bit (28)
of predefined colours or grey levels each linked to one or
24@bit (224) 0–16 777 215 16 777 216
more DNs. Colour palettes can range from only two colours
(i.e. black and white) to billions of colours. The bit scale (or 32@bit (232) 0–4 294 967 296 4 294 967 297
depth) of the image determines the number (or range) of
DNs that are used in an image. A simple example is a 1-bit continuously under a swath beneath a moving platform.
image, called a binary image, composed only of the num- There are two main types of scanning instruments: across-
bers 1 and 0. Thus, the number of colours used in an image track and along-track sensors. Although both types of instru-
is determined by the bit scale as shown in Table 25.1 with ments measure the incoming radiation from a swath below
the number of colours being 2 raised to the power of the bit a moving platform, in across-track sensors the scanner’s
depth. An example of the DNs in an image is given in Figure line of sight (also called the instantaneous field of view,
25.9. Here, a simple 8-bit image using 256 grey levels (28) is IFOV) is directed in a sweeping motion at right angles to the
shown with small sections of increasing magnification to direction of travel by a rotating or oscillating mirror. The
show how the DNs combine to form an image. forward motion of the platform causes the field of view to
Scanning instruments form a family of imaging sen- move forward, thus covering the entire 2D swath beneath
sors that produce 2D digital images by collecting data the platform. The operation of these sensors is depicted in
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Figure 25.9 Construction of a digital image. As the magnification increases, what appears to be an image of continuous tone breaks down into units
called pixels, each of which is represented by a digital number. In this case the image is 8-bit greyscale which has 256 shades of grey.
Figure 25.10a. Because of this motion, across-track sensors of travel covering one side of the swath to the other. As
are often referred to as whiskbroom scanners. the platform moves forward, the field of view of the
Along-track sensors produce 2D images using a linear sensor array moves forward, thus producing a continuous
array of CCDs oriented perpendicularly to the direction 2D image of the swath. The operation of along-track
sensors, often referred to as pushbroom scanners, is
(a) illustrated in Figure 25.10b.
Linear
(b) detector
array
Optics
IFOV
Flight
line
Projection
Direction of motion of array
on ground
Ground swath
Figure 25.10 The operation of (a) an across-track (whiskbroom) sensor and (b) an along-track (pushbroom) sensor. (Source: after Lillesand and
Kiefer, 2000)
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Scanners are most often mounted on airborne or imagery can be more cost effective for qualitative applica-
space-borne platforms and there are a variety of different tions as a greater area can be covered than in one vertical
types and configurations, which are discussed later in this image. This is illustrated in Figure 25.11, which shows a
chapter. vertical and oblique image of the flooded Ouse River in
York, England, in November 2000. Mapping water extent
and flood risk management is an important application of
25.3.3.1 Orientation, scale and resolution
remote sensing.
For both analogue and digital images, there are a variety of Scale describes the relationship between a linear
image characteristics that are essential for their use in geo- distance in an image or map and the corresponding lin-
graphical research. An appreciation of these characteristics ear horizontal distance on the ground. Scale is usually
is central to understanding remote sensing and therefore expressed as a ratio such as 1 : 50 000, which tells us that 1
they are addressed here. The first three characteristics dis- cm on the image equals 50 000 cm on the ground. Images
cussed are variables that are determined prior to data col- or maps are often described as being small (least detail),
lection. They are image orientation, scale and resolution. medium or large scale (most detail) and, although the
A general assumption is that remote sensing instru- limits are not standardized, a rough guide is 1 : 7 50 000
ments are always pointed downwards (nadir-looking) from for small scale and 1 : 6 12 000 for large scale. However,
some position above the surface of interest. However, where images contain relief or are captured obliquely,
this is not necessarily the case. Although vertical imag- image scale will vary across an image. The importance of
ery is more common, the orientation of a remote sensing the scale of an image lies in that it largely dictates the use-
instrument can theoretically be in any direction: verti- fulness of an image for a particular application.
cally (up or down), horizontally or obliquely (at an angle The resolution of an image also plays an important
other than vertical or horizontal). The orientation of the role in determining its suitability for a given application.
imagery depends on the characteristics of the available In general it refers to the ability of a system to separate a
sensor and the data requirements of each application. scene into constituent ‘parts’. In remote sensing, resolution
Although more difficult to analyze quantitatively, oblique is divided into three components: spatial, temporal and
(a) (b)
Figure 25.11 Vertical (a) and oblique (b) aerial photographs of the November 2000 flood of the River Ouse in the city of York, England. These images
were used to map the extent of the flood waters for Britain’s Environment Agency. Notice how much more of the floodplain is visible in the oblique
image compared with the vertical image. (Source: photos © UK Environment Agency)
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spectral. In most cases and unless stated otherwise, the each of blue, green and red), thereby providing more infor-
resolution of an image describes its spatial resolution. This mation about the reflectance characteristics of the surface.
refers to the degree to which a system can isolate a unit of Therefore, this system would have higher spectral resolu-
area on a surface as being separate from its surroundings. tion. If you were to split up the entire spectrum into small
Spatial resolution is expressed as the size of the smallest slivers and take a measurement for each sliver you would
individual component of an image in surface measurement have a very high spectral resolution indeed.
units. Although there are many factors that influence res- An important difference between camera-type instru-
olution during image capture, ultimately the resolution is ments and scanners is the different spectral resolutions
determined by the size of individual film grains in photo- that can be achieved. Scanning sensors are capable of mea-
graphs or by the size of individual pixels in digital images. suring reflectance over the entire electromagnetic spectrum
These in turn are largely dependent on scale. Typically, the but most commonly operate between about 0.3 and 14 mm
smaller the scale of the imagery, the lower the resolution. (blue, green, red, near-, mid- and thermal infrared) and
For example, the size of the smallest unit in a satellite can measure radiation in numerous very narrow bands of
image taken from 800 km above the Earth’s surface will be the spectrum. Conversely, cameras tend to operate in one
much larger (smaller scale and lower resolution) than the broad band between about 0.3 and 0.9 mm (ultraviolet,
smallest unit in an aerial photograph taken from 1000 m blue, green, red and near-infrared) although they provide
(larger scale and higher resolution). better spatial and temporal resolution than scanners.
With temporal resolution, the ability of the system to
separate a scene into constituent parts refers not to parts
25.3.3.2 Image content
over space but over time. Thus, a system that can capture
many images over a unit period of time will have a higher There are a number of image characteristics that form the
temporal resolution than one that captures only a few. basis of image interpretation. They do not describe char-
Clearly temporal resolution is highly dependent on the acteristics of the imagery as a whole but rather the char-
sensor used to collect the data. For terrestrial systems, the acteristics of image content and thus are used to extract
resolution can be very high. For example, with a 35 mm information from the images through human image
camera on a tripod or gantry, photographs can be taken interpretation and computer-aided analysis. They are
separated only by a few tenths of a second. Such instru- dependent on the illumination of the scene and the charac-
ments are useful for recording events of environmental teristics of the surface being imaged. They include shape,
change that occur very quickly, such as avalanches and size, pattern, association, tone and texture.
volcanic activity. However, with satellites that have to orbit The first four elements, shape, size, pattern and associ-
the Earth several times before revisiting the same scene, ation, are fairly self-explanatory. They describe the spatial
the temporal separation of images will be of the order of characteristics of features in an image and their relation-
days. Coarse temporal resolution can be very useful for ship to each other. The tone or colour describes the rela-
recording environmental changes that occur over longer tive brightness of the surface as detected and interpreted
periods of time, such as deforestation, sea ice dynamics by the sensing instrument. Given the context of an image,
and coastal processes. many features can be identified based largely on their tone.
We introduced the concept of spectral signatures in For example, green tones in an image are associated with
Section 25.3.2 and it is now possible to introduce spectral parks and trees, brown tones with crops and soil and grey
resolution. The spectral resolution of a sensor refers to tones with buildings and roads. However, tone is of little
its ability to delimit sections of the spectrum and to pro- use in isolation.
vide a measurement of the radiation at each section. For Texture can be described as the tonal variation in an
example, a camera using black and white film takes one image as a function of scale. Thus, where tone describes
measurement for the entire visible portion of the spectrum the spectral information in an image, texture describes the
(0.490.7 mm). From this instrument no information is spatial variation of the spectral information in an image.
available about how the surface reflects from 0.490.5 mm, In essence, texture is the effect created by an agglom-
for example. Such a system is said to have a low spectral eration of features in an image that are too small to be
resolution. However, a camera using colour film essentially detected individually. The size of these texture features
takes a measurement for three separate bands (one for determines the coarseness or smoothness of the texture
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and it is one of its most important defining characteristics to operate than metric, cameras measurements will conse-
of features in an image. It might be argued that tone is quently be less precise even with self-calibration.
more important, but why then is it so easy for humans to With digital cameras, the electronic photosensitive
identify objects in a greyscale image where the role of tone devices usually record imagery within a predefined portion
is greatly diminished? This shows how central the role of of the spectrum and allow some flexibility over collection
texture is in human vision and in our ability to identify parameters such as image size, resolution and so on. Con-
objects around us and, therefore, in image interpretation. versely, analogue cameras depend on different types of
film. Thus, as modern image processing methods require
digital imagery as input, analogue images are digitized
Reflective questions using scanners, which can be standard desktop scanners
to highly specialized scanners, which aim to preserve
➤ How does scattering affect our ability to detect envi- the geometric and radiometric qualities of the analogue
ronmental change through remote sensing? What about photographs.
transmission? Common film formats for analogue cameras include
➤ How is a spectral signature like a fingerprint and what standard 35 mm, medium-format and large-format film.
does it reveal about a surface?
The last is the most common format used in airborne
remote sensing and is designed for both high resolu-
➤ What is the difference between scale and resolution? tion and high image quality. An example of a standard,
large-format aerial photograph is given in Figure 25.12,
which shows the fiducial marks in the four corners (used to
25.4 Camera sensors define a coordinate system in image space) and flight data
recorded around the border of the image. This image was
One of the most versatile remote sensing instruments is taken using black and white panchromatic film, which is
the analogue photographic camera and its digital equiva- sensitive to all the colours of the visible spectrum and uses
lent. The difference between analogue and digital cameras shades of grey between black and white to record them.
lies only in how each system captures and stores images. In addition to panchromatic film, black and white film
Whereas traditional analogue cameras use photographic that is also sensitive to infrared light is in common use.
film to capture images, and diapositives, glass plates and Figure 25.13 gives a comparison of a panchromatic and
prints to store them, digital cameras use electronic photo- black and white infrared photograph. Take care to note the
sensitive devices to capture images and electronic media differences between these two images and how the vegeta-
for storage (e.g. computer hard disk). These technological tion and water reflect differently.
advances have necessitated the expansion of the traditional The obvious alternative to black and white film is colour
definition of ‘camera’ to include these digital imaging film to which human vision is better adapted. However,
devices. With the ever decreasing cost and improving the processing of colour film tends to be more expensive.
performance of digital cameras and imagery, analogue With colour film, the printed colours need not necessar-
cameras for remote sensing are becoming increasingly ily correspond to the real colour of the scene as this can
uncommon (and are almost unheard of now in the domes- be controlled by film type and processing method. As a
tic photography market). result, infrared-sensitive colour film can be displayed in a
Cameras used in remote sensing range from false-colour image where colours are assigned so that green
consumer-grade to highly specialized, large-format aerial light is recorded as blue, red light as green and near-infra-
cameras. Whether analogue or digital, these cameras red as red. This is much easier to interpret over black and
range from metric to non-metric cameras. With metric white infrared images. Figure 25.14 provides a comparison
cameras, the camera geometry is closely monitored though between a normal colour and colour infrared image. Again,
camera calibration, enabling precise measurements to be take note of the differences between the images. As pre-
made from the imagery. With semi-metric and non-metric dicted by Figure 25.8, the bright vegetation in both infrared
cameras, access to this information is limited but to some images shown in Figures 25.13b and 25.14b and the dark
extent can be determined by self-calibration using pur- water in Figure 25.13b indicate how strongly vegetation
pose-built software. While these cameras are less expensive reflects and how much water absorbs in the near-infrared.
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Figure 25.12 Typical aerial photograph showing the fiducial marks and flight data including the contractor contact details, date and time of
flight, aircraft elevation, image number, film and frame number and level indicator. This image was taken over Upper Wharfedale in the Yorkshire
Dales National Park in northern England on 17 May 1992. North is roughly to the right and on the ground the image measures 3.2 km across.
(Source: photo © UK Environment Agency)
(a) (b)
Figure 25.13 Examples of (a) a panchromatic and (b) a black and white infrared photograph. Notice the difference in reflection of the water and the
vegetation between the two images. These 1 : 9000 images show flooding of Bear Creek in north-west Alabama, USA. (Source: from Lillesand and
Kiefer, 2000)
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(a) (b)
Figure 25.14 Examples of (a) a normal colour and (b) a colour infrared aerial photograph. These images show the campus and stadium of the University
of Wisconsin. Notice that the vegetation appears red in the colour infrared image and how the artificial turf in the stadium is green in both. (Source:
from Lillesand and Kiefer, 2000)
25.4.1 Photogrammetry different positions. This produces a phenomenon called
parallax, which refers to the apparent change in position
A common application of camera-based aerial imagery
of a stationary object when viewed from two different
and increasingly of satellite imagery is a process called
positions. To demonstrate, hold your thumb up in front
photogrammetry. The American Society for Photogram-
of you at arm’s length and look at it with one eye shut.
metry and Remote Sensing defines photogrammetry as
Now switch to the other eye and observe the change of
the recording, measurement and interpretation of both
position of your thumb relative to the background. The
photographic images and recorded radiant electromag-
magnitude of this change in position is dependent on
netic radiation and other phenomena (Wolf et al., 2014).
several factors including the distance between your eyes
However, the main application of photogrammetry is the
(i.e. between the points of observation), the distance
generation of digital elevation models (DEMs). A DEM is a
from your finger to your eyes and the distance from your
digital file that stores the three-dimensional (3D) coor-
finger to the background. Because of the parallax, the
dinates of an array of points that correspond to a real
position of any point that has been imaged in at least two
surface. They are often oriented in a regular grid so they
photographs from different points of observation can be
can be easily manipulated in standard image processing
determined if the position and orientation of the camera
packages where they can be useful for modelling Earth
(and thus the flying height and attitude of the aircraft)
surface processes that are dependent on topography such
are known (Wolf et al., 2014). Therefore, the goal of pho-
as erosion (Chapter 15). For example, Lane et al. (2003)
togrammetry is to reconstruct the exact geometry of the
applied digital photogrammetry to reconstruct water
film, camera (sensor), platform (usually an aircraft) and
levels of the November 2000 flood of the River Ouse in
ground at the time each photo was captured. The geomet-
the City of York, England. DEMs produced using pho-
rical relationship between these components is shown in
togrammetry can also be used to monitor and measure
Figure 25.15. Traditionally, this was accomplished using
environmental change. For example, James et al. (2012)
large, highly specialized instruments called stereoplot-
measured changes in the volume and extent of glacier ice
ters. However, now digital photogrammetry is the norm
in the Svalbard Archipelago over 40 years using archived
where the re-creation of these geometrical relationships is
aerial photographs and uncovered some alarming patterns
carried out entirely in a digital environment. Data of the
of change (Box 25.3).
camera and lens characteristics (e.g. distortions, fiducial
To derive 3D topographic coordinates from image data
marks and lens focal length), tie points that link over-
requires stereo imagery. Stereo images have been captured
lapping photographs together and ground control points
in overlapping pairs, strips or blocks (Kasser and Egels,
that link images to ground points with known X,Y,Z
2002), which allows a surface to be observed from two
coordinates, are used to produce a model of the system
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b´ a´ model, 3D topographic measurements can be made from
o´ Film
d´ the photographs.
c´
An important modern extension of photogrammetry
L Camera perspective centre for generating topographic data that is of particular rel-
evance to imagery collected from a UAV (Section 25.3.1)
d c
o Photograph is structure from motion (SfM) image processing. Like tradi-
a b
tional photogrammetry, SfM generates topographic data
from overlapping (stereo) imagery but their approaches
Optical are quite different. Traditional photogrammetry generates
axis
D C topography by recreating the geometry and position of
the camera using the measured input data and with the
parallax generates a surface model or DEM. In contrast,
P SfM uses the parallax from all the overlapping images to
Ground
estimate the position and orientation of the camera for
each image and to generate a point cloud of the arbitrary
B
A surface which is then translated into the desired coordinate
system using ground control points. This process requires
Figure 25.15 Geometrical relationship between the four imaging compo-
nents of photogrammetry: film, camera perspective centre, photograph
a large number of overlapping images. However, comput-
and ground. (Source: after Wolf, P.R. and Dewitt, B.A., Elements of Pho- ing has advanced sufficiently for SfM software to be run
togrammetry with Applications in GIS, 3rd edition, 2000, McGraw-Hill, on standard desktop workstation. Due to its flexibility and
Fig. 6.1, reproduced with permission of the McGraw-Hill Companies) limited need for user input it is increasingly becoming pre-
ferred over traditional photogrammetry and has essentially
enabled cost-effective DEM generation by organizations
geometry (Figure 25.15) at the time each photo was taken. who would not previously have had access to such tools.
This is accomplished using a process called a least-squares Box 25.1 undertook an example while Smith et al. (2015)
adjustment; a mathematical method for fitting a theoret- provide a useful review of progress in the field and Car-
ical model to data so as to minimize errors between the rivick et al. (2016) provide an excellent overview of recent
observed values and the model predicted values. With developments and other case studies of using SfM to study
a good fit of measured camera and ground data to the environmental change.
Using SfM data to estimate the glacier in arctic Sweden, high-resolution were used to better estimate the spatial
aerodynamic roughness of millimetre-scale accuracy topographic variability of aerodynamic roughness
data acquired from plot-scale Struc- across glacier ablation zones and better
glacier ice surfaces
ture-from-Motion surveys were used to represent this important parameter in
Aerodynamic roughness of ice influences estimate the aerodynamic roughness of glacier melt models (see Smith et al.,
turbulent fluxes of latent and sensible a variety of glacier ice surface types (e.g. 2016). Such high-resolution survey data
heat and contributes to ice melt volumes. superimposed ice, sun cups, supraglacial also allows small-scale melt patterns to
At Kårsaglaciären, a 1 km2 mountain channels and crevasses). These data be evaluated.
BOX 25.1 ➤
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25.5 Multispectral, thermal and hyperspectral sensors
Figure 25.16 SfM analysis on the ablation zone of Kårsaglaciären: (a) three-dimensional point cloud of the ablation zone; (b) example plot-scale
SfM survey (blue squares indicate photograph locations); (c) example of plot topographic data; (d) 3D distance between two identical plot sur-
veys taken three days apart showing substantial melting related to small scale roughness features. (Source: the materials in this box were kindly pro-
vided by Mark Smith, University of Leeds)
BOX 25.1
virtually a continuous spectrum between the visible and
Reflective questions thermal infrared regions of the spectrum. This provides
very high spectral resolution and therefore offers a very
➤ What are the advantages and disadvantages of the use of detailed spectral signature for surface materials in the
conventional film-based cameras and digital cameras for image. With hyperspectral imagery, surface objects can
remote sensing? be more accurately identified and characterized remotely.
➤ In addition to elevation, what other information about a These types of data have innumerable applications, such
surface can be derived from a DEM? as detecting changes in land use, water quality monitor-
ing and assessing vegetation health (Box 25.4). To show
that they are made up of hundreds of spectral bands,
hyperspectral images are often displayed graphically as
25.5 Multispectral, thermal and an image stack or image cube as shown in Figure 25.17.
hyperspectral sensors Thermal scanners measure radiation in the same way as
multispectral and hyperspectral scanners but target the
Using either whiskbroom or pushbroom mechanisms, thermal infrared band of the spectrum. All objects with
multispectral scanners produce digital images with more a temperature above 0 K (- 273.15 °C) emit thermal or
bands than is possible with camera-type sensing instru- radiant energy as a function of their internal temperatures.
ments. With technological advances, these instruments This energy can be measured, interpreted and analyzed
have given way to hyperspectral scanners, also called in the same way as in multispectral and hyperspectral
imaging spectrometers, which are similar in principle scanners. Some applications of thermal remote sensing
to multispectral scanners except that they can image are qualitative, thus requiring only interpretation of
with hundreds of bands, each of which is very nar- relative differences between surface objects. Other appli-
row (approximately 2 nm). This produces images over cations may require absolute temperature difference to
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be measured. To do so requires that the emissivity, which section introduces only a selection of key Earth observa-
is measured by the sensor, is converted to absolute tem- tion programmes and satellites. Owing to the fast pace of
peratures. Thermal remote sensing is useful for a variety change in this field, it is important to refer to the internet
of applications in physical geography including studying for up-to-date information, but Lillesand et al. (2015) is
ocean circulation patterns, geological structure, soil map- also a great place to start.
ping and for assessing volcanic activity. Figure 25.18 shows Regardless of the sensor, the application of multispec-
a comparison of the Chiliques Volcano in northern Chile tral data depends on many factors including time of day,
imaged in the visible and thermal wavelengths. specific bandwidths, imaging conditions (e.g. weather),
Multispectral, hyperspectral and thermal scanners are resolution and experience of the interpreter. However,
used on airborne platforms but on spaceborne platforms some general guidelines exist for interpreting the different
they have the most impact in monitoring environmen- bands of the spectrum which can be applied to any sensing
tal change. Remote sensing of the Earth from space has instrument. These are highlighted in Table 25.2.
undergone many developments since the days of the (a)
Mercury, Gemini and Apollo missions of the early 1960s.
Today, there are many satellite programmes in operation
that provide endless volumes of image and other data
about the Earth’s surface. A discussion of the wealth of
remote sensing data and their satellite platforms that are
now available would be a textbook in itself. Therefore, this
(b)
Figure 25.18 The Chiliques Volcano in northern Chile has been dormant
for the past 10 000 years and, as shown in this pair of images, is now
Figure 25.17 This image is an example of a hyperspectral image stack. coming back to life. These images were captured in 2002 by the Advanced
The instrument used to capture the data was the Airborne Visible/Infra- Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) and
red Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS), which collects data in 224 bands of show the volcano in the visible and near-infrared (left) and in the thermal
about 10 nm width between 0.40 and 2.45 mm. This particular image infrared (right). Note the hot spots around the volcano’s crater caused
was captured over Konza Prairie, Kansas, in late August. (Source: from by magma appearing just below the surface. (Source: images courtesy of
Lillesand and Kiefer, 2000) NASA/GSFC/MITS/ERSDAC/JAROS, and US/Japan ASTER Science Team)
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Table 25.2 Principal applications of bands commonly used in remote sensing
Spectral band Principal applications
Blue Good water penetration, so suitable for coastal mapping and bathymetry. Also useful for soil/vegetation/forest-type
discrimination, cultural feature identification. Sensitive to atmospheric haze
Green Has some ability to penetrate water but sensitive to turbidity. High reflectance from vegetation so useful for vegetation
discrimination and vigour assessment. Also cultural feature identification. Sensitive to atmospheric haze
Red High chlorophyll absorption in vegetation and high reflection in soils so good for differentiating between soil and vege-
tation. Also good for delineating snow cover and cultural features
Near-IR High reflection from vegetation and absorption in water. Best band for discriminating between vegetation types and
vigour. Good for delineating water bodies and soil moisture
Mid-IR In shorter wavelengths, good for vegetation and soil moisture content and for discriminating between snow and clouds.
In longer wavelengths, good for discriminating between mineral and rock types and also moisture content
Thermal Vegetation stress analysis, soil moisture and thermal mapping
(Sources: after Avery and Berlin, 1992; Lillesand et al., 2008)
25.5.1 Landsat that satellites pass over any given latitude at the same
local time each day. This ensures that the same solar
The Landsat programme, which has been generating data
illumination conditions prevail for each pass. The repeat
of the Earth’s surface since 1972, has provided the lon-
period, the time it takes for a satellite to revisit a point
gest satellite record of the Earth’s surface and has been
on the ground, is completed by each satellite every 16
of immense value to the human race. The programme has
days but they have been purposely offset to reduce this
recently become even more impactful with the release of
period to 8 days when there are two satellites in orbit.
the Landsat archive to the public. The characteristics of
Overall, seven sensor instruments have been used in these
each Landsat mission are summarized in Table 25.3.
missions: the Return Beam Vidicom (RBV), the Multi-
To maintain continuity, starting with Landsat 4, the
spectral Scanner (MSS), the Thematic Mapper (TM),
satellites have been launched into the same circular,
the Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM), the Enhanced
sun-synchronous, near-polar (98.2°) orbit at an altitude
Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+ ), the Operational Land
of 705 km with each satellite completing about 14.5
Imager (OLI) and the Thermal InfraRed Sensor (TIRS).
orbits per day. The use of Sun-synchronous orbits means
The instruments and number of bands used on each of
Table 25.3 Landsat mission characteristics
Satellite Launched Decommissioned RBV bands MSS bands TM bands OLI bands TIRS bands
1 23 July 1972 6 January 1978 1–3 4–7
2 22 January 1975 25 February 1982 1–3 4–7
a
3 5 March 1978 31 March 1983 A–D 4–8b
4 16 July 1982 15 June 2001c 4–7 1–7d
5 1 March 1984 5 June 2013 4–7 1–7
6 5 October 1993 Failed on launch ETM 1–7
7 15 April 1999 ETM+ 1–8
8 11 February 2013 1–9 10–11
a
Single-band panchromatic images from two cameras.
b
Band 8 failed after launch.
c
Science operations ended 14 December 1993.
d
TM data transmission failed in August 1993.
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Table 25.4 Sensors of the Landsat programme
Sensor Mission Sensitivity (mm) Resolution (m) Bit scale
RBV 1, 2 0.475–0.575 80 n/a
0.580–0.680 80
0.690–0.830 80
3 0.505–0.750 30
MSS 1–5 0.5–0.6 79/82* 6-bit
0.6–0.7 79/82*
0.7–0.8 79/82*
0.8–1.1 79/82*
3 10.4–12.6 240
ETM 6 TM bands 30 (120 in thermal)
0.52–0.90 15 (panchromatic)
ETM+ 7 TM bands 30 (60 in thermal)
0.52–0.90 15 (panchromatic)
OLI 8 0.433–0.453 30
0.450–0.515 30
0.525–0.600 30
0.630–0.680 30
0.845–0.885 30
1.560–1.660 30
2.100–2.300 30
0.500–0.680 15 (panchromatic)
1.360–1.390 30
TIRS 8 10.6–11.2 100
11.5–12.5 100
*79 m pixels for Landsat 1 to 3 and 82 m for Landsat 4 and 5.
(Source: from Lillesand et al., 2000)
the eight Landsat missions are summarized in Table 25.4 image cloud contamination and imaging coastal zones.
though only Landsat 7 and 8 are currently operational Unfortunately, on 31 May 2003 the ETM+ instrument’s
and thus only the ETM + , OLI and TIRS are provid- Scan Line Corrector (SLC) on Landsat 7, a pair of mirrors
ing data. Enhancements over the years have included that compensate for the forward motion of the satellite,
improvements to spatial resolution (80 m to 15 m), tem- failed. The failure means that all Landsat 7 data collected
poral resolution (18 versus 16 days to complete coverage) since has suffered some data loss resulting in a character-
and spectral resolution (4 to 11 bands). istic zigzag pattern, though the imagery is still useful and
While the RBV was an analogue camera, the MSS, TM thus the instrument continues to collect data.
and ETM+ sensors aboard Landsat 5 and 7 are based on A sample of five non-thermal Landsat bands is given
the whiskbroom scanner design and the OLI and TIRS on in Figure 25.19. A wealth of information is stored in these
Landsat 8 are pushbroom scanners. The ETM + scanner scenes and Landsat imagery has thus been used in innumera-
on Landsat 7 is based on the TM with an added 15 m pan- ble applications of physical geography and in detecting envi-
chromatic band and higher-resolution thermal band. The ronmental change, including studies of vegetation change,
OLI scanner, in addition to the same bands as the ETM+ , soil and coastal erosion, sediment and pollution movements
provides two new spectral bands designed for detecting in watercourses and glacial studies. It is important to keep
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25.5 Multispectral, thermal and hyperspectral sensors
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e)
Figure 25.19 This figure provides a sample of the five non-thermal Landsat TM bands,
each in 8-bit greyscale: (a) Band 1 (0.45–0.52 mm blue); (b) Band 2 (0.52–0.60 mm green);
(c) Band 3 (0.63–0.69 mm red); (d) Band 4 (0.76–0.90 mm near-infrared); and (e) Band 5
(1.55–1.75 mm mid-infrared). This Landsat 5 image was captured over the Bering Glacier,
Alaska, on 25 September 1986 at 11:03 local time. Notice the large difference in reflec-
tance between the vegetation along the bottom in the image and the glacier in Bands 4
and 5. North is up and the images are roughly 53 km across. (Source: NASA Landsat Pro-
gram, 11/08/1999, Landsat TM scene, p064r18_5t860925. Geocover Ortho, MDA Federal,
Rockville, 09/25/1986. Data courtesy of Global Land Cover Facility, www.landcover.org.
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in mind that despite their decommissioning, data from the at an altitude of 822 km and SPOT 6 and 7 at an altitude
old Landsat instruments represent an important source of of 694 km. Although the SPOT satellites take much longer
historical data, which is crucial for environmental change to cover the globe than Landsat (i.e. 26 days), the optical
research. More information about the remarkable Landsat devices on all but the first are pointable to permit off-ver-
programme is available online at http://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov. tical imaging. This decreases the 26 day repeat period to a
matter of days using more than one satellite.
Sensor systems also include vegetation monitoring
25.5.2 Spot
instruments that provide 1 km resolution multispectral
The SPOT programme, an acronym of Système Pour imagery and daily global coverage.
l’Observation de la Terre, was initiated by the French Gov- The imaging systems on the SPOT satellites provide
ernment in 1978 with early collaboration with Belgium a higher resolution panchromatic band, which is used to
and Sweden. The SPOT satellites, of which there have been pansharpen the lower resolution multispectral bands, which
seven, use the pushbroom sensor design. Their mission include green, red and near IR across all satellites. Only
characteristics are given in Table 25.5. As the goal of the SPOT 4 and 5 have a short wave IR band and a specialized
SPOT programme was long-term data continuity, the char- low-resolution vegetation sensor while only SPOT 6 and
acteristics of the first five satellites were very similar with 7 have included a blue band. Uniquely, SPOT 5–7 have a
a change of direction into SPOT 6 and 7 for flexibility high-resolution stereoscopic imaging instrument suitable
and higher resolution. The SPOT satellites are in circular, for satellite photogrammetry. The instrument characteris-
sun-synchronous, near-polar (98°) orbits with SPOT 1-5 tics for each satellite are summarized in Table 25.6.
Table 25.5 SPOT mission characteristics
SPOT satellite Launched Decommissioned Altitude (km) Pointable High-resolution stereoscopic
1 22 February 1986 31 December 1990 822 No No
2 22 January 1990 29 July 2009 822 Yes No
3 26 September 1993 14 November 1997 822 Yes No
4 24 March 1998 July 2013 822 Yes No
5 4 May 2002 Still operational 822 Yes Yes
6 12 September 2012 Still operational 694 Yes Yes
7 30 June 2014 Still operational 694 Yes Yes
Table 25.6 Spectral bands and resolution of the SPOT sensors
SPOT 1–3 (mm) (resolution, m) SPOT 4 (mm) (resolution, m) SPOT 5 (mm) (resolution, m) SPOT 6, 7 (mm) (resolution, m)
Panchromatic 0.51–0.73 (10) 0.61–0.68 (10) 0.48–0.71 (5) 0.450–0.745 (1.5)
Blue 0.450–0.520 (6)
Green 0.50–0.59 (20) 0.50–0.59 (20) 0.50–0.59 (10) 0.530–0.590 (6)
Red 0.61–0.68 (20) 0.61–0.68 (20) 0.61–0.68 (10) 0.625–0.695 (6)
Near IR 0.78–0.89 (20) 0.78–0.89 (20) 0.78–0.89 (10) 0.760–0.890 (6)
SWIR 1.58–1.75 (20) 1.58–1.75 (20)
Vegetation 0.45–0.52 0.45–0.52
0.61–0.68 0.61–0.68
0.78–0.89 0.78–0.89
1.58–1.75 1.58–1.75
(1000) (1000)
Bit scale 8-bit 8-bit 8-bit 12-bit
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Unlike the Landsat programme, as more of a commer- However, both satellites carry a suite of instruments
cial venture, SPOT data are not publically available which designed to complement each other and provide important
makes it less likely you will encounter them. Nonetheless, data for a number of interrelated scientific questions. Here
they are very important in research due to their compatible we focus on two sensors of the Terra/Aqua pair which are
resolution for environmental applications and high cover- commonly used in environmental monitoring: the Moder-
age rates. For more detailed information about the SPOT ate Resolution Imaging Spectro-radiometer (MODIS) and
instruments, visit the SPOT technical information link at the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflec-
www.spotimage.com. tion Radiometer (ASTER). For more information about
the suite of other EOS satellites and sensors refer to the
NASA EOS website (http://eospso.gsfc.nasa.gov/).
25.5.3 NASA’s Earth Observing System Program
The MODIS instrument (http://modis.gsfc.nasa.gov/),
NASA’s Earth Observing System (EOS) is a programme which is mounted on both the Terra and Aqua satellites,
of coordinated polar-orbiting satellites aimed at providing is a 36-band imaging sensor with a resolution between 250
long-term global observations of the land surface, bio- and 1000 m depending on wavelength. Like all EOS instru-
sphere, solid Earth, atmosphere and oceans. The goal of ments, it is designed for long-term, continuous monitoring
EOS is to improve our understanding of the Earth–Sun of the Earth’s surface for detecting even subtle changes in
system and its response to natural and human-induced land, ocean and atmospheric processes simultaneously. Its
changes. The programme is immense and currently has ‘moderate’ resolution imagery can cover the globe in mul-
some 19 satellites in orbit (Figure 25.20). The first two sat- tispectral imagery every two days. Each of the 36 bands
ellites of the EOS programme are still relevant to the mon- was chosen for specific applications which, along with
itoring of environmental change today. The Terra satellite, their spatial resolution, are given in Table 25.7. Because
launched on 18 December 1999, was designed to monitor of its resolution, MODIS is most suitable for macroscale
the state of the Earth’s environment, how it is changing applications such as the measurement of sea surface tem-
and to determine the consequences of these changes on peratures, monitoring drought and mapping deforestation
life. It was followed by the Aqua satellite, which was in the Amazon or Indonesia. An interesting characteristic
launched on 4 May 2002. As the name might suggest, the of the MODIS product is that its true- and false-colour
Aqua satellite’s primary focus is the Earth’s water cycle. imagery have been made publically available online via
Figure 25.20 Constellation of recently operational NASA Earth Observing System satellites as of mid-2016. (Source: image courtesy NASA,
eospso.nasa.gov)
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Table 25.7 Primary uses and resolution of MODIS spectral bands Unlike the MODIS sensor, the ASTER instrument is
only mounted on the Terra satellite and, as a much high-
Primary use Band Resolution (m)
er-resolution sensor, has been described as a zoom lens for
MODIS. It also differs from MODIS in that the ASTER
Land/cloud/aerosols 1–2 250 instrument is made up of three separate systems that oper-
boundaries ate in different spectral bands: Visible and Near Infrared
Land/cloud/aerosols 3–7 500 (VNIR), Short Wave Infrared (SWIR) and Thermal Infra-
properties red (TIR). Their channels and bandwidths are given in
Ocean colour/phytoplankton/ 8–16 1000 Table 25.8. Uniquely, the VNIR measures its three spectral
biogeochemistry
bands using two telescopes, one looking down (nadir-
Atmospheric water vapour 17–19 1000 looking) and the other looking behind the sensor at an
Surface/cloud temperature 20–23 1000 angle of 27.7° off-vertical. As discussed in Section 25.4.1,
Atmospheric temperature 24, 25 1000 this has the benefit of providing stereo imagery for the
Cirrus clouds water vapour 26–28 1000 generation of 3D topographic data. The globe is covered
by the VNIR system every four days whereas the repeat
Cloud properties 29 1000
period for coverage in all 14 ASTER bands is 16 days. The
Ozone 30 1000
relatively high resolution and stereo abilities of the ASTER
Surface/cloud temperature 31, 32 1000 imagery make it ideal for monitoring changes in glacier
Cloud top altitude 33–36 1000 elevation (Howat et al., 2008). The higher resolution also
makes these data valuable for studying surface processes
and phenomena that have high spatial variability like
the Rapid Response System (http://rapidfire.sci.gsfc.nasa.
mineral mapping and tracking changes in land cover and
gov) in almost real time. The NASA MODIS page provides
land use. The NASA ASTER web pages provide more
more information details about the MODIS sensor as well
detail about the ASTER sensor and give many examples of
as some stunning examples of MODIS imagery and other
interesting applications (http://asterweb.jpl.nasa.gov).
data products (http://modis.gsfc.nasa.gov).
Table 25.8 ASTER sub-instruments and their spectral bands (see Table 25.2 for typical applications)
Sub-instrument Band Bandwidth (mm) Resolution (m)
VNIR 1 (green/yellow) 0.52–0.60 15
VNIR 2 (red) 0.63–0.69 15
VNIR 3 (red/infrared) 0.76–0.86 15
VNIR 3 (red/IR) 0.76–0.86 15
(backward-looking)
SWIR 4 (Shortwave IR) 1.600–1700 30
SWIR 5 (Shortwave IR) 2.145–2.185 30
SWIR 6 (Shortwave IR) 2.185–2.225 30
SWIR 7 (Shortwave IR) 2.235–2.285 30
SWIR 8 (Shortwave IR) 2.295–2.365 30
SWIR 9 (Shortwave IR) 2.360–2.430 30
TIR 10 (Thermal IR) 8.125–8.475 90
TIR 11 (Thermal IR) 8.475–8.825 90
TIR 12 (Thermal IR) 8.925–9.275 90
TIR 13 (Thermal IR) 10.25–10.95 90
TIR 14 (Thermal IR) 10.95–11.62 90
(Source: from http://asterweb.jpl.nasa.gov/characteristics.asp, NASA)
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It is not always the Earth’s surface that is of interest in in late 1999. This system was the first to offer sub-1 m reso-
environmental change monitoring. Examples from NASA’s lution imagery (0.8 m panchromatic, 3.2 m multi-spectral)
EOS program are the Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2 to the public though high-resolution imagery and had no
(OCO-2) and the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experi- doubt been available to the military prior to that. How-
ment (GRACE). The OCO-2 was launched on 2 July 2014 ever, before June 2014, companies were not licensed to sell
and is uniquely dedicated to measuring atmospheric car- ultra-high-resolution imagery (<50 cm) commercially. Since
bon dioxide (CO2) from space. Its aim is to collect global then, DigitalGlobe have launched a number of satellites for
measurements of atmospheric CO2 in order to charac- acquiring ultra-high-resolution imagery of the Earth’s sur-
terize fluxes on regional scales. OCO-2 will also be able face. Their most recent, WorldView-3 has a maximum reso-
to quantify CO2 variability over the seasonal cycles year lution of 0.31 m panchromatic and 1.24 m multispectral.
after year. This mission, which will help develop the space- While high-resolution satellite imagery would enable
based measurement of atmospheric gases, is of particular us to monitor the Earth’s surface in exceptional detail,
importance given the key role of CO2 in climate change. the cost of doing so tends to prohibit their use. This cost
The GRACE satellites were launched in March 2002 issue coupled with the availability of airborne technology,
and have been mapping Earth’s gravity field to detect including UAV platforms, means high-resolution satellite
changes over time. While it may surprise you that gravity imagery is not extensively used in monitoring environmen-
on Earth changes over space as well as time, these varia- tal change. Its use for meso- and macroscale applications
tions are relatively small and not noticeable to us on the is also impractical. Imagine looking at the 1.7 million km2
ground. The GRACE mission consists of two identical Greenland ice sheet in 1 m resolution imagery!
satellites in a near polar orbit at an altitude of 500 km
and 220 km apart. Each satellite is equipped with a GPS
and a microwave ranging system that accurately provide
the positions and separation distance, respectively. As the Reflective questions
first satellite moves over a region of higher mass, like a
mountain range, the satellite accelerates away from the ➤ What do you think is the value of making the Landsat
trailing satellite due to the stronger pull of gravity in that image archive publically available?
area. As the trailing satellite passes over the same area, ➤ What are the likely advantages and disadvantages of high
it too will accelerate and catch up to its original position spectral resolution instruments over lower spectral reso-
relative to the first. In contrast, as the first satellite moves lution instruments?
over a region of lower mass, the satellite will decelerate,
decreasing the separation between the two satellites and ➤ How do sensor mechanics affect the output image?
so on. By recording these changes in the relative position ➤ Compare the ASTER sensor bands to those of MODIS
of the satellites over the Earth’s surface and through time, (Table 25.7). Can you see how the two instruments might
GRACE provides an unprecedented means for efficiently complement each other?
and accurately mapping the Earth gravitational field.
The applications of GRACE are numerous and of cru-
cial importance for a number of important questions that
currently face humankind. Since the GRACE satellites are
25.6 Microwave and ranging sensors
essentially weighing the Earth below them with a great
In this section we investigate the sensors of the microwave
deal of sensitivity, they can detect changes in large ocean
wavelengths as well as the ranging sensors including sonar
currents, snow-cover after a large storm, ground water
and laser altimetry. Although the ranging sensors use
storage (e.g. California drought and monsoons) and the
vastly different sources of illumination, they have many
mass of the world’s ice sheets in a changing climate (see
operational similarities and therefore it is appropriate to
Box 23.1 in Chapter 23).
discuss them here.
25.5.4 High-resolution sensors 25.6.1 Microwave sensors
At the turn of the twenty-first century, the age of commer- The microwave portion of the electromagnetic spec-
cial high-resolution satellites began with the launch of the trum can be found between the wavelengths of 0.001
IKONOS satellite by the US-based company DigitalGlobe and 1 m. Radiation in this portion of the spectrum is
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more commonly characterized in terms of its frequency that is aimed at the surface of interest and any returned
(3.0 * 105 to 3 * 109 Hz). Microwave remote sensing has energy, called the echo or backscatter, is measured by an
two important advantages. First, it is well suited for pene- antenna. Two common non-imaging radar systems are
trating through the atmosphere in conditions that typically Doppler radar and the plan position indicator (PPI). Dop-
interfere with other wavelengths, such as cloud, dust, rain, pler radar is used to measure the velocity of remote objects
snow and smoke. Second, the interaction of microwaves such as cars. PPI is used to plot the planimetric position of
with surfaces tends to be quite different from those of large objects such as aircraft around an airport or ships at
other common wavelengths such as the visible and infrared sea. It involves the use of a rotating antenna that continu-
bands. This provides researchers with unique insights into ously updates measured positions of objects on a circular
the surfaces under investigation. screen.
There are two main types of remote sensing instru- Imaging radar systems were developed after the Second
ments that operate in the microwave portion of the electro- World War and were based on PPI technology primarily
magnetic spectrum. The first is a passive instrument and is for peering over enemy lines. Radar systems were mounted
called a microwave radiometer. The second, a more widely in aircraft to look sideways deep into enemy territory
used instrument, is an active microwave sensor called while flying safely in friendly skies. This technology was
radar. Remember that, unlike an active sensor, a passive called side-looking radar (SLR) or side-looking airborne
sensor does not provide its own source of radiation. Thus, radar (SLAR) for airborne systems. Like the Doppler and
microwave radiometers detect only the very low levels of PPI radar, the instrument sends out a short, high-energy
naturally occurring microwave radiation that are emitted pulse as shown in Figure 25.21. The energy from this pulse
from all objects on the Earth’s surface. Because all objects reaches the ground and reflects off the surfaces it encoun-
emit these microwave signals, the interpretation of passive ters (buildings, trees, soil and so on). The first object the
microwave data can be very difficult since the signal for pulse encounters will produce a return signal that will be
any given point is the sum of four component sources of the first to reach the antenna. The travel time of this return
radiation: (i) emitted radiation from the object of interest; is recorded. All subsequent objects that the pulse encoun-
(ii) emitted radiation from the atmosphere; (iii) reflected ters will produce returns that will be detected by the
radiation from another source such as the Sun; and (iv) antenna. Since the pulse travels at the speed of light, c, and
transmitted energy from the subsurface. Thus, the applica- the travel time is known (t), the distance (d) of the return
tions of passive systems are somewhat limited. producing objects from the aircraft is given by:
Radar, however, is very widely used and has many
ct
applications. It is an acronym of radio detection and rang- (25.2) d =
2
ing, although microwaves are now used in place of radio
As the aircraft moves forward a series of pulse returns
waves. As an active sensor, it generates a microwave pulse
can be combined to form an image. The tone of a point
Tree
Signal strength
Antenna mounted House
in aircraft
Depression angle
0 Time
Look Pulse
Flying
angle length
height
Range
direction
Beamwidth
Azimuth
Resolution
direction
cell
Direction
of flight
Figure 25.21 Operation of a side-looking radar system. Inset shows a profile of the current image line.
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25.6 Microwave and ranging sensors
in a radar-generated image measures the intensity of the
backscatter from that point.
The resolution of an SLR image is determined by sev-
eral factors. One is the length of the pulse and the other
is the beamwidth (Figure 25.21). Two ways to improve the
resolution of the system are to use shorter pulses and
narrower beamwidths. Shorter pulses can be achieved by
shortening the time the instrument emits the outgoing sig-
nal. Instruments can control beamwidths either by increas-
ing the physical length of the antenna or by simulating a
longer antenna length. The former are called brute force or
real aperture systems. Those that simulate antenna length
are called synthetic aperture radar (SAR). Thus, SAR
systems enable the use of very narrow beamwidths with-
out the physical requirements of a long antenna. These
instruments represent one of the most important sources
of remote sensing data in the microwave portion of the
spectrum and you will encounter them often.
Overall, the reflection characteristics of the radar
pulse can be attributed to a surface’s geometric properties
such as surface roughness and orientation, and electrical
properties, which are largely influenced by the presence of
water. Much can be learned about a surface from the radar
return and, although these interactions are complex, they
are an important tool in a wide variety of applications
such as geological mapping, discriminating among vegeta-
tion types and sea ice and glacier studies.
Radar sensors are ideally suited for use on satellite plat-
forms. As they are unaffected by clouds and do not require
sunlight, they can provide imagery of the Earth’s surface
with far greater regularity than optical instruments. As
such, radar instruments have been in use on satellite plat-
forms since the late 1970s and there are now a number in
orbit. The European Space Agency’s ERS-2 satellite has
been in operation since its launch in April 1995, despite
Figure 25.22 The radar image shown here shows Monacobreen (the
having a projected service life of only 3 years. An example Monaco Glacier) and surrounding mountains in north-west Svalbard, Nor-
of a radar image is given in Figure 25.22 which was used for way. This image was captured in June 1995 by the ESA’s Earth Resources
studying the Monaco Glacier in Svalbard, Norway (Murray Satellite (ERS-2). Notice the distortion in the mountain peaks due to
et al., 2003). ENVISAT, a European follow-on mission to the look angle of the radar instrument. North is up and the image is
roughly 23 km across. (Source: image courtesy of Tavi Murray and Adrian
the ERS programme, was launched in early 2002. Data col- Luckman)
lected using instruments aboard ENVISAT on atmospheric
aerosols are discussed in Box 25.2. In late 1995 the Cana- There are many such radar instruments in orbit and
dian Space Agency launched its first remote sensing satellite new developments are always being announced. How-
RADARSAT-1, which is still in operation after an expected ever, one more important example for demonstrating the
life span of 5 years. The RADARSAT-2 follow-on mission breadth of applications of these instruments (and their
was launched in December 2007. However, the newest trend fragility) is the Soil Moisture Active and Passive (SMAP)
in radar remote sensing is the development of high-resolu- observatory satellite, which was launched on 31 January
tion sensors, such as the German TerraSAR-X, which offers 2015. As the name suggests, SMAP consists of both an
imagery up to 1 m resolution, and TanDEM-X , which can active and passive sensor. The active radar provides key
provide high-resolution DEMs of up to 2 m resolution.
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information about the level of moisture in the soil. The soil particles (i.e. mineral and organic matter) in the
passive sensor is a radiometer measuring the tempera- top 5 cm of the Earth’s surface from an orbit of 685 km
ture of the ground at that location. The two instruments (see Box 18.2 in Chapter 2). However, misfortune struck
share a large umbrella-like antenna that measures 6 m in in August 2015, only six months after launch, when the
diameter and spins 14.6 times a minute. SMAP’s key func- satellite’s radar stopped transmitting data due to a signal
tion was to measure the amount of liquid water between amplifier failure.
Improving our understand- Unfortunately atmospheric aerosols knowledge of how surface reflectance
ing of the earth system and are difficult to measure. Unlike green- changes with view angle at different
house gases, which are distributed fairly wavelengths, it is possible to separate
climate change: measuring
evenly around the globe and can remain scattering from these two sources and
aerosol concentrations from
in the atmosphere for up to 100 years, infer from the atmospheric component
space aerosols are very heterogeneous in their the nature and concentration of aero-
Aerosols, either natural or anthropo- spatial and temporal distribution. The sols. With a spatial resolution of only
genic, are fine particles suspended in the Advance Along-Track Scanning Radiome- 1 km * 1 km the AATSR sensor enables
atmosphere (see Chapter 6). They play an ter (AATSR) aboard the European Space the measurement of aerosol concentra-
important role in the Earth’s energy bal- Agency’s (ESA) ENVISAT satellite was tions across the globe.
ance and thus in how our climate changes originally designed for measuring surface Figure 25.23 shows maps of global
over time. Generally, aerosols are thought temperatures of the world’s oceans but June/July/August and September/
to exert a cooling effect on the Earth’s has also been utilized to measure aero- October/November concentrations of
climate. However, the precise role of aero- sols (Bevan et al., 2012). When a satellite aerosols derived using the AATSR sen-
sols in the Earth’s climate system is not looks down at the Earth it ‘sees’ scattered sor. The sensor can also differentiate
well understood and therefore they are a radiation from the atmosphere as well between fine and course aerosols, which
significant source of uncertainty for scien- as the Earth’s surface. Since this sensor is indicative of the aerosol’s source.
tists making future predictions of climate is able look in both the nadir (down) and Typically, fine aerosols tend to come
change. forward directions and since we have from anthropogenic sources like smoke
(a)
BOX 25.2 ➤
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25.6 Microwave and ranging sensors
➤
(b)
Figure 25.23 Global 2005 seasonal fine and course aerosol concentrations for: (a) June/July/August; and (b) September/October/November.
Red and blue indicate coarse and fine aerosol concentration, respectively. Concentration increases with colour intensity and is on a relative
scale. (Source: after Bevan et al., 2011)
and industrial pollution whereas coarse industrial pollution and over Alaska from the rainforests in South America become
particles tend to be of natural origin like the forest fire season of the northern prominent. The most striking feature in
dust and ocean salt. In Figure 25.23a, hemisphere summer. In Figure 25.23b, both seasons is the high concentration
high concentrations of fine aerosols as the southern hemisphere summer of coarse aerosols associated with the
are seen over China and India due to approaches, aerosols from the burning of Sahara and Arabian Deserts.
BOX 25.2
25.6.1.1 Terrestrial and ground penetrating radar explore, characterize and monitor subsurface structures. It
can be operated on the ground by hand or in some types of
Radar sensors also have an important role to play on the vehicle, carried by an aircraft or helicopter and even from
ground. Terrestrial radar interferometers are mounted on a satellite. Operating in the same way as the radar systems
tripods and pointed towards the horizontal compared to described above, a microwave pulse is generated and directed
their satellite counterparts. Their purpose is to measure into the subsurface. Structures in the subsurface cause some
surface topography changes and movement over time of the waves of energy to be reflected back to the instru-
which are indicative of surface processes. This approach ment’s receiving antenna as echo or backscatter where they
allows quick monitoring of distant, unstable features like are detected and recorded. Figure 25.24 gives an example of
potential landslides or avalanches as well as calving glacier the resulting image from a peat bog in northern England.
margins without interruption by poor visibility or having Peat depths across the survey catchment could easily be
to get too close. Caduff et al. (2015) provide a thorough measured, producing a continuous profile supporting carbon
review of this exciting emerging application of radar store calculations (Holden et al., 2002). This is advantageous
sensors. over the traditional point data that would have been pro-
Another use of radar technology, which has many envi- duced with rods or by coring (Parry et al., 2014).
ronmental uses, is ground penetrating radar (GPR). It is
a technology that has been used since the 1920s when it
was first applied to a glacier in Austria (Stern, 1929, 1930).
25.6.2 Ranging sensors
Unfortunately, the method was virtually forgotten until the
late 1950s. Since then, GPR has become an invaluable tool The sensors described in this section are used primarily for
for a whole host of applications including locating buried measuring distances and topography. While some do not
objects, delineating stratigraphy and the internal structures make use of microwave radiation, ranging instruments are
of glaciers, bedrock, concrete and sediment. GPR is used to operationally similar to radar and thus are discussed here.
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Distance (m)
0 25 50 75 100
Peat
Depth (m)
Stratigraphic layering Substrate reflector N
Figure 25.24 A GPR radargram from a peatland survey in the North Pennines, England. The image clearly shows the peat depth and some of the layers
within the peat, and how it changes across the transect. The ‘substrate reflector’ is the bedrock below the peat.
out fan-shaped acoustical pulses perpendicular to the
Reflective questions direction of travel. Upon receiving and recording the echo
from surface features, a sonograph is produced. The topo-
➤ What are the advantages of microwave remote sensing graphic features on the sea floor, for example, must be
over optical sensing? thought of as reflectors in the same way features are with
➤ Can you identify the different types of surfaces in Figure
microwave energy (Avery and Berlin, 1992). Features that
25.21?
face the transducers will be better reflectors than those
that face away from the transducers. Furthermore, smooth
surfaces (e.g. sand and mud) will tend to act as specular
25.6.2.1 Sonar reflectors of acoustic energy and thus will return no signal.
Alternatively, rough surfaces such as gravel and boulders
Although sonar employs a very different type of energy will reflect much of the energy back to the sensor. The
to ‘illuminate’ a surface, there are similarities to radar. main application of sonar in physical geography is the
Sonar is an acronym of sound navigation and ranging mapping of the ocean sediments, river and lake beds and
and is a form of active remote sensing that uses sound the ocean floor topography.
waves or acoustic energy propagated through water to
detect objects and surfaces. There are two groups of sonar Survey ship
systems. The first are non-imaging systems used to mea-
sure water depths and include echo-sounding profilers or
bathymetric sonar (for measuring underwater topogra-
phy). The second produce images or sonographs and are Towfish
called side-scan imaging sonar.
Figure 25.25 illustrates how a sonar system is deployed.
A torpedo-like vessel called a towfish is towed at a known
depth behind a survey ship joined by a cable. Within this
cable is the link between the recording instruments on
board the ship and the sending and receiving instruments
(called transducers) in the towfish. The transducers send Figure 25.25 Operation of a sonar instrument. (Source: after Avery and
Berlin, 1992)
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25.6 Microwave and ranging sensors
25.6.2.2 Laser altimetry and terrestrial laser scanning scanning systems rival and often exceed the performance
and efficiency of digital photogrammetric systems in pro-
The use of lasers for electronic distance measurement ducing DEMs.
has been around since the 1970s but only when they were A modern system requires three components as illus-
hoisted into an aircraft and pointed at the ground was trated in Figure 25.26. The first is the laser scanner to
the term lidar coined for this application of airborne laser determine the distance and direction of each measured
altimetry. Also called laser scanning, lidar is an acronym point from the platform. The second is a GPS (Section
of light detection and ranging. Instead of using micro- 25.2.2) which is used to determine the position of the air-
waves or acoustical energy to ‘illuminate’ a subject, lidar craft. Differential GPS is required for the highest quality
employs a highly focused beam of light we know as a position data for the fast-moving aircraft. The third com-
laser. The primary function of lidar is to produce DEMs. ponent is an inertial navigation system (INS), which mea-
A lidar instrument measures the time it takes for a laser sures any rotation of the aircraft. With these three systems
pulse to travel from the scanner to the surface and back operating in synchronization with each other, a very accu-
to the scanner. If the direction, velocity and travel time of rate 3D position of a point on the ground can be achieved.
the laser pulse are known, the distance and position of the Modern instruments also record the strength or intensity
surface point relative to the platform (e.g. aircraft or heli- of each laser return signal. The strength of the return is
copter) can be determined. However, in order to turn this heavily dependent on surface characteristics in the same
relative position into absolute coordinates, the exact posi- way the strength of reflected light is heavily dependent on
tion and attitude of the platform must be precisely known the surface from which it was reflected. Therefore, this
at a frequency that matches that of point measurement intensity can be used in the form of an image, like a pho-
(approximately 15 000 pulses s - 1). Until very recently tograph, to assist in the interpretation for the lidar data.
this locating technology was not available but today laser This is demonstrated in Box 25.3.
GPS GPS
Z
satellite
Y
Position of point P determined by:
GPS from position of aircraft
INS from attitude of aircraft
Laser range from aircraft to point P INS
Laser
ranging
Z
GPS base station
P Y
Figure 25.26 Operation of a lidar system. The combination of an accurate differential GPS position of the platform/instrument, an INS measurement of
the attitude of the platform/instrument (rotation on X, Y and Z axes) and the laser range gives an accurate position in X, Y and Z of point P.
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Chapter 25 Monitoring environmental change
One of the great benefits of lidar systems is their ground surface are called digital terrain models (DTMs).
ability to record multiple returns for the same point. As Lidar segmentation, the process by which lidar points
the laser beam travels towards the surface, it experiences (often called hits) that represent non-surface objects are
some divergence such that it produces a footprint on the separated from hits which represent the surface, is one of
ground whose diameter (usually around 25 cm) is depen- the principal challenges of laser altimetry. For example,
dent on the height of the aircraft. The first object within lidar data used in mass balance modelling (Box 25.3) and
this footprint that the beam encounters will produce a coastal management must only model points that repre-
return. Likewise, all objects within this footprint that the sent the ground surface whereas land-use and vegetation
beam subsequently encounters will produce a return. Ide- mapping may require that all surface features are mod-
ally, the first return will represent the top of a vegetation elled. Compare this to a more complex scenario such as
canopy and the last return will represent the ground. This floodplain mapping for flood management which requires
enables the modelling of canopy heights while at the same the modelling of the ground surface but also of any
time offering an accurate representation of the surface. surface feature that would act as a barrier to slow flood
However, sufficiently dense vegetation and solid objects waters (i.e. walls and hedges but not buildings or trees).
such as buildings do present a problem for accurate With lidar becoming increasingly important for monitor-
representation of the ground surface. Thus, sometimes ing environmental change, the lidar segmentation issue
DEMs that include non-surface objects are called digital has become an important area of research (Sithole and
surface models (DSMs) and those representing only the Vosselman, 2006).
Aerial photography and lidar tend to be very remote. Unfortunately, it ice in the heavily glaciated Arctic archi-
for measuring changes in is at these high latitudes where climate pelago of Svalbard, which lies about 700
change is expected to have the greatest km off the north coast of Norway and
glacier geometry, extent and
impact and where long-term mass balance about 1100 km south of the North Pole.
mass balance In Svalbard,
measurements are needed most. Old aerial photographs were taken back in
Norway There are several challenges to mea- the summers of 1966 and 1990 and were
Mountain glaciers constitute only about 3% suring glacier mass balance: retrieved from archives for this study. The
lidar data were collected in summer 2005
of the glacierized area on Earth. However, • Glaciers are usually found in remote
under current climate change predictions, by the Airborne Remote Survey Facility
locations.
they are expected to contribute signifi- (ARSF) of the UK’s Natural Environment
cantly to sea-level rise because of their
• They are often associated with Research Council (NERC). The tools of
extreme topography. photogrammetry were used to produce
heightened sensitivity to climate change
(Vaughan et al., 2013). Unfortunately, esti- • They can be very large, which makes it DEMs from the historical photographs
mates of the contribution of these glaciers difficult to ensure that a small number and compared to the contemporary lidar
to future sea-level rise are uncertain owing of measurements are representative DEM. Figure 25.27 shows a photograph
largely to the global shortage of long-term of the whole glacier. taken of Midtre Lovénbreen from the
glacier mass balance observations. Glacier NERC aircraft with a handheld digital
Airborne remote sensing methods
mass balance is an important measure camera. The corresponding lidar data in
such as photogrammetry and lidar can
of the response of a glacier to changes Figure 25.28 is presented with a similar
provide an ideal solution to these chal-
in climate variables, especially summer perspective to the photograph in Figure
lenges and, as a result, have become
temperatures and winter precipitation (see 25.27 for ease of interpretation. Com-
important tools for measuring glacier
Chapter 23). Of more than 160 000 gla- pare the lidar DEM with the photograph
mass balance.
ciers worldwide only about 40 have mass to appreciate even in this small image
The figures in this box are from a study
balance records of more than 20 years. In the incredible surface detail that the
where historical aerial photographs and
the high latitudes mass balance records are lidar DEM has captured. The left panel
a lidar DEM were used for measuring
even worse because glaciers in these areas of Figure 25.29 provides glacier outlines
changes in the extent and elevation of
BOX 25.3 ➤
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25.6 Microwave and ranging sensors
➤
overlaying the shaded-relief lidar DEM thinning occurs towards the glacier ter- decreases to 0 m in the accumulation
showing marked retreat and the right minus with more than 60 m of elevation zone with a small amount of thickening in
panel gives ice elevation changes over loss over the 39 year period with shrink- places. More details of this study can be
the study period. As expected, greatest ing rates accelerating through time. This found in James et al. (2012).
Figure 25.29 Results showing the change in the extent and ice elevation
at Midtre Lovénbreen. The left panel shows glacier outlines overlaying
Figure 25.27 Handheld digital photograph of the Svalbard glacier
the shaded-relief lidar DEM. The right panel gives ice elevation changes
Midtre Lovénbreen looking south from an aircraft. The glacier is about over the study period. Grid coordinates are in meters (UTM Zone 33x).
4 km long and 1 km wide. (Source: modified from James et al., 2012, by taking the lower panel from
Figure 2, page 1374 under license CC BY 3.0)
(b)
(a)
Figure 25.28 Lidar data from Midtre Lovénbreen: (a) 2005 lidar DEM with intensity overlay; (b) a close up of the right-hand part of the DEM
showing the raw point cloud.
BOX 25.3
In addition to airborne deployment, laser altimeters total instrument failure in October 2009, ICESat proved
can be deployed on spaceborne platforms. This was invaluable especially for the monitoring of the ice sheets
exactly the intention of NASA’s ICESat (Ice, Cloud of Antarctica and Greenland. Plans are well underway
and land Elevation Satellite) (https://icesat.gsfc.nasa for ICESat-2 with launch expected in 2017. It will be
.gov); part of the Earth Observation Program that was equipped with the Advanced Topographic Laser Altim-
launched in January 2003. Despite instrument prob- eter System (ATLAS); a green laser altimeter that will
lems throughout which forced limited usage time, and make 10 000 elevation measurements a second!
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Chapter 25 Monitoring environmental change
Similarly, a laser altimeter can be deployed terrestri- 25.7 Digital image processing
ally by essentially flipping an eye-safe version of a lidar
instrument on its side. These instruments, called terres- Regardless of the source of remotely sensed data, pho-
trial laser scanners (TLS), are remarkable and while still tographs and images are rarely in a state suitable for
expensive with high power demands, they are witnessing immediate analysis. Most often, owing to radiometric or
an insurgence of use in environmental monitoring where geometric errors, images require some form of manipula-
high precision is required (one is shown in the background tion or interpretation before they are ready for analysis. The
behind the UAV in Figure 25.4b). Though the technology is manipulation and interpretation of digital images is called
further along than terrestrial radar systems, their applica- digital image processing. There are many procedures in dig-
tions are similar. They have proved valuable in monitoring ital image processing that are frequently used for detecting
coastal erosion, undertaking forest inventories and evaluat- environmental change. Important procedures include image
ing landslides and other debris flows. The instruments can rectification, image enhancement and image classification.
measure a dense point cloud of positional information and
provide an image of laser return intensity in the same way
25.7.1 Digital images
as a lidar instrument but they are less costly to purchase
and deploy and can be operated with little training. Unlike Recall from above that digital images are made up of a 2D
their radar equivalent, these systems are not immune to array of DNs that often represent the brightness of the
poor visibility. Nonetheless, as costs decrease and bat- corresponding area on the surface or an elevation value,
tery technology improves, these instruments will become for example. In addition, pixels and an image as a whole
increasingly popular in the same manner as UAVs. can also be assigned information about its position in a
coordinate system. In the simplest case, pixel space coor-
dinates are used where the top left corner is defined as the
origin (0, 0). To link an image to an absolute coordinate
Reflective questions
system (called georeferencing), a pixel can be assigned an x
➤ When collecting lidar data, if any of the three instruments and y coordinate that corresponds to some ground refer-
(scanner, GPS and INS) are in error or out of synchroniza- ence system (e.g. latitude/longitude).
tion, are the resulting lidar measurements reliable and why? Another important feature of digital images is that
their DNs can be expressed in terms of a histogram and
➤ What would be a main limitation of using power hun-
summarized using statistics. Figure 25.30 provides a his-
gry systems like a terrestrial radar and TLS in a remote
togram of the greyscale range of DN values for an image.
location?
Images can be subjected to a variety of processes based on
the manipulation of their DNs and histograms which are
discussed below.
3500 Figure 25.30 Histogram and
descriptive statistics of an image.
3000
Mean 145.2
Min 13
2500
Max 240
Std. dev . 42.7
2000
Frequency
1500
1000
500
0
40
80
50
60
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
20
0
10
30
70
Bin (DN)
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25.7 Digital image processing
25.7.2 Image rectification that scene. The three most common adjustments are: noise
removal, Sun-angle and haze correction.
The purpose of image rectification is to attempt to com-
Noise removal is necessary when electronic noise is
pensate for any image distortions or degradations that
recorded in an image that is unrelated to the radiance of
may have resulted from the image acquisition process. The
the scene. It appears either as random or periodic errors
potential sources of such artefacts are many, as are the pro-
found throughout the image. In many cases, these errors
cedures for their correction. Image rectification processes
are caused by the malfunction of the sensing instrument.
are divided into two types: geometric and radiometric.
The errors can be removed by interpolating new DN values
When an image requires geometric correction, inconsis-
from unaffected pixels around the errors. The effect of a
tencies in the relationship between the sensor and the surface
noise removal routine can be seen in Figure 25.31.
have occurred during data collection. These inconsistencies
depend greatly on the sensor used but in (a)
general they can be caused by changes in the
sensor’s altitude, attitude or velocity, changes
in the surface such as the rotation and cur-
vature of the Earth, and effects of the atmo-
sphere. Some of these errors are predictable
(e.g. Earth’s rotation and curvature) and can
be modelled mathematically to remove their
effects. These are called systematic errors.
Other errors that are unpredictable cannot
be modelled mathematically. These are called
random errors. To minimize for the effects of
errors, ground control points (GCPs), like
those discussed in Section 25.4.1, are used
to tie the imagery to known points on the
ground. The location of many GCPs in the
distorted images is measured. Then, the coor-
dinates in both ground and image
systems are used to determine the transfor-
(b)
mation equations to correct the position of
each pixel. Orthorectification is a specific
type of rectification for aerial imagery where
the effects of elevation are removed from the
imagery using not only GCPs but also infor-
mation about the internal geometry of the
instrument to compensate for these errors.
Unlike geometric correction, radiometric
correction does not change the position of
the pixels, only the value of their DNs. How-
ever, like geometric correction, sources of
radiometric errors are also largely dependent
on the sensor used. There is a long list of
factors that can interfere with the radiance
measured by an instrument. Some examples
include atmospheric conditions, illuminance
(time of year/day), instrument sensitivity
and viewing geometry. To correct an image
Figure 25.31 Image showing the effects of noise removal. (a) An image containing noise
radiometrically, the DNs are adjusted based
which can be seen as a random white speckle distributed throughout the image. In (b) a noise
on some model to correct the pixel brightness removal algorithm has been applied. Although the noise has been removed, notice how the
to represent the true radiance characteristics of image appears less sharp than previously.
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Chapter 25 Monitoring environmental change
Remote sensing imagery is collected at various times Contrast stretching refers to a group of processes that
of the year and different parts of the day. The position of are used to redistribute the range of DNs of an image to
the Sun at any given point in time will have an influence make better use of the image’s bit scale. The image in Fig-
on how much sunlight reaches the surface and therefore on ure 25.32a and its histogram in Figure 25.32b show a rural
the radiance that is recorded by the instrument. This only scene dominated by pastures all of fairly uniform tone
becomes a problem when working with groups of images and very little texture. In this image, only the grey levels
with different illuminations. Thus, compensation for solar between 55 and 230 are being used to display the image,
position, called Sun-angle correction, is often required. leaving many unused grey levels on either end of the histo-
This is easily achieved by applying a correction factor to gram. To improve the interpretability of the information
each DN based on the illumination angle. Another prob- available in this image, it is sometimes beneficial to make
lem is that atmospheric scattering (called haze) can be use of all the grey levels available on the bit scale (in this
recorded by the sensing instrument. Haze has the effect of case 0–255) and thus we use contrast stretching. A linear
making an image appear foggy and it tends to mask the stretch is simplest and uniformly expands the range of
radiance characteristics of the surface. Haze correction DNs that are used in the image to include the entire range
can be applied when a feature in the scene is known to of values. A histogram equalization stretch also makes
have a reflection at or near zero, such as water or shad- use of the entire range of DN values. However, unlike a
ows. Haze makes dark features appear more grey rather linear stretch, a histogram equalization takes into account
than black. Thus, an estimate of the effects of haze can be the frequency of DN occurrences. This means that in the
made and subtracted from the rest of the image. output image, more DNs are reserved for brightness values
in the image that occur frequently. For Figure 25.32, for
example, this histogram equalization stretch will increase
25.7.3 Image enhancement
the contrast of the pasture pixels more than the urban
Image enhancement refers to any form of image manip- pixels since the former occur more frequently in the image.
ulation that attempts to redisplay the information in the The histogram equalization stretch is well suited for
image in a way that better represents image characteristics improving the interpretability of this image and the results
or features of interest. Image enhancement applications of its application are given in Figure 25.33.
are virtually infinite. However, the most common appli- Another type of commonly used image enhancement
cations include contrast stretching, spatial filtering, band is spatial filtering. Spatial filtering is a broad term used to
ratioing and classification. refer to a variety of applications for the enhancement of the
(b)
12 000
10 000
(a) Mean 131.4
8 000 Min 48
Max 245
Std. dev. 21.2
6 000
4 000
2 000
0
0 63 126 189 255
Figure 25.32 Example image and its statistics: (a) small section of an aerial photograph showing a relatively poor image contrast in the pastures; (b) the
histogram and descriptive statistics of the image.
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25.7 Digital image processing
(b)
12 000
Mean 127.6
Min 0
10 000 Max 255
Std. dev. 73.9
(a)
8 000
6 000
4 000
2 000
0
0 63 126 189 255
Figure 25.33 The example image from Figure 25.32 but where a histogram equalization stretch has been applied: (a) notice how the improved contrast
highlights the small variance in reflection in the pastures; (b) the histogram and descriptive statistics of this image are given. The image now uses all the
256 available grey levels and the mean and standard deviation have increased accordingly.
spatial variation in image tone (texture). In spatial filtering, Another set of spatial filters are edge enhancement fil-
texture is often described in terms of frequency. A smooth ters. These are also conducted using convolution and are
texture (small variations in tone) has a low frequency, used to exaggerate abrupt changes of DNs in an image
whereas a coarse texture (large variations in tone) has a high that are usually associated with an edge or boundary of
frequency. This type of operation is called filtering because, some feature of interest. Because edges are an example
like a filter, it selectively passes or preserves certain spatial of a high-frequency feature, these filters tend to pro-
frequencies, thereby enhancing some spatial frequencies and duce sharper images similar to the high-pass filter. Edge
suppressing others. Low-pass filters produce a smoother enhancement filters can be used simply to highlight all
image by enhancing low-frequency features and suppress- edge pixels, to remove non-edge pixels or to identify edges
ing high-frequency features, whereas high-pass filters do that lie only in a certain direction.
the reverse and produce a sharper image. To illustrate this Finally, band ratioing is a process where the DN values
Figure 25.34 shows the results of a low- and high-pass filter of one band are divided by those in another to reveal the
when applied to the image in Figure 25.32. subtle variations between bands that would otherwise be
Spatial filtering is a local operation, which means that masked by differences in illumination across the scene.
the pixels of the filtered image only reflect the conditions One very common example of band ratioing is the calcu-
in the immediate neighbourhood of each pixel. This is lation of a normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI)
accomplished using a process called convolution. Convo- image which provides an important tool for monitoring
lution describes the process where a small moving window, vegetation. It is calculated using the red and near-infrared
usually 3 * 3, 5 * 5 or 7 * 7 pixels in size, passes over bands of a sensor which represent wavelengths of high
each pixel in an image. For each pixel some operation absorption and high reflection, respectively, and is the sub-
is computed using only the pixels within the window to ject of Box 25.4.
arrive at a new DN value for the central pixel. For the low- When humans look at an image, the brain automat-
pass filter described previously, the convolution filter (also ically orders the scene into categories (e.g. trees, build-
called a kernel) determines the mean of the values in the ings and roads) based on the colours, textures and other
moving window and assigns this new value to the central spatial relationships of pixels in an image. However,
pixel of the window before moving to the next pixel to many applications such as mapping and land-use change
repeat the calculation. detection require a more numerical approach where the
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Chapter 25 Monitoring environmental change
(a) (b)
Figure 25.34 The image in Figure 25.32 is shown after applying (a) a low-pass filter which suppresses high-frequency variation in the image and (b) a
high-pass filter which highlights the high-frequency variation in the image.
results can be stored and manipulated digitally. There- than unsupervised training since it draws on the prior
fore we use computers to identify relationships with knowledge of existing classes in the image.
surrounding pixels based on image tones and patterns For either approach, the goal of the training process is
(Lillesand et al., 2015) and to sort patterns into mean- to provide spectral information about classes in the image
ingful categories called classes. This process is called from which a representative spectral signature (like a fin-
image classification. gerprint, Section 25.3.2) can be developed for each class.
Before the computer can classify an image, it has to be If each class in the image has a unique signature, then the
trained to recognize data patterns. This training can be class to which each pixel belongs can be easily determined.
carried out either automatically (unsupervised training) Unfortunately, this is rarely the case since many land cover
or under the guidance of the user (supervised training). types have overlapping signatures. Trees and pasture both
In unsupervised training the computer identifies intrinsic have a high reflection in the green portion of the spectrum
statistical clusters in the data that often do not correspond and a low reflection in the red. Fortunately, the band input
to typical land-use classes. In supervised training the user into a classification is not limited to the visible spectrum
defines the clusters of data by choosing groups of pixels and using multispectral classification increases the likeli-
in the image that are representative of the desired classes. hood of distinct spectral signatures.
Supervised training tends to yield more accurate results
Landsat TM for measuring vegetation from natural or human-made One such technique that is applicable to
and monitoring the Earth’s stresses (e.g. pests, fire, disease and pol- vegetation monitoring is a band ratioing
lution) and to delimit boundaries between application called the normalized differ-
green vegetation
various types of vegetation cover. It has ence vegetation index (NDVI). Like most
The use of remote sensing data has proved also been an important tool in assessing other vegetative indices, it is calculated as
very successful for assessing the type, and publicizing the extent of desertifica- a ratio of measured reflectivity in the red
extent and condition of vegetation over tion and deforestation. and near-infrared portions of the electro-
the Earth’s surface. Such data have allowed Satellite imagery can be enhanced magnetic spectrum. These two spectral
researchers to estimate the area of dif- to improve its interpretability through a
ferent crop types, to assess the impact on variety of image processing techniques. Box 25.4 ➤
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25.7 Digital image processing
bands are chosen because they are most index measurements and tropical defor- near-infrared bands of a Landsat scene
affected by the absorption of chlorophyll estation. It can be calculated by: of the Wirral Peninsula in north-west
in green leafy vegetation and by the den- England, which is separated from the city
NIR - RED
sity of green vegetation on the surface. NDVI = (25.3) of Liverpool by the River Mersey. Apply-
NIR + RED
Also, in the red and near-infrared bands, ing the NDVI to these bands gives the
where NIR is the reflectivity in the near-in-
the contrast between vegetation and soil image in Figure 25.36. Notice how the
frared and RED is the reflectivity in the red
is at a maximum. vegetated parts of the Landsat scene
portion of the spectrum.
The NDVI is a simple ratio of the dif- stand out in the NDVI image compared
For Landsat data the red band is
ference between these two bands to their with either the red or infrared bands
Band 3 and the near-infrared band is
sum and it has been applied to the study independently.
Band 4. Figure 25.35 shows the red and
of seasonal vegetation variations, leaf area
(a) Figure 25.35 A magnified view of (a) Band
3 (0.63–0.69 mm red) and (b) Band 4
(0.76–0.90 mm near-infrared). The image
was captured over Liverpool, England, on
19 December 2000 at 12:15 in the after-
noon. The city of Liverpool can be clearly
seen in the top-centre portion of the
image on the north side of the Mersey.
(Source: Landsat, Land Processes Distrib-
uted Active Archive Center (LP DAAC),
located at USGS/EROS, Sioux Falls, SD,
http://lpdaac.usgs.gov)
(b)
Box 25.4 ➤
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Chapter 25 Monitoring environmental change
➤
Figure 25.36 Landsat NDVI image which
is generated using Landsat Bands 3 and 4
shown in Figure 25.35. Notice how clearly
the city of Liverpool stands out against the
parks and surrounding farmland as well as
the brightness of the marshlands on the
north shore of the Dee in the south-west
corner of the image. (Source: Landsat, Land
Processes Distributed Active Archive Center
(LP DAAC), located at USGS/EROS, Sioux
Falls, SD, http://lpdaac.usgs.gov)
Box 25.4
The third stage of the classification process is the disadvantages but it is sufficient here to conclude that an
decision rule, which is the mathematical algorithm that unsupervised classification is carried out automatically in
uses the signatures to assign each pixel to a class. There one continuous process and thus is the most automated
are many different kinds with a range of advantages and form of image classification and requires minimal input
(a) (b)
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25.7 Digital image processing
(c)
Trees
Buildings
Roads
Pasture
Water
200m
Figure 25.37 Image classification: (a) a subsection of an aerial photograph that was taken over Upper Wharfedale, northern England, in May
1992; (b) the same image classified by an unsupervised classification using five arbitrary classes; (c) a supervised classification applied using
five predefined classes: trees, buildings, roads, pasture and water. Notice the confusion in the supervised classification image between walls,
roads and buildings owing to their similar reflective characteristics. Also, notice how the unsupervised classification identified the heteroge-
neity of the pastures and trees while the supervised classification did not. Each image is about 440 m across.
from the user. In contrast, a supervised classification
requires considerably more user input and markedly slower Reflective questions
to undertake. To illustrate the types of classification
➤ Which image processing routine would you apply if you
results that can be expected, Figure 25.37 gives an image
wanted to highlight the location of roads, hedges or
and its classification results using an unsupervised clas-
fences?
sification (Figure 25.37b) and a supervised classification
(Figure 25.37c), both of which used five classes. Notice the ➤ Which image processing routine would you apply to
difference between the results for the two classifications. remove the effects of atmospheric scattering?
For Figure 25.37b the intrinsic statistical divisions in the
image can be seen, whereas Figure 25.37c shows land cover
divisions.
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Chapter 25 Monitoring environmental change
25.8 Summary of remote sensing that are available extend beyond the standard
camera that measures in the visible spectrum. Thermal cameras
This chapter has introduced and differentiated between data col- measure long wave radiation emitted from objects that can tell
lection using in situ and remote sensing collection methods. Both us about their temperatures. Microwave sensors can measure
are important for improving our understanding and monitoring through clouds and in the dark to provide images in any condi-
of environmental change. The examples within this chapter have tions. Ranging sensors provide 3D topographical data of a surface
demonstrated that the ability to measure electromagnetic energy without the need to visit the feature. The different methods and
and learn about the world around us using detailed knowledge tools are suitable for a range of environmental applications and
of how radiation interacts with surfaces is a powerful tool. Every each come with their own advantages and limitations. Image pro-
discipline of physical geography covered in this textbook has cessing is important for maximizing the value of digital imagery
benefited from remote sensing in some way. The many methods and includes rectification and enhancement.
Further reading Excellent example of an application of photogrammetry for
environmental monitoring.
Lillesand, T.M., Kiefer, R.W. and Chipman, J. (2015) Remote
Carrivick, J.L., Smith, M.W. and Quincey, D.J. (2016) Structure sensing and image interpretation, 6th edition. John Wiley &
from motion in the geosciences. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford. Sons, Toronto.
An up-to-date book providing a wide range of examples and An invaluable reference providing an in-depth look at the prin-
the progress made with structure from motion techniques. ciples of remote sensing and includes a comprehensive review
of the Earth observation satellites currently in use. It also
James, T.D., Murray, T., Barrand, N.E., Sykes, H.J., Fox, A.J. explores the links between remote sensing and geographical
and King, M.A. (2012) Observations of enhanced thinning information systems. Appendix B on p. 732 provides an exten-
in the upper reaches of Svalbard glaciers. Cryosphere, 6, sive list of remote sensing data sources with web addresses.
1369–1381.
The research study summarized in Box 25.3. Russ, J.C. (2011) The Image Processing Handbook, 6th edition.
CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Lane, S., James, T., Pritchard, H. and Saunders, M. (2003) Pho- A well-respected user manual of digital image processing. It
togrammetric and laser altimetric reconstruction of water lev- presents a high-quality discussion of the techniques of image
els for extreme flood event analysis. Photogrammetric Record, processing and when/why they are applicable. It is up to date
18, 293–307. and draws on examples from a variety of real-world applica-
tions such as medicine, microscopy and remote sensing.
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C H A PTER 2 6
Dealing with hazards and environmental
change
Joseph Holden and Adrian T. McDonald
School of Geography, University of Leeds
Learning objectives over 7 billion and ever increasing demands for food,
water and energy combined with anthropogenically
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
driven climate change, this means that we need to man-
age the environment to ensure that it can continue to
➤ distinguish between types of environmental hazard
provide critical services to society.
Environmental change is inextricably linked to envi-
➤ describe different general types of environmental change
ronmental hazards. As human population grows, and is
➤ explain the nature of environmental risk and vulnerability and the more concentrated in cities, often along coastal areas and
types of prediction tools that are used. floodplains, a larger number of people are vulnerable to
➤ outline some of the main environmental management frameworks environmental hazards such as earthquakes, sea-level rise
and tsunamis. Human modifications to the environment,
as well as the use of management tools, can sometimes
26.1 Introduction both increase and reduce the chance of a hazard occur-
ring or affect whether that hazard will lead to a disaster.
The Earth has always seen change. Much of this has It is therefore essential that we understand the processes
been driven by natural processes associated with, for that result in hazards, are better able to predict hazards
example, plate tectonics, ice sheet advance and retreat, and can put in place measures to reduce the likelihood
global atmospheric circulation and the development of of a hazard resulting in a disaster. This chapter therefore
life and ecosystems. However, humans have interacted tackles the types and characteristics of hazards and envi-
with environmental processes in a highly significant way ronmental change, before moving on to discuss concepts
over the past few thousand years, culminating in the of prediction, risk and resilience, and the sorts of man-
onset of what some scientists term the Anthropocene agement tools that can be used to deal with hazards and
(see Chapter 5). With the world’s population now well environmental change.
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Chapter 26 Dealing with hazards and environmental change
26.2 Types of environmental hazard Daiichi nuclear power plant which then leaked radiation
posing a further hazard resulting in the displacement of
An environmental hazard results from a substance (e.g. tens of thousands of people from their homes. Overall the
arsenic in groundwater) or event (e.g. hurricane) that economic losses amounted to US$210 billion.
could lead to harm or disruption to humans. There are a Environmental hazards can be categorized into physical
huge range of hazards which vary in magnitude, duration hazards such as those associated with volcanic eruptions or
and spatial extent (e.g. Table 26.1). Sometimes one hazard drought, biological hazards such as parasitic and infectious
can have a knock-on effect resulting in another hazard. diseases, chemical hazards such as those caused by pollu-
For example, within a few minutes of the magnitude 9.0 tion of watercourses or soils used for crops, or pollution of
earthquake of 11 March 2011 in the western Pacific, there the air that we breathe (e.g. urban smog) or technological
was a disastrous tsunami that affected the eastern coast hazards which may relate to accidents associated with tech-
of Honshu, Japan, killing around 16 000 people. The tsu- nologies such as transport or energy. In this chapter, we are
nami, in turn, led to a serious melt-down at the Fukushima only concerned with technological hazards that are related
Table 26.1 Examples of hazards from each of the other chapters in this textbook
Chapter Subject Example hazards discussed
1 Approaching physical geography Desertification, flooding, acid rain
2 Earth geology and tectonics Earthquakes, explosive volcanic eruptions, nuée ardente, pyroclastic flow,
tsunamis
3 Oceans Overfishing, oil spills, acidification
4 The Pleistocene Species extinctions, rapid climate change
5 The Holocene Sea level rise, desertification, soil impoverishment
6 Atmospheric processes Drought, climate change, volcanic eruptions
7 Contemporary climate change Ice melt, extinctions, extreme weather, spread of disease, ozone hole
8 Global climate and weather Tropical cyclones, storm surge, tornadoes
9 Regional and local climates Thunderstorms, large hail, smog
10 The biosphere Salinization, wildfire, erosion
11 Ecosystem processes Invasive species, habitat fragmentation
12 Freshwater ecosystems Eutrophication, river pollution, mosquitoes and disease
13 Vegetation and climate change Biodiversity loss, lack of food security
14 Weathering Mudflows, urban pollution
15 Slope processes and landform evolution Landslides, debris avalanches, rockfalls
16 Sediments and sedimentation Dam infilling, mine pollution, Clearwater erosion
17 Soils Soil erosion, carbon loss, soil pollution, loss of fertility
18 Catchment hydrology Floods, over-abstraction of groundwater, salinization
19 Fluvial geomorphology and river management Channel avulsion, channel adjustment, floods
20 Solutes and water quality Arsenic poisoning, microplastics, edochrine disrupters
21 Dryland process and environments Dust storms, desertification, building abrasion
22 Coasts Coastal erosion, sea-level rise, rip currents, storm surges, tsunami
23 Glaciers and ice sheets Ice surging, sea level rise
24 Permafrost and periglaciation Frost heave, subsidence
25 Monitoring environmental change Air pollution, floods
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26.2 Types of environmental hazard
to the natural environment: an example might be when a The dust blocked out sunlight reducing the strength of
landslide has damaged a railway line which then leads to the local hydrological cycle and reducing precipitation
train derailment and harm, or the Fukushima nuclear acci- even further.
dent described above. The latter is an example of a com- A hazard might be measured in terms of its magni-
pounded hazard. Other examples of compounded hazards tude (e.g. tornado strength; see Box 8.3 in Chapter 8),
include a dam burst following an earthquake or landslides frequency, duration, spatial extent or speed of initia-
and debris flows that might occur on loosened soils after a tion. The frequency of a hazard may simply be classi-
wildfire (e.g. De Graff, 2014). fied in terms of how often an event occurs in a given
It is possible for natural hazards to be exacerbated by time or the probability that an event will occur. People
human-induced environmental change. For example, the often talk of the 1 in 100 year flood event, for example.
1930s Dust Bowl in North America was associated with However, the problem with assessing the frequency of a
drought and dust storms. These dust storms led to hun- flood event based on its average return interval is that it
dreds of deaths, economic hardship and forced millions creates false expectations among populations and poli-
to leave their homes. The dust storms and the drought ticians. In fact it is quite plausible for three 1 in 100 year
were both exacerbated by the removal of the grasses on floods to happen on the same river in one year. It may
the Great Plains and poor soil management (Cook et al., also be difficult to determine what a reliable frequency
2009). The grasses had strong roots that bound the soil is for some hazards because there are poor long-term
together well and were also drought tolerant. However, data records or because the environmental system has
they were ploughed up and replaced by wheat which was changed over time (e.g. human modification to the land-
not drought tolerant and unable to bind the soil together. scape and climate change).
The Eyjafjallajökull volcanic with a possible knock-on effect to the further shutdowns of air space occurred
ash cloud European economy of US$5 billion. The in the following weeks at times when the
ash plume was monitored and periodic plume was deemed to be a hazard.
On 14 April 2010, the Eyjafjallajökull vol-
cano on Iceland erupted for a second time
in a month, but in this instance it erupted
into a thick ice layer. The ice melt caused
the lava to cool quickly resulting in lots
of tiny shards of ash which were spewed
several kilometres into the atmosphere.
Much of this was blown in a south-westerly
direction spreading across Atlantic and
northern European airspace (Figure 26.1).
The hazard from the volcano included a
physical hazard – localized flooding in
southern Iceland due to ice melt, and
a technological hazard – the potential
interference of the dust with aircraft
engines. Aircraft were grounded for fear
of the coarse ash damaging engines. Most
Figure 26.1 Satellite image of the ash cloud from the Eyjafjallajökull volcano taken
European airspace was closed for around
on 17 April 2010. The whole of Iceland can be seen in this image with the brown
a week with 100 000 flights cancelled. Ten
ash cloud in the south merging with the white clouds across the Atlantic. (Source:
million people were unable to board flights NASA, Jeff Schmaltz, MODIS Rapid Response Team)
and airlines lost around US$1.7 billion
BOX 26.1
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Chapter 26 Dealing with hazards and environmental change
is reversible, slow and stable. Change can be considered
Reflective questions to be driven by a factor or group of factors. For example,
increased acid rain may be driven by the sulfur released in
➤ What was the last environmental hazard you were
the burning of coal for energy. However, the nature of the
exposed to?
relationship between coal burning and acid rain and the
➤ Can you think of some environmental hazards that may resulting management implications will be constrained by
be almost always present and some that only occur very the mix of good and problematic attributes of the rela-
occasionally? tionship. This is generalized in Figure 26.2, which shows
the range of relationships that exist. These can be revers-
ible or irreversible, simple (linear) or complex (non-linear)
26.3 Characteristics of environmental or even contain hysteresis. If we assumed that a relation-
change ship was linear and reversible then we might put in place
a management strategy to reverse this change. However, it
In order to manage environmental change we need to have may be the case that the change was not linear or revers-
some understanding of change. Some changes are so great ible and so this management strategy might make the
that as humans we cannot possibly stop them and so we problem worse. An example of a non-linear environmental
need to be able to cope with the change when it occurs. change is provided in Box 26.2, while Box 6.2 in Chapter 6
For example, the isostatic rebound of the land masses in the provides further discussion of non-linear effects.
north of Britain following thousands of years under the
weight of the ice and the resultant settling of the south-
ern half of Britain as part of that response has increased Table 26.2 The nature of change. Change is not simple. If a circumstance
coastal flood risk in southern Britain and will continue to or situation involves all the attributes listed as ‘good’ then it is certainly
do so. We cannot raise the south-east of England and so simpler than a situation involving some or all of the ‘problematic’ attri-
butes. It is a good management exercise to consider where, in the spec-
all our responses are forms of coping strategies. One frame- trum of change, a particular case lies
work which is useful is that of DPSIR. This is a framework
that assumes a cause and effect relationship between the Good attributes Problematic attributes
various interrelated parts (spatial, temporal and compo-
nent) of social, economic and environmental systems: Stable Unstable
Reversible Irreversible
Driving forces of environmental change (e.g. greater
agricultural production) Slow transformation Rapid transformation
Limited Unlimited
Pressures on the environment (e.g. release of chemicals
Within tolerances Beyond tolerances
to the atmosphere)
Linear Non-linear
State of the environment (e.g. urban air quality)
Small scale Global
Impacts on population, economy and ecosystems (e.g.
health impacts and respiratory problems)
Response of society (e.g. clean air acts and vehicle emis-
sion control)
Non-linear
The DSPIR framework can include both the types of
drivers that may be human induced such as the need for
more food, water and energy, and the types of drivers of Hysteresis Linear
Change
change that may be natural such as isostatic rebound.
Reversible
26.3.1 The nature of change
Irreversible
The nature of change is summarized in Table 26.2. If the
change is irreversible or quick and unstable, for example, it Change promoter
is a much more problematic type of change than one that Figure 26.2 Some characteristics of change.
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26.3 Characteristics of environmental change
Non-linear environmental to bloom (see Figure 20.21 in Chapter 20). the alternative stable state of the lake
change in lake systems The phytoplankton bloom results in loss (Scheffer et al., 1993). There are two
of the original aquatic plants which are stable states – a clear lake and a turbid
Delivery of phosphorus and other nutri- starved of light. It also results in a loss lake. Some lakes have switched states
ents from agriculture or atmospheric of the phytoplankton grazers within the many times, but often with intervals of
deposition into shallow lakes has often lake which are disturbed by sediment years or even decades between transi-
resulted in eutrophication of lakes (see that is frequently stirred up from the tion events (Blindow et al. 1993). While
also Box 12.4, Chapter 12). A clear shallow lake floor. This frequent degradation of the nutrient load in the lake may have
lake dominated by aquatic vegetation with lakes has been subject to many resto- changed linearly the system itself did not
strong roots has stable sediments which ration attempts. However, evaluations (Figure 26.3). Instead it suddenly jumped
slows nutrient cycling between the water have tended to show that even when the from one condition to another and so
column and the bed and shelters phyto- nutrient levels flowing into the lake are was non-linear. As nutrient reduction
plankton grazers. However, after a gradual reduced again, the lake can stay in the does not automatically reverse the situ-
increase in nutrient loading from the turbid form. This is because the nutrients ation, then other forms of management
surrounding landscape the lake can sud- continue to be strongly recycled between intervention are sometimes needed such
denly change into a turbid one when the the phytoplankton and the sediments as heavily stocking the lake with crea-
nutrient concentrations reach a threshold as there are no rooted aquatic plants to tures that eat phytoplankton, while also
allowing phytoplankton (a type of algae) stabilize the sediment. This is said to be trying to remove their predators.
(a) (b) (c)
Management intervention
in catchment
Nutrient
load
on Management
turbidity intervention
Nutrient
in lake
input to lake
Turbidity of
lake
Time
Figure 26.3 Stages of lake nutrient loading and turbidity: (a) nutrient loads from the catchment into the lake steadily increase while turbidity
levels suddenly jump from low to high; (b) management intervention reduces nutrient loading to the lake, but the turbidity levels remain high;
(c) management manipulation of the lake system takes place which results in a sudden decline in turbidity.
BOX 26.2
When thinking about environmental change and of adding one more animal to my herd?’ However, this
our own actions, we must also carefully consider the action has one negative and one positive component. The
actions of others. A good example of this is what has positive component is a function of the increment of one
been termed the tragedy of the commons (Hardin, 1968). animal. Since the farmer receives all the proceeds from the
This involves a field that anyone can use (common land). sale of the additional animal, the positive utility is nearly
It is to be expected that each farmer will try to keep as + 1. However, the negative component is a function of the
many cattle as possible on the field. However, the logic additional overgrazing created by one more animal. Since,
of the commons will bring tragedy. This is because, as a however, the effects of overgrazing are shared by all the
rational being, each farmer seeks to maximize their gain. farmers using the field, the negative utility for any particu-
The farmer will ask ‘what is the benefit or disadvantage lar decision-making farmer is only a small fraction of - 1.
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Chapter 26 Dealing with hazards and environmental change
Adding together the component parts, the farmer may Non-linearity of, and rapid alteration in, rate of onset
conclude that the only sensible course to pursue is to add of change is a further, and in many ways frightening, issue.
another animal to the farmer’s herd on the field. This will If we consider Figure 26.4 we can see that it consists of a
be followed by the addition of another and maybe many surface which slowly curves from one stable location (look
more. However, this is also the conclusion reached by each at either the upper or lower part of the surface). Forecasts
and every farmer sharing a field. Therein is the tragedy. based on a statistical assessment of the trend may indicate
Each farmer exists within a system that encourages them a slow onset change (relatively flat surface) allowing plenty
to increase their herd without limit but in a world with of time for a considered response or perhaps an equilib-
limited resources. The field will be massively overgrazed rium situation in which a large change in the driver causes
and all of the vegetation will be removed. Therefore none little response in the factor of concern. Unfortunately, the
of the animals will survive and the farmers will be ruined. next section of the surface, the ‘cusp’, shows a very rapid
So a society that believes in freedom of the commons may response to a new stable state. In other words, a very slow
be a society that brings its own downfall. change suddenly becomes a very rapid change as if the
The above analogy has had its critics who argue that system has reached a threshold (sometimes referred to as
rational farmers will work together to realize an optimum a ‘tipping point’) and it suddenly jumps out of one stable
outcome for the environment that enables them to keep state. This figure summarizes catastrophe theory (Thom,
a livelihood. Nevertheless the tragedy of the commons 1968). A sudden catastrophic change occurs and then the
concept can be applied to all sorts of cases including, for system reaches a new stable (or equilibrium; see Chap-
example, allowing people the freedom to pump pollutants ter 1) position (see also Box 26.2). The theory describes
into the atmosphere or oceans when and where they want cases when we have a sudden jump from one stable mode
and in whatever quantity they want as if the atmosphere of operation to another, but where any changes at first
and oceans were unlimited resources. It is also almost the may be very slow or hardly noticeable.
same as individuals thinking ‘what will it matter if I throw A good example of such a problem is provided by the
just one more plastic carton in the bin; surely one more thermohaline circulation system discussed in Chapters 3,
will not do any harm?’ The analogy fits environmental 4 and 5. This is the deep-ocean circulation system that is
problems throughout the world. We have finite resources today a very strong system for transporting heat away from
and we must therefore manage those resources. Allowing the equator towards the poles. It is a strong system because
people freedom to do what they want may bring only deg-
radation unless they can agree to collective management.
Management is therefore required in order to identify x
the range of feasible alternative outcomes in response to
changing environmental conditions, the identification of B
the costs, risks and uncertainties associated with pursuing A
each alternative and the organization and mediation of
the resources needed to implement a chosen alternative Equilibrium
(Lawrence et al., 1998). Region of surface
smooth transition Stable region
1
26.3.2 Rate of change
The rate of onset of change is a vital consideration The Unstable Catastrophic
because, if slow, (i) it may offer species the opportunity Stable region cusp change
2
to adapt or shift their range, (ii) it may provide the envi- Catastrophic
ronmental manager with the time required to devise and change
implement a remediation strategy and (iii) it may offer the
politicians sufficient time to perceive the potential dam-
Figure 26.4 Catastrophe theory. The surface shown here is in three
age and provide the resources needed by the manager. Of
dimensions. A and B are the changes in environmental conditions and x is
course in this last case, slow onset may also be a disadvan- the change in the response. In the real environment there are many more
tage in that it might not develop to be a serious problem than two variables but for simplicity just two have been drawn. Catastro-
within the limited time horizon that some politicians phe occurs at the two arrows, the region of instability at the cusp. Rapid
possess. change occurs which is not reversed by a reversal in system conditions.
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26.4 Prediction
of the saltiness of the water in certain sensitive locations. An ecosystem contains a set of species which have
This salty water is dense and so sinks, thereby forcing water individual tolerances but there is also a tolerance of the
at the bottom of the oceans up in a large circulation sys- ecosystem as a whole. The tolerance of the ecosystem will
tem. However, with global warming, more of the world’s be greater than that of the individual species that form it.
glaciers are melting and so rivers flowing into oceans such Thus, the scale of environmental change will have to be
as the North Atlantic are producing more freshwater. As greater to destroy ecosystems than to destroy an individual
river water is not very salty, these inputs may prevent the species. Of course, ecosystems may be more degraded if
deep sinking that previously took place. There is already the individual species that is destroyed is a keystone spe-
strong evidence that the system has been gradually slow- cies (see Chapter 11). What this also means is that diversity
ing down over the past century (Rahmstorf et al., 2015). is important. Diverse ecosystems tend to be more resilient
However, the concern is whether a tipping point might be (Bradbury, 1998).
reached whereby the ocean circulation system suddenly
shuts down (Paillard, 2001). There is evidence from the
past that the climate system has suddenly jumped from Reflective questions
one stable warm mode to a stable very cold mode because
of changes in ocean circulation (Broecker and Denton, ➤ Why are some environmental changes not reversible?
1990). The immediate result would be a dramatic cooling ➤ What is catastrophe theory?
of Europe by several degrees and a consequent growth of
glaciers. These glaciers would increase albedo and thereby
cool the planet even further and we would enter a glacial
period. Thus, while we are in a stable warm period we may
26.4 Prediction
have a very slow change (slow warming) that eventually
To support effective management it is important, where
results in a rapid and catastrophic shutting down of the
possible, to be able to predict environmental change or a
ocean circulation system which then sends the system into
hazard and the speed of its onset, its duration or trend, its
a stable cold phase. This of course would be irreversible on
likely size and impacts. Predictions allow us to plan our
human timescales. Thus the concept of catastrophe theory,
response to minimize the effects of a hazard or environ-
of a non-linear switch between stable states without the
mental change.
prospect of a reverse, is real and possible.
26.3.3 Environmental tolerance 26.4.1 Monitoring
Environmental tolerance is a valuable concept. Each species Prediction is often made possible by having a monitoring
has a range of environmental conditions within which it can network in place (see Chapter 25) either in situ or via
operate. This might, for example, be a temperature range remote sensing that gives us warning that the system is
such as - 2°C to + 30°C. In reality all species will have a changing or that a hazard is imminent (e.g. a bulge on the
series of ‘ranges’ within which they can survive, controlled side of a volcano; see Box 2.3, Chapter 2). For example,
for example by soil moisture content, oxygen saturation, we use satellite observations and ground-based radar to
temperature and pH. When conditions fall outside any determine whether there is a tropical cyclone approaching
one of these values for a critical period of time (seconds or land. We can use river level gauges in headwaters to deter-
hours depending on the species and determinant) the organ- mine whether there is likely to be a flood moving down the
ism cannot survive. That just one of a series of environ- river system. Snow depth and layering studies are carried
mental factors is crucial at a particular time is known as the out as part of avalanche hazard monitoring. Monitor-
law of limiting factors. The same law or concept appears in ing systems are often also associated with warning and
other areas of management under titles such as ‘bottleneck response systems. Responses may have to be rapid in terms
theory’ and ‘threshold theory’. The generalized concept of of evacuating an area if a tsunami is forecast. In some
environmental tolerance is measured and made specific for coastal areas in earthquake zones there are warning sirens
an individual determinant through measures such as the that sound if a tsunami is forecast. The monitoring net-
LD50/24 measure, which is the dose of a determinant which work will trigger emergency broadcasts around all radio
would be lethal to 50% of the organisms under consider- and TV stations and mobile phone systems to alert people
ation within 24 h (Lawrence et al., 1998). to get to high ground. However, sometimes the warning
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Chapter 26 Dealing with hazards and environmental change
systems are not fully effective (see Box 2.2 in Chapter 2). of an area that is more prone to hazards (e.g. in terms of
For avalanches sometimes the response is to artificially slope failure or contaminants).
trigger an avalanche while no people are in harm’s way, or In instances where we have real-time monitoring and
to close an area to hikers and skiers. In other cases societal instances where we do not, we often use models to predict
response may be painstakingly slow to react to the results what the outcome might be. For example, a soil erosion
from environmental monitoring data as in the case of our model called PESERA was used to produce Figure 26.5.
decarbonization response to climate change. Weather models are used to predict the likely track, size
and impact of a tropical cyclone. Data from satellite and
ground-based monitoring systems are entered into the
26.4.2 modelling
models and then the models are run to predict what might
It is not always possible to have real-time monitoring that happen in the coming days. Hydrological models are used
can tell us of an impending hazard or major environmental to predict the size, duration and extent of a flood event
change. Sometimes mapping is undertaken to indicate areas and can be used either building on ‘real-time’ datasets that
most likely to be affected by a given environmental problem. are entered into the model, or can be run separately using
For example, Figure 26.5 shows a map of potential soil ero- theoretical future scenarios of rainfall conditions and
sion in Europe. Once these assessments have been made it catchment moisture levels to test what possible range of
is then possible to show the results to local or international flood events might occur in the future (e.g. see Box 1.2 in
governors in order to gain the money (and legislation if Chapter 1).
necessary) to spend on management strategies for those In some cases models are run thousands of times to
areas considered to be of most concern. For example, those examine the spread of possible outcomes that may occur.
areas with a high chance of soil erosion could be protected An ensemble of several different models may even be used
by reducing grazing levels or planting trees, or using some and the outcomes evaluated to see whether all of the mod-
other management technique (Kirkby, 2001). These hazard els broadly agree so that we have high confidence in their
assessments can then justify environmental management predictions or whether models deviate in their predictions
policies such as spending money on trying to prevent soil by large amounts. Such an approach is often taken during
erosion in certain sensitive areas, or by moving people out studies of future climate change or in weather forecasting.
Estimated annual erosion (t ha-1 yr-1)
0
0–0.5
0.5–1
1.0–2
2.0–5
5.0–10
10.0–30
30.0–50
50.0–100
figure 26.5 Soil erosion map for Europe showing estimated rates or erosion. (Source: Brian Irvine and the EU PESERA project)
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26.6 Management tools
In order to ensure these models provide the best pre- 26.5 Risk and vulnerability
dictions possible it is generally preferable to develop them
with a good understanding of the physical processes that Risk is the chance that a hazard will cause harm. Risk
lead to environmental change or hazards – and hence the is the product of the hazard and the vulnerability. The
study of the topics that we have covered in this textbook vulnerability is the social or economic sensitivity of the
is crucial. This is because by understanding the processes area to the effects of hazards. For example, if a magni-
we are generally better able to develop models that include tude 7 earthquake occurs in a sparsely populated area
the interacting effects within them. The alternative is to this is a smaller risk than if it occurs close to a major city,
predict environmental change or hazard occurrence by because the sparsely populated area is a less vulnerable
relying on statistical models (see Chapter 1 for an outline area. Clearly, vulnerability and risk are directly related.
of different types of models). Statistical methods gener- Vulnerability may depend on proximity to an event, the
ally involve us extrapolating from an historic dataset into population density and its level of economic deprivation,
the future. However, as environments change or become scientific understanding of the hazard, public education
modified by human action, then those historic statistics and awareness, presence of monitoring and early-warning
may no longer be relevant. Therefore, knowing about how systems, the availability and preparedness of emergency
processes interact and lead to environment change or the services, and the quality of buildings and infrastruc-
development of a hazard can often be more useful. ture. The socio-economic dimensions to vulnerability
are important. Large populations of the poor in Haiti
are more vulnerable to harm from hurricanes than more
26.4.3 Uncertainty
wealthy populations in Florida. During October 2016, hur-
Predicting environmental change or hazards involves uncer- ricane Matthew caused around 1300 deaths in Haiti and
taint y. Uncertainty is the difference between the true value 39 deaths in the USA. Many of the victims in Haiti were
of something and what we estimate the value will be. So those who were still living in poor accommodation, afford-
for example, there will be a timing, spatial location, extent ing little shelter from the storm, following the devastating
and intensity of a wildfire, but our prediction of these 2010 earthquake there.
features of a future wildfire will not match reality. The The risk of climate change is likely to be greater in
problem is that we do not really know what the uncertainty heavily populated coastal areas due to sea-level rise and
is for events that have not happened yet so we often try increasing storm intensity. In particular, the risk will be
to estimate the uncertainty. There are a variety of sources greatest in many of the mega-cities that have developed
of uncertainty ranging from a lack of knowledge about along coastal areas, particularly on deltas (Box 26.3). It
how the system works, to problems of conceptualizing the may also be greatest in developing countries as the popu-
system within a model, errors in data and so on (Beven, lations are more vulnerable to the environmental change.
2016). There has been a lot of research over the years to try IPCC (2013) suggested that increases in global mean
to come up with ways of estimating uncertainty, aiming to temperature would produce net economic losses in many
provide, at very least, an idea about how confident we can developing countries for all magnitudes of warming stud-
be in our predictions of environmental change or hazard ied, and losses would be greater in magnitude as the level
occurrence. However, there is not one ‘best’ approach to this of warming increased. In contrast, an increase in global
but there is at least recognition that scientists should report, mean temperature of up to a few degrees Celsius would
as best they can, what they estimate the uncertainty to be produce a mixture of economic gains and losses in devel-
when they show the results of the their models. oped countries, with economic losses for larger tempera-
ture increases.
Reflective questions 26.6 Management tools
➤ What causes uncertainty in our predictions of a hazard or When considering the management of hazards or environ-
environmental change? mental change we must consider how long we want to man-
➤ Can you think of examples where uncertainty is likely to age the system for. An action taken today to cope only with
be high and examples where it is likely to be low? the current situation may not be adequate in the long term
as, for example, sea levels continue to rise. This necessity
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Chapter 26 Dealing with hazards and environmental change
Coastal city flood risk and population. Several index components levels, is regularly hit by tropical cyclones
vulnerability assessment also looked at the level of administrative and floods, yet it has few defences in
involvement in flood management. place and little resilience. Manila in the
A study of nine major coastal cities around The results of the analysis revealed Philippines and Kolkata in India are also
the world, by Balica et al. (2012), sug- that the highly prosperous megapolis of highly vulnerable largely because of their
gested that Shanghai (Figure 26.6) was Shanghai, in China, is more vulnerable large populations and degree of exposure
most at risk from serious flooding. The than much poorer cities such as Dhaka to storms. The European cities of Marseille
researchers used a new index to analyse in Bangladesh. Shanghai is particularly and Rotterdam are also exposed to flood
the risk and vulnerability to coastal flood- at risk because it is exposed to powerful hazards, with violent storms, high river
ing of nine cities built on river deltas: Casa- storm surges and the land is subsiding as levels and significant low-lying areas. But
blanca (Morocco), Kolkata (India), Dhaka sea levels rise. Moreover, although a large the cities are most resilient with good
(Bangladesh), Buenos Aires (Argentina), population lives along the coast in flood- flood management infrastructure and
Osaka (Japan), Shanghai (China), Manila prone areas, the city is poorly prepared, tight building regulations for flood-prone
(Philippines), Marseille (France) and Rot- with little resilience to a major flood and areas, for example.
terdam (the Netherlands). The index used insufficient flood shelters for victims. The researchers also used their index
incorporated 19 components, including A major storm surge flood in Shanghai to assess how climate change would
the exposure to flood hazard, measures could lead to widespread damage, with affect the flood risk to these cities in the
of the level of economic activity in a city, serious consequences for the city, across future. The study found that Shanghai and
its speed of recovery and social issues China and, through wider economic links, Dhaka will remain the most vulnerable
such as the number of flood shelters the for the whole world. cities in 2100, although the vulnerability
awareness of people about flood risks, The index also revealed that Dhaka, of all the cities will increase and could be
and the number of disabled people in the which sits just metres above current sea doubled in the case of Manila.
Figure 26.6 The Shanghai waterfront and skyline. (Source: Gyn9037 / Shutterstock.com)
BOX 26.3
for long-term management is often subsumed within the
Reflective question term ‘sustainable development’ incorporating a requirement
to consider not just fair outcomes for the present population
➤ Why are poor nations more vulnerable to similar hazards
but outcomes that are satisfactory for future generations:
compared to rich nations?
‘Sustainable development is development that meets the
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26.6 Management tools
needs of the present without compromising the ability of of reducing the causes of the hazard but instead is about
future generations to meet their own needs’ (World Com- minimizing the impacts. For example, in a lahar-prone
mission on Environment and Development, 1987). Sustain- area it may be possible to build lahar diversion channels.
able development also incorporates the broader vision of In flood-prone areas infrastructure can be developed that
the social and economic environment. is able to withstand flooding. For example, buildings can
Change resulting from human activity, is usually more be constructed so that ground floor levels are for parking
rapid than similar processes operating through natural lots, or have raised platforms, enabling residential or office
phenomena. Examples of anthropogenic change are wide- space to be higher up away from potential flood waters
spread (acid rain, overfishing, deforestation, river diversion (Figure 26.7).
and so on) and further cases involve a blend of anthropo- Adaptation and mitigation measures are often con-
genic and natural change such as desertification. For the ducted together. In many urban areas, for example, we
manager there are two main sets of options: now install biofiltration systems, green roofs and soak-
(i) limiting the drivers that are creating the environmental ways to try to encourage infiltration, improve water qual-
change and (ii) using coping strategies available to manage ity, reduce rapid runoff response and store water when
natural change. It is important to be able to distinguish there is heavy rain to reduce the risk of pluvial flooding
between management that seeks to mitigate (prevent or (i.e. heavy rainfall unable to escape an urban area leading
reduce) the hazard or environmental change and manage- to localized flooding). This has a dual mitigation and
ment that seeks to prepare for and adapt to change. adaptation function. Mitigation seeks to reduce the flood
problem in town or downstream by storing rainwater.
Adaptation involves urban design that is modified to
26.6.1 Mitigation
cope with the flooding hazard by creating areas for flood
If we understand the nature of the hazard and can predict waters to be diverted into and raising residential areas to
its timing and scale then we may be able to reduce the vul- heights above likely flood levels. It is also involves having
nerability to that risk by changing the circumstances. For emergency systems in operation to deal with the flood
example, we might plant trees in a catchment headwater to hazard when it occurs. In essence, adaptation is about
try to reduce the magnitude of flood peaks downstream, making the socio-economic system more resilient to envi-
or plant cover crops on fields in autumn to reduce soil ero- ronmental change or hazards.
sion. This is known as mitigation. In climate change terms,
mitigation involves trying to reduce the amount of carbon
26.6.3 Impact assessment
released into the atmosphere or increasing the number of
carbon sinks so as to try to reduce future climate forcing Making an environmental management decision is rarely
(see Section 7.4 of Chapter 7). In other words, mitigation is simple. Environmental systems are complex. Small changes
about dealing with the drivers of environmental change and in one component may have unforeseen consequences
reducing the size, scale, intensity or duration of the hazard.
Attempts to limit the drivers assume that the process is
reversible or at least reversible at the stage which the sit-
uation has reached. It is also assumed, more importantly,
that the political, legal and economic will is present to
commit to curtailing the activity that is giving rise to the
environmental change. This ‘will’ is only forthcoming if
the environmental scientist can prove clearly and simply
that the relationship between the initiating activity and
the consequent change exists and that the change is very
serious and must be addressed.
26.6.2 Adaptation
Figure 26.7 Flood adaptation on apartment buildings – the parking area
Adaptation, by contrast, involves techniques that are
is on the ground floor where floods can occur without too much disrup-
focused on limiting the vulnerability to environmental tion to the properties, while residential areas are at higher levels. (Source:
change impacts. Adaptation does not address the idea FeyginFoto / Shutterstock.com)
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Chapter 26 Dealing with hazards and environmental change
elsewhere. To reflect the complexity of possible impacts,
managers have developed a series of assessment techniques Screening
Is an EIA
that seek to report fully the impacts of an action. Initially required?
these were called environmental impact assessments (EIAs). Scoping
What is a Alternatives
They are vital tools in the arsenal of the manager and are defensible Are alternatives
legally required in many countries depending on the char- remit? an option?
Specifying
acteristics of a proposed action (Petts, 1999). However, the What type
focus on the physical environment to the exclusion of other of impact
elements in early forms of EIAs and related legislation has assessment
is needed?
led to other forms of impact assessment such as environ- Implementing
mental technology assessment (a new technology is assessed What framework
Is no action an or approach is
for its potential environmental, economic and social alternative? required?
Verifying
impacts), social impact assessment and health impact assess-
What monitoring
ment (HIA). Since the manager must seek to identify, quan- and reporting
tify and aggregate the impacts regardless of the ‘arena’ in are needed?
which they occur, it is clear that a scoping study is required Figure 26.8 The main stages in an environmental impact assessment.
to identify the type of impact assessment required
All forms of impact assessment, environmental, are a combination of procedures, methods and tools by
social, strategic and health, have a generic similarity. which a policy, programme or project may be judged as
They all have screening and scoping elements to deter- to its potential effects on the health of a population, and
mine whether the assessment is required in the first place the distribution of those effects within the population.
and to define the boundaries of the investigation. They These methods have global endorsement via the World
should all be prospective (occur before the proposed Health Organization (see www.who.int/hia/en/). Policies
management activity) in nature and are therefore a form to address environmental change at anything beyond the
of forecasting tool. They are relatively simple and are local scale are almost, by default, major policies and so are
driven by checklists and matrices to try to ensure that likely to require an HIA. However, ‘health’ in this context
all elements are considered and that the significance of is not limited to the absence of disease but includes the
the impact in terms of scale, intensity, cost, irreversibil- presence of well-being: mental, physical and social. The
ity, longevity and so on are addressed. The key common HIA has applied impact analysis to a broadly interpreted
stages are shown in Figure 26.8. Screening assesses health agenda in a process that incorporates the principles
whether an EIA is required and, if so, at which scale of sustainable development. Because the HIA has only
(short/outline or full). Scoping involves defining the recently been developed it incorporates a more explicit
boundaries of the investigation in spatial, regulatory and reflection of sustainable development principles. Many
ramification terms. The third stage requires the defini- economic, social and environmental (as well as inherent
tion of the type of impact assessment (strategic, social, biological) factors influence the well-being of individuals
environmental, health, etc.) while the fourth step is the and communities. For example, personal circumstances,
implementation of the EIA. Implementation is usually lifestyles and the social and physical environment influence
promoted through some form of checklist which prompts health (e.g. education, income, employment, behaviour,
the analyst to consider each possible impact element. For culture, social support networks, community participa-
example, a prompt could concern the nature of any pol- tion, air quality, housing, crime, civic design and trans-
lutant: liquid, gas, particulates and so on. The fifth step port). In addition HIAs tend to have a moral and ethical
is the reporting and monitoring stage. In total all these dimension with an aim of trying to make sure that every-
form a series of steps that provide a consistent frame- one can enjoy the same health quality of life.
work for making environmental management decisions.
It allows results between sites to be compared and for
26.6.4 Life costing
decisions to be made in a clear way so that other people
can see how a given decision has been arrived at. Putting impact assessment and prediction together allows
HIAs are a newer form of EIA and feature more the development of life-cycle analysis (LCA). LCA has
prominently on the public agenda than normal EIAs. become an important tool in allowing a full ‘cradle to
They have gained wide acceptance by governments and grave’ assessment of management actions or intervention
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26.6 Management tools
which are long-term and take a viewpoint beyond the a system. We can also use other indices such as the
immediate typical vision of planners and politicians. amount of carbon used. Most of the time, however, we
LCA is the examination of everything that happens in the are using multiple resources (fossil fuels, nutrients, etc.)
manufacture, use and disposal of a product, from the time and can create substances that may last for thousands
the raw materials are taken from the Earth to the time of years without being recycled into the ecosystem (e.g.
the product is thrown away and added to the ecosystem nuclear waste). Environmental managers, like managers
(Figure 26.9). The basic idea of LCA is to identify and in all other sectors, are seldom free to do what they
evaluate all the environmental impacts of a given product like. The actions that they take need resources, and
(Ciambrone, 1997). these need to be justified. Furthermore, the boundaries
This is similar to producing an ecological footprint, within which managers can exercise choice must be
which is where a calculation is performed as to what agreed. Since all actions take place from within a lim-
area of biosphere is required to sustain an individual, ited budget and since money spent on the environment
a company/organization or a country. The challenge of will inevitably divert resources away from other deserv-
LCA, however, lies in the word ‘evaluate’. We are aware ing causes, it is often helpful to express impact and
that many natural systems have a capacity to absorb effects in monetary values to promote communication
impacts. What is needed is a measure of this capacity. with decision-makers. This has expanded to a major
Thus we need detailed physical geography to be carried discipline in its own right, known as environmental eco-
out to provide us with such information. Sometimes nomics. When we merge LCA with the financial expres-
we can use, as in the case of the ecological footprint, sion of consequences the resulting approach is called
a measure of land area to indicate the capacity of whole-life costing.
Life-cycle
analysis
End of life End of life
issues issues
(recycling, etc.) (recycling, etc.)
Extraction of Sustainable
raw materials materials
and resources use
Processing Re-use of
materials and materials
environmental for green
impacts energy
Economic
Sustainable
social and
design of
legal
product
obligations
Figure 26.9 Life-cycle analysis.
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Chapter 26 Dealing with hazards and environmental change
26.6.5 Ecosystem services a specific ecosystem. The outputs of food, medicinal and
other economic products such as timber are visible as they
In part an attempt to place a monetary or other value on
are transported or sold. Equally, the importance of many
the natural environment for decision-makers, the Millen-
landscapes in terms of their cultural value gives rise to evoc-
nium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) was one of the first
ative terms, and has often been used in the past to justify
attempts to identify and put values on the benefits pro-
protected area status, despite the difficulty of assigning a
vided by the environment (see Box 11.4 in Chapter 11).
monetary value to what is being given such status. Perhaps
This is unlike LCA, which just focusses on costs related to
this is most closely approached in the difference in house
a particular product. Two years after the Millenium Eco-
prices with and without a desirable view.
system Assessment, the British Government (Defra, 2007)
A current problem is that of calibration. Many of the
adopted this approach to support policy decision-making.
services and the importance of their contribution are not
Internationally the topic is of growing importance. Major
yet measured in a manner suited for objective calculation,
international organizations such as Conservation Inter-
nor are there widely accepted examples of best practice or
national now use the ecosystem services concept to help
national standards. However, there has been a lot of rapid
prioritize which conservation projects to take forward. In
progress in this area with many books (e.g. Martin-Ortega
Malawi, the Decentralised Environmental Management
et al., 2015; Bonn et al., 2016) and even entire academic
Guidelines were produced by the Ministry of Local Gov-
journals (e.g. Ecosystem Services) focused on the topic. A
ernment and Development (2012) to contain instructions
case study of the ecosystem service approach is provided in
focussed on an ecosystem services-based approach (Waylen
Box 26.4. Progress is leading to new funding schemes that
and Martin-Ortega, 2013), and the South East Queensland
seek to protect or restore degraded ecosystems (payments for
Ecosystem Services Framework in Australia provides an
ecosystem services). An example is the UK Peatland Code
example at the catchment level (Maynard et al., 2015)
(www.iucn-uk-peatlandprogramme.org/peatland-code),
In the ‘ecosystem approach’, land, water and living
which is a scheme that allows organizations to fund peatland
resources are managed in an integrated fashion, but are
restoration and protection in return for a list of clear bene-
almost always evaluated from the perspective of the bene-
fits of that work on, for example, water quality and carbon
fits for humans. Essentially, ecosystem services are the ben-
storage. This may fit corporate social responsibility agendas
efits that people obtain from ecosystems. Since the rural
as well as the goals of, for example, water companies who
poor are often the most directly dependent upon natural
can determine whether it is more cost effective to pay for
capital, either daily or in times of hardship, the sustainable
upland landowners to conserve peatlands rather than suffer
management of ecological services is an important ele-
the costs of poor water quality at the treatment plant.
ment of poverty reduction policies.
The main elements of ecosystems in terms of the ser-
vices they provide to humanity are usually placed into four 26.6.6 Engagement
groups, as shown in Figure 11.15 in Chapter 11. The sup-
To deal with hazards and environmental change requires
port services, not always readily apparent to the non-spe-
implementation of practical solutions. In all cases this
cialist, are those which underpin a resilient ecosystem, such
requires collaborative engagement with a wide range of
as the role of invertebrates in maintaining soil fertility or of
stakeholders. Building a consensus for action is vital but
photosynthesis in relation to primary production and the food
is usually time consuming. It requires that everyone with
webs within the ecosystem. Without these services, synthetic
an interest is consulted or feels consulted. The identifica-
or other nutrients might need to be bought in to maintain
tion of precisely ‘everyone with an interest’ is not simple.
agricultural production. Regulatory benefits include those
Stakeholder analysis involves a sequence of brainstorming
where, for example, the presence of trees allows the impact
events at which a group of project managers seek to iden-
of heavy rainfall on the soil to be moderated by the barrier
tify everyone with a reasonable interest in a project. It is
provided by leaves and branches, while allowing a longer
important to appreciate that this goes far beyond simply
period for soil water replenishment. Tree roots also stabi-
the list of statutory bodies that a politician might first
lize a roadside verge or mangrove roots protect a section of
identify and beyond the owners, businesses, consumers
coastline. Value may be seen here in terms of the amount
and liability holders that a lawyer might identify. Making
of money needed to provide equivalent protection to that
an adequate definition of stakeholders is the foundation of
supplied by the trees. The provisioning and cultural services
consensus building.
are usually the most obvious to those living within or near
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26.6 Management tools
The ecosystem service value (Figure 26.10). The forest is dominated US$17 000 per ha. Hence a policy that
of the Oku Aizu forest reserve by broadleaf trees and home to several favoured putting financial resources into
endangered species such as the golden forest conservation could be shown to be
in Japan
eagle (Aquila Chrysaetos). Seven ecosys- economically sensible rather than letting
Forest ecosystems provide several bene- tem services were evaluated including the forests degrade and therefore causing
fits such as climate regulation, retaining water resources, recreation value and a loss of value and degradation of the
nutrients and reducing soil erosion. absorption of air pollution. The work ecosystem services such as water provi-
Such benefits may not be appreciated by calculated the value of each service sion, soil protection, pollution absorption
policy-makers who may not be used to provided by the forest for society. Overall and recreation. Thus, in this case, the
thinking about the value of such benefits the research showed that the total value ecosystem services approach provided
to society. Ninan and Inuoe (2013) stud- of the forest to society was worth about policy-makers with useful information on
ied the Oku Aizu forest reserve in Japan US$1.4 billion, equivalent to around which to base their decisions.
Figure 26.10 Part of the OkCu Aizu forest reserve, Japan. (Source: cdrw / Shutterstock.com)
BOX 26.4
However, even if you do manage to identify all of the rather than builds on the prospects of future consensus.
stakeholders it is very unlikely that all the stakeholders In place of such an approach there should be an intelli-
will agree with a single inflexible proposal. Indeed such an gent negotiation of alternatives. In reality, however, these
approach is almost inevitably going to cause opposition. two approaches (offering a single solution and offering a
If, as an environmental manager, this ‘single solution’ choice of options) are simply two points on a spectrum
approach is adopted it will need to be resolved through of types of participation in decision-making identified
the legal system or through some national or interna- by van Ast and Boot (2003). The full spectrum is given in
tional arbitration process. Of course any such approach Table 26.3, which shows how the style of management and
is costly and may have unfortunate consequences. For role of stakeholder may interact. The two approaches dis-
example, a project such as a runway development, aban- cussed above correspond to ‘open authoritative’ and ‘par-
doned for environmental considerations, may reduce ticipating/delegating’ categories within the table.
employment potential. The same project permitted to Alternative dispute resolution is a process that avoids
go ahead will result in claims of loss of property value. any winners and losers. It does this by presenting a range
Therefore the process of offering a single option destroys of choices and uses the stakeholder groups to participate
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Chapter 26 Dealing with hazards and environmental change
in the analysis of which options are viable and which participatory analysis while the identification of key
are not. The process of encouraging all stakeholders criteria through which to evaluate options is called
to take an active part in the decision process is called options analysis.
Table 26.3 Levels of governance and styles of participation
Style of Role of Form of Reflective questions
management stakeholder interaction
➤ What is the difference between mitigation and
Facilitative Initiator Interactive adaptation?
Co-operative Co-operating partner ➤ What are the benefits and disadvantages of an ecosystem
Delegating Co-decision-maker services approach?
Participating Adviser
Consultative Consultant Non-interactive
Open authoritative Information receiver
Closed authoritative None
(Source: from van Ast and Boot, 2003)
26.7 Summary the risk we have to evaluate both the threat and the ability of
the population to cope or recover from an event. Predicting
Dealing with hazards and environmental change requires us to be short- and long-term risks is the key to dealing with hazards and
able to distinguish between types of hazards and also understand environmental change. However, such prediction can often be
that there are different types of environmental change. Hazards challenging. Monitoring networks and modelling support the pre-
vary in their nature, scale, size and intensity. Physical hazards, diction and warning process. They also support decision-making
chemical hazards, biological hazards and technological hazards process as to what types of responses we might make in both the
can occur in isolation or may be connected to one another with short and long term.
compounded secondary hazards occurring. Hazards may also be Management of hazards and environmental change con-
affected by environmental change. Environmental change may be siders mitigation options and adaptation options. A range of
linear or non-linear, reversible or irreversible and hysteretic. Some tools are available to managers to help determine the course
environmental change can be rapid and some may be slow. Even of action. These tools range from impact assessments, to
gradual environmental change can lead to a dramatic change in life-cycle analysis and ecosystem services assessments.
the system once a threshold is reached and such changes may be Implementation of practical solutions requires engagement
illustrated by catastrophe theory. with stakeholders and there are a range of potential tools
The risk is a product of the vulnerability of a socio-economic available to planners to facilitate agreements on which solu-
system and the nature of the environmental threat. To understand tions to adopt.
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Further reading
Further reading This is an excellent assemblage of chapters containing exam-
ples from around the world of ecosystem service approaches,
but with a water perspective. This text is also freely available to
download online.
Brauch, H.G., Oswald Spring, Ú., Mesjasz, C. et al. (eds) (2011)
Coping with global environmental change, disasters and security: McDonald, A.T., Lane, S.N., Haycock, N.E. and Chalk, E.A.
Threats, challenges, vulnerabilities and risks. Springer, Berlin. (2004) Rivers of dreams: on the gulf between theoretical and
This book examines key topics around climate change, desert- practical aspects of an upland river restoration. Transactions of
ification, water, food and health and hazards linking science the Institute of British Geographers, 29, 257–281.
with policy strategies. A good case study of stakeholder engagement and project man-
agement issues.
Eccleston, C.H. (2011) Environmental Impact Assessment: a
guide to best professional practices. CRC Press, Boca Raton. Pine, J.C. (2014) Hazards analysis: reducing the impact of
This is a book for practitioners but it provides a useful overview disasters. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
of the key issues and tools involved in EIAs. A detailed textbook outlining hazard identification, risk
analysis, management and resilience.
Martin-Ortega, J., Ferrier, R.C., Gordon, I. and Khan, S.
(2015) Water Ecosystem Services – a global perspective.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
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Glossary
A Aggradation The raising of a surface caused by the accumulation of
material deposited by various geomorphological agents (e.g. wind,
Ablation The action of removing and carrying away a superficial mate- water or wave).
rial; it primarily relates to the sublimation, melting and evaporation Aggregate A grouping of soil particles adhered together and
which remove snow and ice from the surface of a glacier or snow- separated from surrounding aggregates by voids in the soil. Also
field. It can also be applied to the wearing away of rock by water and known as ped.
the removal of salt or sand from a surface by the action of wind. Agronomy Subject of utilizing plant processes for crop growth.
Ablation zone The region of a glacier that experiences net loss of mass Air mass An extensive body of air possessing relatively uniform
throughout the year (i.e. ablation exceeds accumulation). conditions of temperature and moisture that is in contact with
Absolute zero The temperature at which molecules have no internal the ground.
energy and are at a complete rest. This is equivalent to zero kelvin Alas Small irregularly shaped lakes and depressions caused by the melt-
or - 275.15 °C. ing of massive ground ice.
Absorption bands Sections of the electromagnetic spectrum that inter- Albedo The proportion of radiation reflected from a surface. Surfaces
fere with the passage of radiation to the Earth’s surface. such as snow have a high albedo.
Abyssal plain The flat deep-sea floor extending seawards from the base Alkaline A substance which has properties of an alkali, a pH greater
of the continental slope and continental rise, reaching depths of 4–6 than 7.
km between mid-ocean ridges and trenches. Alkalinity The capacity of water to neutralize acid, determined by
Accumulation zone The region of a glacier that experiences net gain of the quantity of base cations (Na +, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+) in the sub-
mass throughout the year (i.e. accumulation of snow, firn and ice). stance. It is measured by titration of the sample with a strong
Across-track sensors Scanning instruments that collect data by direct- mineral acid.
ing the line of sight in a sweeping motion at right angles to the direc- Allochthonous A material or resource that is not indigenous to the
tion of travel by a rotating or oscillating mirror. These are also called location in which is it found and has therefore travelled to reach the
whiskbroom scanners. said location.
Active layer The thin top layer of the ground surface that is seasonally Allogenic Pertaining to a change in system dynamics caused by the
frozen and unfrozen above permafrost. influence of an external environmental factor, i.e. in relation to river
Adiabatic The expansion of a body of air without loss or gain of heat. channel adjustment, an allogenic change involves a move away from
Adsorbed When a specific gas, liquid or substance in solution adheres to equilibrium conditions in response to an alteration in the sediment
the exposed surface of a material with which it is in contact, usually a and water regime of the river.
solid, e.g. the adsorption of anions to the surface of clay minerals by Alluvial fan A fan-shaped landform composed of alluvium, deposited
electrostatic attractions. where a tributary stream loses momentum on entering a more gently
Adsorption Attachment of a substance in solution to a solid. sloping valley.
Advection The horizontal circulation of an ocean body or air mass. Along-track sensors Scanning devices that collect data using a linear
Advective solution The process in which solutes are removed and trans- array of instruments oriented perpendicularly to the direction of
ported through the soil in a flow of water (e.g. runoff and percolating travel covering one side of the swath to the other. These are also
water); it is very effective at removing solutes from near the surface; called pushbroom scanners.
similar to leaching. Alpine permafrost Permafrost that occurs locally owing to low tem-
Aeolian Pertaining to the processes, Earth materials and landforms that peratures at high altitudes, e.g. the Rocky Mountains.
involve the role of wind. Alternative dispute resolution The process of settling an environmen-
Aeration The ventilation of soil. tal dispute through mediation and arbitration (avoiding litigation); it
Aerosols Minute particles suspended in the atmosphere that interact avoids strict winners and losers by presenting a range of choices and
with the Earth’s radiation budget and climate. encouraging participatory analysis.
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Amictic Amictic comes from amixis, which means a lack of mixing. Amic- Artificial neural network (ANN) A type of parallel computing in which
tic lakes are those which do not circulate, usually because they are memory is distributed across a number of smaller processing units
covered in ice for the majority of the year and therefore wind is not that process information in a parallel manner.
able to mix the water; they are predominantly found in high-latitude Aspiration The act of drawing air.
and high-altitude locations. Asthenosphere The ductile layer of the Earth’s mantle located
Amphidrome Points in the oceans where there is zero tidal range due to 100–400 km below the surface, on which the rigid lithospheric
cancelling out of tides. Tides radiate out from amphidromes. plates glide.
Anaerobic Functioning in the absence of oxygen. Atmometer An instrument for taking direct measurements of evaporation;
Anaerobic bacteria Microorganisms that survive in environments con- by connecting a water supply to a porous surface the amount of evapo-
taining no free or dissolved oxygen; they obtain oxygen through the ration over a given time is measured by the change in water stored.
decomposition of chemical compounds, such as nitrates. Atolls Coral reefs that surround a central lagoon; most are found in the
Analogue image An image composed of continuous tone. Indian and Pacific Oceans.
Anastomosing Pertaining to the tendency for certain rivers to divide Autochthonous A material or resource which is indigenous to the loca-
and reunite, producing a complex pattern of channels with large, sta- tion in which it is found.
ble islands between the channels. Autogenic Pertaining to a change in system dynamics caused by the
Angle of repose The maximum slope gradient at which unconsolidated influence of an internal, self-produced factor, i.e. in relation to river
material will remain stable without collapse. channel adjustments, an autogenic change involves a fluctuation
Anions Negatively charged ions, i.e. an atom which has gained one or about an equilibrium condition.
more negatively charged electrons, e.g. the chloride ion (Cl-). Autotrophs Those life forms that acquire their energy from the Sun
Anoxic Depleted of oxygen; in water usually a result of bacterial oxygen via the process of photosynthesis. They form the first trophic
consumption and other respiration in areas of restricted circulation. level by creating a source of energy for other animals, birds and
Antarctic Bottom Water (ABW) A body of water formed along the edge insects.
of the Antarctic continent. Very dense water created by the very cold, Available water The water available in soil for plant growth after
saline conditions is forced to sink and flow north underneath the excess water has drained owing to gravitational forces, i.e. the water
North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW); together they power the thermo- retained between the states of field capacity and wilting point.
haline circulation of the world’s oceans. Avulsion The process whereby a channel shifts, abandoning its old
Anticyclogenesis A condition in which a zone of descending air course for a new course, and leaving an intervening area of floodplain
results in high pressure at ground level and air to circulate slowly intact.
outwards from the descending zone. This results in anticyclonic
conditions.
Anti-dune A type of small-scale cross-bedding feature formed from a B
sand deposit on a river bed. It develops from a ‘normal’ dune when Back-scar The upslope section of the wall from which a landslide has
the flow velocity increases in a highly loaded river; erosion from occurred, creating a scar.
the downstream slope throws material into saltation and suspen- Backscatter The return signal of a radiation pulse from an active remote
sion more easily than it can be replenished from upstream, causing sensor. This is also called the echo.
upstream migration of the bedform feature. Backwash The seaward return pulse of water from a breaking wave
Aquifer A layer of rock with sufficient porosity to absorb and store along the shoreline, moving under the force of gravity.
water and permeable enough to allow water to pass freely through as Badlands A deeply eroded barren landscape characterized by very irregu-
groundwater. lar topography with ridges, peaks and mesas resulting from wind and
Aquitard An aquifer which has been confined between impermeable water erosion of sedimentary rock. Badlands originally referred to the
rock layers and only open for recharge and discharge at certain loca- heavily eroded arid region of south-west South Dakota and north-west
tions. Nebraska in the United States but is now a more generic term.
Archimedes’ principle Any object wholly or partially immersed in a fluid Balance velocity The flow velocity required by a glacier to maintain the
will experience a buoyant force (or upthrust) equal to the weight of ice in equilibrium; the mass transferred down the glacier should equal
the fluid displaced. that lost by melting in the ablation zone.
Arête A steep knife-edge ridge that divides the steep walls of two adja- Bank-full Condition when the river channel is full of water.
cent cirques in a mountainous region. Bank-full discharge The level of discharge at which any more water would
Argillic A term to describe a soil horizon characterized by clay accumu- cause the river to spill out of the channel onto adjacent low-lying land.
lation. Barchan dunes Isolated crescentic sand dunes with a shallow windward
Aridity A state of lacking in moisture, when evapotranspiration exceeds and a steep lee side whose horns point in the direction of dune move-
precipitation. It can be defined by the annual overall net negative ment (usually forming under conditions of limited sand supply).
moisture balance of a particular environment. Barrier beaches Elongated offshore banks of coarse granular debris
Armoured layer The coarser stoned surface layer of a mixed gravel-bed (sand, gravel) lying parallel to the coastline that are not submerged
river, protecting the finer material beneath. by the tide (see barriers).
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Barrier islands Elongated offshore islands of coarse granular material, above an ice surface is greater than a liquid surface and hence the
lying parallel to the coastline, similar to barrier beaches but larger in saturation vapour pressure over water is greater than ice, causing a
scale and forming behind barrier beaches (see barriers). pressure gradient towards the ice.
Barriers Elements of a beach planform located just offshore that involve Berms Prominent ridges at the back of a beach with a steep seaward
the accumulation of landward-migrating sand shoals running parallel face and flat top, marking the limit of the swash zone.
to the coastline that achieve surface elevation as they roll inland (see Best Management Practices (BMPs) Methods of minimizing diffuse
barrier beaches and barrier islands). pollution. BMPs consist of two types: structural, e.g. wetlands, and
Bars Ridges of coarse sediment deposited on a stream bed where the procedural, e.g. handling methods for polluting chemicals.
stream velocity drops, especially mid-stream and on the inside of Bifurcation point Bifurcation theory is a branch of chaos theory, and
meanders. the bifurcation point refers to an occurrence within this theory.
Base Pertaining to substances with a pH above 7 (notably calcium, mag- The bifurcation point is the point of change in a non-linear system
nesium, potassium and sodium) or substances that release hydroxide where there is a branching off into different paths, which can lead
ions (OH - ). to differing outcomes. Along each branch of the system new influ-
Base saturation The percentage of base cations that make up the total ences will determine the eventual outcome which may result in
exchangeable cations in soil. feedback loops or descent into chaos. The bifurcation point marks
Base station A stationary global positioning system receiver positioned a sudden change as opposed to a slow one which would allow for
over a known point that continuously collects data from satellites gradual evolution.
used to correct the recorded positions of the roving global position- Bimodal distribution A statistical term signifying that the frequency
ing system receivers. curve of a distribution of data has two maxima (two modal classes).
Baseflow The stable portion of a river’s discharge, contributed by Binge–purge model A model of ice sheet development related to inher-
groundwater transfers. ent instabilities of large ice sheets; ice loading due to the growth of
Batholith A large irregular shaped mass of igneous rock, often granite; an ice sheet increases basal pressure causing substrate failure and
it is formed through the intrusion of magma into the strata at depth, greater meltwater production, thereby increasing ice flow velocity
where it melts the strata. The igneous rock is then exposed when the and ice rafting. The release of this excess ice would then stabilize the
less resistant overlying rock is eroded away over time. ice sheet again. Proposed as a possible cause of Heinrich events.
Bathymetry The study and mapping of ocean floor topography. Bioaccumulation The accumulation of toxins in specific parts of the
Bay-head delta A delta at the head of an estuary or a bay into which a ecosystem (usually at the higher levels of food chains) due to the
river discharges. They typically occur if the river carries large amounts greater ability of some chemicals to accumulate in zones where
of sediment, or where the coastline is being submerged. they become bioavailable, and are taken up and stored by produc-
Beach cusps Crescent-shaped accumulations of sand or shingle sur- ers and consumers. The materials must be stored in those parts of
rounding a depression on a beach; they are always found in combi- the individual that will be consumed. It may result in severe adverse
nation and formed when outgoing rip currents and incoming waves effects on an ecosystem once a threshold level of toxin storage is
combine to create circular water movements. reached.
Beach nourishment A soft engineering technique implemented to Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) A measure of the amount of bio-
reduce the impact of beach erosion. The method involves adding chemically degradable organic matter in water that is widely used in
sediment to the beach to maintain the beach profile. water pollution assessments.
Beamwidth The width of a radar pulse in the direction of travel. A nar- Bioconcentration The level of concentration of accumulated toxins
row beamwidth means higher resolution. found in plant or animal tissues (via the process of bioaccumulation)
Bed load Sediment grains transported in water by rolling along the bed compared with background natural levels.
surface or through saltation. Biodiversity The number and variety of taxonomic groups (usually spe-
Bed return flow The average return flow of water offshore near to the cies) of plants and animals at a site or within a region.
bed, after it has been brought onshore in the upper water column. Biogenous Pertaining to material derived from organisms.
Large amounts of beach material can be removed from the beach in Biogeochemical Pertaining to the chemical relationships between the
the bed return flow. geology of an area and its plant and animal life.
Bedform A morphological feature developed by fluid flow across the Biogeochemical cycles These cycles are the pathways though which the
surface of soft sediment, involving the entrainment or deposition of elements necessary for life travel in the biotic and abiotic environ-
sediment. ment. Along these pathways there are changes in the fluxes of the
Benthic Pertaining to organisms dwelling on the river or sea floor. element depending on the residence time in varying reservoirs and
Benthos Benthic organisms (see Benthic). the transformations of the elements which occur.
Bergeron process The formation of precipitation described by the Bioherm An ancient mass of rock formed by sedentary organisms, such
Bergeron–Findeison theory. Ice crystals fall from the upper part of as corals.
a cloud, leading to aggregation of crystals and accretion of super- Biological sediments Sediments derived from organic materials, either
cooled water. Ice crystals grow preferentially by sublimation at the remains of dead organisms (e.g. shells, plants) or framework organ-
expense of surrounding water droplets because the relative humidity isms (e.g. coral reefs).
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Biomass The total dry weight of living organic matter, usually measured Breakwater A coastal management feature in which a submerged artificial
per unit area over a particular time interval. Tends to include dead barrier offshore acts to break incoming waves or create new diffraction
parts of organisms when referring to soils. patterns, protecting the shoreline from wave action in the process.
Biome A coarse unit of ecosystem classification based on what the land Bulk density The weight per unit volume of a solid particulate as it is
cover and ecosystems look like. normally packed (including solids and pore spaces). Usually expressed
Biosphere All the organisms on the planet, viewed as a system of inter- as lb/ft3 or g cm - 3.
acting components making a thin film on the planet’s surface, and
including parts of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.
Biostratigraphic Pertaining to the division of sedimentary deposits
C
based upon their fossil evidence, each biostratigraphic unit having a Calcareous ooze Fine-grained deep-ocean biogenous sediment con-
distinctive fossil assemblage, e.g. the use of fossilized pollen assem- taining at least 30% skeletal remains of marine organisms based on
blages for studying European interglacial intervals. calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
Bit scale Refers to the number of colours used to quantify brightness Calcrete A duricrust composed mainly of calcium carbonate.
values in a digital image. Caldera A large, steep-sided, land surface depression containing vol-
Black body An ideal body or surface that absorbs and emits all radiant canic vents. Formed by large-scale subsidence as the parent magma
energy dependent on its absolute temperature. chamber cools and contracts following a major volcanic eruption.
Black smokers Hydrothermal springs lying along the rift valley of mid- Calibre The size of sediment particles.
ocean ridges. Seawater that seeps into fissures in the basaltic lava Candle ice Ice consisting of vertically orientated crystals often over 1 m
becomes superheated and chemically interacts with the basaltic rock in length.
to create a black precipitate of metal sulfides. Capillarity Also known as capillary action. It is the process whereby
Blockfield A continuous spread of angular rock fragments across a high a liquid can act against the force of gravity and flow upwards in a
mountain or plateau in a periglacial environment; formed in situ by narrow tube such as those found in a porous material. It is depend-
frost shattering (occasionally transported and deposited by saturated ent upon the surface tension of the liquid and the adhesion of the
material in gelifluction). molecules.
Blow-outs Saucer-shaped depressions created in sand dunes where dam- Capillary water Water that remains in small pores in the soil against the
age to vegetation by sand or humans has led to patches of bare sand. forces of gravity; the major source of water available for plant uptake.
Bond cycles A grouping of Dansgaard–Oeschger (D–O) events together Carbon sequestration The uptake of carbon by a system. Carbon diox-
into a larger cycle with a long cooling trend followed by an abrupt ide can be absorbed by plants from the atmosphere and then this is
warming. converted into solid plant material. The carbon is then part of the ter-
Bottomset beds Horizontally layered sediment beds deposited in front restrial system and has been ‘taken up’ from the atmosphere.
of a delta as it progrades seawards. They become covered and end up Carnivores Organisms (usually an animal) that consume meat and there-
at the bottom of a stack of deltaic sediments (below the foreset beds fore occupy a high trophic level in the ecosystem.
and topset beds). Catastrophe theory A theory in which non-linear interactions within a
Boudins Bands of connected debris-rich ice lenses in a glacier, once system cause a threshold to be crossed which then leads to a sudden
connected but broken under pressure (forming a sausage shape; bou- and dramatic change to a new stable model of operation. Before the
din is French for sausage). threshold is crossed changes may be slow and barely noticeable.
Boulder-controlled slope A scree slope at the base of a cliff in which Catchment An open system defined as the area of land drained by a
the scree material is removed as quickly as new material is added particular stream or river; it represents a fundamental unit in hydrol-
to it by rockfall creating a thin covering maintained at the angle of ogy and is usually topographically well defined. A catchment may be
repose. The landform (cliff and boulder-controlled slope) retreats at composed of a series of subcatchments.
an almost constant ratio. Catena The sequence of soils occupying a slope transect from the topo-
Boulton–Menzies theory A theory of drumlin formation suggesting graphical divide to the bottom of the adjacent valley that have devel-
drumlins are formed by deposition in the lee of a slowly moving oped from similar parent material but vary in profile characteristics
obstacle in the deforming layer of a glacier, therefore streamlining owing to the differing topographical and drainage conditions under
the deposition. which they formed.
Boundary conditions The physical conditions at the boundaries of a Cation exchange The process of interchange between a cation in soil
system. They are particularly used in modelling work and for example solution and another on the surface of a soil colloid.
would refer to the impermeable nature of the floor of an aquifer in Cation exchange capacity (CEC) The overall net negative charge of clay
the model. minerals per unit mass of soil, usually expressed as milliequivalents
Boundary roughness The roughness of the river channel bed and the (meq) per kg of oven-dried soil.
submerged bank. Cations Positively charged ions, e.g. the sodium ion (Na+).
Braided channel A river channel consisting of separate, but interlinked, Causal inference The process in which a cause is linked to observations
migrating channels flowing either side of active unvegetated bars under the assumption that every event must have a cause. It is a key
that change position owing to bed load transport. element in the scientific method.
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Cavitation A process of fluvial erosion, characteristic of waterfalls and rap- Coleoptera A large and important order of insects, distinguished by
ids. Constriction of channel flow raises the flow velocity, thereby reduc- anterior wings converted into hard sheaths covering the other pair
ing water pressure and leading to the formation of air bubbles. As the when not in use, i.e. beetles.
stream widens again and the velocity decreases the air bubbles collapse Collector–filterers These organisms exist in the water column and feed
and the shock waves place considerable stress on the channel walls. by filtering out fine particulate organic matter in the water column.
Channel planform The form of channels when viewed from above. Collector–gatherers These organisms can be found in the slower flow-
Channel sinuosity A measure of the degree of curvature in channels ing areas of a river, they are more likely to feed from the bottom of
with meandering channel planforms. the water column as they wait until the fine particulate organic mat-
Channelization The artificial modification of natural river channels for ter has fallen out of the water column due to the reduced energy in
the purposes of flood alleviation, land drainage or relocation. It may the water flow and then gather it up to feed on.
involve channel widening, deepening, straightening, stabilizing (using Colloid A substance in which very small particles (0.1910 mm (millionths
concrete or piling) or embanking. of a metre) in diameter) are held in a state midway between a solu-
Chatter marks Microscale erosional features that appear as crescentic tion and a suspension.
scars. Colour palette Colour reference table for displaying the digital number
Chelates A stable compound formed between organic molecules and of an image.
metallic cations in which more than one bond links the two compo- Community (in ecological terms) The total living biotic component of an
nents (also see complex). Chelates are especially important for the ecosystem (plants, animals and microbes).
behaviour of aluminium and iron in the soil. Competition (in ecological terms) Negative interaction between organ-
Chelation The process whereby chelates are formed. isms caused by the need for a common resource such as light, water
Chemical mixing model A chemical mass balance model in which it is or nutrients.
assumed that the concentration of an ion in solution consists of the Complex A compound formed between organic molecules and metallic
mixture of concentrations and flows from different sources. cations by a single bond (also see chelates).
Chemical sediments Sediments produced by chemical processes, Compressive stress The action of a force pushing inwards to the centre
formed predominantly as a result of precipitation of minerals directly of an object along its cross-sectional axis.
from a water body. Concentration The mass of substance of interest per unit volume, for
Chinook A warm, dry local wind that blows east down the lee slopes of solutes normally expressed as mg L - 1.
the Rocky Mountains. The wind is subject to warming by adiabatic Conditionally unstable Instability in the atmosphere that is conditional
compression on descent and is warmer in absolute terms at any given upon an air parcel becoming saturated, which leads to a shift from
altitude than on its windward ascent. cooling via the dry adiabatic lapse rate to the saturated adiabatic
Clastic sediments Sediments composed of grains of rock which have lapse rate. This causes the air to become warmer than the surround-
been weathered and eroded from a pre-existing bedrock material; ing air and ascend more rapidly, leading to strong upward convection.
they are dominated by those grains most resistant to weathering. Conduction Transfer of energy between two bodies in contact.
Clay A soil mineral particle within the fine earth fraction, having an Congruent dissolution This is the process whereby a whole solid dis-
upper limit of 2 mm (two-millionths of a metre) in diameter; very solves into its constituent elements and there is no secondary solid
important in determining soil properties. phase. An example of such a process is the dissolution of calcite into
Clay skin A thin film of clay which has lined an area of soil. calcium, water and carbon dioxide.
Climax communities A community of plants and animals in steady-state Continental shelf The zone bordering a continent extending from the
equilibrium with prevailing conditions in the physical environment, line of permanent immersion to the depth at which there is a marked
seen as the self-perpetuating terminal stages of ecological succes- increase in the downward slope which descends to the deep-ocean
sion. floor.
Coefficient of friction The ratio of the frictional force between two Continental shield The ancient, stable, low-relief interior of continents;
surfaces sliding across one another to the normal force acting per- composed primarily of Precambrian crystalline rocks, some as old as 2
pendicular to the surfaces; it depends primarily on the nature of both to 3 billion years.
surfaces in contact. Continuous permafrost zone A region in which permafrost occurs eve-
Coefficient of thermal expansion When heated, most substances will rywhere in the ground surface except beneath large bodies of water
expand and on cooling will contract. It is the response of the sub- or ice.
stance to this alteration in temperature which is the coefficient of Contour scaling This often occurs on urban stone and is associated
thermal expansion. with salt crystallization in subsurface layers of the stone. The result
Cohesion The force by which a homogeneous substance is held together is a layer of stone up to several centimetres thick blistering and then
owing to attraction between like molecules. completely falling away.
Cold glacier A glacier in which ice remains at very low temperatures, Control A single test performed within a larger set of experiments,
tens of degrees below freezing, with no appreciable surface melting. whereby no variables are altered from the norm; it acts to monitor
The absence of meltwater causes the glacier to remain largely frozen the quality of the experimentation and ensure that no unaccounted
to the underlying substrate. variables are influencing the results.
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Convection Transfer of energy through a fluid (liquid or gas) by molecu- D
lar motions.
Convergent plate boundary The boundary between two lithospheric Dansgaard–Oeschger (D–O) events Interstadial episodes during the
plates in which one plate descends below the other, resulting in the Quaternary lasting no more than 500–2000 years involving an abrupt
consumption of lithosphere via the process of subduction. change in temperature of the order of 5–8°C as quickly as a few dec-
Coping strategies Strategies used to reduce stress by mitigating the ades (gradual cooling followed by rapid warming). Large differences
influences of an event/situation as opposed to attempting to change are also recorded in atmospheric dust content, ice accumulation rate,
the situation. methane concentration and CO2 concentrations. They are interpreted
Coriolis effect As a result of the Earth’s rotation any moving object or to be the response of internal feedback mechanisms.
fluid is deflected towards the right in the northern hemisphere and to Darcy’s law A physical law to determine the flow of water through the
the left in the southern hemisphere. matrix of a porous medium (e.g. groundwater through an aquifer).
Corrasion The mechanical breakdown of rock due to wearing and grind- The relationship holds only for laminar (non-turbulent) flow of fluids
ing caused by material carried in transport across the rock surface. in homogeneous porous media and does not hold well for well-
Corries Basins excavated into a mountainside by the erosive power of a jointed limestone with numerous fissures. According to Darcy’s law
cirque glacier possessing defining features: steep retaining rock walls, the discharge of water through permeable material is equal to the
a gently inclined rock basin, abundant signs of glacial scour and a ter- cross-sectional area times the slope of the water surface times the
minal moraine. Also known as cirques. coefficient of permeability.
Corrosion A weathering process involving the breakdown of solid rock Davisian cycles of erosion A theoretical sequence of ‘wear-down’ pro-
by means of chemical reactions. cesses and forms that occur between the initial uplift of a land mass
Cosmogenous Pertaining to material that originated extraterrestrially, and its erosion to a peneplain (first codified by William Davis in 1899).
e.g. meteor fragments and cosmic dust. Its utility within real situations has often been challenged, particularly
Coversands An extensive sand sheet (generally thin and lacking bed- in relation to the effect of frequent global climatic changes that ren-
forms), formed by wind action in an unvegetated periglacial environ- der any simple sequence of forms improbable.
ment adjacent to an ice sheet. Similar to loess but coarser grained. de Geer moraine An arc-shaped ridge of glaciofluvial material (2–15 m
Crag and tail A streamlined ridge consisting of a resistant rock mass in height) formed transverse to flow at the margin of a retreating
(the ‘crag’) with an elongated body of less resistant glacial till (the glacier where the ice mass borders a glacial lake.
‘tail’) on the lee side; a result of preferential erosion around a ridge Debris avalanche A type of sudden and very rapid mass movement com-
below a glacier. mon on steep mountain slopes mobilized by gravity and commonly
Crescentric gouges Crescentric fractures formed by irregular rolling of originating from a rockslide. It is composed of an unsorted mass of
boulders carried at the base of a glacier; similar to chatter marks but rock and soil that disintegrates during movement into a range of
larger in scale and less repetitive. fragment sizes. Movement is characterized by flowage in a dry or wet
Crevasse-fill ridge A short, linear ridge of glaciofluvial material depos- state; momentum is maintained by a bouncing layer of grain-to-grain
ited as meltwater debris in a crevasse of a previous glacier (similar to collisions at the ground surface.
an esker but shorter and less sinuous). Debris flow A highly destructive mass wasting process involving a slurry-
Critical rationalism A form of positivism involving the use of deductive like flow composed of rock grains, sediment and water with a wide
reasoning. A theory is first adopted, leading to the formation of a range of sediment size grades and little internal stratification on
hypothesis; this hypothesis is then tested in an attempt to falsify it. deposition.
Crusting The process in which a crust (a hard coating) is formed on the Deductive Pertaining to the process of drawing a conclusion via obser-
ground surface, caused either by concentration of minerals in surface vational and measurement testing of a principle/hypothesis that is
layers due to high evaporative rates, or through high-intensity rain- already assumed, i.e. inference by reasoning from general laws to
drop impact. It is most common in dryland environments. particular instances (opposed to inductive).
Cultural landscape A landscape fashioned by human intervention, normally Degrees of freedom Pertaining to the capability of variation within a
over a long period. Typically, a cultural landscape will be dominated by system. The number of degrees of freedom in a particular system
vegetation whose structure and species composition is different from refers to the number of independent variables that can be freely
what would be expected under pristine conditions. An obvious example changed to bring the system to a new equilibrium without altering
would be farmland; a less obvious example might be a moorland created the phases of the system.
by felling a forest and maintained by grazing by sheep. Delta A sedimentary landform where the mouth of a river reaches
Curie point The temperature above which a metal is no longer attracted another water body such as an ocean or lake.
to a magnet. Delta front The limit of the accumulation zone of a delta; it forms from
Current ripples Small unidirectional ridges (up to 5 cm in height and the settling of finer-grained sediment carried furthest into the basin
30 cm in wavelength) formed on a beach or on a sandy river bed by by the decelerating currents.
the motion of water. Delta plain The flat surface of the delta over which the river channel
Cyclogenesis A condition in which high-level air divergence is greater migrates and channel sands accumulate.
than low-level convergence such that air is able to rise. This results in Delta switching The process whereby the position of a river delta
low pressure and the development of cyclonic conditions. changes from one site to another. This can occur when the delta
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becomes so infilled with sediment that the river changes its Digital image An image composed of an array of discrete pixels with a
course dramatically to allow the water to drain more freely into numerical assignment to define its tone.
the ocean. Digital number (DN) The numerical value assigned to a pixel in a digital
Dendrochronology The study of annual growth rings in certain tree image, the range of which is defined by the image depth or bit scale.
species for dating of the recent past. Dilation In general terms, the expansion of material.
Dendroecology The study of tree rings to understand ecological processes. Dimictic Dimictic lakes are those which have two mixing periods per
Denitrification The process whereby nitrate is reduced to produce year. During summer and winter the lake is likely to be stratified due
nitric oxide to then produce nitrous oxide to then produce nitrogen. to thermal differences at the top and bottom of the lake. The mixing
It occurs in anaerobic conditions where the microbes use nitrate for periods are likely to be in the spring and autumn when the tempera-
respiration in place of oxygen during the decomposition process. The ture of the lake is the same throughout.
result of denitrification is the loss of nitrogen into the atmosphere. Dinoflagellate Unicellular organisms which exhibit a great diversity of
Denudation chronology The process of attempting to determine the form; the most dramatic effect on surrounding life is in marine eco-
history of a landscape by establishing which stage of the Davisian systems during ‘bloom’ periods.
cycles of erosion it represents. Discontinuous permafrost zone A region in which frozen ground
Desert varnish A tough dark layer covering scree slopes found in arid areas, occurs but is not laterally continuous.
produced by weathering of the interior of the scree slope boulders. Dispersive grain stress A force acting to lift particles in a debris ava-
Desertification The spread of desert-like conditions and land degrada- lanche, caused by grain-to-grain collisions which bounce the particles
tion in arid and semi-arid environments as a result of mainly human along the base of the flow.
influence or climatic change. Displacement flow The method in which soil water at the bottom of
Detritivore An organism that feeds off litter breaking down dead plants a slope is rapidly pushed out of the soil by new infiltrating water
and animals or their waste. entering at the top of a slope, contributing directly to storm
Detritus Waste from living organisms, including dead organisms and hydrographs.
cast-off fragments. Dissipative beaches This type of beach is also known as a high-energy
Deuterium A stable isotope of hydrogen containing two neutrons in the beach. Due to the energetic waves sediment is transported offshore.
nucleus. The resultant beach is flat with a wide surf zone. On these beaches
Diagenesis Minor, non-destructive changes in the mechanical or chemi- most of the wave energy is lost in the surf zone.
cal properties of rock shortly after deposition, particularly cementa- Distributaries Separate river channels that are created when a river
tion and compaction (associated with the final stages of lithification splits and does not rejoin the main channel.
(see lithified)). Divergent plate boundaries The boundary between two lithospheric
Diapause A phenomenon which is often associated with insects; it is plates which are moving apart, resulting in the formation of new
a period in the life cycle of an insect where its development is sus- lithosphere.
pended. It can be instigated by environmental conditions. Domestication The process whereby the evolution of a plant or animal
Diapositives A positive photograph developed on plastic or glass with species becomes controlled by humans. The deliberate breeding of
high dimensional stability, rather than on paper, to minimize distor- dogs from their tamed wolf ancestors is an example.
tions with shrinkage or expansion of the photographic media. Drainage basin That part of the landscape which is drained by a unitary
Diatoms Microscopic single-celled marine or freshwater plants with river system.
silica skeletons that contribute to the formation of sedimentary Drainage density The measure of total stream channel length per unit
deposits when they die. area of drainage basin (stream length divided by drainage area).
Differential GPS A global positioning system that uses one or more Drainage divide The perimeter boundary of a drainage basin.
roving receivers along with one stationary global positioning system Drumlin A depositional bedform characterized by elongated accumula-
receiver positioned over a known point that continuously collects tions of till streamlined in the direction of ice flow (they can reach
data from the satellites. This information can be used to correct 1 km in length, 500 m in width and 50 m in height). Debate exists as
errors in the global positioning system signals received by the rovers to the process of their formation; most accept they are deposited
to produce high-quality positional measurements. when the competence of a glacier overloaded with sediment reduces.
Differentials Those species present as a subtype of an ecosystem com- Dry adiabatic lapse rate The rate at which rising air is cooled as it
munity that is dominated by another species. expands when no condensation is occurring: 9.8 °C km - 1.
Diffuse pollution The release of contaminants over a large area, e.g. Dry-snow zone A zone within the accumulation zone of a glacier in
leaching of nitrates from cultivated fields, wash off of oil from high- which there is no surface melt, even in summer.
way surfaces. Dump moraines Ridges formed at the margin of a glacier from material
Diffuse reflection The redirection of radiation off a rough surface such delivered by the ice flow; they lie transverse to the flow direction.
that the radiation is redirected in many random directions. Dunes Migrating ridges of sediment, either as terrestrial deposits of
Digital elevation model (DEM) A digital representation of a three- sand formed by aeolian processes, or as small stream bed deposits of
dimensional surface, where pixel digital numbers represent elevation sand and clay common in streams of high velocity. The steeper front
rather than brightness. of the dune is termed the ‘stoss’ side and the gentler the ‘lee’ side.
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Glossary
Duricrust A hard, crystalline crust found on arid land surfaces. Evapora- Eluviation The removal of solid or dissolved material from one soil hori-
tion and limited flushing by rains can lead to the accumulation of zon.
minerals on the surface or subsurface as capillary action transports Emissivity The rate of emission of energy from a surface per degree of
minerals from underlying soils and rocks towards the surface. temperature difference between the surface and surrounding sub-
stances.
Endemic Referring to a plant or animal species that is indigenous to
E one particular location or region, i.e. a consequence of geological
Eccentricity of orbit The shape of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun isolation and allopatric (populations become more isolated from one
changes from more circular to more elliptical and back again over another) speciation.
a 100 000 year period owing to gravitational forces. An increase in Endoreic Pertaining to an inland drainage system which does not termi-
eccentricity causes the seasons in one hemisphere to become more nate at the coastline; predominantly found in dryland environments
intense while the seasons in the other are moderated. ending in salt pans or playas.
Ecological succession The mixture of processes that produce a Endosymbiosis Relationship between two species where one species
gradual directional change in ecosystem structure and community lives in the tissue of the other species.
at a given site over time, involving progressive habitat modifica- Englacial Inside a glacier between the surface and the bed.
tion. Clements (1916) first described ecological succession as Entrainment The process in which small sediment particles are mobi-
a sequence of plant communities characterized by increasing lized from a bed surface and transported in fluid suspension.
complexity of life form. Entropy The degree of disorder or uncertainty in a system.
Ecosystem An organized open system consisting of biotic (plants and Environmental economics A branch of economics that involves the analy-
animals) and abiotic (environmental) components interconnected sis and expression of the impacts of an activity on the environment in
through flows of energy and materials. monetary values in order to promote communication with decision-
Ecotone A zone of transition between two plant communities that is makers and providing a more straightforward view of the impacts.
generally characterized by plant competition and can have special Environmental gradient The change in an environmental variable that
significance for more mobile animals due to edge effects. acts as a control on plant and animal communities along a transect
Ectosymbiosis Relationship between two species, where the partner from one location to another, e.g. altitude, moisture, temperature,
species lives on the surface of the host species; this can include inner soil acidity. Environmental gradients vary in steepness, direction and
surfaces. the severity of their influence upon the community; they can lead to
Eh–pH stability field A plot showing the Eh–pH conditions in which the evolutionary branching and hence speciation.
aqueous species of an element occur in a system at equilibrium (see Environmental impact assessment (EIA) An evaluation designed
also redox potential). to identify and predict the impact of proposed action or project
El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) A reduction in the trade wind on the environment in order to ensure all possible impacts are
strength over the equatorial Pacific Ocean causes the westward- considered before implementation. They are legally required in
driven equatorial ocean current to falter. This leads to the cessation many countries.
of the typical upwelling of cold deep water off the South American Environmental lapse rate The actual rate at which temperature falls
Pacific. The result is the appearance of unusually warm weather and with increasing altitude in the local atmosphere.
the disturbance of pressure and precipitation systems throughout the Environmental technology assessment An evaluation designed to
southern hemisphere. Literally, ‘The Christ Child’ for its periodic occur- identify and predict the potential environmental, economic and social
rence every few years commencing during the Christmas season. impacts of a new technology.
Elastic creep Deformation caused by strain forces; the method of move- Ephemeral Short-lived.
ment of solid mantle rocks. Epilimnion The surface layer of water in a water body which is warmer
Elastic limit This is the limit to which a material can be stretched with- and less dense than the water layer below which remains trapped as
out irreversible alterations being made to the dimensions and form of it is cooler and more dense than the water above.
the material. Epiphyte A plant growing above the ground surface that is not rooted in
Electrical conductivity The degree to which a substance conducts an the soil but uses other plants for support; commonly associated with
electric current. tropical rainforests.
Electromagnetic energy/radiation A type of energy in transit (or radia- Epoch In geological nomenclature, an epoch is a division of geological
tion) in which electric and magnetic fields vary simultaneously. time. Two or more epochs make up a period.
Electromagnetic spectrum The continuum comprising the entire range Equifinality This is the argument with respect to open systems that
of wavelengths of electromagnetic energy. the end point, the formation of a landscape for example, can be
Electrons Within an atom electrons are the negatively charged particles; achieved by a number of processes and it is not possible to attrib-
as a whole these electrons create a negative charge which is bal- ute the outcome to just one input. Different processes may achieve
anced by the positively charged protons. Electrons can be found on the same end point.
the shells surrounding the nucleus of an atom. Electrons are a key Equilibrium line The boundary between the accumulation zone and the
feature in the bonds which exist between atoms. ablation zone of a glacier where the net mass balance is zero.
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Ergodic method Studying the development of a process or object Fiducial marks Marks exposed on imagery that act as a frame of refer-
over time (i.e. the sequence of landforms) by evaluating areas that ence for the x, y coordinate system of the image.
represent different stages of advance in the process, therefore Field capacity A term to describe the state of the soil when all gravita-
substituting space for time. For example, the sequence of succes- tional water has drained away, leaving only the capillary water.
sional stages of a salt marsh over time can be observed by studying Field drains Subsurface drainage system installed under agricultural
a horizontal transect through the marsh from the youngest to the land to reduce the soil moisture content.
oldest section. Fine earth The fine fraction of soil mineral particles consisting of sand,
Ergs Another term for sand seas. silt and clay, less than 2 mm in diameter.
Esker A narrow winding ridge of glaciofluvial sand and gravel deposited Firn Compacted granular snow with interconnecting air spaces in at
by a meltwater stream flowing at the bed of a glacier. least its second accumulation season, in the process of being trans-
Essential elements Elements found in the soil without which, or in the formed into glacier ice (with a density usually greater than 0.4 but
wrong proportions, green plants cannot grow normally. There are 16 less than 0.8 kg m - 3).
essential elements consisting of micronutrients and macronutrients. Fjord A long, deep basin, previously excavated by a glacier, and has
Estuary The mouth of a river where it broadens into the sea and within since become inundated by the sea as a result of sea-level rise during
which the tide ebbs and flows, leading to an intermixing of freshwater deglaciation.
and seawater. Estuaries are usually sites of deposition, especially if Flashy regime A term used to describe a stream with a fast hydrologi-
the river charges more sediment than can be removed by the tidal cal response to precipitation events involving a rapid rise in channel
current or wave action. water levels.
Euryhaline Referring to species which are able to adapt to living in a Flow duration curve A graphically plotted curve used in the analysis of
range of saline conditions. river flow frequency. The frequency distribution of the mean flow of a
Eustasy Global change in ocean water level due to change in the volume river at a particular site is calculated and the percentage of time any
of water in the oceans. particular discharge rate is reached and exceeded is then plotted. The
Eustatic sea level The mean global sea level. slope of the curve indicates the magnitude of the flow.
Eutrophic zone The upper layer of water where there is enough light Flow traction A type of wash process that involves the transport of
penetration for photosynthesis. sediment along the ground surface due to the stress applied by
Eutrophication Enrichment of freshwater and marine water bodies with rainwater flowing downslope and the friction maintaining the roll-
plant nutrients to the extent that plants in the water bloom at the ing and bumping of particles within the moving water; a type of
expense of other aquatic organisms. rillwash.
Evaporite A mineral or sedimentary rock composed of soluble salts Flows A type of rapid mass movement in which different parts of the
resulting from the evaporation of a body of water. mass move over each other with differential levels of movement; see
Evapotranspiration The transfer of liquid water from the Earth’s sur- debris flow.
face to water vapour in the atmosphere by means of evaporation and Fluidization The process in which water detaches an entire fine-grained
plant transpiration. sediment deposit and converts it into a mixture of water and sedi-
Exchangeable cations Cations attracted to the surface of clay minerals ment that takes on most of the properties of a fluid.
and adsorbed by electrostatic attractions which can be displaced by Flute An elongated ridge formed by the infilling of cavities on the down-
cations in the soil solution through cation exchange. stream side of obstacles in the bed (more elongated than drumlins);
the depositional equivalent of crag and tail features.
Föhn wind The European equivalent of the Chinook wind.
F Footprint The area on the ground ‘seen’ by a sensor at an instantaneous
Fabric The orientation of particles within a rock or sediment. moment in time.
Falling limb The section of a storm hydrograph depicting the decrease Foraminifera An order of Rhizopoda: small, single-celled marine organ-
in river discharge after rainfall has ceased following a storm event. isms with a shell of calcium carbonate.
Fatigue failure This is the result of low-magnitude stresses being Foredune ridge A ridge of sand on the seaward side of a dune system
applied to a material frequently over a prolonged period. There is where several smaller dunes which are forming have coalesced.
often not any evidence of the stress occurring but it is the accumula- Foreset bed A seaward-sloping sediment bed deposited at the advanc-
tion of the impacts of the stress which can cause the failure. ing edge of a growing delta; the sediment accumulates underwater
Fecundity The faculty of reproduction. An organism has a high fecun- and constitutes the bulk of the delta (overlain by the topset bed).
dity if it reproduces quickly and in large numbers and can therefore Form drag A drag force that slows and curves a flow path over surface
recover its population quickly after a problem. topography, e.g. the slowing of glacier flow due to obstacles on the
Feeder–seeder mechanism A type of orographic enhancement of pre- glacier bed, or the slowing of air flow over a mountain range.
cipitation. Adiabatic cooling of air forced to rise over mountains causes Frequency distribution A method of plotting numerical data to show the
saturation of water vapour and cloud formation. The water vapour of number of times different values of a variable occur within a sample.
this ‘feeder’ cloud is swept into the precipitation of a frontal ‘seeder’ Friction cracks A variety of rock fractures caused by the action of gla-
cloud aloft, increasing the overall precipitation on the mountain. cier ice passing over bedrock (including crescentic gouges).
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Glossary
Frictional drag The retarding drag force associated with the interaction Glen’s law A physical law referring to the rate of deformation of glacier
between a particle moving across the surface of another particle. ice due to shear stress; fundamental in the understanding of glacier
Frost blisters Small ice-cored mounds that develop over a single winter flow.
as a result of frost heave. Gleying The formation of a gley soil; a blue–grey soil or soil layer caused
Frost creep The slow downslope creep of the active layer on a slope by the reduction of iron and manganese compounds in stagnant satu-
due to freezing of the soil causing it to expand normal to the surface; rated conditions.
subsequent thawing then permits the vertical settlement of the soil, Global positioning system (GPS) A system consisting of a constella-
resulting in a net downward movement. tion of orbiting satellites and one or more global positioning system
Frost heave The vertical lifting of the soil surface into doming frost hill- receivers on the ground (or in an air- or watercraft) that are used for
ocks as a result of pressures caused by the freezing of groundwater precise positioning.
under periglacial conditions. Gondwanaland A large ancient continent of the southern hemisphere
made up of present-day South America, Africa, Australia and Antarctica.
Graben A structural rock mass that is downdropped by parallel faults on
G both sides, often forming a structural valley.
Gabbro A type of intrusive igneous rock that crystallizes slowly at depth; Grain roundness A textural property of sediments associated with the
its minerals (plagioclases and pyroxenes) are large and visible to the degree of angularity/roundness that provides environmental infor-
naked eye. mation, e.g. very rounded grains are formed via considerable abrasion
Gabions Wire rock-filled cages used to prevent river bank erosion and and are likely to have undergone extended transport.
stabilize slumping hillsides. Granular disaggregation A process associated with salt weathering;
Gaia A conceptual theory developed by James Lovelock (1979) that as a result grains of the rock can become loose and lead to a rough
proposes that the Earth maintains conditions suitable for life by self- uneven surface on the rock.
regulation and feedback mechanisms whereby all elements of the Gravitational water The water that drains from macropores in the soil
Earth are interlinked at all scales; the Earth acts almost as a conscious following a period of soil saturation due to gravitational forces and is
biological organism. replaced by air.
Gas hydrate An ice-like crystalline solid formed from a mixture of water Grazers (or scrapers) Organisms which feed on algae attached to
and a gas, often methane. stones in the water column by scraping or grazing from the surface of
Gelifluction A type of solifluction only occurring in areas of permafrost. the stone. The abundance of these organisms in the river is depend-
When seasonally frozen soil in the active layer thaws during spring, ent on the extent of light penetration which in turn determines algae
water cannot percolate down owing to lower layers of permafrost, production.
thereby creating a lubricating effect for the slow downslope creep of Greenhouse effect – enhanced Human disturbance within the last few
the water-saturated material. centuries has caused the concentration of the major greenhouse gases
Genetic classification A term used in association with the classification to increase. Thus, the presence of higher concentrations of such gases
of sediment types by the mode of their deposition. may enhance the greenhouse effect, making the planet warmer. The
Geographical information system A system of hardware, software and Earth’s average global temperature has been estimated to have risen
procedures designed to support the capture, management, manipula- by 0.3–0.6°C in the past 100 years, as a result of human influence.
tion, analysis, modelling and display of spatially referenced geographi- Greenhouse effect – natural The atmosphere traps heat energy at
cal data for solving complex planning and management problems. the Earth’s surface and within the atmosphere by absorbing and re-
Geomaterials This is the cumulative name given to rocks and regoliths, emitting long-wave radiation; 90% of long-wave radiation emitted
materials which are derived from a geologic source. back to space is intercepted and absorbed by greenhouse gases such
Georeferencing Correcting a remote sensing image to remove geomet- as carbon dioxide and water vapour. Without the greenhouse effect
ric distortions caused by the motion of the sensor or by the motion of the Earth’s average global temperature would be - 18 °C.
the Earth beneath the sensor so that objects in the image correspond Ground control points Points on the ground of known coordinates that
to their positions on the ground. can be identified in the imagery and can be used to remove distor-
Geostrophic wind High-level wind blowing parallel to isobars, in which tions in a process called geocorrection.
the pressure gradient and Coriolis force are in balance. Ground diffusivity Pertaining to the ability of the soil to propagate fluc-
Geothermal heat Energy derived from the heat in the interior of the tuations in surface temperature to greater depths in the ground.
Earth. This energy is found everywhere beneath the Earth’s surface, Ground-penetrating radar A geophysical technique involving the prop-
although the highest temperatures are concentrated in regions of agation of high-frequency electromagnetic waves into the ground
active or geologically young volcanoes. which are then reflected back to the surface from boundaries at
Geothermal heat flux The amount of heat given off by the Earth’s crust; which there are electrical property contrasts. It allows high-resolution
generated by radioactive decay, chemical processes and friction at mapping of subsurface features such as soil pipes, bedrock and other
plate boundaries. geophysical anomalies.
Glacial intervals An extended cold phase during the Quaternary in which ice Groundwater The portion of subsurface water stored in both soils and
sheets and glaciers extended widely from the poles to lower latitudes. aquifer rocks below the water table (in the saturated zone).
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Groynes Artificial structures positioned across a beach at right Holomictic This is a group of lakes which mix completely, which means
angles to the shore to trap sediment being transported by long- that during the year there will be a time when the temperature of the
shore currents, therefore inhibiting loss of sediment by longshore lake is the same at the top as it is at the bottom and therefore mix-
drift. ing is possible. Holomictic lakes can be divided into four subgroups:
Gypcrete A duricrust composed of calcium sulfate. monomictic, dimictic, poly-mictic and oligomictic.
Gypsum An evaporite mineral composed of calcium sulfate with water. Horizontal interception Formation of water droplets by condensation
Gyre A large circular movement of water. It usually refers to the large of atmospheric moisture on vegetation surfaces, contributing signifi-
oceanic gyres in the subtropical high-pressure zones where geos- cantly to catchment precipitation inputs under vegetation canopies in
trophic currents rotate clockwise in the northern hemisphere and conditions of high atmospheric humidity.
counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere. Horn A high, spire-shaped mountain summit with steep sides formed by
the convergence of intersecting walls of several cirques.
Horticulture Subject of using plant processes for the purposes of gar-
H den development.
Habitat corridors Narrow strips of land that differ from the landscape Hot spots A centre of volcanic activity and igneous rock production
matrix existing on either side; the key characteristic relates to their located away from plate margins, thought to be positioned over a
function in connecting different environments and the often sharp rising mantle plume and related to convection processes which origi-
microclimatic and soil gradients from one side of a corridor to nate at the core–mantle boundary deep in the Earth.
another. Hummocky moraine A type of moraine characterized by considerably
Halocline A layer of water in which the salinity (saltiness) changes undulating terrain; caused by deposition from meltout of supraglacial
rapidly with depth. and englacial material in kettle holes and crevasses.
Hanging valley A tributary valley which, at convergence with the trunk Humus A type of soil organic matter which is very resistant to decom-
valley, has a higher ground level, resulting in a sharp drop in elevation position.
(the result of glacial activity in the main valley). Hydrates A compound which contains water but which can dissociate
Hard engineering Pertaining to coastal management practices that into water and another compound. This process is reversible and
involve the construction of large-scale structures to protect the therefore the compound and the water can combine again.
coastline (e.g. sea walls, breakwaters and groynes); most hard engi- Hydraulic geometry Referring to the river flow characteristics of a
neering practices change the local sediment dynamics. channel (such as discharge, depth, width and velocity) and their rela-
Health impact assessment (HIA) An evaluation designed to identify and tionship to one another.
predict the health impacts on society of a proposed activity. Hydraulic radius The ratio of the cross-sectional area of water flowing
Heinrich events Referring to events occurring during the coldest points through a channel to the length of the wetted perimeter; it represents
of Bond cycles in which vast amounts of icebergs were discharged a measure of the efficiency of the channel at conveying water and
into the North Atlantic, immediately followed by abrupt warming. the proportion of water subject to bed surface friction.
Helicoidal flow A process by which water flows in an outward direc- Hydraulic sorting The process by which particles of river bed mate-
tion when approaching a meander bend, causing water levels on rial are sorted into sections of near uniform particle size due to the
the outside of meander bends to become super-elevated. Water change in river competence throughout its journey from source to
then flows inwards along the channel bed as a return flow. This mouth.
results in individual water molecules cork-screwing around the Hydrogenous Pertaining to sediments derived from ions in seawater
meander bend. through geochemical processes, e.g. metal ions of iron and manga-
Herbivore An organism that feeds off plants (primary producers) and nese are released from hydrothermal vents and oxidize or combine
therefore occupies the second trophic level. with silica to form metal-rich sediments.
Heterotrophs Organisms that cannot photosynthesize and therefore Hydrograph A graph showing river discharge plotted against time for a
feed directly on autotrophs and other heterotrophs for their energy point on the river channel network, displaying a characteristic shape
supply. They are described as first-order consumers and form the during rainfall events.
second trophic level. Hydrophyte A plant that has adapted to grow in wet or waterlogged
Histogram A column diagram where values are divided into equal parts conditions.
and the frequency of occurrences within each subdivision is summed Hygroscopic water Soil water held as a tight film around individual soil
and plotted. particles and unavailable to plants because of the very strong attrac-
Hjulström curve An empirical curve defining the threshold flow veloci- tion between the water and soil particle.
ties (i) to initiate motion of sediment grains of different sizes on a Hyper-arid Pertaining to extremely dry areas (‘true deserts’) that may
stream bed, (ii) necessary to keep the sediment grains in transport go as long as 12 months without rainfall (e.g. central Sahara).
and (iii) the depositional velocity. Hyper-concentrated flow Similar to a debris flow but with a higher
Holocene The second epoch of the Quaternary, in which we live now, water content, acting more like a liquid and with less viscosity; these
preceded by the Pleistocene. It began approximately 10 000 years flows behave like a sediment-rich stream maintained by forces of
ago. The Holocene is an interglacial period. turbulence.
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Glossary
Hyperspectral scanners Scanning remote sensing instruments that Imaging spectrometers Another term for hyperspectral scanners.
record digital images using multiple narrow bands. Similar to multi- Imbrication The wedging of particles among others. Often small par-
spectral scanners but with higher spectral resolution. These are also ticles become trapped by larger ones so that even though the flow
called imaging spectrometers. is great enough to entrain them, they cannot move until the larger
Hypolimnion A cooler, lower layer of water in a water body which does particles are entrained.
not readily mix with the upper warmer layer as it is more dense and Incremental methods Techniques for estimating the age of deposits
hence remains below the warmer, less dense layer. based on the measurements of regular accumulations of sediment
Hyporheic zone This is the zone under a river channel where there is a or biological matter through time, e.g. dendrochronology, analysis of
mixing of channel water and groundwater. It exists where the river varves and ice cores.
channel flows over a permeable substrate. Indentation hardness The resistance of a material to deformation as a
Hysteresis A process whose progress is determined by the direction in result of the application of compressive stress from a sharp object.
which the reaction is occurring. It is normally described by a bivariate The indentation hardness of a material can be determined by the
plot in which the value of one variable is dependent on whether the amount of compressive force required to make an indentation to a
other variable is increasing or decreasing. certain depth or by the size of an indentation left as a result of a fixed
size of compressive force.
Inductive Pertaining to the process of inferring a general law or prin-
I ciple from the observation of particular instances; by classifying and
Ice creep A slow, continuous movement of ice involving non-recoverable ordering unordered knowledge, regularities may be identified and
deformation of the ice owing to intergranular motion caused by general laws discovered (opposed to deductive).
internal pressure and the force of gravity. Indurated Pertaining to soils and sedimentary rocks which have become
Ice rafting The process by which glacially eroded debris is transported hardened and compacted by post-depositional chemical and physical
by floating ice (ice floes or icebergs); it may be transported great alterations.
distances and deposited either on the sea floor when the ice melts or Industrial Revolution A major shift of technological and cultural practices
on beaches. in the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century in some
Ice segregation The formation of layers of ice in rocks or soils where western countries. It began in Britain and spread throughout the world
there has been a movement of water into gaps which has then fro- and consisted of an engagement with energy generation through fossil
zen. fuel burning, construction, invention and mass transport systems.
Ice shelves Thick floating sheets of ice extending over the sea from a Infiltration capacity The maximum rate at which water can enter soil
landward ice sheet, fed by the ice sheet and snow accumulation. under specified conditions.
Ice streams Fast-flowing ‘rivers’ of ice within more slowly moving ice Infiltration-excess overland flow A form of overland flow occurring
sheet walls. when rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity and excess
Ice wedge polygons Ice wedges that have joined together owing to the water is stored and transported on the surface (also known as Horto-
annual reopening and expansion of the ice wedge. nian overland flow).
Ice wedges V-shaped bodies of ground ice that extend into permafrost Infiltration rates The volume of water passing into the soil per unit area
(up to 1.5 m in width and 3–4 m in depth). Under very low tempera- per unit time (i.e. the rate at which water added to the surface enters
tures frozen ground contracts as it is further cooled, causing it to the soil).
crack; water enters during spring and summer and then freezes into Integrated coastal zone management A management approach where
an ice wedge. all parties concerned in coastal protection and development are
Iceberg calving The process in which a large mass of floating ice breaks involved; it considers the socio-economic and environmental issues
away from an ice shelf; a major method in which mass is lost from ice which are present to achieve a sustainable outcome. Planning should
sheets. be based on shared knowledge and long-term goals need to be iden-
Ice-pushed ridge A ridge of material accumulated by the ploughing tified.
action of a glacier but composed of material that is not glacially Interception The process by which precipitation is prevented from
derived (i.e. similar to a push moraine but not consisting of glacially reaching the ground by the vegetation layer.
derived debris). Interception storage The storage of water on leaves and tree trunks
Igneous rock Rock that has originated from a molten state such as lava when precipitation has been intercepted by vegetation en route to
from a volcano. the ground surface.
Illumination The degree to which a scene or object is lit, in this case by Interference The fading, disturbance or degradation of a signal (in this
the Sun. case surface reflectance) caused by signals from unwanted sources
Illuviation The deposition of solid or dissolved material into a soil horizon. (i.e. the atmosphere).
Image mosaic A composite of remote sensing images to produce an Interglacial intervals A long, distinct warm phase between glacial
image of greater coverage. stages during the Quaternary; the Earth’s glaciers become severely
Image orientation The direction in which a sensor is pointed to capture diminished owing to climatic amelioration (restricted to very limited
an image. Images can be orientated vertically, horizontally or obliquely. locations with sufficient conditions).
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Intermediate beaches This type of beach falls between the extremes Isostatic rebound The process whereby, after a heavy weight (such as
of the high-energy (dissipative) and low-energy (reflective) beaches. an ice cap) is removed, the Earth’s lithosphere slowly relaxes and the
They often feature near shore bars which dissipate some of the wave surface rises to a new equilibrium level.
energy which reaches the beach. The upper part of an intermediate Isovels Contour lines connecting points of equal velocity.
beach can be steep, however, and show characteristics of a reflective
beach. Intermediate beaches can be dynamic and change their mor-
phology. J
Interspecific interactions Interactions between different species in an Jet streams High-speed long, narrow winds in the upper atmosphere.
ecosystem. These currents meander and reach speeds of 400 km h - 1.
Interstadial A short period of climatic amelioration and ice retreat Jetties Hard engineering coastal management structures built along the
within a glacial stage, less pronounced than an interglacial interval. banks of a tidal inlet at a river mouth in order to stabilize unpredict-
Interstices This is a small or narrow space between particles or objects. able shifting channels for navigation purposes.
Interstitial ice Ice crystals (individual or fused together) occupying the
pore spaces of a soil or rock.
Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) The zone where the north- K
east trade winds from the northern hemisphere and the south-east Kames Steep-sided isolated conical hills of bedded glaciofluvial
trade winds from the southern hemisphere come together over the materials deposited by meltwater along the sides or margins of a
equatorial region. This zone is characterized by cloud bands which glacier.
illustrate rising air yet it is not a continuous band around the Earth. Karst Referring to the ground surface depressions and extensive under-
The ITCZ migrates northwards and southwards across the equator ground drainage network created by limestone solution.
with the seasons, so that it resides in the hemisphere which is expe- Katabatic drainage Radiative cooling at night causes the air close to
riencing summer. the ground to cool; this cooler air is slightly denser and slowly moves
Intraspecific interactions Interactions within a single species in an downslope to lower ground and into depressions. It is greatest in
ecosystem. cloud-free and dry conditions with light winds (limited mechanical
Involutions Features caused by the deformation of unconsolidated mixing of the air).
surface materials (i.e. disruption to the sedimentary structure and soil Kettle hole A closed depression found in glacial till deposits, formed
profile) due to thawing of ice-rich ground; often used as a diagnostic by the melting of a large mass of ice that became incorporated and
for past permafrost conditions. preserved in glacial till.
Ionic diffusion The upward movement of ions through the soil without Keystone species Species that are highly connected to the entire food
the aid of water, due to the difference in concentration of ions from web; their loss may result in ecosystem collapse and huge loss of
the base to the surface of the soil. The close proximity to parent biodiversity.
material at the bottom of the soil profile results in a greater quantity Kinematic viscosity The ratio between the density and viscosity of a
of ions; the random movements of the ions will then form a general fluid.
upward movement to an area of fewer ions.
Ions Positively or negatively charged atoms.
Island biogeography The study of the distribution and evolution of
L
organisms on islands or even ‘virtual islands’ (resulting from some Lagoon A coastal bay totally or partially enclosed and cut off from the
barrier other than the sea). More narrowly, island biogeography is the open sea by a barrier beach, spit, shingle ridge or an offshore reef.
examination of MacArthur and Wilson’s (1967) equilibrium theory of Lahars Flows of loose soil, rock, ash and water following a volcanic erup-
speciation in geographically isolated areas, whereby a relationship is tion.
identified between the species richness of an island and its size and Laminar flow One of the two ways in which water can flow; it involves all
isolation, among other characteristics. water molecules flowing in the same direction parallel to one another
Isobars Lines on a map joining points of equal atmospheric pressure. resulting in no mixing of water.
Isohyets Contour lines connecting points of equal rainfall. Landslides A mass movement process whereby a large coherent mass of
Isomorphous substitution During the formation of a clay mineral, the material moves down a slope under the influence of gravity, remain-
process in which one atom in the crystal lattice is replaced by another ing undeformed.
of similar size without disrupting the crystal structure. The replacing Lapse rate Rate at which temperature decreases with altitudinal
ion is generally of a lower positive charge, causing the clay mineral to increase.
become electrically negative. Latent heat The amount of heat required to change the state of a sub-
Isostasy The principle by which the Earth’s crust ‘floats’ upon the denser stance, e.g. from a liquid to a gas, or vice versa.
mantle, following Archimedes’ law of hydrostatics. The thicker, more Lateral moraine A ridge of glacial debris lying parallel to the sides of a
buoyant crust (continental regions) stands topographically higher glacier or lying along the sides of a valley formerly occupied by a gla-
than the thinner, denser crust (under the oceans) to create an equi- cier, consisting of dumped material and frost-shattered material from
librium situation. the valley walls.
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Laterization The process in which high temperatures and heavy rainfall Loess A fine-grained (less than 50 mm (fifty-millionths of a metre)),
cause intense weathering and leaching of the soil, producing hori- commonly non-stratified and unconsolidated sediment. It is com-
zons depleted in base cations and enriched in silica and oxides of posed of quartz, feldspar, carbonate and clay minerals that have
aluminium and iron. been transported by wind from arid land surfaces and deposited else-
Laurasia A large ancient continent of the northern hemisphere made up where, sometimes thousands of kilometres away.
of present-day North America, Europe and Asia. Logical positivism A form of positivism in which inductive reasoning is
Law of limiting factors Pertaining to a species, the necessity for all used to form theory and acquire knowledge from experimentation.
the environmental factors that control its survival to be maintained Long profile A graphical curve displaying the longitudinal altitude profile
within a range that the organism can tolerate; if just one of these of a river from source to mouth (height of the river plotted against
controlling variables falls outside of the tolerance range the organism distance from stream source). It illustrates the change in river gradi-
will not survive. ent downstream.
Laws of thermodynamics Laws pertaining to the conservation of Longshore currents A net movement of water parallel to a coastline.
energy. The first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be This occurs because waves surging along beaches at oblique angles
created or destroyed, only transformed from one form into another; are followed by more perpendicular transport out to sea resulting in a
thus energy is conserved. The second law of thermodynamics states net water movement along the coastline.
that isolated systems become more disorganized over time. Longshore drift Another term for littoral drift.
Leaching Downward transport of soluble soil material in solution Long-wave radiation Radiation that has been emitted by a surface at
through the soil profile by percolating surplus water, depositing some a longer wavelength than its solar source. It is also called terrestrial
in lower layers but removing the most soluble entirely. radiation.
Least-squares adjustment A mathematical method for fitting a model Lotic Term used to refer to things which are related to or inhabit fast-
to data so as to minimize error between the observed values and the moving water bodies such as rivers.
estimated values. Lumped model A catchment model in which catchment characteristics
Lentic Term used to refer to things which are related to or inhabit still are assumed to be uniform across space.
water bodies such as ponds and lakes. Luvisols A group of soils produced by clay eluviation (also known as acid
Liana A woody vine supported on the trunk or branch of trees, usually brown earths).
tropical. Lysimeter An instrument for taking direct measurements of evapotrans-
Life-cycle analysis (LCA) The evaluation of all the environmental piration; by isolating a block of soil (with its vegetation cover), the
impacts of a product from the time the raw materials are taken from weight of the block can be used to represent the quantity of water
the Earth to the time the product is thrown away and added to the and its change over time can be calculated.
ecosystem (including its manufacture, use and disposal).
Linear wave theory Main theory of ocean surface waves used in ocean
and coastal engineering from which important equations are derived. M
Lithified Pertaining to the transformation of unconsolidated sediments Macrogélivation The process whereby rocks are broken up into clast-
into a cohesive sedimentary rock mass through cementation, com- size debris through the utilization of existing fractures and fissures
paction and crystallization (lithification). in the rock.
Lithogenous Pertaining to material derived from the physical and chem- Macroinvertebrates These are organisms which live in the water col-
ical breakdown of rocks and minerals. umn and are greater than half a millimetre in size; they live in vary-
Lithosphere The rigid outermost layer of the Earth, consisting of the ing locations in the water column including on rocks and in aquatic
crust and upper section of the mantle above the asthenosphere; plants.
characterized by brittle behaviour. Macronutrients The group of essential elements found in high concen-
Litter A type of soil organic matter consisting of decomposing residues tration in plants (carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus,
of plant and animal debris. sulfur, calcium, magnesium, potassium and chlorides).
Littoral drift The transport of beach material along the coast, some- Macropore Infrequent large opening or void in the soil (greater than
times referred to as longshore drift. Waves surging along the beach 0.1 mm in diameter) that can promote rapid, preferential transport
at an oblique angle transport sediment up and along the beach in of water and chemicals, formed by structural cracks and fissures or
the swash followed by transport more perpendicular to the coast in by biological activity, e.g. earthworms, burrowing creatures and plant
the backwash (creating a zig-zag movement of sediment along the roots.
beach). Macropore flow The movement of water through the soil within larger
Littoral zone The part of the lake which is closest to the shoreline. It pores (macropores).
occurs in both shallow and deep lakes and is where light can pen- Magnetometer An instrument for measuring the strength of the Earth’s
etrate to the bottom thereby allowing for a diverse array of plants magnetic field.
and algae to grow. Main stream length The distance of the main river channel in a catch-
Lobate Characterized by having a tongue-like shape, e.g. the ice lobe of ment from source to mouth (equating to the length of the long pro-
an alpine glacier. file). Given in kilometres.
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Mangroves A term applying to the variety of trees and shrubs which Micropores Very small pores in the soil that can hold soil water (less
grow on saline mudflats in tropical coastal areas to form a dense than 0.1 mm in diameter).
swamp forest. Their roots trap silt which accumulates to form a Mid-ocean ridges The zones in which oceanic lithosphere is created by
swamp. the spreading of divergent plate boundaries. The relative buoyancy of
Mantle The zone within the Earth’s interior lying between the partially the newly formed oceanic crust causes the topography to be raised,
molten core and the thin surface crust, containing 70% of the earth’s creating a high-relief ridge.
total mass and composed principally of magnesium–iron silicates. Mie scattering The wavelength-dependent redirection or scattering of
Mass balance The difference between the total accumulation and abla- electromagnetic radiation at wavelengths of about the same magni-
tion of a glacier with time, i.e. a positive mass balance exists when tude as the size of the particles.
accumulation exceeds ablation for a given period. Milankovitch theory A hypothesis formalized by Milutin Milankovitch
Mass movement The downslope movement of sediment, soil and describing the external driving force behind the glacial cycles of the
rock material as a single unit (the individual fragments are in close Quaternary. The amount of solar radiation reaching different parts of
contact); a number of mass movement processes can be identified the Earth from the Sun varies as the eccentricity of the Earth’s orbit,
including debris flows, debris avalanches, slumping and landslides. the obliquity of the axis of rotation and the precession of the equi-
Mass wasting The spontaneous downhill movement of surface materials noxes change over time in a regular and predictable way.
(soil, regolith and bedrock) under the influence of gravity, without the Mineralization The process of forming a mineral by combination of a
active aid of fluid agents. metal with another element.
Massive ice Very thick bands of segregated ice, up to several metres Mitigation To reduce or alleviate the severity or magnitude of impact of
thick. an event.
Matrix flow The movement of water through the soil within very fine Mohorovičić discontinuity (Moho) The contact surface between the
pores. crust and the mantle; the zone in which seismic waves are signifi-
Meandering rivers Sinuous river channels that migrate downstream cantly modified.
owing to river bank erosion on the outside of meander bends and Mole The quantity of a substance that contains the same number of chemi-
deposition of bed material on the inner bank. Excessive meandering cal units as there are atoms in exactly 12.000 grams of carbon-12.
leads to oxbow lake formation. Molten rock Rock in a state of a liquid; the rock has melted and flows as
Meromictic Derived from meromixis, this is where there is an incom- any liquid.
plete mixing of a lake. Deep lakes are meromictic as their depth Monomictic With respect to lakes, these lakes only have one season of
prevents a complete overturning circulation. Lakes which also have overturning and mixing in a year.
inflows of different density water can be meromictic as stratification Monsoon A system of winds that switch direction from ocean–continent
can occur owing to the different densities. to continent–ocean between summer and winter in response to the
Mesohabitats The smaller units which combine to define a reach of a northerly and southerly movements of the intertropical convergence
river. Each mesohabitat within a river reach is determined by similar zone (ITCZ). The characteristics of a monsoon climate are most
characteristics such as deeper, slower flowing pools and shallower, apparent in India and South-East Asia; the jet stream reverses from
faster riffle sections. westerly to easterly, causing the north-east and south-west monsoon
Mesophyte A plant that requires a moderate climate in terms of tem- seasons that are responsible for the majority of inter-annual climatic
perature and precipitation in order to survive. change in the region.
Metabolism The chemical processes that occur within an organism in Montmorillonite A soft mineral that forms as very small plate-shaped
order to maintain life. crystals. Two silicon tetrahedral sheets enclose an aluminium octahe-
Metalimnion A thin layer of water in a lake or ocean where there is a dral sheet in the structure. Considerable expansion can occur when
zone of rapid temperature change with depth. water moves between the silica sheets.
Metamorphic rock Rock which has altered its form through structural Moraine An accumulation of glacial till that has been transported and
and mineralogical change due to heat and pressure from the sur- deposited by a glacier or ice sheet; classifications of moraines are
rounding conditions. usually based on the mode of their formation: see de Geer moraine,
Metamorphosis (metamorphism) (biological) A change in the form, dump moraines, hummocky moraine, lateral moraine, push moraine
function or habits of a living organism by a natural process of growth and rogen moraine.
or development, e.g. the change of a caterpillar into a butterfly. Moulin A rounded vertical or steeply inclined hole within a glacier down
Microgélivation The occurrence of ice crystallization within pores and which meltwater travels.
fissures of a rock at the scale of grains and crystals can result in the Multispectral scanners Scanning remote sensing instruments that
formation of fine rock fragments. record digital images using several, moderately narrow bands, typi-
Microhabitats The smallest area in an ecosystem which is home to cally between the ultraviolet and infrared portions of the spectrum.
an individual array of organisms and vegetation, microhabitats can Similar to hyperspectral scanners but with lower spectral resolution.
include clumps of grass or fallen trees. Mycobiont The fungal component of Lichen.
Micronutrients The group of essential elements found in small concentra- Mycorrhizal Pertaining to the nature of mycorrhiza, a fungus growing in
tion in plants (iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron and molybdenum). or on a plant root involving a symbiotic relationship between the two.
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N particles that are much larger than the wavelengths of the light they
scatter.
Nadir The point below a point of observation. The nadir will be the point North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) A body of water formed in the
in the centre of an aerial photograph that is perfectly vertical. North Atlantic Ocean. Relatively saline water from the Gulf Stream
Natural capital The world’s stocks of natural resources important to cools when it moves rapidly north into the Norwegian Sea; it becomes
human well-being including minerals, soil, water, and all living things. denser and sinks, flowing back south to form a major component of
Neap tide A tide that occurs at the first and third quarters of the Moon the thermohaline circulation of the oceans.
when the gravitational force of the Moon is opposed to that of the Nuée ardente A cloud of superheated gas-charged ash that develops
Sun, thereby producing a relatively small tidal range, and causing into a pyroclastic gravity flow following a very explosive volcanic
lower than average high tides and higher than average low tides. The eruption.
velocity of tidal currents is slowed at this time.
Nearshore A process-based term for the area comprising the swash,
surf and breaker zone; the area in which waves are forced to break O
owing to the shallowing of water closer to the shoreline.
Occluded front The process in which a cold front of a depression over-
Negative feedback An event or process resulting from another event
takes a warm front. The occluded front is classified as warm or cold
that counteracts its effects.
depending on whether the air ahead of the warm front is colder or
Nekton A nektonic organism (see nektonic).
warmer than the air following the cold front.
Nektonic The collective name for organisms which are active in the
Occult deposition The occurrence where the contact of mist or fog with
water column and move around in it rather than being restricted to
buildings or vegetation can result in the deposition of pollutants on
the top or the bottom.
these surfaces.
Net primary productivity (NPP) The amount of energy (carbohydrate)
Offshore A morphological term for the area below the wave base, just
fixed by plants during photosynthesis subtracting that used in respi-
beyond the shoreline and foreshore.
ration; it represents the growth of the plant/ecosystem, measured in
Oligomictic With reference to lakes, these lakes may be permanently
unit area per unit time.
stratified unless there is some perturbation to induce mixing, such as
Net radiation The difference between the total incoming radiation and
a storm event.
the total outgoing radiation.
Omnivore Organism that feeds on both plants and animals.
Neuston The name given to a group of organisms which exist mainly on
Ophiolites A layer of oceanic crust created at mid-oceanic ridges and
the surface of the water or just below the surface.
uplifted at convergent plate boundaries, now lying exposed above the
Niche The position or role of an animal or plant species within its com-
water at continental margins.
munity in relation to its specific requirement of habitat resources and
Options analysis The identification of key criteria through which to
microclimatic conditions (i.e. climate, shelter, food, water). No two
evaluate management options when dealing with an environmen-
species with identical resource requirements can occupy the same
tal issue.
niche (the principle of competitive exclusion applies).
Organic Pertaining to any compound containing carbon, except simple
Nitrification The process whereby ammonium is oxidized to pro-
compounds such as oxides and carbonates (which are considered
duce nitrite which is then oxidized to form nitrate. In the natural
inorganic).
environment the process is carried out by nitrifying bacteria
Orogeny The process of mountain building, it is particularly related
which are able to gain energy through the oxidization of the
to the growth of mountains which occurs as a result of the defor-
compounds. Nitrification is an aerobic process which means it
mation of the Earth’s crust through folding actions and compres-
requires oxygen to occur.
sional forces.
Nitrifying bacteria Bacteria that oxidize ammonium to nitrite and
Orographic Pertaining to mountains; for example, orographic precipita-
thence to nitrate.
tion is caused by the forced ascent of air over high ground/mountain
Nitrogen fixation Nitrogen in the form N2 is not accessible to plants to
barrier.
use for their growth. Nitrogen fixation is the process whereby bacte-
Oscillatory flow Currents that oscillate backwards and forwards such as
ria in the soil or in nodules on the roots of plants (symbiotic relation-
wave currents.
ship) are able to reduce nitrogen to ammonium thereby making it
Overland flow The motion of a surface layer of water as sheet flow
accessible to plants.
(unchannelled).
Nivation Localized erosion of a slope caused by the combination of frost
Oxidation A chemical weathering process involving the combination of
action, gelifluction, frost creep and meltwater flow at the edges and
free oxygen with minerals to form oxides with a positive electrical
beneath a snowpack; accentuated in permafrost-free zones during
charge.
periodic freezing and thawing of constantly moistened ground.
Oxidation state The electronic state of an atom in a particular com-
Nivometric coefficient The percentage of precipitation falling as snow
pound; equal to the difference between the number of electrons
within a given area.
it has compared with a free atom, e.g. in calcium chloride (CaCl2),
Non-selective scattering The wavelength-independent re-direction
calcium has the oxidation state of + 2 (Ca2 +) and chlorine has the
or scattering of electromagnetic radiation caused by atmospheric
state - 1 (Cl - ).
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Oxisols A soil order found in the tropics consisting of old, extremely Partially mixed estuaries Estuaries that are highly influenced by tidal
weathered soils which have been highly leached and consequently currents, causing greater mixing (advection and diffusion) of fresh-
become infertile with a low base status. and saltwater and a more gradual salinity gradient in the water
column.
Participatory analysis The process of encouraging all stakeholders to
P take an active part in the decision-making process when deciding on
Pacific Ring of Fire A horseshoe-shaped band of seismic activity around an environmental management strategy where conflicting interests
the Pacific basin. Approximately 40 000 km in length, it extends from are involved.
the southern tip of South America, up the Pacific coast of North Particle movement The physical transportation of material down a
America, across the Bering Strait, down through Japan, and into New hillslope where grains move one, or a few, at a time and do not signifi-
Zealand. Approximately 90% of the world’s earthquakes occur in this cantly interact with one another, as opposed to a mass movement.
area and it contains approximately 75% of the Earth’s active and dor- Peat A type of predominantly dark organic soil derived from partially
mant volcanoes. decomposed compacted plant materials that accumulate under
Palaeo -Spelled ‘Paleo-’- in American English, derived from the Greek waterlogged conditions.
for ‘old’, and often used as a prefix to mean ‘past’. Thus ‘palaeoecol- Pedogenesis The process of soil formation.
ogy’ is the ecology of the past; ‘palaeoclimatology’ is the study of past Peds Clumps or structural units of soil separated by small natural voids.
climates; etc. Pelagic sedimentation Sediments formed in an open-ocean environ-
Palaeoecology The study of ancient plant and animal distributions and ment by the slow background sedimentation of fine-grained material
processes. (usually marine organisms and red clays) falling through the water
Palaeomagnetism The study of the magnetism of igneous rock; the column to the seabed.
strongly magnetic particles of magnetite in igneous rock become Pelagic zone The zone at the top of the water column where light abun-
permanently orientated in the direction of the Earth’s magnetic field dance allows for photosynthesis to take place; it is also related to
at the time of the lava cooling. open-water areas and is therefore only found away from the banks of
Palsas Low permafrost-cored mounds, 1–10 m high, formed in peat of a water body (littoral zone).
both continuous and discontinuous permafrost zones; caused by dif- Peneplain A low-relief plain that is the theoretical end product of ero-
ferential frost heaving linked to the thermal conductivity of peat. sion in the absence of tectonic activity (following Davisian cycles of
Palynology The branch of science concerned with the study of liv- erosion).
ing or fossil pollen and spores; often used in the reconstruction of Period In geological terms, a period is a formal division of geological
palaeoenvironments via analysis of pollen types preserved in peat, time. The Quaternary is an example of a geological period. Two or
organic soils and lake muds. more periods make up an era.
Panchromatic Sensitive to all colours of the visible spectrum. Permafrost A condition existing below the ground surface, in which the
Pangaea The Earth’s most recent supercontinent formed during the soil or bedrock material remains perennially frozen, below 0°C for a
Permian by the coalescence of most continental plates (Gondwana- minimum of two years. Currently permafrost affects approximately
land and Laurasia, among other smaller continents) and rifted apart 26% of the Earth’s surface.
in the Jurassic. Phenological Pertaining to the timing of recurring natural phenomena,
Parabolic dunes U-shaped sand dunes, where the ends are held in such as the timing of events such as leaf fall and buds appearing on
place by vegetation and the rest of the dune moves over time plants.
thereby creating the curved shape. Wind is from a single direc- Phenology The study of the timing of natural phenomena in relation to
tion and their development typically follows the formation of climate. For example, the appearance of the first flower of spring.
blow-outs. Phloem Vascular plant tissue which conducts food created in the plant
Paraglacial geomorphology The study of landscape features which owe leaves to all other parts of plant.
their existence to the presence of ice, albeit indirectly and often in Photic zone The layer of the surface ocean which receives enough sun-
the past. light to enable photosynthesis to occur. Also known as the euphotic
Parallax The apparent change in position of a stationary object when zone.
viewed from two different positions. Photoautotropic Organisms that derive their energy by converting
Parent material The material upon which soil is developed and consti- sunlight into food and can use carbon dioxide as their main source of
tutes the main input of soil material through the process of weather- carbon.
ing. It may be the weathered surface of exposed unconsolidated in Photobiont The photosynthetic component of a Lichen.
situ rock surfaces, or unconsolidated superficial material transported Photochemical oxidation A process which occurs in the presence of
and deposited by gravity, water, ice and wind. light and results in the chemical change of a substance through the
Partial contributing area concept The idea that infiltration-excess loss of electrons.
overland flow will often occur only in spatially localized parts of the Photon A quantum of electromagnetic radiation. Units of light or other
hillslope as opposed to the entire catchment (as originally postulated electromagnetic radiation, the energy of which is proportional to the
by Horton). frequency of the radiation.
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Photoreduction Chemical reduction of a substance caused by ultravio- Pore spaces The voids between solid soil particles.
let radiation, e.g. in sunlight. Pore water pressure The pressure exerted by water in the pores of soil
Photosynthesis The process of converting light energy to chemical and aquifer rocks which may force particles apart during saturated
energy and storing it as sugar. This process occurs in plants and some conditions.
bacteria and algae. Plants need only light energy, and to make sugar. Porosity The pore space of a substrate (i.e. the factor controlling soil
Photosynthetic bacteria Bacteria that are able to carry out photo- and rock permeability).
synthesis (light is absorbed by bacteriochlorophyll), e.g. blue–green Positive feedback An event or process resulting from another event or
algae. process which exacerbates or magnifies the original effect.
Phytoplankton Photosynthesizing plants, often microscopic, that live in Positivism A traditional philosophy of science, originally attempting to
saline and freshwaters and are the foundation for the aquatic food distinguish science from religion by ensuring the application of a uni-
chain. tary scientific method of observation, involving direct and repeatable
Pillow lava The name for lava that erupts from vents underwater and experimentation on which to base theory. The underlying premise is
cools rapidly forming rounded structures surrounding the vent. that a firm empirical basis will lead to the identification of scientific
Pingo An ice-cored mound (up to 55 m high and 500 m long) found in laws which become progressively unified into a system of knowledge
permafrost areas; derived from an Inuit word meaning ‘hill’. and ‘absolute truth’ about the natural world.
Pingo scar A relict periglacial feature formed by the melting of the ice Potential evapotranspiration The evapotranspiration that would occur
core of a pingo, leaving a central surface depression with sediment from a vegetated surface with an unlimited water supply.
ramparts. Potholes Circular depressions found on bedrock surfaces. In reference
Pipeflow The movement of water through the soil within soil pipes. to rivers they are scoured out by the effect of a pebble rotating in an
Pixel A contraction of ‘picture element’ that refers to the smallest unit eddy.
of a digital image. Precautionary principle An approach to decision-making which states
Planktonic A group of organisms which reside in the water column in that where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack
suspension and move through drifting and floating. of scientific certainty should not be used as an excuse to preclude
Plant physiology The study of the functioning of plants, and this preventative action. Action should be taken at an early stage before
includes the response of plants to their environment and the acquisi- victims or negative impacts occur; ‘better safe than sorry’.
tion of resources by plants. Precession of the equinoxes The gravitational pull exerted by the Sun
Platform The stationary (i.e. gantry) or moving (i.e. aircraft) position on and the Moon cause the Earth to wobble on its axis like a spinning
which remote sensors are mounted. top, determining where in the orbit the seasons occur, and the sea-
Playa A depression in the centre of an inland desert basin; the site of son when the Earth is closest to the Sun.
occasional temporary lakes; high levels of evaporation often create Precipitation The deposition of water in a solid or liquid form on the
alluvial flats of saline mud. Earth’s surface from atmospheric sources (including dew, drizzle, hail,
Pleistocene The first epoch of the Quaternary, preceded by the Pliocene rain, sleet and snow).
and succeeded by the Holocene. Lasting from approximately 1.8 mil- Precipitation deficits The lack of precipitation in a water balance
lion to 10 000 years before the present (when the Earth was most when considering the losses in the form of evaporation or losses
extensively glaciated). through gravity-driven movement of water to riverflow or ground-
Ploughing boulders Boulders found on periglacial slopes that slowly water.
move downslope owing to different thermal conditions beneath Predators Carnivorous organisms which exist by preying and feeding on
the boulder compared with the surroundings. They leave a trough other organisms.
upslope and form a sediment prow downslope. Primary endemism When a species occurrence is unique to one specific
Point source pollution Release of contaminants from a clearly identi- area alone and unknown to any other region, e.g. Australian marsupi-
fied point, e.g. a pipe from a factory. als.
Polar front The surface of contact between a cold polar air mass and a Primary minerals Minerals that have not changed from their original
warm tropical air mass. state since they were formed in magma (e.g. quartz, feldspars and
Polar permafrost Extensive permafrost that occurs owing to low tem- micas).
peratures in high-latitude areas, e.g. Alaska. Primary productivity The amount of biological material (biomass) pro-
Polder Land reclaimed from the sea via the development of embank- duced by photosynthesis per unit area and unit time by plants.
ments. Primary succession Ecological succession beginning on a newly con-
Polycrystalline Referring to a crystalline structure in which there is a structed substrate previously devoid of vegetation (e.g. a new vol-
random variation in the orientation of different parts. canic island); the recently exposed land is colonized by animals and
Polymictic With reference to lakes, polymictic lakes tend to be shal- plants.
low and are predominantly continually circulating. They have limited Pro-delta The shelf area offshore of a river mouth which marks the
stability although there may be a point in each day where thermal intersection between the delta sediments and the adjacent basin.
stratification is able to occur. Profundal zone A deep zone of water, usually in an ocean or lake
Polythermal glacier A glacier composed of both warm and cold ice. where there is reduced light penetration. It is often found below the
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Glossary
thermocline and due to the lack of light there is reduced biological Reaches (river) Sections of a river which show uniform characteristics
diversity in this zone. such as flow depth, slope and area. This could be found between two
Pronivial ramparts Another name for protalus ramparts. morphological features such as debris dams or boulders. They are
Protalus ramparts Linear ridges of coarse sediment found a small usually observed at a scale of up to 10 m.
distance away from a slope base, formed from the accumulation of Reagent A substance or compound which is added to another substance
frost-shattered debris that, once fallen from a backwall, slides down a to initiate a chemical reaction or to determine whether a reaction will
snowpack to its lower margin. occur.
Push moraine A ridge of material accumulated at the glacier margin Rebound hardness The hardness of a substance as measured by a ham-
by the bulldozing action of a glacier front and consisting of glacially mer or other object which bounces off it. The height of the bounce
derived material. from a given drop height is compared from substance to substance.
Pyroclastic Flow A fast moving gravitational flow of hot ash, lava frag- Recharge Replenishment of groundwater stores.
ments, pumice and gases down the slopes of a volcano following an Redox potential The reducing or oxidizing intensity of a system, meas-
eruption. ured with an inert platinum half-cell and a reference half-cell cali-
brated against the hydrogen electrode. A measurement conducted in
this manner is known as the Eh.
R Reduction A chemical weathering process in which oxygen is dissoci-
‘r’ and ‘K’ selection A theory of two life strategies to cope with com- ated from minerals creating a negative electrical charge; it usually
petition and stress. Natural selection may favour either individuals occurs in anaerobic conditions.
with high reproductive rates and rapid development (‘r’ selection) or Reductionist The assumption that the system under study is ‘closed’,
individuals with low reproductive rates and better competitive ability i.e. all other variables within the system are held constant, allowing
(‘K’ selection). the direct relationship between two variables to be ascertained, and
Radiation Emitted electromagnetic energy. thereby eliminating reference to the potential influence of extrane-
Radiometric Of or pertaining to the measurement or representation of ous variables (e.g. positivism is reductionist).
radiation. Reflection The process by which a wave approaching a vertical or near-
Radiometric methods Techniques for estimating the age of deposits vertical object (e.g. sea cliff or sea wall) is rebounded from the object.
based on the time-dependent radioactive decay of particular radioac- If the angle of wave approach is parallel to the object, the wave will
tive isotopes found in sediments. be reflected in the opposite direction to the line of approach. If the
Raindrop impact The force exerted by a falling raindrop on a soil sur- wave strikes at an angle of incidence other than parallel the wave is
face. The impact of the raindrop causes a shock wave which detaches reflected in the tangent to the angle of approach.
grains of soil or small aggregates up to 10 mm in diameter and Reflective beaches Also termed low-wave energy beaches, they often
projects them into the air in all directions; the rate of detachment is form in protected pockets on the lee side of rocks and can be identi-
roughly proportional to the square of rainfall intensity. fied by steep narrow beaches of coarse sand and a narrow surf zone.
Rainflow In shallow overland flow, the transport of water resulting from Reflectivity The ability of a body to return energy.
a combination of detachment by raindrop impact and transportation Refraction The process by which a wave front bends and changes
by rainwater flowing downhill. direction owing to a reduction in velocity as the wave enters shallow
Rainsplash A type of soil erosion caused by raindrop impact in which water.
sediment is transported through the air. Refugia Isolated habitats with distinctive ecological, geological, geomor-
Rainwash The erosion of soil by overland flow processes; normally phological or microclimatic characteristics that allow formerly wide-
occurs in concert with rainsplash. spread species to survive following a period of climatic change.
Raised beach A step-like feature along a coastline which marks the Regelation A two-fold process involving the melting of ice under pres-
former position of the high tides and which once used to be a beach. sure (the melting point of ice under pressure is lower than 0°C)
Often, raised beaches are created by isostatic rebound, which lifts the and its subsequent transport and refreezing where the pressure is
beach out of reach of the waves. reduced; a major factor in the mechanism of downslope movement
Random errors Non-systematic errors that are unpredictable and can- of a glacier.
not be removed from data and can only be estimated. Regime The seasonal variation in river flow which tends to be repeated
Rating equation An equation used to infer river discharge values from each year is the river regime.
measured water levels at particular points along a river. The known Regolith(s) The basal layer of soil overlying the bedrock composed of
discharges of the river at various different water levels are plotted loose, unconsolidated weathered rock and gravel debris; it is the raw
and the equation for the line of best fit is calculated; the discharge at material from which soils are developed.
any water height can then be inferred (although there are inevitable Regressive barriers Large mounds of sediment that have developed
errors in this process). under the influence of a falling sea level and/or excess sediment sup-
Rayleigh scattering The wavelength-dependent redirection or scatter- ply. Landward sediments are deposited on top of more seaward ones.
ing of electromagnetic radiation caused by atmospheric particles that Relative sea level Level of the sea relative to the land determined by
are much smaller than the wavelengths of the light they scatter. eustasy and isostasy.
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Relaxation time The amount of time that an environment/landscape Roche moutonnées Small stoss-and-lee forms.
takes to recover from a major event (e.g. a flood or landslide). Rock flour Fine-grained rock particles pulverized by glacial erosion.
Renaissance A period of change in culture in Europe when classical art Rock glacier A tongue-like body of angular debris resembling a small
and learning was re-examined and embraced. It began in the late glacier but with no ice evident at the surface and only interstitial ice
fifteenth century in Italy and then spread to other European countries. in the pore spaces between the debris. Their movement downvalley is
Reptation A method of sand transport in which grains are set into a low very slow and many appear stagnant.
motion due to the high-velocity impact of a descending saltating grain. Rock shelters Shallow, sheltered niches in a hillside, smaller and less
Residence times The period of time a substance, e.g. nutrients, remains pronounced than a cave. Ancient human occupation often results in
in a single location. rich archaeological findings, in addition to other deposits indicative of
Residual tidal current Net movement of water due to tides occurring past environmental conditions.
over long time periods. Tidal movements do not necessarily balance Rockfall A mass-wasting process whereby consolidated material falls
out over time thereby creating an overall water movement in a par- and breaks up into a jumble of material at the base of a cliff or steep
ticular direction. slope.
Resilience The ability of a system to recover from an event, change or Rogen moraine A moraine characterized by a series of ribs of sediments
shock. lying transverse to the direction of ice advance, approximately
Resolution Describes the ability of a system to separate a scene into 10–30 m in height.
constituent parts whether these parts be spatial, temporal or spec- Rossby waves Upper-air waves that undulate horizontally in the flow
tral. path of the jet streams and the westerlies.
Return flow Subsurface flow in the soil, either throughflow or Roughness length An indicator of the roughness of the ground surface
macropore flow, that encounters a zone of soil saturation or lower and its impact upon surface winds, i.e. an urban surface has a much
hydraulic conductivity and is forced up through the soil profile to flow greater roughness length (up to 10 m for tall buildings) than agricul-
over the ground surface. tural crops (approximately 5–20 cm).
Rhizosphere A zone approximately 1 mm wide surrounding the Rover A non-stationary global positioning system receiver that is used to
roots of a plant. The chemistry and biology of the soil in this zone collect three-dimensional position data over an area.
are influenced by the plant root as a result of plant uptake and
exudates.
Riffle A bar deposit found on the bed of river channels, usually spaced S
between 5 and 10 times the channel width apart. The height above Sabkha A salt-encrusted tidal flat environment; evaporation of ground-
the average bed surface causes fast-flowing, shallow and broken water draws in seawater which upon evaporation precipitates gyp-
water under low- and medium-flow conditions. sum (e.g. the coasts of the Persian Gulf).
Rill A small channel, formed by the merging of sheet wash into chan- Safety factor The ratio of the sum of forces resisting movement to the
nelized flow, that acts as a conduit for water and sediment and is sum of forces promoting movement of material down a slope; a value
liable to collapse and change location between each runoff event. below 1 means movement will begin.
Rillwash A hillslope erosion process that occurs when rainflow is deeper Salcrete A duricrust predominantly composed of sodium chloride (rock
than 6 mm (generally in small channels carved out of the hillslope), salt), a halite.
rendering raindrop detachment ineffective; sediment detachment Salinization A process involving the accumulation of soluble salts of
occurs when the downslope component of gravity and fluid flow trac- sodium, magnesium and calcium in the soil to the extent that the soil
tion overcome the frictional resistance of the soil. fertility is severely reduced.
Rip currents A strong seaward-directed current associated with water Salt marshes Coastal marshes that develop on low-lying sheltered
returning to the sea after being brought onshore by wave-breaking sections of coastlines (primarily in a lagoon, behind a spit or in an
activity; an accumulation of water develops which pushes down the estuary). Specialized salt-tolerant vegetation (halophytes) traps silt
beach via a line of least resistance. particles and consolidates the environment through processes of
Riparian zone A region on either side of a stream or river which is char- vegetation succession.
acterized by vegetation which differs from that outside of the ripar- Saltation A mechanism of sediment transport involving sediment grains
ian zone due to soil conditions found in the region. Riparian zones being bounced along a bed surface.
can provide a number of ecosystem services including acting as filters Sand Sediment particles between 0.06 and 2 mm in diameter.
for overland runoff, providing habitats and also producing allochtho- Sand seas Large areas of sand accumulations characterized by sand
nous resources for river ecosystems. sheets and dunes; sediment grains are well rounded and typically
Rising limb The increase in river discharge in response to a rainfall quartz (e.g. the Sahara and Namibian Deserts). Also known as
event, as depicted in a storm hydrograph. ergs.
River reach See Reaches (river). Saprolite A soft, clay-rich, disintegrating rock found in its original place,
River segments These are sections of a river which are the length of formed by chemical weathering of igneous or metamorphic rock in
the river between two bends. They are usually studied at the scale of humid, tropical or subtropical climates.
approximately 100 m. Saprovores An organism that survives on dead organic matter.
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Saturated A term to describe the state of the soil when all soil pores are Sediment yield The amount of sediment, both in suspension and trans-
filled with water. ported as bed load, that is lost from a catchment. Usually measured
Saturated adiabatic lapse rate The rate at which temperature as tonnes per year or tonnes per year per unit catchment area.
decreases in a rising parcel of saturated air. Sedimentary rock Rock which has formed by the gradual accumulation
Saturated hydraulic conductivity The rate of water movement of sediment through time which has then solidified.
through a porous medium when it is saturated (calculated using Sedimentation The process in which sediment is deposited leading to
Darcy’s law). its accumulation (e.g. at deltas).
Saturated zone The zone under the surface, which lies beneath the Segregated ice Very large lenses of ice that have slowly built up in
water table, in which all pores of the aquifer rock or soil are filled with frozen soil as a result of the migration of water to the freezing front
groundwater (i.e. saturated). (typically only in the upper 5–6 m of ground).
Saturation-excess overland flow A form of overland flow that occurs Seif dunes Linear dunes formed where two dominant wind directions
when all available soil pore spaces become full (i.e. the soil is satu- are present at approximately right angles to each other.
rated). Excess water is forced to flow over the surface. Sensible heat Heat that can be measured by a thermometer and felt by
Scale Describes the linear relationship between a linear distance on an humans.
image and the corresponding distance on the ground which deter- Seral stage A stage within the process of ecological succession which
mines how much detail is captured in the image. is characterized by a particular biotic community. A series of seral
Sclerophyllous Refers to plants with small, tough evergreen leaves stages (and their associated biotic communities) successively follow
which maintain a rigid structure at low water potentials thereby one another in the path to the climax community; each community
avoiding wilting. They are usually found in low-rainfall areas since the creates conditions more favourable for a succeeding community.
tough leaves help to reduce water loss. Sesquioxides An oxide containing three atoms of oxygen to two atoms
Scrapers Another name for grazers. (or radicals) of some other substance.
Scratch hardness The resistance of a material, such as stone, to scratch- Sessile A term to describe benthic organisms attached to a substrate
ing by another known material. These known materials are assembled and hence immobile (fixed to the ocean bottom).
into a standard scale which is known as Moh’s scale of minerals. Shadow dunes Small wind-blown dunes that develop in coastal or dryland
Scree Loose, angular, rocky material that has been loosened from a areas around obstacles such as driftwood, a rock or a dead animal.
slope through weathering and deposited further down the slope. Shear A condition or force causing two contacting layers to slide past
Scree slope The area at the base of a hillside where loose angular sedi- each other in opposite directions parallel to their plane of contact.
ment (scree) accumulates. Shear stress A stress that acts upon a particle in the same plane as the
Sea walls Massive concrete, steel or timber structures built along the surface the particle is resting upon (i.e. opposed to normal stress
coastline, with a vertical or sometimes curved face. A hard engineer- acting in the direction of gravity), resulting in either movement or
ing coastal management technique employed to protect local infra- strain of the particle. In the context of river systems, shear stress is
structure from flooding or erosion. the velocity of flowing water; when a critical flow velocity (and hence
Seamounts Individual volcanoes on the ocean floor whose origin is dis- a critical shear stress) is reached, frictional forces may be overcome
tinct from the plate boundary volcanic system of mid-ocean ridges or and a particle lifted from the bed.
subduction zones, i.e. usually formed as a plate moves over a hot spot. Shield areas Tectonically stable areas of exposed rock which date back
Sea-salt events Enrichment of precipitation with sea salts incorporated to the Precambrian era, these areas are relatively flat and show
from sea spray in windy conditions. limited evidence of tectonic activity such as mountain building which
Seasonal icings Mounds of ice formed in winter in topographic lows is more evident at the margins of shield areas.
where groundwater reaches the surface, i.e. in areas where return Shield volcanoes Large, dome-like rarely explosive volcanoes with
flow occurs and freezes. gentle slopes of 6–12° formed by alternate layers of runny basalt, e.g.
Secondary endemic A species becomes endemic through the extinction the Hawaiian shield volcanoes.
of those species occurring in other places where they once survived Shifting cultivation A form of plant cultivation in which seeds are planted
(e.g. mammals of the West Indies). in the fertile soil prepared by cutting and burning the natural growth.
Secondary minerals Minerals formed by the breakdown and chemical Relatively short periods of cultivation are followed by longer periods of
weathering of less resistant primary minerals (e.g. clays and oxides of fallow to allow soil rejuvenation, returning to the site years later.
iron and aluminium). Shoaling A gradual shallowing of the seabed.
Secondary succession Ecological succession beginning on a previously Shore The land bordering the sea between the water’s edge at low tide
vegetated site that has been recently disturbed by natural agents and the upper limit of effective wave action.
(e.g. fire, flood and hurricanes) or by human activities (e.g. deforesta- Shoreface A sloping zone (often steep) of sand and gravel extending
tion). Remnant seed banks and root systems may influence the char- from the low water mark to the off shore transition zone, where the
acter of the resulting community. sand and gravel are moved by waves and currents.
Sediment budget An account of the inputs, outputs and stores of sedi- Shoreline The water’s edge where the shore and the water meet; it var-
ment for a given system. ies over time.
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Shore platform An erosional surface of horizontal or gently sloping rock Soil A complex medium consisting of inorganic materials, organic matter
in the intertidal zone that has developed following erosion of a rocky (living and dead), and water and air variously organized and subject
coast. to dynamic processes and interactions. It forms the natural terrestrial
Short-wave radiation Incoming radiation whose wavelength is surface layer that is the supporting medium for the growth of plants.
unchanged from its solar source. Soil biomass The living component of soil organic matter, it is the term
Shredders Organisms which feed on coarse particulate organic matter, given to a mass of organisms in a specified mass of soil. It is often
breaking it down into fine particulate organic matter. These organ- used as an indicator of soil quality and includes organisms such as
isms are considered most important in temperate river systems and bacteria and earthworms.
are predominantly found in forest streams where there is much plant Soil colloid Very small mineral particles (less than 0.002 mm in
and leaf litter. diameter) that stay suspended in water, the most important being
Significant wave height The mean height of the top tenth of all wave clay minerals capable of remaining suspended in water indefi-
heights recorded at a given location (used as an approximate meas- nitely.
ure of wave energy for that location). Soil colour A visible characteristic of the soil that allows the determina-
Silcrete A duricrust predominantly composed of silicates. tion of soil properties such as organic matter content, iron content,
Silt Sediment particles between 0.004 and 0.06 mm in diameter. soil drainage and soil aeration.
Silviculture Subject of utilizing plant processes to grow trees for har- Soil creep The very slow, imperceptible, movement of material
vesting. downslope under the force of gravity.
Sinusoidal The mathematical shape of a curve of sines, i.e. a wave con- Soil horizons Distinctive horizontal layers within a soil profile, created
sists of a simple sinusoidal form. primarily by the translocation of materials with water moving through
Slaking A process that involves raindrops striking a soil surface and the soil.
water being forced into a soil aggregate therefore compressing the Soil organic matter Predominantly consists of carbon, but is also made
air inside and causing the aggregate to explode into its constituent up of other elements including nitrogen, phosphorus, oxygen and
grains. sulfur. It can be split into three groups – litter, humus and biomass –
Slantwise convection Convection (vertical rise in an air parcel) is inhib- and is an important component of a healthy and productive soil. It has
ited when the prevailing lapse rate is less than the appropriate adi- a number of functions including retaining moisture and organic pol-
abatic lapse rate. However, a poleward horizontal movement of an air lutants and providing food for soil biomass.
mass may bring the air parcel into an environment denser than itself, Soil pipes Horizontal tube-like subsurface cavities within the soil; spe-
thereby allowing the air parcel to rise through slantwise convection. cial forms of macropores greater than 1 mm in diameter. They are
Slide Mass movements which involve a large mass of earth or rock continuous in length such that they can transmit water, sediment and
essentially moving as a block as opposed to flows. solutes through the soil and bypass the soil matrix.
Slumping A mass movement process whereby saturated slope mate- Soil profile A vertical section through the soil from the ground surface
rial moves downslope under the force of gravity and deforms upon down to the parent material; the profile characteristics determine the
movement. soil type.
Smelting The process of extracting a metal from its ores by heating. Soil solution The water held in the soil pores that contains dissolved
Snowline The altitude marking the lower limit of permanent snow in organic and inorganic substances and hence is not pure.
upland or high-latitude areas, i.e. the line where the winter snowfall Soil structure The shape, size and distinctiveness of soil aggregates,
exceeds the amount removed by summer melting and evaporation. divided into four principal types (blocky, spherical, platy and pris-
Social ecology The study of the dynamics and diversity of social behav- matic).
iour and social systems of animals; social ecological variables include Soil texture The relative proportions of sand, silt and clay-sized frac-
measures of group composition, inter-male competition and habitat tions of a soil.
preference. Solifluction Form of slow mass movement in environments that experi-
Social impact assessment An evaluation of the impact of a proposed ence freeze–thaw action or highly variable warming and cooling
activity on all the social aspects of the environment including: peo- of the surface. This results in a slow movement of soil material
ple’s coping strategies (economic, social and cultural); use of the downslope.
natural environment; the way communities are organized through Solum The portion of the soil where soil-forming processes are
social and cultural institutions; and the identity and cultural character active and plant and animal life are mostly confined; the A, E and
of a community. It involves characterizing the existing state of these B horizons.
aspects of the social environment in addition to predicting how they Solute load The total mass of material transported in solution by a flow.
might change. Solvent A substance which dissolves another substance to produce a
Soft engineering Pertaining to more ‘sensitive’ management practices solution.
that involve methods more closely associated with geomorphological Sorting A measure of the spread, or standard deviation, of grain sizes
processes and local sediment dynamics; large ‘hard engineering’ types within a sediment. In general, the further a sediment deposit has
of structures are avoided. been transported from its source, the greater the sorting of grains.
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Speciation The evolution of new species involving the relatively gradual Stereo images Aerial photographs that have been obtained such that
change in the characteristics of successive generations of an organ- each photo overlaps another by a prescribed amount. Overlapping
ism, ultimately giving rise to species different from the common coverage provides two points of observation to provide parallax
ancestor. Most biologists accept Darwin’s basic hypothesis of spe- required for digital elevation model generation.
ciation from a common ancestor as a result of natural selection of Stochastic A model that contains some random element in the opera-
those attributes best suited to survival in a given habitat with limited tion or input data so that more than one, and usually a very large
resources. Speciation can take a number of forms, whether sympatric number of, outcomes are possible.
(populations overlapping) or allopatric (populations become isolated Stone pavements Accumulations of flat-lying boulders in a mosaic pat-
from one another). tern at the ground surface in periglacial environments. Some argue
Specific conductance The ability of water to conduct an electric cur- they are formed by aeolian removal of fine surface particles, but it is
rent, dependent on the concentration of ions in solution. more commonly argued they are displaced upwards as small particles
Specific heat The energy required to change the temperature of 1 fall into ground cracks created during freeze–thaw cycles while the
gram of a substance by 1° C. Water has a higher specific heat than larger boulders cannot.
air, requiring more energy to be absorbed for any given temperature Stormflow The peak flow that occurs during or immediately fol-
change. lowing a rainfall event occurring as a result of overland flow and
Spectral band A division of the electromagnetic spectrum that groups rapid subsurface flow (e.g. pipeflow contributions may also be
energy according to similarities. high).
Spectral signature Describes the reflectance characteristics of a sur- Storm surge barriers A hard engineering technique with a main func-
face across the electromagnetic spectrum. tion to protect low-lying and coastal areas from flooding during
Specular reflection The redirection of radiation off a smooth surface storm events which can be exacerbated by the occurrence of rising
such that the radiation is otherwise unchanged. sea levels.
Speleothems Structures formed in a cave by the deposition of minerals Stoss-and-lee forms Streamlined elongated rock exposure formed by
from water, e.g. a stalactite, stalagmite. They are primarily composed the sliding of debris-rich basal ice over the bedrock surface under a
of calcium carbonate precipitated from groundwater percolating glacier; characterized by a gently sloping glacially smoothed upstream
through carbonate rock, e.g. limestone. side and a steeper plucked downstream side (centimetres to metres
Spits Narrow and elongated accumulations of sand and shingle projecting in length).
into the sea, usually with a curved seaward end caused by wave action. Strain history The amount of deformation of a substance that has
They grow out from the coastline when the shore orientation changes occurred owing to previous stress impact; it can affect present and
but longshore currents do not deviate and continue to transport and future stress–strain relationships.
deposit along a projected coastline, e.g. at the mouth of an estuary. Strain rate The amount of deformation occurring over time for a given
Spring tides A tide that occurs at or near the new moon and full moon material (i.e. the rate of deformation). For glaciers, the strain rate for
when the gravitational pull of the Sun reinforces that of the Moon a given shear stress is determined by Glen’s law.
producing a large tidal range, causing higher than average high tides Stratification (stratify) Division of water in deep lakes, reservoirs and
and lower than average low tides. stable water bodies into layers of differing density.
Stable isotope Isotopes of an element possess the same number of pro- Stratified estuaries Estuaries with limited saltwater and freshwater
tons in their nuclei but have different numbers of neutrons. A stable mixing (via advection and diffusion) causing a lower layer of denser
isotope does not break down by radioactive decay. For example, 12C and saltier water with an upper layer of less dense freshwater; a salt
is a stable isotope and the most widespread form of carbon in the wedge develops.
environment, but the radioactive isotope 14C and the stable isotope Stratigraphy The layering of sediments.
13
C also occur. Stratosphere A layer of the atmosphere lying above the troposphere
Stadial A short period of climatic deterioration within an interglacial about 50 km above the Earth’s surface.
period; glaciers advanced and periglacial conditions extended but in a Stratotype A particular stratigraphic unit with clear and well-recorded
less pronounced way than during a glacial interval. characteristics and boundaries. This site can become the point of
Stakeholders A person or group who can affect or is affected by an action reference for comparison with a more poorly preserved record. Also
and therefore has a vested interest in the outcomes. Responsible deci- known as typesite.
sion-making requires consideration of the effects on all stakeholders. Stream competence The maximum particle size a stream can transport.
Stand An area of more or less homogeneous vegetation. Stream order Numbering of the drainage network according to the
Standard deviation A measure of how spread out the data are around number of tributaries and stream network linkages.
the mean. Stream power The rate of energy supply in a river that is available for
Stellate dunes Star-shaped dunes formed under conditions of variable work to be done at the stream bed, measured in W m - 2.
wind direction with no one prevailing wind direction. These dunes do Stress The force per unit area acting on a plane within a body due to
not migrate. application of an external load; six values are required to characterize
Stemflow The flow of water down the trunk of a tree or stems of other the stress at a point completely (three normal components and three
vegetation allowing water to reach the hillslope. shear components).
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Striations Microscale erosional features on rock surfaces, resembling a Swash zone Process-based term for the area within the nearshore zone
scratch. where broken waves travel up the beach as swash and return as
Sub-aerial An object or a process which exists or occurs near to or on backwash.
the surface of the Earth. Swath The area on the ground covered by the motion of a remote sens-
Subduction The process in which one lithospheric plate descends ing instrument.
beneath another into the asthenosphere when the two plates con- Symbiotic An interdependent relationship between two species living
verge. together, which can be positive or negative for the species involved.
Subglacial Pertaining to the environment at the base of a glacier. Systematic errors Predictable errors that can be modelled and removed
Sublimate A change in the physical state of a substance directly from from the data.
solid to gaseous form.
Sublimation The chemical process in which a solid changes directly into
a gas. T
Subsea permafrost Permafrost found beneath the sea; sometimes Tafoni These are cavities in a rock face which are the result of weather-
due to low temperatures at the bed, more usually a remnant of past ing. They are elliptical in shape and are most commonly found on
colder temperatures and rising sea levels (drowning frozen ground). vertical and sloping rock faces. They usually exist in honeycomb-like
Subsurface flow Pertaining to throughflow that occurs through microp- groups and can be found on a variety of rock types.
ores, macropores and soil pipes. Talik A Siberian word for an unfrozen pocket within permafrost; for
Succession Changes over time in the structure or composition of an example, beneath a lake or warm-bedded glacier.
ecological community. These changes often follow a predictable Talus An accumulation of angular rock debris from rockfalls found at the
pattern. base of a slope.
Sun-synchronous orbit The orbit of a satellite travelling around the Tarn A depression located at the site of a melted corrie glacier; a lake
Earth which is timed such that it passes over any given latitude at the usually forms in the centre.
same time at each pass so as to ensure that illumination conditions Taxonomy The study, description and systematic classification of living
remain constant between subsequent images. organisms (plant and animal) into groups based on similarities of
Super-adiabatic A term used for localized steep lapse rates that are structure or origin. Synonymous with systematics.
greater than even the dry adiabatic lapse rate causing rapid local Teleconnections Correlations or causal relationships between meteorologi-
convection, e.g. strong radiational heating of the ground surface. cal events and other natural phenomena at different locations around
Superimposed ice The ice formed when water from melting snow the world, which are often large distances apart from each other.
comes into contact with the cold surface ice of a glacier at the base Telemetry The process of obtaining measurements in one place and
of the snowpack and refreezes. relaying them for rcording or display at a different site.
Supply limited A transport process that is limited by the lack of sedi- Temperate glacier A glacier formed in temperate climates where the
ment supply, not the capacity to transport sediment since more force temperature of the entire glacier is at the pressure melting point
is available than is being utilized. For example, rockfalls are limited by except for the surface 10–20 m (which fluctuates with the season);
the amount of material that is loose enough to fall. considerable quantities of meltwater are generated causing high
Supraglacial Pertaining to the environment at the surface of a glacier. rates of glacier movement and erosion.
Surf zone A process-based term for the area within the nearshore zone Temperature inversion A reversal of the normal environmental tem-
where breaking waves approach the shore usually over a wide, low perature lapse rate; air temperature increases with altitude.
gradient. Tensile strengths The amount of force which is required to pull an
Surface boundary layer A layer extending upwards from the Earth to a object to the point of fracture.
height that ranges anywhere between 100 and 3000 m. Here, almost Tensile stress The action of a force pulling an object along its cross-
all interactions between the atmosphere and humans take place. sectional axes in an outwards motion from its centre.
Surface tension The resistance of the surface of a material to external Terminal mode The final form of a particle of glacial sediment in which
forces. It is determined by the cohesive energy between the mol- the particle will not break down into a finer form even with prolonged
ecules which form the surface of the object. Molecules in the middle transport in the glacial system.
of an object are subject to equal forces on all sides whereas forces Terminal velocity The velocity at which the frictional drag forces acting
acting on the surface molecules are not in balance, however. on a falling object are equal to the driving forces of gravity, resulting
Suspended load The sediment transported in water when lifted from in a constant fall rate (neither accelerating nor slowing down).
the bed surface and kept in suspension by turbulent fluid flow. Thalweg The line of maximum water velocity down the path of a river.
Sustainable development Development (any form of development from Thermal conductivity The degree to which a substance transmits heat.
an action, project, strategy or legislation) that meets the needs of Thermal scanner A remote sensing instrument similar to a multispectral
people today without compromising the ability of future generations scanner but that can only sense radiation in the thermal infrared por-
to meet their own needs. tion of the spectrum.
Swash The thin sheet of water that travels up the beach following the Thermocline The depth at which the temperature gradient of the water
breaking of a wave. column rapidly changes in the vertical dimension, marking the con-
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tact zone between water masses of markedly different temperatures. Total stream length The combined length (km) of all components of the
Also known as the metaliminion. channel network.
Thermohaline circulation Large-scale circulation of the world’s oceans, Trade winds The prevailing winds in the tropics blowing from high pres-
involving the vertical movement of large bodies of water, driven by sure at the tropics to low pressure at the equator. The winds do not
water density differences. Cold, salty water sinks in ‘downwelling zones’, blow directly north–south because the rotation of the Earth deflects
particularly at high latitudes in the North Atlantic, and flows slowly them to the left in the southern hemisphere and to the right in the
southward along the bottom of the Atlantic and into the Pacific, where northern hemisphere.
it rises again mainly in an ‘upwelling’ zone of western South and Central Tragedy of the commons A term coined by Garret Harding in 1968
America. It then flows back as a surface current. The thermohaline cir- that refers to the excessive exploitation of a communal resource to
culation is estimated to take 2000 years to complete one revolution. It a point of degradation due to the selfish nature of rational people
is very important in transporting heat through the Earth system. who will use more than their fair share of the resource; no one
Thermokarst A term referring to the ground surface depressions which person will take responsibility for something owned by all. It is often
are created by the thawing of ground ice (and subsequent water ero- used to demonstrate the mistake in allowing a growing population
sion) in periglacial areas, e.g. pingos. to increase steadily its exploitation of the ecosystem which sup-
Thermoluminescent Pertaining to luminescence (an emission of light) ports it.
resulting from exposure to high temperature; used as a means of dat- Transform faults Major strike–slip faults occurring where two plates
ing ancient material. slide past each other in the horizontal plane. They are capable of
Thiessen polygon The spatial influence of a particular data point calcu- causing major destructive earthquakes, e.g. the San Andreas Fault.
lated using arithmetic spatial averaging techniques on a network of Transgressive barriers Accumulations of sediment just offshore run-
data points. ning parallel to the coastline which have formed under the influence
Thixotropic Pertaining to the property of becoming fluid when agi- of rising sea level and/or a negative sediment budget. They tend
tated but recovering its original condition upon standing; viscosity to consist mainly of tidal delta and/or washover deposits, and are
decreases as the rate of shear (relative movement) increases. underlain by estuarine or lagoonal deposits. In this instance sedi-
Throughfall Water reaching the ground surface after dripping or bounc- ments deposited in seaward environments end up on top of sediment
ing off overlying vegetation. that originated in more landward environments.
Throughflow The downslope movement of water draining through the soil. Transgressive dune fields Mobile sand dunes, also known as migratory
Through-wash A wash process involving the movement of regolith par- dunes and sand drifts. They form where wave or wind energy is high
ticles through the pores between grains in the regolith; the particles and the supply of sand is moderate to high and often have a sinuous
must be at least 10 times smaller than the grains they are passing shape (like fish scales).
between, and the process is therefore only significant in washing silt Translocation The transport of dissolved ions and small particles
and clay out of clean sands. through the soil within the soil solution, to surface water and ground-
Tidal currents Currents produced by the rise and fall of the tide; either water.
the movement in and out of an estuary or bay, or the movement of Transmission bands Sections of the electromagnetic spectrum that
water between two points affected by different tidal regimes (espe- allow radiation to pass unobstructed. These are also called atmos-
cially common in straits). pheric windows.
Tidal prism The volume of water that moves in or out of an area such as Transpiration The loss of water to the atmosphere through the process
an estuary during a tidal cycle. of evaporation from leaf pores and plants.
Tidal range The difference in water level between high and low water Transport limited A transport processes that can only move material a
during a tide. limited distance from the source despite the plentiful supply of mate-
Till The generic term for sediment deposited directly by glacier ice. rial, e.g. rainsplash.
Tillage erosion An anthropogenic soil erosion process (similar to creep) Transporting capacity The maximum amount of material which the
which is the result of ploughing either up- and downslope or along transport process can carry.
the contour. The turning over of soil produces a direct downhill Transverse dunes Linear dunes with a shallow windward side and steep
movement. Whatever the ploughing direction, the process is faster lee slope (similar in structure to dunes and ripples formed below
than natural soil creep. water).
Tilt of the Earth The Earth’s axis lies at an angle that varies from Treatments A single test within a larger experiment where a single vari-
approximately 21° to 24° and back again in a 41 000 year cycle. The able has been altered from the control situation by a known quantity
greater the tilt, the more intense the seasons in both hemispheres and applied to the principal substrate in order to ascertain its effect.
become. Treeline The altitudinal upper limit of tree growth; affected by latitude
Topset bed A horizontal bed of coarse sediment deposited by braided and local factors such as slope, soil, aspect and exposure.
streams crossing a delta plain; it represents the sub-aerial part of the Trophic level A functional or process category describing the position of
delta. an organism or group of organisms in a food chain. Primary produc-
Topsoil The upper section of the soil that is most important for plant ers are at the first trophic level, those that feed on primary producers
growth (usually the A horizon or plough horizon). are at the second trophic level.
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Tropopause The boundary between the troposphere and the strato- V
sphere.
Troposphere The lowermost layer of the atmosphere extending to Valent A substance which has valence, often used to refer to the poten-
approximately 11 km above the Earth’s surface. tial of an atom to combine with another atom. This is dependent on
Truncated spur A valley side spur that has been abruptly cut off and the number of atoms which can be shared, lost or gained through
steepened at its lower end by the erosive action of a glacier. combining.
Tsunami A large sea wave generated by submarine seismic activ- Value A measurable variable of soil colour describing the degree of
ity (earthquakes, slides, volcanic activity) or meteor impact in the darkness or lightness of the colour (a value of 0 represents black).
ocean. These waves can be extremely destructive, especially in the Variable source area concept The idea that the area of a catchment
Pacific Rim, contributing to the coastline development of these that produces saturation-excess overland flow will vary through time,
areas. i.e. during a rainfall event a greater proportion of the catchment will
Turbidite current A density current involving mixtures of sediment and begin to contribute saturation-excess overland flow as time pro-
water which, owing to their increased density relative to seawater, gresses, and the catchment becomes more saturated.
flow down and along the bottom of the oceans transporting sand Varve A thin laminar bed of glacial sediment deposited by a proglacial
and clay-sized sediment from shelf slopes to deeper oceanic environ- stream in a repetitive annual sequence; coarse particles are depos-
ments. ited in summer and the finer particles progressively throughout the
Turbulent flow One of the two ways in which water can flow. It involves year.
water molecules moving in many directions, with an overall net flow Vascular plant Plants that have rigid (lignified) conducting tissues which
in one direction; as a result the flow is well mixed. can transport water and nutrients through the whole plant.
Turgor pressure The water pressure within a plant cell, maintained by Ventifacts The smoothed surfaces of individual stones eroded by sand
the process of osmosis. and dust particles entrained in the wind.
Venturi effect Wind forced to funnel between two buildings causes the
local wind speed to increase.
U
Undertow See bed return flow.
Unidirectional flow Currents flowing in one dominant direction (e.g. riv-
W
ers and wind). Wadati–Benioff zone The band of rock (20 km thick) which dips from
Uniformitarianism A practical principle of modern science concern- the trench region under an overlying plate in a subduction zone. It is
ing the method in which scientists explain phenomena; it advocates the location of earthquake foci that are associated with descending
the use of the simplest explanation which is consistent with both lithospheric plates.
evidence and known scientific laws. It is primarily related to James Wandering gravel-bed river A gravel-bed river channel characterized
Hutton’s demonstration in 1788 that the simplest explanation of the by an irregularly sinuous thalweg that is frequently split around veg-
development of the Earth’s landscape is through the observed pro- etated islands and low-order braiding within complex bar deposits
cesses of erosion and uplift acting gradually over time, rather than where the river is laterally unstable.
catastrophic landform development through divine intervention. Water balance Pertaining to the cyclical movements of volumes of
Urban boundary layer The section of the atmosphere directly overlying water within a drainage basin per unit time. It relates to the various
the urban canopy layer, subject to urban heat island effects through inputs, storage and outputs of water within the drainage basin system
the entrainment of air from the urban canopy layer and anthropo- and controls the nature of river discharge.
genic heat from roofs and chimneys. Water table The upper boundary of the zone of groundwater saturation
Urban canopy layer The section of the atmosphere immediately over- (the saturated zone). Its level varies with the amount of precipitation,
lying an urban area, subject to heavy localized urban heat island evapotranspiration and percolation.
effects, including greater daytime heat storage, anthropogenic heat Watershed Another name for catchment.
release from buildings and decreased evaporation. Wave asymmetry The nature of waves that is not symmetrical on either
Urban heat island Urban landscapes adjust the local microclimatic side of the wave crest. As waves enter shallower water they develop
processes, resulting in an ‘island’ of warmer air surrounded by peaked crests and flat troughs. In addition to the asymmetrical shape,
cooler rural air; two distinct regions of atmospheric modification are the water flow velocities also become asymmetric with the onshore
observed (the urban canopy layer and the urban boundary layer). The side of the wave being stronger but of shorter duration than the off-
effect is most apparent at night, owing to slower cooling of the urban shore side of the wave.
landscape, and during light winds. Wave base The point of a wave below which there is no orbital move-
U-shaped valley A wide valley with steep sides formed by glacial erosion ment of water.
of a V-shaped valley, involving the formation of truncated spurs dur- Wave breaking The destruction of a wave when it becomes too steep
ing the valley straightening. and disintegrates.
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Wave convergence The focusing of wave rays so that they come Whole-life costing Expressing the results of life-cycle analysis in finan-
together increasing in energy and height. cial terms, i.e. placing a monetary value on all the environmental
Wave crest The peak of the curve of a wave. impacts of a product from its manufacture to disposal.
Wave divergence The separation of wave rays so that waves move Wilting point The condition of a soil when plants cannot withdraw the
apart. Typically waves will become shorter and less energetic. necessary water for growth as the only remaining soil water is that
Wave energy flux The rate of transfer of energy by waves. held tightly to soil particles by hygroscopic forces and is unavailable
Wave frequency The number of wave crests which pass a fixed point for plant use.
over a set timescale. Wind shear A change in wind speed or direction with altitude in the
Wave height The vertical distance between the wave trough and the atmosphere.
wave crest.
Wave period A measure of wave speed; the time taken for two succes-
sive wave crests to pass a fixed point.
X
Wave runup The maximum vertical elevation of a wave above the mean Xerophyte A plant that has adapted to grow in very arid conditions with
sea level. It is dependent on the local water level, the wave shape restricted water availability by minimizing water loss and maximizing
and periodicity, and the nature of the shore the where the runup is water efficiency.
occurring. Xerophytic Pertaining to having the character of a xerophyte, i.e. an
Wave set-up Wave breaking results in water piling up against the shore. organism adapted to growth in conditions of limited water availability.
This results in a slope of water with higher water pushed nearer the Xylem Vascular plant tissue which transports water and solutes from the
shore and this ‘set-up’ is sufficient to oppose the shoreward wave plant roots to leaves.
stresses.
Wave steepness Wave height divided by wavelength.
Wave trough The base of the curve of a wavelength.
Y
Wavelength The distance between a wave crest to the next wave crest, Yardangs Large-scale dryland features; the erosive power of dust car-
or between trough to trough. ried in the wind leads to the smoothing of entire hills streamlined in
Weathering The breakdown of rocks and minerals by the physical and the direction of sediment transport.
chemical processes of erosion. Yield strength The stress at which a material exhibits a deviation from
Well-mixed estuary An estuary in which mixing is so effective that the the proportionality of stress to strain, to produce a specified amount
salinity gradient in the vertical direction vanishes entirely. If the estu- of plastic deformation, i.e. below the yield strength the material acts
ary is wide enough then the Coriolis force pushes the flow of the as an elastic and above as a viscous material.
outflowing river to the margin of the estuary and may result in a hori- Young’s modulus Also known as the modulus of elasticity, it is a meas-
zontal separation of riverwater and seawater. ure of the rate of change of stress in a material as a result of the
Wet-snow zone The region of a glacier in which the entire snowpack strain applied, often in the form of compressional forces. On a stress–
becomes saturated at the end of the summer. strain diagram it is the straight-line part of the graph.
Wetted perimeter The contact area between the channel bed and
water when viewed in cross-section. Bank-full wetted perimeter is
calculated as the estimated contact zone when the channel is com- Z
pletely full with water. Zooplankton Microscopic organisms which consume other plankton.
Whaleback A streamlined elongated rock exposure formed by the basal Zooplankton exist in a variety of forms including larval, immature
sliding action of a glacier; similar in shape to stoss-and-lee forms but stages of larger animals, single-celled organisms and tiny crusta-
the steep side faces upstream and the tapered end downstream. ceans.
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