5G TECHNOLOGY

SEMINAR REPORT

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
(Electronics & Communication Engineering)

SUBMITTED TO Chandigarh College of Engineering and

Technology, PANJAB UNIVERSITY, CHANDIGARH

SUBMITTED BY RAJAT Roll No: CO16540

SUPERVISED BY DR.ANIL KUMAR ROSE

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 ABSTRACT

5G is the coming fifth-generation wireless broadband technology based on the IEEE802.11ac

standard.

5G will provide better speeds and coverage than the current 4G. 5G operates with a 5Ghz signal
and is set to offer speeds of up to 20Gb/s for tens of connections or tens of Mb/s for tens of
thousands of connections. Huawei, a major player in the Chinese mobile market, believes 5G
will provide speeds 100x faster than 4G LTE offers. 5G also increases network expandability up
to hundreds of thousands of connections.

The signal technology of 5G has also been improved for greater coverage as well as spectral and
signaling efficiency. These improvements stand to further enable changes like pervasive
computing and the Internet of Things (IoT).

Although 5G is not scheduled for launch until 2020, some manufacturers are already
incorporating elements of the coming standard's specifications into their products.

With the 4G telecommunications systems now starting to be deployed, eyes are looking towards
the development of 5th generation or 5G technology and services.

Although the deployment of any wireless or cellular system takes many years, development of
the 5G technology systems is being investigated. The new 5th generation, 5G technology for
cellular systems will probably start to come to fruition around 2020 with deployment following
on afterwards.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Content Page No

Abstract ii
Table of Contents iii
List of Figures v
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 What is 5G? 1
1.2 How 5G Works 1

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1.3 5G Spectrum 2
1.4 Benefits of 5G 2
CHAPTER 2: 5G Architecture 4
2.1 A Paradigm Shift 4
2.2 Radio Network Evolution 5
2.3 Agility and Resilience by Splitting of Plane- SDN 6
CHAPTER 3: Cloud RAN Architecture 8
3.1 What is Centralized RAN Architecture 8
3.2 Centralized RAN to Cloud RAN Architecture 9
CHAPTER 4: Elements of 5G 11
4.1 Millimeter Wave 11
4.2 Small Cells 12
4.3 Massive MIMO 13
4.3.1 Capability to Improve the Radiated Energy Efficiency 14
4.3.2 Reducing Latency on the Air Interface 15
4.4 Beamforming 15
4.5 Full Duplexing 16

CHAPTER 5: Network Slicing in 5G 18

5.1 Introduction 18
5.2 5G for Different Scenarios 19

CHAPTER 6: Device to Device Communication in 5G 21

6.1 Introduction 21
6.1.1 Device Relaying with BS Controlled Link Formation 23
6.1.2 Direct Device to Device Communication with BS Controlled Link 23
6.1.3 Device Relaying with Device Controlled Link Formation 23
6.1.4 Direct Device to Device Communication with Device Controlled Link 24
6.2 Machine to Machine Communication 24

CHAPTER 7: Multiple Access Techniques Used in 5G 25

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7.1 Introduction 25
7.2 Features of NOMA 26
7.3 Improved Spectral Efficiency 26
7.4 Massive Connectivity 26
7.5 Dominant NOMA Solution 27

CHAPTER 8: Applications, Challenges and Future Vision 28

8.1 Application 28
8.2 Challenges 28
8.3 Future Vision 31

REFERENCES 33

LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. No. Topic Page No.
Fig. 1.1 5G Spectrum 2
Fig. 2.1 Paradigm Shift in Architecture 4
Fig. 2.2 Standalone 5G architecture 6
Fig. 2.3 Software Design Network (SDN) 7
Fig. 3.1 Centralized RAN Architecture 9
Fig. 3.2 Cloud RAN Architecture 10
Fig. 4.1 Millimeter Wave Spectrum 11
Fig. 4.2 Small Cells Concept 12
Fig. 4.3 Massive MIMO in 5G 13
Fig. 4.4 Beamforming 16
Fig. 4.5 Full Duplex 17
Fig. 5.1 5G for Different Scenarios 19
Fig. 6.1 Device Relaying with Base Station Controlled Link Formation 20
Fig. 6.2 Direct Device to Device Communication with BS Controlled Link 21
Fig. 6.3 Device Relaying with Device Controlled Link Formation 21
Fig. 6.4 Direct Device to Device Communication with Device Controlled Link 22

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Fig. 6.5 Machine to Machine Communication 23
Fig. 7.1 Capacity Performance of NOMA vs OMA 26
Fig. 7.2 Power NOMA 27
Fig. 8.1 Applications 28
Fig. 8.2 Technical Challenges 29
Fig. 8.3 Common Challenges 30

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 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 What is ‘5G’?

Fifth-generation wireless, or 5G, is the latest iteration of cellular technology, engineered to

greatly increase the speed and responsiveness of wireless networks. With 5G, data transmitted
over wireless broadband connections could travel at rates as high as 20 Gbps by some estimates
-- exceeding wireline network speeds -- as well as offer latency of 1ms or lower for uses that
require real-time feedback. 5G will also enable a sharp increase in the amount of data transmitted
over wireless systems due to more available bandwidth and advanced antenna technology.

In addition to improvements in speed, capacity and latency, 5G offers network management

features, among them network slicing, which allows mobile operators to create multiple virtual
networks within a single physical 5G network. This capability will enable wireless network
connections to support specific uses or business cases and could be sold on an as-a-service basis.
A self-driving car, for example, would require a network slice that offers extremely fast, low-
latency connections so a vehicle could navigate in real time. A home appliance, however, could
be connected via a lower-power, slower connection because high performance isn't crucial. The
internet of things (IoT) could use secure, data-only connections.

5G networks and services will be deployed in stages over the next several years to accommodate
the increasing reliance on mobile and internet-enabled devices. Overall, 5G is expected to
generate a variety of new applications, uses and business cases as the technology is rolled out.

1.2 How 5G Works

Wireless networks are composed of cell sites divided into sectors that send data through radio
waves. Fourth-generation (4G) Long-Term Evolution (LTE) wireless technology provides the
foundation for 5G. Unlike 4G, which requires large, high-power cell towers to radiate signals
over longer distances, 5G wireless signals will be transmitted via large numbers of small cell
stations located in places like light poles or building roofs. The use of multiple small cells is
necessary because the millimeter wave spectrum -- the band of spectrum between 30 GHz and
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 300 GHz that 5G relies on to generate high speeds can only travel over short distances and is
subject to interference from weather and physical obstacles, like buildings.

1.3 5G Spectrum

Figure 1.1

1.4 Benefits of 5G

1∼10 Gbps data rates in real networks: This is almost 10 times increase from traditional LTE
network’s theoretical peak data rate of 150 Mbps.

1 ms round trip latency: Almost 10 times reduction from 4G’s 10 ms round trip time.

High bandwidth in unit area: It is needed to enable large number of connected devices with
higher bandwidths for longer durations in a specific area.

Enormous number of connected devices: In order to realize the vision of IoT, emerging 5G
networks need to provide connectivity to thousands of devices.

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Perceived availability of 99.999%: 5G envisions that network should practically be always
available.

Almost 100% coverage for ‘anytime anywhere’ connectivity: 5G wireless networks need to
ensure complete coverage irrespective of users’ locations.

Reduction in energy usage by almost 90%: Development of green technology is already being
considered by standard bodies. This is going to be even more crucial with high data rates and
massive connectivity of 5G wireless.

High battery life: Reduction in power consumption by devices is fundamentally important in

emerging 5G networks.

1.

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 CHAPTER 2 5G ARCHITECTURE

2.1 A paradigm Shift

With the requirements of sub-millisecond latency and bandwidth limitation in traditional wireless
spectrum, cellular networks are now poised to break the Base Station (BS) centric network
paradigm. Figure depicts this gradual movement from BS centric to a device centric network.
The increase in demand by wireless industry motivated the advancement towards much smaller
cell deployment from the initial macro hexagonal coverage. Researchers these days are focused
on ways to design user centric networking. User is no longer the final resolution of the wireless
network but is expected to participate in storage, relaying, content delivery and computation
within the network.

Figure 2.1

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2.2 Radio Network Evolution
Overall layout of 5G wireless networks breaks the rules of BS centric cellular concept and moves
towards a device centric topology. 5G network proposes the use of higher frequencies for
communication. The propagation and penetration of mm-wave signal in outdoor environment is
quite limited. Thus, node layout cannot follow traditional cellular design or even any definite
pattern. For instance, ultra-dense deployment is necessary in areas requiring high data rates, like
subway stations, malls and offices. Line of Sight (LOS) communication is undisputed preference
over Non-Line of Sight (NLOS) communication. Alternately, reflected, scattered and diffracted
signals still might have sufficient energy, which needs to be explored when LOS is completely
blocked.

5G cellular technology needs to work with an enormous number of users, variety of devices and
diverse services. The primary concern therefore, is the integration of 5G BSs with the legacy
cellular networks (e.g. 4G, 3G and 2G). Different configurations like, mm-wave BS grid systems,
mm-wave integrated with 4G systems and mm-wave standalone systems have been proposed.
Large beamforming gains extend the coverage, while reducing interference and improving link
quality at the cell edges. This feature enables mm-wave BS grids to provide low latency and cost-
effective solution. Figure(A) shows a hybrid system of mm-wave (5G) and legacy 4G network.
It proposes a dual-mode modem, enabling the user to switch between the two networks for better
experience. Alternately, mm-wave spectrum can also be used only for data communications,
while control and system information can be transmitted by using traditional 4G networks. On
the other hand, as shown in Figure(B), standalone 5G systems operate exclusively on mm-waves.
Such systems envision the use of same mm-wave spectrum for both backhaul and wireless access
links. The concept of narrow beams allows acceptable spectrum overlap and also improves link
quality between BS grids and large number of users. Thus, the radio networking in 5G
communications is expected to be much different from legacy networks.

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 Figure 2.2

2.3 Agility and Resilience by Splitting of Plane—SDN

The changes in architecture and air interface emphasizes on small cells and increased number of
antennas. Configuration and maintenance of many servers and routers, in such a dense 5G
deployment, is a complex challenge. Software Design Network (SDN) offers a simplified
solution for this complex challenge. SDN considers a split between control and data planes,
thereby introducing swiftness and flexibility in 5G networks. Figure below depicts the
segregation of user and control signals. Increase in user plane capacity thus becomes independent
of control plane resources. This endows the 5G network with high data at the required locations,
without incurring control plane overhead. SDN decouples the data and control planes by using
the software components. These software components are responsible for managing the control
plane, thereby reducing hardware constraints. Interaction between the two planes is achieved
using open interfaces, like Open Flow. It also facilitates switching between different
configurations.

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Figure 2.3

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 CHAPTER 3 CLOUD RAN
ARHITECTURE

3.1 What is Centralized RAN architecture?

C-RAN is an acronym gaining popularity in the wireless industry, though it refers to two different
meanings. The first meaning is centralized radio access network, while the second meaning is
cloud-based RAN. Both meanings are related concepts and involve a new architecture for
network equipment at cell sites.

The C-RAN concept was first introduced by China Mobile Research Institute in April 2010, and
the network architecture is currently being deployed by mobile operators globally.

RAN is the equipment that connects to cellular antennas, processes the signal and sends it to the
core network. As the demand for connectivity has exploded in recent years, mobile operators
around the world have looked for ways to minimize the footprint and cost of their equipment.
This has led to the move to centralize parts of the RAN.

The C-RAN architecture is designed to allow mobile operators to move the baseband processing
unit to a central location in support of multiple remote radio heads. Until recently, the BBU was
almost always located on-site near the bottom of the cellular antenna. This model forced network
operators to lease the space, run power to every BBU and cool the equipment inside, which
resulted in high operational costs.

C-RAN offers mobile operators the possibility to centralize multiple BBUs in a single location,
either at a cell site or at a centralized BBU pool location. This allows telcos to simplify the
amount of equipment needed at each individual cell site, among other benefits.

C-RAN architecture uses fiber to connect base station equipment to tower-top remote radio heads
and antennas. In some architectures, the BBUs are linked and can share information, and in others
they are simply located in the same building. Colocation of BBUs is increasingly popular for
carriers deploying distributed antenna systems.

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 The deployment of a C-RAN architecture also allows operators to save money, as it can cut
costs in at least two ways. First, real estate is almost always less expensive at a data center
location than at a cell tower site. Through this architecture, mobile operators can consolidate
base station equipment for multiple cell sites at a central office or data center. Second, power
loss is much lower with fiber than with cable, so the fiber connection associated with C-RAN
can reduce operating expenses.

Centralized RAN is an architecture in which the mobile operator maintains direct control and
ownership of the baseband equipment.

Figure 3.1

3.2 Centralized RAN to Cloud RAN Architecture

Cloud Radio Access Network (C-RAN) resolves some of the major problems associated with
increasing demands for high data rates. Wireless industry is working on measures to enhance
network capacity by adding more cells, implementing MIMO techniques, establishing complex
structure of HetNets and small cell deployment. However, inter-cell interference, Capital
Expenditure (CAPEX) and Operating Expenditure (OPEX) impedes these efforts. C-RAN offers
to improve system architecture, mobility, coverage performance and energy efficiency while at
the same time reducing the cost of network deployment and operation. C-RAN is based on
fundamentals of centralization and virtualization. The baseband resources are pooled at
BaseBand Unit (BBU), situated at remote central office (not at the cell sites). In traditional
cellular networks, the Internet Protocol, Multi-protocol functionality and Ethernet are extended
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 all the way to remote cell sites. Figure shows a typical C-RAN architecture, with BBUs from
many remote sites centralized at a virtual BBU pool. This results in statistical multiplexing gains,
energy efficient operations and resource savings. Virtual BBU pools further facilitate scalability,
cost reduction, integration of different services and reduction in time consumption for field trials.
Remote Radio Heads (RRH), comprising of transceiver components, amplifiers and duplexers
enable digital processing, analog-digital conversions, power amplification and filtering. RRHs
are connected to BBU pool by single mode fiber of data rate higher than 1 Gbps. This simplified
BS architecture is paving the way for dense 5G deployment by making it affordable, flexible and
efficient. Powerful cloud computing ability can easily handle all complex control processes.

Figure 3.2

CHAPTER 4 ELEMENTS OF 5G

4.1 Millimeter Wave

Today’s wireless networks have run into a problem: More people and devices are consuming
more data than ever before, but it remains crammed on the same bands of the radio-frequency

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 spectrum that mobile providers have always used. That means less bandwidth for everyone,
causing slower service and more dropped connections.

One way to get around that problem is to simply transmit signals on a whole new swath of the
spectrum, one that’s never been used for mobile service before. That’s why providers are
experimenting with broadcasting on millimeter waves, which use higher frequencies than the
radio waves that have long been used for mobile phones.

Millimeter waves are broadcast at frequencies between 30 and 300 gigahertz, compared to the
bands below 6 GHz that were used for mobile devices in the past. They are called millimeter
waves because they vary in length from 1 to 10 mm, compared to the radio waves that serve
today’s smartphones, which measure tens of centimeters in length.

Until now, only operators of satellites and radar systems used millimeter waves for real-world
applications. But using millimeter waves to connect mobile users with a nearby base station is
an entirely new approach.

There is one major drawback to millimeter waves, though—they can’t easily travel through
buildings or obstacles and they can be absorbed by foliage and rain. That’s why 5G networks
will likely augment traditional cellular towers with another new technology, called small cells.

Figure 4.1

4.2 Small Cells

Small cells are portable miniature base stations that require minimal power to operate and can be
placed every 250 meters or so throughout cities. To prevent signals from being dropped, carriers
could install thousands of these stations in a city to form a dense network that acts like a relay
team, receiving signals from other base stations and sending data to users at any location.

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 While traditional cell networks have also come to rely on an increasing number of base stations,
achieving 5G performance will require an even greater infrastructure. Luckily, antennas on small
cells can be much smaller than traditional antennas if they are transmitting tiny millimeter waves.
This size difference makes it even easier to stick cells on light poles and atop buildings.

This radically different network structure should provide more targeted and efficient use of
spectrum. Having more stations means the frequencies that one station uses to connect with
devices in one area can be reused by another station in a different area to serve another customer.
There is a problem, though—the sheer number of small cells required to build a 5G network may
make it hard to set up in rural areas.

In addition to broadcasting over millimeter waves, 5G base stations will also have many more
antennas than the base stations of today’s cellular networks—to take advantage of another new
technology: massive MIMO.

Figure 4.2

4.3 Massive MIMO

Today’s 4G base stations have a dozen ports for antennas that handle all cellular traffic: eight for
transmitters and four for receivers. But 5G base stations can support about a hundred ports, which

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means many more antennas can fit on a single array. That capability means a base station could
send and receive signals from many more users at once, increasing the capacity of mobile
networks by a factor of 22 or greater.

This technology is called massive MIMO. It all starts with MIMO, which stands for multipleinput
multiple-output. MIMO describes wireless systems that use two or more transmitters and
receivers to send and receive more data at once. Massive MIMO takes this concept to a new level
by featuring dozens of antennas on a single array.

MIMO is already found on some 4G base stations. But so far, massive MIMO has only been
tested in labs and a few field trials. In early tests, it has set new records for spectrum efficiency,
which is a measure of how many bits of data can be transmitted to a certain number of users per
second.

Massive MIMO looks very promising for the future of 5G. However, installing so many more
antennas to handle cellular traffic also causes more interference if those signals cross. That’s why
5G stations must incorporate beamforming.

Figure 4.3

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4.3.1 Capability to improve the radiated energy efficiency
The positive of increase in capacity is because of the spatial multiplexing technique used in
Massive MIMO systems. Regarding the improvement in the radiated energy efficiency, it is
because of the increase in the number of antennas, the energy can now be concentrated in small
regions in the space. It is based on the principle of coherent superposition of wave fronts. After
transmitting the shaped signals from the antennas, the base station has no role to play by
confirming that all the wave fronts that have been emitted from the antennas possibly will add
constructively at the intended terminal’s locations and destructively elsewhere. Zero forcing is
used to suppress the remaining interference between the terminals, but at the expense of increased
transmitted power.

The desirability of maximum ratio combining (MRC) is more as related to Zero forcing (ZF)
because of its computational ease i.e. received signals are multiplied by their conjugate channel
responses and due to the reason that it is executed in a dispersed mode, autonomously at every
antenna element. Though ZF also works equally well for an orthodox MIMO system which MRC
normally does not. The main reason behind the efficient use of the MRC with massive MIMO
involving large number of base station antennas, the channel responses allied with different
terminals tend to be almost orthogonal.

With the use of MRC receiver, we are operating in a noise restricted system. MRC in Massive
MIMO system will scale down the power to an extent possible deprived of really upsetting the
overall spectral efficiency and multiuser interference, but the effects of hardware deficiencies are
likely to be overcome by the thermal noise. But the intention behind the overall 10 times higher
spectral efficiency as compared to conventional MIMO is because 10 times more terminals are
served concurrently in the same time frequency resource.

4.3.2 Reducing Latency on the air interface

Latency is the prime area of concern in the next generation networks. In wireless communication,
the main cause of latency is fading. This phenomenon occurs amid the base station and terminal,
i.e. when the signal is transmitted from the base station, it travels through different multiple paths
because of the phenomenon’s like scattering, reflection and diffraction before it reaches the
terminal. When the signal through these multiple paths reaches the terminal, it will interfere
either constructively or destructively, and the case when following waves from these multiple

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 paths interfere destructively, the received signal strength reduces to a considerable low point. If
the terminal is caught in a fading dip, then it has to wait for the transmission channel to change
until any data can be received. Massive MIMO, due to a large number of antennas and with the
idea of beam forming can avoid fading dips and now latency cannot be further decreased.

4.4 Beamforming
Beamforming is a traffic-signaling system for cellular base stations that identifies the most
efficient data-delivery route to a particular user, and it reduces interference for nearby users in
the process. Depending on the situation and the technology, there are several ways for 5G
networks to implement it.
Beamforming can help massive MIMO arrays make more efficient use of the spectrum around
them. The primary challenge for massive MIMO is to reduce interference while transmitting
more information from many more antennas at once. At massive MIMO base stations,
signalprocessing algorithms plot the best transmission route through the air to each user. Then
they can send individual data packets in many different directions, bouncing them off buildings
and other objects in a precisely coordinated pattern. By choreographing the packets’ movements
and arrival time, beamforming allows many users and antennas on a massive MIMO array to
exchange much more information at once.

For millimeter waves, beamforming is primarily used to address a different set of problems:
Cellular signals are easily blocked by objects and tend to weaken over long distances. In this
case, beamforming can help by focusing a signal in a concentrated beam that points only in the
direction of a user, rather than broadcasting in many directions at once. This approach can
strengthen the signal’s chances of arriving intact and reduce interference for everyone else.
Besides boosting data rates by broadcasting over millimeter waves and beefing up spectrum
efficiency with massive MIMO, wireless engineers are also trying to achieve the high throughput
and low latency required for 5G through a technology called full duplex, which modifies the way
antennas deliver and receive data.

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 Figure 4.4

4.5 Full Duplexing

Today’s base stations and cellphones rely on transceivers that must take turns if transmitting and
receiving information over the same frequency, or operate on different frequencies if a user
wishes to transmit and receive information at the same time.
With 5G, a transceiver will be able to transmit and receive data at the same time, on the same
frequency. This technology is known as full duplex, and it could double the capacity of wireless
networks at their most fundamental physical layer: Picture two people talking at the same time
but still able to understand one another—which means their conversation could take half as long
and their next discussion could start sooner.
Some militaries already use full duplex technology that relies on bulky equipment. To achieve
full duplex in personal devices, researchers must design a circuit that can route incoming and
outgoing signals so they don’t collide while an antenna is transmitting and receiving data at the
same time.
This is especially hard because of the tendency of radio waves to travel both forward and
backward on the same frequency—a principle known as reciprocity. But recently, experts have

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assembled silicon transistors that act like high-speed switches to halt the backward roll of these
waves, enabling them to transmit and receive signals on the same frequency at once.
One drawback to full duplex is that it also creates more signal interference, through a pesky echo.
When a transmitter emits a signal, that signal is much closer to the device’s antenna and therefore
more powerful than any signal it receives. Expecting an antenna to both speak and listen at the
same time is possible only with special echo-canceling technology.
With these and other 5G technologies, engineers hope to build the wireless network that future
smartphone users, VR gamers, and autonomous cars will rely on every day. Already, researchers
and companies have set high expectations for 5G by promising ultralow latency and record-
breaking data speeds for consumers. If they can solve the remaining challenges, and figure out
how to make all these systems work together, ultrafast 5G service could reach consumers in the
next five years.

Figure 4.5

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 CHAPTER 5 NETWORK SLICING IN 5G

5.1 Introduction
The era of the fifth generation (5G) cellular networks is approaching rapidly. Research activities
worldwide are picking up speed to prepare for the first commercial releases. 5G networks
promise to cater for the telecommunications sector and “vertical industries” including
autonomous driving, smart factories, the health sector, and so on. They will also provide
solutions for multi-tenancy and multi-service support, accelerate the service delivery to
customers, and expose computing and networking components to service providers. The key
incentive is to allow operators to provide tailor-cut solutions to vertical service providers over
the same network infrastructure.

5.2 5G For Different Scenarios

Different verticals have different requirements and different key performance indicators (KPIs).
The Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) has grouped all application areas in four
categories, namely:

Enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB): characterized by very high data traffic and bit rate

Critical communications (CriC): characterized by low latency, ultra-high reliability, high

density distribution, and high precision accuracy

Massive Internet of Things (mIoT): featuring massive numbers of connections in

environments with high user density
The diverse characteristics of these categories require different solutions, and it is widely
accepted that the current architectural model of “one size fits all” is no longer an option.
Currently, the key enabler to support such functional and operational diversity is the use of
network slices.

During the past years, there has been a lot of debate about what a network slice is. 3GPP has
defined a network slice to be: “A logical network that provides specific network capabilities and
network characteristics”. A network slice is implemented by a slice instance, which consists of
network functions (NFs) and their corresponding computing, storage, and networking resources.

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The description of the structure and the configuration details of a slice are captured in the so-
called network slice template. Essentially, with network slicing an operator can deploy multiple
logical networks over the same physical infrastructure.

Note that the notion of slicing a network into logical subnetworks is not a new concept. For
example, virtual private networks (VPNs) have been used to provide logical closed groups.
Dedicated core (DECOR) and enhanced DECOR allow the deployment of multiple core
networks over the same network infrastructure and offer some level of flexibility and sharing of
resources among different networks. However, they assume that the radio access network (RAN)
will be the same for all cases. Also, they are tightly related and thus limited by the existing
Evolved Packet Core (EPC) architecture.

5G network slicing goes beyond these solutions and offers full flexibility and support for diverse
performance requirements. This is achieved by the modularization and flexible composition of
network functions. Also, the notion of network programmability is adopted. Network functions
virtualization (NFV) and software defined networking (SDN) are used as enablers. The former
allows, through the virtualization of NFs, the achievement of a modular logical architecture and
flexible placement of NFs throughout the network. The latter allows simplification of forwarding
functions but, more importantly, a more advanced separation of control and user plane
functionality. With these two enablers, the network can become fully programmable.

Figure 5.1

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 CHAPTER 6 DEVICE TO DEVICE COMMUNICATION IN 5G

6.1 Introduction
Device to Device Communication system can be explained by visualizing a two level 5G cellular
network and named them as macro cell level and device level. The macro cell level comprises of
the base station to device communications as in an orthodox cellular system. The device level
comprises of device to device communications. If a device links the cellular network through a
base station, then it will be operating in the macro cell level and if a device links directly to
another device or apprehends its transmission through the support of other devices, then it will
be on the device level. In these types of systems, the base stations will persist to attend the devices
as usual. But in the congested areas and at the cell edges, devices will be permitted to
communicate with each other.
In the insight of device level communications, the base station either have full or partial control
over the resource allocation amid source, destination, and relaying devices, or not have any
control. Thus, we can describe the subsequent four main types of device-level communications
(figures below).

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Figure 6.1

Figure 6.2

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 Figure 6.3

Figure 6.4
6.1.1 Device Relaying with Base Station Controlled Link Formation
This type of communication is applicable for a device which is at the edge of a cell, i.e. in the
coverage area which have poor signal strength. In this type of communication, the devices will
communicate with the base station by relaying their information through other devices.

This type of communication will be helpful for the device to attain a higher quality of service
and respective increased battery life. For partial or full control link formation, the base station
communicates with the relaying devices.

6.1.2 Direct Device to Device Communication with Base Station Controlled Link
In this type of communication, the source and destination devices are exchanging data with each
other without the involvement of a base station, but they are supported by the base station for
link formation.

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6.1.3 Device Relaying with Device Controlled Link Formation
In this type of communication, a base station is neither involved in link formation nor for
communication purpose. So, source and destination devices are totally responsible for
synchronizing communication using relays amid each other.

6.1.4 Direct Device to Device Communication with Device Controlled Link Formation
In this type of communication, the source and destination devices have direct communication
with each other and the link formation is controlled itself by the devices without any assistance
from the base station. Hence, the resource should be utilized by the source and destination
devices in a way to certify limited interference with other devices in the same level and the macro
cell level.

6.2 Machine to Machine Communication

Like D2D communications, M2M communications are also expected to have native support in
5G wireless. Major features of M2M communications involve automated data generation,
processing, transfer and exchange between intelligent machines, with minimum human
intervention. Figure delineates that unlike local D2D communications, M2M communications
connect massive number of devices, like smart metering, sensors and smart grid equipment, along
with wide coverage areas.

Figure 6.5

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 CHAPTER 7 MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUE USED IN 5G

7.1 Introduction
In the history of wireless communications from 1G to 4G, the multiple access scheme has been
the key technology to distinguish different wireless systems. It is well known that
frequencydivision multiple access (FDMA) for lG, time-division multiple access (TDMA)
mostly for 2G, code-division multiple access (CDMA) for 3G, and orthogonal frequency division
multiple access (OFDMA) for 4G are primarily orthogonal multiple access (OMA) schemes. In
these conventional multiple access schemes, different users are allocated to orthogonal resources
in either the time, frequency, or code domain in order to avoid or alleviate inter-user interference.
In this way, multiplexing gain can be achieved with reasonable complexity.

However, the fast growth of mobile Internet has propelled 1000-fold data traffic increase by 2020
for 5G. Hence, the spectral efficiency becomes one of the key challenges to handle such explosive
data traffic. Moreover, due to the rapid development of the Internet of Things (IoT), 5G needs to
support massive connectivity of users and/or devices to meet the demand for low latency, low-
cost devices, and diverse service types. To satisfy these requirements, enhanced technologies are
necessary. So far, some potential candidates have been proposed to address challenges of 5G,
such as massive MIMO, millimeter wave communications, ultra-dense network, and non-
orthogonal multiple access (NOMA). NOMA allows multiple users to share time and frequency
resources in the same spatial layer via power domain or code domain multiplexing. Recently,
several NOMA schemes have attracted lots of attention, and we can generally divide them into
two categories, that is, power domain multiplexing and code domain multiplexing, including
multiple access with low-density spreading (LDS), sparse code multiple access (SCMA), multi-
user shared access (MUSA), and so on. Some other multiple access schemes such as pattern-
division multiple access (PDMA) and bit division multiplexing (BDM) are also proposed. Key
features and advantages of NOMA are discussed later. The design principles, key features,
advantages and disadvantages of existing dominant NOMA schemes are discussed and
compared. More importantly, although NOMA can provide attractive advantages, some
challenging problems should be solved, such as advanced transmitter design and the trade-off
between performance and receiver complexity. Thus, opportunities and research trends are
highlighted to provide some insights on the potential future work for researchers in this field.

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7.2 Features of Noma
In conventional OMA schemes, multiple users are allocated with radio resources which are
orthogonal in time, frequency, or code domain. Ideally, no interference exists among multiple
users due to the orthogonal resource allocation in OMA, so simple single-user detection can be
used to separate different users' signals. Theoretically, it is known that OMA cannot always
achieve the sum-rate capacity of multiuser wireless systems. Apart from that, in conventional
OMA schemes, the maximum number of supported users is limited by the total amount and the
scheduling granularity of orthogonal resources. Recently, NOMA has been investigated to deal
with the problems of OMA as mentioned above. Basically, NOMA allows controllable
interferences by non-orthogonal resource allocation with the tolerable increase in receiver
complexity. Compared to OMA, the main advantages of NOMA include the following.

7.3 Improved Spectral Efficiency

According to the multi-user capacity analysis in the pioneering work, Figure shows the channel
capacity comparison of OMA and NOMA, where two users in the additive white Gaussian noise
(AWGN) channel are considered as an example without loss of generality. Figure A shows that
the uplink NOMA is able to achieve the capacity bound, while OMA schemes are in general
suboptimal except at point C. However, at this optimal point, the user throughput fairness is quite
poor when the difference of the received powers of the two users is significant, as the rate of the
weak user is much lower than that of the strong user. In the downlink, Fig. B shows that the
boundary of rate pairs of NOMA is outside of the OMA rate region in general. In multi-path
fading channels with intersymbol interference (lSI), although OMA could achieve the sum
capacity in the downlink, NOMA is optimal while OMA is strictly suboptimal if channel state
information (CSI) is only known at the mobile receiver.

7.4 Massive Connectivity

The non-orthogonal resource allocation in NOMA indicates that the number of supported users
or devices is not strictly limited by the amount of available resources and their scheduling
granularity. Therefore, NOMA can accommodate significantly more users than OMA by using
nonorthogonal resource allocation.

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 Figure 7.1

7.5 Dominant Noma Solutions

In this section, we discuss dominant NOMA schemes by grouping them into two categories:
power domain multiplexing and code domain multiplexing. Power domain multiplexing means
that different users are allocated different power levels according to their channel conditions to
obtain the maximum gain in system performance. Such power allocation is also beneficial to
separate different users, where successive interference cancellation (SIC) is often used to cancel
multi-user interference. In this article, power domain multiplexing is applied only to downlink
NOMA. Code domain multiplexing is similar to CDMA or multicarrier CDMA (MCCDMA),
that is, different users are assigned different codes, and are then multiplexed over the same time-
frequency resources.

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Figure 7.2

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 CHAPTER 8 APPLICATIONS, CHALLENGES AND FUTURE VISION

8.1 Applications

Figure 8.1

8.2 Challenges
Challenges are the inherent part of the new development; so, like all technologies, 5G has also
big challenges to deal with. As we see past i.e. development of radio technology, we find very
fast growth. Starting from 1G to 5G, the journey is merely of about 40 years old (Considering
1G in 1980s and 5G in 2020s). However, in this journey, the common challenges that we
observed are lack of infrastructure, research methodology, and cost.

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 Still, there are dozens of countries using 2G and 3G technologies and don’t know even about 4G,
in such a condition, the most significant questions in everyone’s mind are − How far will 5G be
viable?

Will it be the technology of some of the developed countries or developing countries will
also get benefit of this?

To understand these questions, the challenges of 5G are categorized into the following two
headings −
• Technological Challenges
• Common Challenges

8.2.1 Technological Challenges

Inter-cell Interference − This is one of the major technological issues that need to be solved.
There are variations in size of traditional macro cells and concurrent small cells that will lead to
interference.

Figure 8.2

Efficient Medium Access Control − In a situation, where dense deployment of access points
and user terminals are required, the user throughput will be low, latency will be high, and hotspots
will not be competent to cellular technology to provide high throughput. It needs to be researched
properly to optimize the technology.

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 Traffic Management − In comparison to the traditional human to human traffic in cellular
networks, a great number of Machine to Machine (M2M) devices in a cell may cause serious
system challenges i.e. radio access network (RAN) challenges, which will cause overload and
congestion.

8.2.2 Common Challenges

Multiple Services − Unlike other radio signal services, 5G would have a huge task to offer
services to heterogeneous networks, technologies, and devices operating in different geographic
regions. So, the challenge is of standardization to provide dynamic, universal, usercentric, and
data-rich wireless services to fulfil the high expectation of people.

Figure 8.3

Infrastructure − Researchers are facing technological challenges of standardization and

application of 5G services.

Communication, Navigation, & Sensing − These services largely depend upon the availability
of radio spectrum, through which signals are transmitted. Though 5G technology has strong
computational power to process the huge volume of data coming from different and distinct
sources, but it needs larger infrastructure support.

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 Security and Privacy − This is one of the most important challenges that 5G needs to ensure the
protection of personal data. 5G will have to define the uncertainties related to security threats
including trust, privacy, cybersecurity, which are growing across the globe.

8.3 Future Vision

Several researches and discussions are going on across the world among technologists,
researchers, academicians, vendors, operators, and governments about the innovations,
implementation, viability, and security concerns of 5G.

As proposed, loaded with multiple advance features starting from the super high-speed internet
service to smooth ubiquitous service, 5G will unlock many of the problems. However, the
question is — in a situation, where the previous technologies (4G and 3G) are still under process
and in many parts yet to be started; what will be the future of 5G?

5G is more about providing the services people need at the appropriate quality of service,” said
Marcus Weldon, CTO of Alcatel-Lucent’s wireline-networks product division. In other words,
creating a new speed potential isn’t as important as matching the right speed to the right
application, which is increasingly important as mankind experiences the “rise of the machines.”

Mobile traffic today is driven by somewhat predictable activities: making calls, receiving email,
surfing the web, and watching videos. Over the next 5 to 10 years, billions of new devices with
less predictable traffic patterns will join the network, including cars, machine-tomachine (M2M)
modules, video surveillance that requires 24-7 bandwidth, or even a biohazard sensor that sends
out tiny bits of data each day. Stir in the effects of the meteoric rise of cloud computing and it’s
easy to see why new network strategies will be crucial to the fifth evolution of mobile.

5G represents a convergence of network access technologies. As Ian Miller, director of radio

access networks (RANs) at Telefónica, said at last year’s Mobile World Congress, “It’s all about
how we stick these varying access technologies together seamlessly—right now it’s a little
clumsy.”

Additionally, baked into the idea of fifth-generation wireless is customer experience. While past
Gs have seemed focused on network abilities, 5G’s goal is to always offer the right ability for
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the right service. “Of course, there will be substantial speed increases,” said Tod Sizer, head of
wireless research at Bell Labs, at Mobile World Congress 2012. However, weaving different
access technologies together in a fluid fashion and creating smart gateways that choose the “best”
connectivity for a given situation, not to mention in a transparent manner, will be the DNA that
gives life to 5G.

5th generation technology is designed to provide incredible and remarkable data capabilities,
unhindered call volumes, and immeasurable data broadcast within the latest mobile operating
system. Hence, it is more intelligent technology, which will interconnect the entire world without
limits. Likewise, our world would have universal and uninterrupted access to information,
communication, and entertainment that will open a new dimension to our lives and will change
our life style meaningfully.

Moreover, governments and regulators can use this technology as an opportunity for the good
governance and can create healthier environments, which will definitely encourage continuing
investment in 5G, the next generation technology.

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