High Voltage

Engineering
Dr Suhail Khokhar
Associate Professor
Electrical Engineering Department
QUEST Nawabshah

2
 Chapter 2
Breakdown in Solid and Liquid
Dielectrics

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 Breakdown in solids
 Solid insulation forms an integral part of high voltage structures.
 Solid materials provide the mechanical support for conducting parts
and at the same time insulate the conductors from one another.
 Solid dielectric materials are of three types:
1. Organic Materials: paper, wood, rubber
2. Inorganic Materials: mica, glass, porcelain
3. Synthetic Polymers: perspex, PVC, epoxy resins
 Frequently practical insulation structures consist of combinations of
solids with liquid and/or gaseous media.
 Therefore, the knowledge of failure mechanisms of solid dielectrics
under electric stress is of great importance.

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 Breakdown in solids
Under normal industrial conditions, the solid materials are found
to exhibit a wide range of dielectric strength, depending upon
the environmental conditions and the method of testing.
The measured breakdown voltage is influenced by a large
number of external factors such as temperature, humidity,
duration of test, whether AC, DC, or impulse voltage is applied,
pressure applied to the electrodes, discharges in the ambient
medium, discharges in cavities and many other factors.
When breakdown occurs, solids get permanently damaged
while gases fully and liquids partly recover their dielectric
strength after the applied electric field removed.

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 Breakdown in Solids
Broadly speaking the mechanism of failure and the breakdown strength
changes with the time of voltage application.
It is convenient to divide the time scale of voltage application into regions in
which different mechanisms operate, as shown in Fig 1.

Figure 1 Mechanisms of failure and variation of breakdown strength in solids with time of stressing
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 Breakdown Mechanisms in solids

1. Intrinsic or Ionic Breakdown

2. Streamer or Avalanche Breakdown
3. Electromechanical Breakdown
4. Edge Breakdown
5. Treeing and Tracking
6. Thermal Breakdown
7. Electrochemical Breakdown
8. Erosion Breakdown

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 1. Intrinsic Breakdown
 If the material under test is pure and homogeneous, the temperature and
environmental conditions are carefully controlled, and the sample is so stressed such that
there are no external discharges.
 With undervoltages applied for a short time the electric strength increases up to an upper
limit which is called the intrinsic electric strength.
 The intrinsic strength is a property of the material and temperature only.
 To achieve the highest strength the sample is so designed that there is a high stress in the
centre of the solid under test and too low stress at the edges which cause discharge in the
medium as shown in Fig. 2.

Figure 2 Electrode arrangement used for measuring intrinsic breakdown in solids

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 1. Intrinsic Breakdown
 The intrinsic breakdown is accomplished in times of the order of 10−8 𝑠𝑒𝑐
and has therefore been postulated to be electronic in nature.
 The stresses required for an intrinsic breakdown are well in excess of 106 𝑉/𝑐𝑚. The
intrinsic strength is generally assumed to be reached when electrons in the insulator gain
sufficient energy from the applied field to cross the forbidden energy gap from the valence
to the conduction band.
 The criterion condition is formulated by solving an equation for the energy balance between
the gain of energy by conduction electrons from the applied field and its loss to the lattice.
 Several models have been proposed in an attempt to predict the critical value
of the field which causes intrinsic breakdown, but no completely satisfactory
solution has yet been obtained.
 The various models differ from each other in the proposed mechanisms of energy transfer
from conduction electrons to the lattice, and also by the assumptions made concerning the
distribution of conduction electrons.

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 1. Intrinsic Breakdown
 In pure homogeneous dielectric materials the conduction and the valence bands are
separated by a large energy gap, and at room temperature the electrons cannot acquire
sufficient thermal energy to make transitions from valence to conduction band.
 The conductivity in perfect dielectrics should therefore be zero. In practice, however, all
crystals contain some imperfections in their structures due to missing atoms, and more
frequently due to the presence of foreign atoms (impurities).
 The impurity atoms may act as traps for free electrons in energy levels that lie just below
the conduction band, as illustrated schematically in Fig. 3.

Figure 3 Schematic energy level diagram for an amorphous dielectric

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 2. Streamer or Avalanche Breakdown
Under certain controlled conditions in strictly uniform fields with the electrodes
embedded in the specimen, breakdown may be accomplished after the passage of
a single avalanche.
An electron entering the conduction band of the dielectric at the cathode will drift
towards the anode under the influence of the field gaining energy between
collisions and losing it on collisions.
On occasions the free path may be long enough for the energy gain to exceed the
lattice ionization energy and an additional electron is produced on collision.
The process is repeated and may lead to the formation of an electron avalanche
similar to gases.
The breakdown will arise if the avalanche exceeds a certain critical size.
The concept is similar to the streamer theory developed by Raether, and Meek and
Loeb for gases.

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 3. Electromechanical breakdown
Substances which can deform appreciably without fracture may collapse when the
electrostatic compression forces on the test specimen exceed its mechanical
compressive strength.
The compression forces arise from the electrostatic attraction between surface charges
which appear when the voltage is applied.
The pressure exerted when the field reaches about 106 𝑉/𝑐𝑚 may be several
𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 .
Following Stark and Garton, if 𝑑0 is the initial thickness of a specimen of material of
Young‟s modulus 𝑌, which decreases to a thickness of 𝑑 (𝑚) under an applied
voltage 𝑉, then the electrically developed compressive stress is in equilibrium with the
mechanical compressive strength if
𝑉2 𝑑0
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 2 = 𝑌 ln
2𝑑 𝑑
2𝑌 𝑑0
Or 𝑉2 = 𝑑 2
ln
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑑
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 3. Electromechanical breakdown
Where 𝜀0 and 𝜀𝑟 are the permittivity of free space and the relative permittivity
of the dielectric. Differentiating with respect to 𝑑 we find that above expression
1
has a maximum when 𝑑 𝑑0 = exp − = 0.
2
Therefore, no real value of 𝑉 can produce a stable value of 𝑑 𝑑0 less than
0.6.
If the intrinsic strength is not reached at this value, a further increase in 𝑉
makes the thickness unstable and the specimen collapses. The highest
apparent strength is then given by
1/2
𝑉 𝑌
𝐸𝑎 = = 0.6
𝑑0 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟
This treatment ignores the possibility of instability occurring in the lower
average field because of stress concentration at irregularities, the dependence
of 𝑌 on time and stress, and also on plastic flow.
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 4. Edge breakdown
In practical insulation systems, the solid material is stressed in conjunction
with one or more other materials.
Suppose that one of the materials is a gas or a liquid, then the measured
breakdown voltage will be influenced more by the weaker medium than by the
solid.
A cross-section of a simplified example is shown in Fig. 4 which represents
testing of a dielectric slab between sphere-plane electrodes.

Fig. 4 Breakdown of solid specimen due to ambient discharge-edge effect

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 4. Edge breakdown
Ignoring the field distribution, i.e. assuming a homogeneous field, if we consider
an elementary cylindrical volume of end area 𝑑𝐴 spanning the electrodes at
distance 𝑋, then on applying the voltage 𝑉 between the electrodes, a fraction
𝑉1 of the voltage appears across the ambient given by
𝑉𝑑1
𝑉1 =
𝜀
𝑑1 + 1 𝑑2
𝜀2
here 𝑑1 and 𝑑2 represent the thickness of the media 1 and 2 in Fig. 4 and 𝜀1
and 𝜀2 are their respective permittivities.
For the simple case when a gaseous dielectric is in series with a solid dielectric
stressed between two parallel plate electrodes, the stress in the gaseous part
will exceed that of the solid by the ratio of permittivities or 𝐸1 = 𝜀𝑟 𝐸2 .

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 4. Edge breakdown
For the case shown in Fig. 4, the stress in the gaseous part increases further
as 𝑋 is decreased, and reaches very high values as 𝑑1 becomes very small
(point B).
Consequently the ambient breaks down at a relatively low applied voltage.
The charge at the tip of the discharge will further disturb the applied local field
and transform the arrangement to a highly non-uniform system.
The charge concentration at the tip of a discharge channel has been estimated
to be sufficient to give a local field of the order of 10 𝑀𝑉/𝑐𝑚, which is higher
than the intrinsic breakdown field.
A local breakdown at the tips of the discharge is likely, therefore, and complete
breakdown is the result of many such breakdown channels formed in the solid
and extending step by step through the whole thickness.

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 Example 2.1
A solid dielectric specimen of dielectric constant of 4.0 shown in the figure has an internal void of
thickness 1mm. The specimen is 1cm thick and is subjected to a voltage of 80 kV (rms).If the void is filled
withair and if the breakdown strength of air can be taken as 30kV(peak)/cm, find thevoltage at which an
internal discharge can occur.
Solution: Referring to Fig. the voltage that appears across the void is given as
𝑉𝑑1
𝑉1 =
𝜀
𝑑1 + 0 𝑑2
𝜀1

where,
𝑑1 = 1𝑚𝑚, 𝑑2 = 9𝑚𝑚,
𝜀0 = 8.89 × 10−12 𝐹/𝑚, 𝜀1 = 𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 = 4.0𝜀0
𝑉×1 4𝑉
𝑉1 = =
9 13
1+
4
The voltage at which the air void of 1𝑚𝑚 thickness breaks down is 3 𝑘𝑉/𝑚𝑚 × 1 𝑚𝑚 = 3𝑘𝑉
4×3
𝑉1 = = 0.923
13
The internal discharges appear in the sinusoidal voltage 80sin𝜔𝑡 𝑘𝑉 when the voltage reaches a value of 0.923 𝑘𝑉.
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 5. Treeing
The breakdown event in solids in general is not accomplished through the
formation of a single discharge channel, but assumes a tree-like structure as
shown in Fig. 5 which can be readily demonstrated in a laboratory by applying an
impulse voltage between point-plane electrodes with the point embedded in a
transparent solid, e.g. plexi glass.
The tree pattern shown in Fig. 5 was recorded by Cooper with a 1/30 µsec
impulse voltage of the same amplitude.
After application of each impulse the channels were observed with a microscope
and new channels were recorded. Not every impulse will produce a channel.
The time required for this type of breakdown under alternating voltage will vary
from a few seconds to a few minutes.
The tree-like pattern discharge is not limited specifically to the edge effect but may
be observed in other dielectric failure mechanisms in which non uniform field
stresses predominate.
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 5. Treeing

Plexiglass

Figure 5 Breakdown channels in plexiglass between point-plane electrodes

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 5. Tracking
Tracking is the formation of a permanent conducting path, usually carbon,
across a surface of insulation and in most cases the conduction path results
from degradation of the insulation.
For tracking to occur the insulation must contain some organic substance. In
an outdoor environment insulation will in time become covered with
contaminant which may be of industrial or coastal origin.
In the presence of moisture the contamination layer gives rise to leakage
current which heats the surface and causes interruption in the moisture film;
small sparks are drawn between the separating moisture films.
This process acts effectively as an extension to the electrodes. The heat
resulting from the small sparks causes carbonization and volatilization of the
insulation and leads to formation of permanent „carbon track‟ on the surface.

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 5. Tracking
The phenomenon of tracking severely limits the use of organic insulation in
the outdoor environment.
The rate of tracking depends upon the structure of the polymers and it can
be drastically slowed down by adding appropriate fillers to the polymer
which inhibit carbonization.
Moisture is not essential to tracking.
The conducting path may arise from metallic dust; for example, in oil-
immersed equipment with moving parts which gradually wear and deposit on
the surface.

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 Dielectric Polarization
Dielectric polarization is the result of a relative shift of positive and negative
charges in the matter under consideration.
This shift is produced by an electric field, provoking either „induced
polarization‟ of individual atoms and/or ions, an orientation of any permanent
dipoles, the build-up of charges at interfaces between quite different
dielectrics, or the creation of dipoles at localized hopping sites.
During all of these processes, the electric field is therefore not able to force
the charges to escape from the matter, which would lead to electric
conduction.

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 6. Thermal breakdown
When an insulation is stressed, because of conduction currents and dielectric
losses due to polarization, heat is continuously generated within the dielectric.
In general, the conductivity (𝜎) increases with temperature, conditions of
instability are reached when the rate of heating exceeds the rate of cooling
and the specimen may undergo thermal breakdown.
The situation is illustrated graphically in
Fig. 6 in which the cooling of a specimen is
represented by the straight line and the
heating at various field strengths by curves
of increasing slope.
Field (1) is in equilibrium at temperature
𝑇1 , field (2) is in a state of unstable
equilibrium at 𝑇2 and field (3) does not
reach a state of equilibrium at all. Figure 6 Thermal stability or instability under
different applied fields
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 6. Thermal breakdown
To obtain the basic equation for thermal breakdown let us consider a cube of
face area 𝐴 𝑚2 within dielectric. Assume that the heat flow in the 𝑥 −direction
is as shown in Fig. 7, then the
𝑑𝑇
𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 1 = 𝐾𝐴
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑇 𝑑 𝑑𝑇
𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 2 = 𝐾𝐴 − 𝐾𝐴 ∆𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝐾 = 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

Figure 7 Heat input and output, cubical specimen

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 6. Thermal breakdown
In general, the breakdown voltage of a solid dielectric should increase with its
thickness. But this is true only up to a certain thickness above which the heat
generated in the dielectric due to the flow of current determines the conduction.
When an electric field is applied to a dielectric, conduction current, however
small it may be, flows through the material. The current heats up the specimen
and the temperature rises. The heat generated is transferred to the
surrounding medium by conduction through the solid dielectric and by radiation
from its outer surfaces.
Equilibrium is reached when the heat used to raise the temperature of the
dielectric, plus the heat radiated out, equals the heat generated.
The heat generated under DC stress E is given as
𝑊𝐷𝐶 = 𝐸 2 𝜎 𝑊/𝑐𝑚3
where, 𝜎 is the DC conductivity of the specimen.

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 6. Thermal breakdown
Under AC fields, the heat generated
𝐸 2 𝑓𝜀𝑟 tan 𝛿
𝑊𝐴𝐶 = 𝑊/𝑐𝑚3
1.8 ×1012
Where, f = frequency in Hz,
𝛿 = loss angle of the dielectric material
E = rms value
The heat dissipated (WT ) is given by
𝑑𝑇
𝑊𝑇 = 𝐶𝑉 + 𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝐾 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑇 )
𝑑𝑡
Where 𝐶𝑉 = specific heat of the specimen,
T = temperature of the specimen,
K = thermal conductivity of the specimen, and
t = time over which the heat is dissipated.
Equilibrium is reached when the heat generated (𝑊𝐷𝐶 or 𝑊𝐴𝐶 ) becomes equal to the heat
dissipated (𝑊𝑇 ). In actual practice there is always some heat that is radiated out. Breakdown
occurs when 𝑊𝐷𝐶 or 𝑊𝐴𝐶 exceeds 𝑊𝑇 .
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 Example 2.2
A solid specimen of dielectric has a dielectric constant of 4.2, and
tan 𝛿 = 0.001 at a frequency of 50 𝐻𝑧. If it is subjected to an alternating
field of 50 𝑘𝑉/𝑐𝑚, calculate the heat generated in the specimen due to the
dielectric loss.
Solution: Dielectric heat loss at any electric stress E

𝐸 2 𝑓𝜀𝑟 tan 𝛿 3
𝑊𝑎𝑐 = 𝑊/𝑐𝑚
1.8 × 1012
For the specimen under study, the heat loss will be

(50 × 103 )2 × 50 × 4.2 × 0.001

𝑊𝑎𝑐 =
1.8 × 1012

𝑾𝒂𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝟏 𝑾/𝒄𝒎𝟑

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 7. Erosion breakdown
Practical insulation systems often contain cavities or voids within the
dielectric material or on boundaries between the solid and the
electrodes.
These cavities are usually filled with a medium (gas or liquid) of
lower breakdown strength than the solid.
Moreover, the permittivity of the filling medium is frequently lower
than that of the solid insulation, which causes the field intensity in
the cavity to be higher than in the dielectric.
Accordingly, under normal working stress of the insulation system
the voltage across the cavity may exceed the breakdown value and
may initiate breakdown in the void.
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 7. Erosion breakdown
Figure 8 shows a cross-section of a dielectric of thickness d containing a
cavity in the form of a disc of thickness t, together with an analogue circuit.
In the analogue circuit the capacitance 𝐶𝑐 corresponds to the cavity, 𝐶𝑏
corresponds to the capacitance of the dielectric which is in series with 𝐶𝑐 , and
𝐶𝑎 is the capacitance of the rest of the dielectric.
For 𝑡 ≪ 𝑑, which is usually the case, and assuming that the cavity is filled
with gas, the field strength across 𝐶𝑐 is given by the expression
𝐸𝑐 = 𝜀𝑟 𝐸𝑎
where 𝜀𝑟 is the relative permittivity of the dielectric.

Figure 8 Electrical discharge in cavity and its equivalent circuit

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 8. Electrochemical breakdown
Whenever cavities are formed in solid dielectrics, the dielectric strength in
these solid specimen decreases.
When the gas in the cavity breaks down, the surfaces of the specimen provide
instantaneous anode and cathode.
Some of the electrons dashing against the anode with sufficient energy shall
break the chemical bonds of the insulation surface.
Similarly, positive ions bombarding against the cathode may increase the
surface temperature and produce local thermal instability.
Similarly, chemical degradation may also occur from the active discharge
products e.g., 𝑂3 , 𝑁𝑂2 etc. formed in air.
The net effect of all these processes is a slow erosion of the material and a
consequent reduction in the thickness of the specimen. Normally, it is desired
that with ageing, the dielectric strength of the specimen should not decrease.
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 8. Electrochemical breakdown
However, because of defects in manufacturing processes and/or design, the
dielectric strength decreases with time of voltage application or even without
voltage application and in many cases; the decrease in dielectric strength
(𝐸𝑏 ) with time follows the following empirical relation.
𝑡𝐸 𝑛 𝑏 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
where the exponent n depends upon the dielectric material, the ambient
temperature humidity and the quality of manufacture. This is the main reason
why high AC voltage testing is not recommended.
In fact, these days very low frequency testing is being suggested (0.1 HZ) which
simulates the effects of both AC 50 HZ and DC voltages and yet the dielectric
strength of the specimen is not affected much with VLF voltage application.

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 Solid Dielectrics Used in Power Apparatus
The main requirements of the insulating materials used for power
apparatus are:
1. High insulation resistance
2. High dielectric strength
3. Good mechanical properties i.e., tenacity and elasticity
4. It should not be affected by chemicals around it
5. It should be non-hygroscopic because the dielectric strength of
any material goes very much down with moisture content.

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 Solid Dielectrics Used in Power Apparatus
The majority of the insulating systems used in practice are solids. They can be
broadly classified into three groups: organic materials, inorganic materials and
synthetic polymers. Some of these materials are listed in Table below.
Table: Classification of Solid Insulating Materials
Organic Inorganic Synthetic Polymers
Materials Materials Thermoplastic Thermosetting
Amber Asbestos Polyethylene Bakelite
Cotton Ceramic Perspex Epoxy resins
Paper Glass Polypropylene
Pressboard Mica Polystyrene
Rubber Polyvinyl chloride
Wax
Wood
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 Solid Dielectrics Used in Power Apparatus
Organic materials are produced from vegetable or animal matter and all of them have similar
characteristics. They are good insulators and can be easily adopted for practical applications.
However, their mechanical and electrical properties always deteriorate rapidly when the
temperature exceeds 100℃. Therefore, they are generally used after treating with a varnish or
impregnation with an oil. Examples are paper and press board used in cables, capacitors and
transformers.
Inorganic materials, unlike the organic materials, do not show any appreciable reduction
(< 10%) in their electrical and mechanical properties almost up to 250℃. Important inorganic
materials used for electric applications are glasses and ceramics. They are widely used for the
manufacture of insulators, bushings etc., because of their resistance to atmospheric pollutants
and their excellent performance under varying conditions of temperature and pressure.
Synthetic polymers are the polymeric materials which possess excellent insulating properties and
can be easily fabricated and applied to the apparatus. These are generally divided into two
groups, the thermoplastic and the thermosetting plastic types. Although they have low melting
temperatures in the range 100 − 120℃, they are very flexible and can be moulded and
extruded at temperatures below their melting points. They are widely used in bushings, insulators
etc. Their electrical use depends on their ability to prevent the absorption of moisture.

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 Vulcanized rubber
Rubber in its natural form is highly insulating but it absorbs moisture readily
and gets oxidized into a resinous material; thereby it loses insulating
properties. When it is mixed with sulphur along with other carefully chosen
ingredients and is subjected to a particular temperature it changes into
vulcanized rubber which does not absorb moisture and has better insulating
properties than even the pure rubber. It is elastic and resilient.
The electrical properties expected of rubber insulation are high breakdown
strength and high insulation resistance. In fact the insulation strength of the
vulcanized rubber is so good that for lower voltages the radial thickness is
limited due to mechanical consideration.
The physical properties expected of rubber insulation are that the cable should
withstand normal hazards of installation and it should give trouble-free service.
Vulcanized rubber insulated cables are used for wiring of houses, buildings and
factories for low-power work.
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 Vulcanized rubber
There are two main groups of synthetic rubber material :
(i) general purpose synthetics which have rubber-like properties and
(ii) special purpose synthetics which have better properties than the rubber
e.g., fire resisting and oil resisting properties.
The four main types are:
(i) butyl rubber
(ii) silicon rubber
(iii) neoprene and
(iv) styrene rubber

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 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
It is a polymer derived generally from acetylene and it can be produced in different grades depending upon the
polymerization process. For use in cable industry the polymer must be compounded with a plasticizer which
makes it plastic over a wide range of temperature. The grade of PVC depends upon the plasticizer. PVC is
inferior to vulcanized in respect of elasticity and insulation resistance.
PVC material has many grades.
General purpose type: It is used both for sheathing and as an insulating material. In this compound monomeric
plasticizers are used. It is to be noted that a V.R. insulated PVC sheathed cable is not good for use.
Hard grade PVC: These are manufactured with less amount of plasticizer as compared with general purpose
type. Hard grade PVC are used for higher temperatures for short duration of time like in soldering and are better
than the general purpose type. Hard grade can not be used for low continuous temperatures.
Heat resisting PVC: Because of the use of monomeric plasticizer which volatilizes at temperature 80°C–100°C,
general purpose type compounds become stiff. By using polymeric plasticizers it is possible to operate the
material continuously around 100°C.
PVC compounds are normally costlier than the rubber compounds and the polymeric plasticized compounds are
more expensive than the monomeric plasticized ones. PVC is inert to oxygen, oils, alkalis and acids and,
therefore, if the environmental conditions are such that these things are present in the atmosphere, PVC is more
useful than rubber.

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 Polyethylene Cables
 Polyethylene is a thermoplastic material which combines unusual electrical
properties, high resistance to moisture and chemicals, easy process ability,
and low cost.

 It has got high resistivity and good dielectric properties at high frequencies,
and therefore, is widely used for power and coaxial cables, telephone
cables, multi-conductor control cables, TV lead-in wires, etc.

 By varying the methods of manufacture different types of polyethylene are

made with specific properties for different applications. They may have low
density, medium density, high density or may be irradiated types.

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 Cross-linked Polyethylene (XLPE)
 The use of Polyethylene for cables has been limited due to its low melting point.
 By cross-linking the molecules, in roughly the same way as vulcanizing rubber, a new
material is produced which does not melt but carbonizes at 250 − 300°𝐶.
 By using chemical process it has been made technically possible to cross-link polyethylene
in conventional equipment for the manufacture of rubber. This is why the product is said to
be “vulcanized” or “cross-linked” polythene.
 Therefore, Polyethylene could be cross-linked only through special condition, e.g., by
irradiating Polyethylene with electrons, thereby it could be given properties of cross-linking
such as change of tensile strength and better temperature stability. Many irradiation
processes have been developed in the cable making industry even though large amounts of
high energy radiations are required and the procedure is expensive.
 Polythene can also be irradiated with ultraviolet light, after adding to it a small quantity of
ultraviolet sensitive material.
 Organic peroxides have also been used successfully to crosslink the polythene.

High Voltage Engineering (16EL) By Dr Suhail khokhar 39

 Mica
 Mica consists of crystalline mineral silicates of alumina and potash.
 It has high dielectric strength, low dielectric losses and good mechanical strength.
 All these properties make it useful for many electrical devices e.g., commutator segment
separator, armature windings, electrical heating and cooling equipment and switchgear.
 Thin layers of mica are laminated with a suitable resin or varnish to make thick sheets of
mica.
 Mica can be mixed with the required type of resin to obtain its application at different
operating temperatures.
 Mica is used as a filler in insulating materials to improve their dielectric strength, reduce
dielectric loss and improve heat resistance property.

High Voltage Engineering (16EL) By Dr Suhail khokhar 40

 Ceramics or Porcelain
 Ceramics materials are produced from clay containing aluminium oxide and other
inorganic materials. The thick parts of these substances is given the desired shape and form at
room temperature and then baked at high temperature about 1450°𝐶 to provide a solid inelastic
final structure.
 Ceramics or porcelain in one of its forms have high mechanical strength and low permittivity (εr <
12) are widely used for insulators and bushings.
 These have 40% to 50% of clay, 30-20% of aluminium oxide and 30% of fieldspar. The ceramics
with higher permittivity (εr > 12) are used in capacitors and transducers.
 The specific insulation resistance of ceramics is comparatively low. The tan δ of these materials
is high and increases with increase in temperature resulting in higher dielectric loss.
 The breakdown strength of porecelain compared to other insulating material is low but it remains
unaffected over a wide range of temperature variation.
 Porcelain is chemically insert to alkalies and acids and, therefore, corrosion resistant and does
not get contaminated. Alumina (𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 ) has replaced quartz because of its better thermal
conductivity, insulating property and mechanical strength. It is used for the fabrication of high
current vacuum circuit breakers.

High Voltage Engineering (16EL) By Dr Suhail khokhar 41

 Ceramics or Porcelain

High Voltage Engineering (16EL) By Dr Suhail khokhar 42

 Glass
 Glass is a thermoplastic inorganic material consisting of silicondioxide
(𝑆𝑖𝑂2 ) , which is available in nature in the form of quartz.
 Different types of metal oxides could be used for producing different types of
glasses but for use in electrical engineering only non-alkaline glasses are
suitable having alkaline content less than 0.8%.
 The dielectric constant of glass varies between 3.6 and 10.0 and the density
varies between 2000 kg/m3 and 6000 kg/m3.
 The loss angle tan 𝛿 is less than 10–3 and losses are higher for lower
frequencies.
 Its dielectric strength varies between 300 and 500 kV/mm and it decreases
with increase in temperature.
 Glass is used for X-ray equipment, electronic valves, electric bulbs etc.

High Voltage Engineering (16EL) By Dr Suhail khokhar 43

 Epoxy Resins
 Epoxy resins are thermosetting types of insulating materials, with excellent dielectric and
mechanical properties.
 They can be easily cast into desired shapes even at room temperature. They are very versatile,
and their basic properties can be modified either by the selection of a curing agent or by the use
of modifiers or fillers.
 They are highly elastic; samples tested under very high pressures, up to about 18000 psi (12000
atm) returned to their original shape after the load was removed, and the sample showed no
permanent damage.
 The dielectric constant varies between 2.5 and 3.8. The dielectric loss factor is very small under
power frequency conditions lying in the range 0.003-0.03. The dielectric strength is 75 kV/mm,
when the specimen thickness is 0.025 mm or 1mil.The volume resistivity of the material is of the
order of 1013 Ω − 𝑐𝑚.
 Epoxy resin can be formed into an insulator of any desired shape for almost any type of high
voltage application. Insulators, bushings, apparatus, etc. can be made out of epoxy resin. It can
also be used for encapsulation of electronic components, generator windings and transformers.
 It is used for bonding of very diverse materials such as porcelain, wood, metals, plastics, etc. It is
a very important adhesive used for sealing of high vacuum joints.
 In any laboratory or industry in which electrical or electronic components or equipment are
handled or manufactured, numerous occasions arise wherein epoxy resins can be used with an
advantage saving time, labour and money.

High Voltage Engineering (16EL) By Dr Suhail khokhar 44

 Breakdown in Liquid Dielectrics
 Liquids are used in high voltage equipment to serve the dual purpose of insulation and heat
conduction.
 They have the advantage that a puncture path is self-healing.
 Temporary failures due to overvoltages are reinsulated quickly by liquid flow to the attacked
area.
 However, the products of the discharges may deposit on solid insulation supports and may
lead to surface breakdown over these solid supports.
 Highly purified liquids have dielectric strengths as high as 1𝑀𝑉/𝑐𝑚.
 Under actual service conditions, the breakdown strength reduces considerably due to the
presence of impurities.
 The breakdown mechanism in the case of very pure liquids is the same as the gas
breakdown, but in commercial liquids, the breakdown mechanisms are significantly altered
by the presence of the solid impurities and dissolved gases.
 Petroleum oils are the commonest insulating liquids. However, askarels, fluorocarbons,
silicones, and organic esters including castor oil are used in significant quantities.

High Voltage Engineering (16EL) By Dr Suhail khokhar 45

 Breakdown in Liquid Dielectrics
 A number of considerations enter into the selection of any dielectric liquid.
 The important electricial properties of the liquid include the dielectric strength,
conductivity, flash point, gas content, viscosity, dielectric constant, dissipation factor,
stability, etc.
 Because of their low dissipation factor and other excellent characteristics, polybutanes
are being increasingly used in the electrical industry.
 Askarels and silicones are particularly useful in transformers and capacitors and can be
used at temperatures of 200° 𝐶 and higher.
 Castor oil is a good dielectric for high voltage energy storage capacitors because of its
high corona resistance, high dielectric constant, non-toxicity, and high flash point.
 In practical applications liquids are normally used at voltage stresses of about
50 − 60 𝑘𝑉/𝑐𝑚 when the equipment is continuously operated.
 On the other hand, in applications like high voltage bushings, where the liquid only fills
up the voids in the solid dielectric, it can be used at stresses as high as 100 −
200 𝑘𝑉/𝑐𝑚.
High Voltage Engineering (16EL) By Dr Suhail khokhar 46
 Breakdown Mechanisms of Liquid Dielectrics

1. Electronic breakdown
2. Suspended solid particle mechanism
3. Cavity breakdown

High Voltage Engineering (16EL) By Dr Suhail khokhar 47

 1. Electronic breakdown
Both the field emission and the field-enhanced thermionic emission mechanisms have
been considered responsible for the current at the cathode.
Conduction studies in insulating liquids at high fields show that the current is
temperature dependent. Breakdown measurements carried out over a wide range of
temperatures, however, show little temperature dependence. This suggests that the
cathode process is field emission rather than thermionic emission.
It is possible that the return of positive ions and particularly positively charged foreign
particles to the cathode will cause local field enhancement and give rise to local
electron emission.
Once the electron is injected into the liquid it gains energy from the applied field.
In the electronic theory of breakdown it is assumed that some electrons gain more
energy from the field than they lose in collisions with molecules. These electrons are
accelerated until they gain sufficient energy to ionize molecules on collisions and
initiate avalanche.

High Voltage Engineering (16EL) By Dr Suhail khokhar 48

 1. Electronic breakdown
The condition for the inception of electron avalanche is obtained by equating
the gain in energy of an electron over its mean free path to that required for
ionization of the molecule.
𝑒𝐸𝜆 = 𝑐𝑕𝑣
where 𝐸 is the applied field, 𝜆 the electron mean free path, 𝑕𝑣 the quantum
of energy lost in ionizing the molecule and 𝑐 an arbitrary constant. Typical
strengths for several highly pure liquids are included in Table 6.2.

The electronic theory satisfactorily predicts the

relative magnitude of break down strength of
liquids, but the observed formative time lags are
much longer than predicted by electronic theory.

High Voltage Engineering (16EL) By Dr Suhail khokhar 49

 Suspended solid particle mechanism
 Solid impurities may be present in the liquid either as fibers or as dispersed solid
particles. Consider a spherical particle of radius r and permittivity 𝜀 to be
suspended in dielectric liquid of permittivity 𝜀𝑙𝑖𝑞 . Then in a field the particle will
become polarized and it will experience a force
3 𝜀−𝜀𝑙𝑖𝑞
 𝐹𝑒 = 𝜀𝑙𝑖𝑞 . 𝑟 𝐸 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝐸
𝜀+2𝜀𝑙𝑖𝑞

 This force is directed towards a place of maximum stress if 𝜀 > 𝜀𝑙𝑖𝑞 but for
bubbles 𝜀 > 𝜀𝑙𝑖𝑞 ., it has the opposite direction.
 The force increases as the permittivity of the suspended particle (𝜀) increases, and
for a conducting particle for which 𝜀 → ∞ the force becomes
 𝐹𝑒 = 𝐹∞ = 𝑟 3 𝐸 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝐸.
Thus the force will urge the particle to move to the strongest region of the
field. In a uniform field gap or sphere gap of small spacing the strongest field is in
the uniform region.

High Voltage Engineering (16EL) By Dr Suhail khokhar 50

 Suspended solid particle mechanism
 In this region 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝐸 is equal to zero so that the particle will remain in
equilibrium there.
 Accordingly, particles will be dragged into the uniform field region. If the permittivity
of the particle is higher than that of the medium, then its presence in the uniform
field region will cause flux concentration at its surface.
 Other particles will be attracted into the region of higher flux
concentration and in time will become aligned head to tail to form a bridge
across the gap.
 The field in the liquid between the particles will be enhanced, and if it reaches
critical value breakdown will follow.
 The movement of particles by electrical force is opposed by viscous drag, and since
the particles are moving into the region of high stress, diffusion must also be taken
into account.

High Voltage Engineering (16EL) By Dr Suhail khokhar 51

 Suspended solid particle mechanism
 For a particle of radius 𝑟 slowly moving with a velocity 𝑣 in a medium of
viscosity 𝜂, the drag force is given by Stokes relation
𝐹𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 = 6𝜋𝑟𝜂𝜐(𝑥)
 Equating the electrical force with the drag force (𝐹𝑒 = 𝐹𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 ) we obtain
𝑟 2 𝐸 𝑑𝐸
𝜈𝐸 =
6𝜋𝜂 𝑑𝑥
 where 𝜈𝐸 is the velocity of the particle towards the region of maximum
stress.

High Voltage Engineering (16EL) By Dr Suhail khokhar 52

 3. Cavity breakdown
 Insulating liquids may contain gaseous inclusions in the form of bubbles. The
processes by which bubbles are formed include:
1. gas pockets on the electrode surface,
2. changes in temperature and pressure,
3. dissociation of products by electron collisions giving rise to gaseous products,
4. liquid vaporization by corona-type discharges from points and irregularities on
the electrodes.
 The electric field in a spherical gas bubble which is immersed in a liquid
of permittivity 𝜀𝑙𝑖𝑞 is given by:
3𝐸0
𝐸𝑏 =
𝜀𝑙𝑖𝑞 + 2
 where 𝐸0 is the field in the liquid in the absence of the bubble. When the field Eb
becomes equal to the gaseous ionization field, discharge takes place which will
lead to decomposition of the liquid and breakdown may follow.
High Voltage Engineering (16EL) By Dr Suhail khokhar 53
 3. Cavity breakdown
 A more accurate expression for the „bubble’ breakdown field strength is developed in the
form
1/2
1 2𝜋𝜎(2𝜀1 + 𝜀2 ) 𝜋 𝑉𝑏
𝐸0 = −1
(𝜀1 − 𝜀2 ) 𝑟 4 2𝑟𝐸0

 where 𝜎 is the surface tension of the liquid, 𝜀1 and 𝜀2 are the permittivities of the liquid and
the bubble respectively, r is the initial radius of the bubble (initially spherical, which is
assumed to elongate under the influence of the field), and 𝑉𝑏 is the voltage drop in the
bubble.
 This expression indicates that the critical electric field strength required for breakdown of
liquid depends upon the initial size of the bubble which is affected by the external pressure
and temperature. A strong dependence of liquid breakdown strength upon the applied
hydrostatic pressure has been observed experimentally.
 Commercial insulating liquids cannot readily be subjected to highly elaborated purification
treatment, and the breakdown strength will usually depend upon the nature of impurities
present.

High Voltage Engineering (16EL) By Dr Suhail khokhar 54