Teachers' Pedagogy and Conception of History
Teachers' Pedagogy and Conception of History
3, May 2014
Abstract—Educators‟ teaching practices matter more than the formal curriculum. Therefore, it is important to
understand the factors that affect their decisions on what and how to teach a particular subject. This study
described elementary teachers‟ conceptions of history and analyzed how these influence their pedagogy. In
addition to this, issues that emerged from these conceptions and pedagogy were identified. The findings of this
research were used to develop a pedagogical approach that intends to improve the teaching of history in
elementary. In-depth informant interviews were conducted with four public elementary school teachers in
Metro Manila, Philippines. Results revealed that teachers‟ conceptions of history influence the content and
skills that they value in their instruction. Moreover, critical issues related to the teaching of Philippine history
were identified: (1) propagation of uncritical and colonial history, (2) the lack of cognitively engaged
pedagogy, and (3) teachers‟ limited knowledge in history and pedagogy. This study recommends the teacher
education institutions to strengthen the disciplinal knowledge of future educators and the schools to implement
the proposed Kasaysayang Bayan approach to decolonize and transform the teaching of history in the
Philippines.
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Table 1 shows that in 2012, grade 6 students got a and practices are influenced by their belief system and
65.97% achievement rate in social studies [Department of knowledge [Evans, 1988, 1989, 1990; Armour-Thomas,
Education, September 2013]. According to the percentage 1989; Wineburg & Wilson, 1991; Barton & Levstik, 2010].
distribution of examinees by achievement level, only 0.55% Shulman (1986) identified three dimensions of teachers‟
have mastered the subject, 14.69% were closely content knowledge: (1) subject-matter knowledge, (2)
approximating mastery, 42.47% were moving towards pedagogical knowledge, and (3) curricular knowledge.
mastery, 32.40% were in average level, 9.58% were in low Subject-matter knowledge includes the basic concepts and
level, 0.29% were in very low level, and 0.03% have principles of the discipline, as well as the syntax that
absolutely no mastery of the subject [Department of determines the truthfulness and validity of claims.
Education National Education Testing Research Center, n.d.]. Pedagogical knowledge involves teachers‟ understanding of
These results can be attributed to the ineffective teaching of the most effective form of presentation and formulation of
social studies. To cover all topics within one academic year, ideas to help the students learn. Curricular knowledge
teachers tend to give more emphasis on memorization of facts includes understanding of available and alternative materials
rather than understanding of history lessons and other for instruction, familiarity with curriculum materials that are
components of social studies. simultaneously taken by students in other subject areas, and
According to Diokno (2009), as a result of too much topics that will be taught in the same subject area in the
emphasis given on memorization, students failed to develop preceding years. These three dimensions of teachers‟ content
historical thinking skills such as chronological thinking, knowledge greatly affect students‟ learning experiences. For
contextualization of events, analysis, interpretation, and example, Wineburg & Wilson (1991) found that instructional
historical writing. These skills are significant in developing practices of history teachers are influenced by two factors,
reflective thinking and critical thinking. Social studies their comprehension of the subject matter content and their
textbooks used in elementary worsen this situation. In the perceived student needs, motivations and abilities. However,
Philippines, teachers rely heavily on textbooks, making it the they noted that mastery of content is not the only determinant
source of information and learning activities. Diokno (2009) of effective teaching [Wineburg & Wilson, 1991]. In Evans‟
found that textbooks contain conceptual and factual errors, three consecutive years (1988, 1989, 1990) of research
hence, violating the basic tenets of history regarding facts, the regarding the teaching of history, he concluded that teachers‟
validity and veracity of data. In addition to this, texts also conceptions of history and pedagogy seem to be strongly
contain ethnic bias, colonial bias, and gender bias, which related. He identified five typologies of history teachers:
yield negative effects to learners‟ understanding of Philippine story teller, scientific historian, relativist/ reformer, cosmic
history and society [Diokno, 2010]. philosopher, and eclectic [Evans, 1989, 1990].The idealist
Social studies education in the Philippines has gone share stories, the scientific historian develops open-ended
through curriculum reforms. Yet, the results of the national thinking about history, the reformer mixes methods to hone
examination imply that these attempts were not sufficient. questioning skills and to link past to present, the cosmic
The researchers believe that the instructional practices of philosopher challenges students with cosmic interpretations,
teachers have greater influence on students‟ learning than the and the eclectic utilizes various methods to motivate learners
national curriculum. Thus in the previous article, Elementary [Evans, 1989]. These typologies of history teachers support
Teachers‟ Conceptions of History: Influence and Issues on the claim of Barton and Levstik (2010) that educators‟ sense
Pedagogy, that was presented at the 2014 International of purpose in teaching oftentimes determines their
Conference on Education, Psychology and Society (ICEPAS) instruction.
held in Bangkok, Thailand, we focused mainly on teachers‟ The previous studies emphasized that teachers‟
conceptions of history, its influence on pedagogy and issues knowledge, beliefs and conceptions influence their
in teaching history to elementary students. However, in this instructional practices. However, only few researchers
present study, aside from dealing with the important points proposed solutions to issues that were uncovered from their
mentioned, the central purpose is to use the findings of the findings. In this study, the Filipino elementary teachers‟
research as basis for developing a pedagogical approach that conceptions of history and their teaching practices were
intends to improve the teaching of Philippine history. explored. In addition to this, the problems that emerged from
these conceptions and practices were identified and used in
developing a pedagogical approach that intends to improve
II. RELATED WORKS the teaching of history. Specifically, this research sought to
Improving teachers‟ gatekeeping practices matter more than answer the following research questions:
the formal curriculum [Stevenson & Stigler, 1992; Thornton, How do teachers define history?
2005]. According to Thornton (2005), social studies How do teachers perceive the significance of teaching
educators‟ gatekeeping practices determine the kind of history among elementary students?
instruction that students experience in class. Gatekeeping in How do teachers‟ conceptions of history influence
education means how the instructors interpret the formal their pedagogy?
curriculum in terms of purpose, content, and instruction. What are the issues that challenge effective teaching
Based on various researches, teachers‟ instructional decisions of history in the Philippines?
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The SIJ Transactions on Industrial, Financial & Business Management (IFBM), Vol. 2, No. 3, May 2014
commonly known us `prehistory` or what the proponents of If we do not have a past, we have no future. If we fail to know
kasaysayang bayan termed matandang bayan (there is no where we came from or what happened to us before, we will
direct translation of this word in English but the nearest term have no idea what awaits us in the future.
would be the prehistoric society). This periodization reiterates This is the essential contribution of history in citizenship
that the history of the Filipinos began before the Spanish education. According to Heyking (2004), through history,
colonization. children can see themselves in one time, as inheritor of the
Educational background, educational materials, teaching legacies of the past and as a maker of the future.
experience, role of students and interaction with colleagues
are some of the dominant factors that shape teachers‟ 4.3. Pedagogy
conceptions of history [Evans, 1989; Harding, 1999]. Based 4.3.1. Content Emphasized in Teaching
on the informants‟ responses, the knowledge that they have
learned when they were students seems to influence their A. Significant People and Chronology
definition of history. In teaching Philippine history, teacher A and teacher B give
4.2. Teachers’ Perceptions of the Significance of Teaching more emphasis on the martyrdom of national heroes. Teacher
History in Elementary B explained that students would understand good citizenship
by learning about the struggles and sacrifices of the
4.2.1. Accumulation of Historical Knowledge significant people in history.
Teacher A believes that it is significant to teach history. Both teachers require students to memorize dates in
According to her history. Teacher A requires her pupils to memorize dates
History is being taught (to elementary students) so that related to the arrival of the Filipino ancestors in the
they will know the history of our ancestors…when they archipelago, revolts that took place in different periods of
reached high school they already know the history of the Philippine history, and declaration of independence. On the
national heroes who sacrificed for our country. other hand, teacher B pointed out that she only requires her
Teacher A seems to consider the teaching of history as students to remember the date of Philippine independence
mere accumulation of historical knowledge. This poses a and the number of years Spain, America and Japan colonized
problem with regards to the real significance of facts. Diokno the country. When asked to explain, she said that memorizing
(2009) explained that facts are raw materials that historians dates tend to overwhelm the learners.
use to interpret the past in terms of questions of causality and B. Historical and Social Significance, Past as Present
claims of truth. In other words, historical facts are means to
an end rather than an end in itself. Teacher C and teacher D believe that it is more important to
understand and analyze the context of events in history than
4.2.2. Development of Nationalism and Understanding of to memorize dates and names of people. Teacher D pointed
Filipino Identity out that by focusing more on questions such as why and how,
Teacher B considers the teaching of history in elementary her pupils will be able to develop critical thinking skills. In
important because according to her addition to this, teacher C explained that it is more important
Teaching of history develops national consciousness of our for the students to analyze how events have affected their
youth. As a Filipino, (through history) we develop lives at present. Giving emphasis on these things will make
consciousness to love our own country. the learning of history more relevant and personal to the
Teacher B‟s perception on the significance of history learners.
reflects the idea that nationalism is also an intellectual 4.3.2. Topic in History that Requires More Time in
construct. Therefore, knowledge and understanding of history Discussion
is vital in strengthening nationalism [Krug, 1967]. Likewise,
teacher C and teacher D recognize the power of history to A. Colonization and Significant People
help individuals to gain an in-depth understanding of self as In teacher A and teacher B‟s class, more time is devoted to
Filipinos and to develop a sense of pride in Filipino culture. studying colonization and significant people in history.
This supports the idea that history or common collective According to teacher A, she devotes more hours in teaching
memory is essential in creating national identity [Heyking, Spanish colonization because this period was the longest
2004]. period of colonization in the country. She also focuses on the
4.2.3. Understanding the Past, Present and Future lives of the national heroes of the country. In contrast to this,
teacher B gives more time in teaching Japanese Occupation
Teacher C and teacher D also believe that teaching history in because her secondary source of information about this
elementary is significant because it helps students to period is her family. She further said
understand the past, present and future. When asked to I do not know if that is exaggeration…I really give emphasis
clarify, teacher D said on Japanese Occupation because my parents told me that my
uncle was a victim of (Japanese) atrocities.
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Teacher B also mentioned that in her discussion of Regarding the use of textbook, according to teacher B, it
American colonization, she focuses on the positive plays a crucial part in their class. The information that the
contributions of America to the Philippines. However, she children present during oral reports comes solely from the
also explains to her students that America had a vested textbook. She added that she no longer allot time to process
interest in the resources of the country. the reports because all students have the same reading
material. Since the textbook is written in Filipino, she
B. Filipino as Central Subjects in All Periods of History believes that her pupils can understand it easily without
According to teacher C and teacher D, almost 50% of the further discussion. Diokno (2009) pointed out three
lessons in history are devoted to matandang bayan or the conditions that encourage educators to resort to this teaching
history of the Filipinos before colonization. The following practice: (1) lack of resources in the libraries and poor access
topics are discussed under the period of matandang bayan, (1) to other sources of information, (2) poor quality of academic
the origin of the Filipinos (2) how Filipinos adapted to their training of basic education teachers in disciplinal knowledge
environment and how they developed their resources, and (3) very heavy teaching load.
(3)language, beliefs and traditions, (4) political system, and
(4)economic relations within and outside the boundaries of B. Activity-based Learning
the Philippine archipelago. According to teacher C and According to teacher C, she provides her students with
teacher D, it is important to devote more time to matandang different cooperative learning activities, group reporting, and
bayan to allow the students to gain deeper understanding of class discussion. She deems that it is important that learners
the making of the Filipino nation. This provides them are part of the learning process. Regarding reading materials,
historical facts that they can use to analyze how the Filipino her class is not limited to a single textbook. In fact most of
society have changed as a result of colonization and how it is the content of the lessons are not included in the available
continuously evolving due to various social, political and elementary textbooks. Hence, she consults references being
economic challenges that confronts the country. used in higher education and provides her pupils with
Teacher C and teacher D reiterate that the Filipinos are teacher-made handouts as reading materials. Sometimes, she
the central subjects of their discussion in all periods of also asks the children to conduct research to develop their
history, from matandang bayan to contemporary history. In research skills and historical thinking skills.
terms of their lesson about colonization, they allot more time Likewise, teacher D believes that children understand the
on studying how the Filipinos reacted to colonization and lesson better when they can visualize the information and
how it changed the matandang bayan or the old Filipino when they are given opportunities to share and discuss the
society. Teacher D explained that her students are Filipinos, lesson. She provides her pupils with different learning
thus it is important to look at history this way. activities like playing, constructing graphs, drawing posters,
and doing oral reports. She also presents the lesson using
4.3.3. Pedagogy various instructional materials such as pictures, visual
All teachers ask their students to do oral reports. However, organizers, replica of artifacts, and music to allow them to
two patterns have emerged based on their other responses. use all their senses in learning history. According to Llanes,
this kind of teaching approach not only helps the learners to
A. Traditional Teaching gain historical information but also provides them an
Usually teacher A and teacher B conduct lecture to teach opportunity to feel and understand that they are Filipinos
history. They also ask their pupils to do oral reporting. [Agcaoili, 2010].
Teacher A said Summing up the responses of the four teachers regarding
They (teachers) are used to it. When I came in this school, the teaching of history, their own understanding of the
that’s the way they do things, lecture…after that, sometimes meaning and importance of the subject are reflected on the
students are asked to read (the text) in front of the class… content and skills that they value in their instruction.
However, when asked if these practices are effective, she Moreover, the depth of their disciplinal knowledge seems to
instantly replied influence the quality of learning experience that they provide
No, I don’t think these two (lecture and oral reporting) are to their students.
effective. To compensate, after their (students) report, I
conduct a review of the lesson from the beginning… I repeat
everything so that they will remember the lesson. Sometimes
V. DISCUSSION
even if they have read it, the answers are there… still they Based on the informants‟ responses, there seem to be two
can’t answer. traditions of history being implemented in social studies
Teacher A expressed her worries about their history class, the traditional history and kasaysayang bayan.
class. She went on to say Traditional history is more dominant in the Philippines. In
We no longer know how to teach it. What are we going to do fact, the content and periodization used in the social studies
about this? Sometimes we just ask among ourselves… I don’t curriculum for grade 5 under the Basic Education Curriculum
know. (BEC) of 2002 reflect this kind of history. Hence, it is not
surprising how the two informants from regular public
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elementary school define history. In traditional history, history will seem to continue as a result of teacher‟s limited
colonizers and elite are given more importance than the knowledge on history and pedagogy, convenience, and idea
history of the majority of the Filipinos [de Manila, 1996; de of „established traditions in teaching‟ social studies.
Quiros, 2000, 2002]. Furthermore, it tends to emphasize the On the contrary, this study also reveals a different
failures of the Filipinos in revolutions than their victories [de approach in teaching Philippine history. Based on the
Quiros, 2000]. Traditional history poses a serious problem in information gathered from teacher C and teacher D, the
achieving the aims of education. It encourages colonial perspective and teaching approach that the kasaysayang
mentality rather than love of the country and pride in Filipino bayan attempts to promote has the potential to strengthen
identity. students‟ nationalism, national identity and historical thinking
In addition, this study found that teachers‟ conceptions of skills. It liberates the learners from colonial history by
history influence the content and skills that they value in their allowing them to look at history based on Filipino
pedagogy. For example, teacher A believes that students perspective. It also allows them to have an in-depth
study history to gain knowledge about Filipino ancestors, understanding of themselves as Filipinos by analyzing the
particularly national heroes. Consequently, her pedagogy entirety of the Filipino society. Moreover, it provides
tends to focus only on remembering of facts such as names of opportunities to interpret and analyze history based on the
national heroes and dates of significant events. Likewise, cultural and political context of the Philippines. In other
teacher B believes that history is the study of past significant words, kasaysayang bayan makes learning of history more
events and people. She also thinks that this subject relevant and interesting to Filipino children. Despite the
contributes to the development of national consciousness and positive points of this perspective and approach, it remains
nationalism. Similar to teacher A, her pedagogy is limited to unpopular in public schools since it has not reached the
the development of memorization skills of learners. Also, the information of majority of the educators. Also, considering
bulk of historical knowledge that she brings to class comes the culture of reliance on textbooks, the unavailability of
from textbooks believing on its sufficiency and accuracy. kasaysayang bayan textbooks for elementary students
According to Diokno (2009), social studies textbooks in the discouraged the educators to implement this in class.
Philippines contain colonial, ethnic and gender biases. The researchers recognize the difficulty of implementing
Furthermore, these reference materials tend to present kasaysayang bayan in public schools due to limited training
sanitized or incomplete history. Thus, instead of of teachers and lack of resources appropriate to the level of
strengthening nationalism, it only leads to the miseducation elementary students. However, it is still possible to gradually
of the children regarding Philippine history. Another issue transform the teaching of history to make learning more
that aggravates this situation is how teacher A and teacher B meaningful and supportive of the goals of citizenship
treat historical facts as an end in itself. This results to the education. Based on the findings of this study, the researchers
propagation of uncritical and colonial history. These developed a pedagogical approach that supports the
revelations are saddening, yet the problem on the lack of philosophy of kasaysayang bayan and promotes skills that are
cognitively engaged pedagogy and propagation of colonial significant to civic and political engagement.
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Three relevant objectives in teaching history are Table 3 shows sample guide questions to help students‟
presented in figure 1. In the proposed Kasaysayang Bayan develop their historical thinking skills, creativity, empathy,
approach, students are expected (1) to use historical facts to and ability to draw personal lessons from history. In terms of
interpret and analyze history based on Filipino perspective, instruction, constructivists posit that learners should take an
(2) to develop historical thinking skills, creativity and active role in constructing meaning or knowledge. Barton,
empathy and (3) to draw personal lessons from history. These Booth, Foster and Yeager, Levstik and Smith and
objectives are related to the six fundamental concepts to VanSledright claim that children are capable of developing
historical thinking that were identified by Seixas. According sophisticated historical thinking skills given the appropriate
to Seixas (2010) students of history must be able to: (1) context of active engagement with source material and proper
establish historical significance, (2) use primary sources as guidance from the teacher to use their prior knowledge and
evidence, (3) identify continuity and change, (4) analyze skills [Heyking, 2004]. Hence, the proposed Kasaysayang
cause and consequence, (5) take historical perspectives, and Bayan approach encourages the educators to utilize all
(6) understand moral dimension of historical interpretation. In techniques of activity-based learning to allow the students to
terms of content, people deal with the same historical facts, use all their senses, prior knowledge and skills in building
however, the interpretation and meaning varies as a result of and understanding new knowledge. This also recommends
different points of view. This study proposes that teachers the use of primary sources to engage the students in
and students use the Filipino perspective to understand investigation, analysis and reinterpretation of historical
history according to the context and experiences of the narratives. Most importantly, this approach reiterates the use
Filipinos. In doing this, the focus of discussion will no longer of instructional materials that will help the students to feel
be the history of the colonizers in the Philippines and their and understand their sense of being a Filipino. These
policies and influences. More time will be devoted to materials include music, paintings, poem, food, clothes, and
studying how the matandang bayan (the Filipino society other material culture available in the community. The
before the period of colonization) has evolved as a result of researchers believe that teaching history should not only
the reactions of the Filipino people to colonization and other concentrate on the education of the mind but also on the
internal and external problems of the nation. This will allow a education of the heart. By doing this, children will develop
thorough discourse on the historical narratives not only of the their cognitive skills as well as their sense of identity.
dominant groups but also of the marginalized groups such as
women, workers and ethnic minority groups. Furthermore,
VI. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
the actions, behaviors and thinking of the Filipinos on a
specific period of Philippine history will be analyzed based Teachers‟ conceptions of history and pedagogy are strongly
on the socio-political conditions and existing values, culture related. The teachers‟ definition of history and perceived
and traditions of the Filipinos during that time. To facilitate importance of teaching the subject influence their
this kind of discussion, educators and learners should analyze instructional practices. The educators who believe that the
and reinterpret the historical narratives presented by main purpose of history is to accumulate knowledge tend to
historians based on these five elements, (1) historical focus more on rote learning and development of
knowledge or facts, (2) perspective, (3) causality, (4) memorization skills. On the other hand, those who consider
continuity and change, and (5) personal significance. history as a tool to understand the past, present and future
Table 3: Guide Questions to Analyze and Reinterpret History tend to provide challenging tasks to develop learners‟ higher
Elements Questions order thinking skills. Wilson & Wineburg (1991) claim that
What happened?
expertise on content is not the sole determinant of effective
Who were the people involved in this event?
1. Historical teaching. However, this research found that the extent of
knowledge What was the social, cultural, political and economic
condition of the society before and during the period teachers‟ disciplinal knowledge is one of the major factors
when the event took place? that affect their capacity to promote a meaningful history
How did the historians interpret the event? lesson to elementary students. The educators who exhibit in-
2.
What kind of perspective/s did the historians use to view depth knowledge on history and pedagogy provide children
Perspective
and present history?
What were the factors that led to the event?
with more cognitively engaging activities while those whose
How did the people who are involved in the event react to disciplinal knowledge are limited tend to teach history very
3. Causality
the situation? Why? lightly. Therefore, this study recommends the teacher
How did the event and the reaction of the people education institutions to strengthen the disciplinal knowledge
influence the social, cultural, political and economic
of future educators.
condition of the society?
What are the things/conditions that have continued as a
Aside from the issues on teacher education and
4. Continuity result of this event? pedagogy, one of the serious challenges in teaching history is
and Change What are the things/conditions that have changed as a the propagation of colonial history. The social studies classes
result of this event? of teacher A and teacher B are microcosms of Philippine
How would you feel/react if you lived during this period? education that has been dominated by colonial history. It is
5. Personal
Did this event affect your community at present?
Significance
What personal lessons could you learn from this?
about time that Filipinos liberate their minds and learn history
based on Filipino perspective and approach. To decolonize
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The SIJ Transactions on Industrial, Financial & Business Management (IFBM), Vol. 2, No. 3, May 2014
and transform the teaching of history, this study recommends [19] S.J. Thornton (2005), “Teaching Social Studies that Matters:
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[14] J.C. Harding (1999), “Teachers‟ Conceptions of History Faculty of Education. He earned his degree in
Education: Phenomenographic Inquiry”, Retrieved from MA Social Studies at Hiroshima University.
https://circle.ubc.ca/handle/2429/9985 He is a member of various organizations such
[15] C. de Quiros (2000), “Forgetting is an Instinct Too”, Philippine as National Council for Social Studies
Daily Inquirer, A6. (NCSS), Japanese Educational Research
[16] C. de Quiros (2002), “Thefts”, Philippine Daily Inquirer, A8. Association for Social Studies (JERASS),
[17] A.V. Heyking (2004), “Historical Thinking in the Elementary and Japan Association of Global Education (JAGE). His research
Years: A Review of Current Research”, Canadian Social interests are global citizenship education and cultural understanding.
Studies, Vol. 39, No. 1. He has published works related to understanding of foreign culture
[18] H.D. Tan (2004), “What is History Teaching and Learning?”, in social studies, cultural understanding for peace education,
Teaching and Learning, Vol. 25, No. 2, Pp. 197–206. curriculum development, and development of international
internship program in education.
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