Plant Foods for Human Nutrition 56: 61–73, 2001.

© 2001 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

Evaluation of selected food attributes of four advanced

lines of ungerminated and germinated Nigerian
cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.)

SUNDAY Y. GIAMI, MONDAY O. AKUSU and JULIET N. EMELIKE

Department of Food Science and Technology, Rivers State University of Science and
Technology, Port Harcourt, Nigeria

Received 4 June 1999; accepted in revised form 16 March 2000

Abstract. The chemical composition and functional properties of ungerminated and germin-
ated seeds of four advanced lines of cowpeas (IT81D-699, IT82E-18, IT84S-2246-4 and TVx
3236) were investigated. Ungerminated seeds contained 20.1 to 25.8% crude protein, 2.0 to
2.2% lipid, 115.1 to 210.0 mg phytic acid/100 g and 8.9 to 9.6 mg iron/100 g. The polyphenol
contents of the brown- and cream-colored beans were similar (192.0 to 196.0 mg/100 g) but
were significantly (p < 0.05) higher than the amount (99.8 mg/100 g) found in the white
beans. Germination increased the crude protein content, total phosphorus content, nitrogen
solubility, fat absorption capacity and foam capacity but decreased ether extract, polyphenol
and phytic acid contents, water absorption capacity, bulk density and foam stability of all
cowpea lines. Incorporation of up to 0.2 M NaCI improved foam volume. Ungerminated seeds
had high water (2.3–3.2 g/g) absorption capacities, while germinated seeds had high fat (3.1–
3.6 g/g) absorption capacities. TVx 3236 and IT81D-699 might be selected for combining such
characteristics as high crude protein, low phytic acid content and good foaming properties into
a single cowpea line through breeding.

Key words: Chemical composition, Cowpea cultivars, Functional properties, Germination

Introduction

Cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) are an important source of protein

and other nutrients in many developing countries. In Nigeria, cowpeas are
used extensively to fortify cereal-based weaning foods [1]. They are also
processed into paste or flour and used as a food ingredient or starting material
for a variety of local foods, such as ‘moin-moin’ and ‘akara’ [2]. Because
of the importance of cowpeas in the nutrition of Africans, efforts have been
directed towards the breeding and improvement of cowpea cultivars for spe-
cific characteristics such as improved nutritional attributes, early maturity,
high yield, desired seed quality and resistance to insects and diseases [3].
Advanced lines of cowpeas have been developed and released for cultivation
62
Table 1. Seed characteristics of selected advanced lines of cowpeas

Line Seed Seed Testa 100-seed Seed dimension1 (mm)

shape color texture weight2 (g) Length Width

IT81D-699 Oval White Smooth 18.6 ± 0.4a 8.8 ± 0.5a 5.8 ± 0.4a
IT82E-18 Oval Brown Smooth 15.0 ± 0.2b 6.3 ± 0.3c 4.8 ± 0.3c
IT84S-2246-4 Oval Brown Rough 18.1 ± 0.3a 7.2 ± 0.2b 5.5 ± 0.2b
TVx 3236 Oval Cream Rough 12.5 ± 0.2c 6.5 ± 0.1c 4.9 ± 0.2c
1 Mean ± standard deviation of 25 measurements from triplicate experiments.
2 Mean ± standard deviation of triplicate determinations.
a,b,c Means with the same superscripts within the same column do not differ significantly
(p > 0.05).

by the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA), lbadan, Nigeria.

Characterization of some of these advanced lines for physicochemical prop-
erties and cooking qualities has been done [4, 5]. Four promising advanced
lines of cowpeas with good agronomic performance (high yield, resistance to
diseases and early maturity) have reached an advanced stage of breeding by
IITA. The four lines, IT81D-699, IT82E-18, IT84S-2246-4 and TVx 3236,
are currently under cultivation testing in Nigeria.
Genetic manipulation in breeding new cultivars may produce wide vari-
ation in their chemical composition and functional properties. It has been
shown that proximate composition and contents of antinutritional factors of
cowpeas vary considerably according to cultivar [4, 6]. There is, therefore,
a need for continuous monitoring of the changes in proximate composition
and contents of antinutrients that accompany breeding. Although studies have
been made on the functional properties and functionality of cowpea flour in
food formulations [2, 7], such studies were made using the commonly grown
local cultivar, called ‘blackeye’. Cooking characteristics have been evaluated
[8] but information on the chemical and functional properties of the newly
developed advanced lines of cowpeas is lacking.
For effective utilization of newly developed advanced lines of cowpeas for
human nutrition, there is a need to evaluate their chemical composition and
identify and improve their functional properties. Germination has often been
proposed as a simple processing method by which the nutrient composition
and certain functional properties of cowpeas might be improved [7]. The ob-
jective of this study was to evaluate the proximate composition and selected
functional properties of these newly developed advanced lines of cowpeas
and the changes brought about by germination of the beans.
 63

Materials and methods

Cowpea samples. Experimental material consisted of seeds of four advanced

lines (IT81D-699, IT82E-18, IT84S-2246-4, TVx 3236) of cowpeas (Vigna
unguiculata L. Walp.) which were obtained from the IITA, Onne Station,
Nigeria. A description of the seed characteristics of the samples is presented
in Table 1. The seeds were stored in woven jute bags at 5 ◦ C throughout
the experimental period. All samples were stored under similar conditions
to eliminate differences due to storage. Triplicate samples were selected and
subjected to germination.

Physical characteristics of seeds

The length, width and thickness were measured on twenty-five whole, healthy
seeds of each line using a vernier caliper (Model No. 0542-026, Saandbergi
and SchneideWing, Hamburg, Germany). One hundred seeds of each line
were weighed separately using a Sartorius digital electronic balance (Model
No. 2462, Göttingen, Germany) and the total weight was recorded as 100-
seed weight.

Preparation of samples

Seeds, previously stored at 5 ◦ C, were tempered at room temperature (28 ±

1 ◦ C) overnight and divided into two groups. Samples (150 ± 1 g) from one
group were germinated at room temperature (28 ± 1 ◦ C) for 72 h in sterile
Petri dishes containing wet cotton wool as described by Giami [7]. Samples
from the second group were ungerminated and served as the control. Unger-
minated and germinated samples were oven-dried (50 ◦ C, 24 h) in a hot air
fan oven (Model QUB 3050106, Gallenkamp, UK), ground using a labor-
atory mill (Numex Pep Grinding Mill, India) and screened through a 0.25
mm British standard sieve (Model BS 410, Endecotts Ltd., UK). Germinated
and ungerminated samples to be used for studies on functional properties
were defatted by solvent extraction in a Soxhlet apparatus (Tecator Inc, Col-
orado, USA) for 8 h using n-hexane for comparison with studies on other
defatted legume and oilseed flours. Possible differences between the samples
and the true undefatted local flours were noted. All samples were stored in
screw-capped plastic bottles at 4 ◦ C until used.
64

Chemical analyses

Moisture (Method 14.004), total ash (Method 14.006), crude fiber (Method
7.070), ether extract (Method 7.062) and crude protein (Method 2.057) were
determined according to AOAC [9] procedures. Iron (Method 14.013) and
phosphorus (Method 7.124) were also determined using AOAC [9] proced-
ures. Carbohydrate content was calculated by difference. Polyphenols were
determined using the vanillin-H2 SO4 assay described by Wilson & Blunden
[10] with reference to a standard graph based on phloroglucinol. The results
were expressed as mg phloroglucinol equivalents per 100 g dry flour weight.
For the determination of phytic acid, a combination of two methods was
used. The extraction and precipitation of phytic acid was performed according
to the method of Wheeler & Ferrel [11]; iron in the precipitate was measured
using procedure 14.013 of the AOAC [9]. A 4:6 Fe/P molecular ratio was
used to calculate phytic acid content. All reagents used were of analytical
grade and were obtained from BDH chemicals, Poole, UK.

Functional properties

Nitrogen solubility was determined in the pH range 2–12 at room temperature

(28 ± 1 ◦ C) using the method described by Giami et al. [12]. Water and fat
absorption capacities were determined according to the procedure outlined
by Giami et al. [12]. Values have been expressed as grams of water or oil
absorbed by 1 g of flour. Foam capacity and stability were determined as
described by Giami et al. [12]. The volume of foam at 30 s after whipping
was expressed as the foam capacity and the volume of the foam over 30–
120 min as the foam stability for the respective time periods. Foam volume
increase (%) was calculated from the following equation:
volume after volume before
whipping (ml) − whipping (ml)
Volume increase (%) = × 100.
volume before whipping (ml)
Effects of pH and NaCl concentration (0.0–1.0 M) on foam volume increase
(%) were also investigated using the method described by Giami [7]. Bulk
density was determined using a calibrated centrifuge tube [12].
 65

Statistical analyses

All the analyses were conducted in triplicate. The mean ± standard devi-
ation of three values were calculated. Data were subjected to Analysis of
Variance. If a significant F test was noted, means were separated using a
Duncan’s multiple range test [13]. Significance was accepted at the 0.05 level
of probability.

Results and discussion

The results of the proximate analyses of ungerminated and germinated ad-

vanced lines of cowpeas are presented in Table 2. The crude protein con-
tents of the ungerminated cowpeas were 20.1 to 25.8% and were within the
range of 20.7 to 30.3% reported by other workers [5, 14] for various cowpea
cultivars. Germination significantly (p < 0.05) lowered ether extract, but
increased crude protein and crude fiber contents of all the cowpea lines. The
decrease in ether extract varied from 20.0% in IT81D-699 to 40.0% in TVx
3236. Studies by Ologhobo [14] on three Nigerian cowpea cultivars (Adzuki,
Ife brown, Farr-13) also showed a decrease (33–40%) in fat content after a
72-h germination period.
Ungerminated seeds contained 400 to 479 mg phosphorus/100 g, 8.9 to
9.6 mg iron/100 g, 115.1 to 210.0 mg phytic acid/100 g and 99.8 to 196.0 mg
polyphenol/100 g (Table 3). The seeds were generally a good source of iron
and phosphorus and the levels were higher than those found in many Nigerian
legumes [7, 14]. The nutritional significance of the higher content of iron in
these newly developed cowpea lines should be viewed with caution since
cowpeas are not consumed raw and data on the effect of cooking on bioavail-
ability of this mineral is lacking. Cultivar differences in phytic acid and poly-
phenol contents of cowpeas have been reported [4, 6, 15]. The levels (115.1
to 210.0 mg/100 g) of phytic acid in the ungerminated cowpea lines were
lower than the levels reported for ungerminated pigeon peas (220.0 mg/100
g), bambara groundnut (294.0 mg/100 g) and various cowpea cultivars with
levels of phytic acid ranging from 280 to 792 mg/100 g [4, 6, 16]. The rel-
atively low levels of phytic acid in the ungerminated samples, compared to
the levels reported for some commonly consumed Nigerian legumes cited
above, seems to suggest an overall better nutritional quality of these newly
developed cowpea lines. Such data is of importance because besides lowering
the bioavailability of minerals, phytic acid also inhibits the digestibility of
proteins [17].
Germination significantly (p < 0.05) lowered polyphenol and phytic acid
contents of all the cowpea lines (Table 3). Decreases in polyphenol and phytic
 66
Table 2. Proximate composition of ungerminated and germinated samples of selected advanced lines of
cowpeas

Sample Component1
Moisture Crude protein Ether Total Crude Carbohydrate
(N × 6.25) extract ash fiber (by difference)
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)

IT81D-699
Ungerminated 9.8 ± 0.2b 24.2 ± 0.3b 2.0 ± 0.1a 3.2 ± 0.2b 2.4 ± 0.2c 58.4 ± 0.7a
Germinated 11.8 ± 0.4a 25.1 ± 0.5a 1.6 ± 0.0b 3.6 ± 0.1a 3.6 ± 0.1a 54.3 ± 0.5b
IT82E-18
Ungerminated 10.0 ± 0.1b 23.4 ± 0.3c 2.2 ± 0.2a 3.5 ± 0.4a 2.6 ± 0.2b 58.3 ± 0.5a
Germinated 12.2 ± 0.3a 24.2 ± 0.2b 1.4 ± 0.1b 3.8 ± 0.3a 3.0 ± 0.1a 55.4 ± 0.3b
IT84S-2246-4
Ungerminated 8.0 ± 0.6c 20.1 ± 0.4d 2.0 ± 0.1a 3.1 ± 0.1v 2.2 ± 0.1c 64.6 ± 0.8a
Germinated 10.6 ± 0.3b 21.7 ± 0.5c 1.4 ± 0.2b 3.5 ± 0.1a 2.8 ± 0.2v 60.0 ± 0.4a
TVx 3236
Ungerminated 9.7 ± 0.2b 25.8 ± 0.1b 2.0 ± 0.1a 3.6 ± 0.2a 2.1 ± 0.2c 56.8 ± 0.6b
Germinated 11.7 ± 0.4a 26.6 ± 0.4a 1.2 ± 0.2c 4.0 ± 0.3a 2.6 ± 0.3b 53.9 ± 0.5b
1 Mean ± standard deviation of triplicate determinations values except moisture, expressed on dry weight
basis.
a,b,c Means with the same superscript within the same column do not differ (p > 0.05).
 67
Table 3. Polyphenol, phytic acid, iron and phosphorus contents of ungerminated and
germinated samples of selected advanced lines of cowpeas

Sample Component1 (mg/100 g)

Polyphenols Phytic acid Iron Total phosphorus

IT81D-699
Ungerminated 99.8 ± 0.2b 115.1 ± 0.8c 8.9 ± 0.1b 437 ± 2.4c
Germinated 58.4 ± 0.5c 62.4 ± 0.4d 8.4 ± 0.0b 460 ± 2.1b
IT82E-18
Ungerminated 192.0 ± 0.7a 210.0 ± 1.4a 9.2 ± 0.4a 430 ± 1.9c
Germinated 90.2 ± 0.0b 113.7 ± 0.6c 8.8 ± 0.2b 466 ± 1.2b
IT84S-2246-4
Ungerminated 196.0 ± 0.8a 202.7 ± 1.0a 9.0 ± 0.1a 479 ± 2.0b
Germinated 94.6 ± 0.4b 99.6 ± 0.5c 9.3 ± 0.4a 502 ± 2.3a
TVx 3236
Ungerminated 195.4 ± 0.2a 150.4 ± 1.2a 9.6 ± 0.0a 400 ± 2.1c
Germinated 98.0 ± 0.4b 97.8 ± 0.8c 8.9 ± 0.1b 450 ± 1.8b
1 Mean ± standard deviation of triplicate determinations.
a,b,c Means with the same superscript within the same column do not differ (p >
0.05).

acid contents of germinated cowpea lines amounted to 41.5 to 51.7% and

35.0 to 50.9%, respectively. Giami [17] reported a decrease in polyphenols
amounting to 44.4% during a 72 h germination of a local cowpea cultivar
(blackeye), while decreases in phytic acid contents obtained by Ologhobo
& Fetuga [6] ranged between 43.4% and 51.6% in ten germinated (72 h)
cowpea cultivars. Complete elimination of polyphenols and phytic acid from
the cowpea seeds as a result of germination was not observed in this study,
suggesting that further processing such as soaking and heat treatment may be
necessary in order to completely destroy these antinutrients.
Nitrogen solubility was pH dependent with minimum and maximum sol-
ubility at pH 4.0 and pH 10.0, respectively, for all cowpea lines (Table 4).
IT84S-2246-4 exhibited the highest solubility values for both ungerminated
and germinated cowpeas in the pH range 2 to 12 investigated. This finding
suggests a promising applicability of flour from this cowpea line in food pre-
parations where maximum solubility of proteins is desired. Germination was
observed to improve nitrogen solubility at all pH values studied. Improvement
in nitrogen solubility as a result of germination has been reported by King &
Puwastein [18] for winged bean. These workers attributed this observation to
an expected high proteolytic activity within germinating seeds, which may
 68
Table 4. Nitrogen solubility of ungerminated and germinated samples of selected advanced lines of cowpeas

Sample Nitrogen solubility (%), at pH1

2 4 6 8 10 12

IT81D-699
Ungerminated 60.0 ± 0.8c 8.1 ± 0.1c 32.4 ± 0.6c 50.0 ± 0.8c 67.5 ± 1.2c 62.2 ± 0.7c
Germinated 67.5 ± 0.4b 12.6 ± 0.2b 40.0 ± 0.4b 58.5 ± 0.3b 74.0 ± 1.0b 71.4 ± 0.4b
IT82E-18
Ungerminated 59.2 ± 1.0c 7.8 ± 0.2c 31.0 ± 0.1c 52.4 ± 0.2c 68.9 ± 0.8c 63.4 ± 0.3c
Germinated 68.4 ± 1.2b 14.2 ± 0.3b 38.8 ± 0.1b 60.7 ± 0.8b 75.5 ± 1.0b 72.0 ± 0.2b
IT84S-2246-4
Ungerminated 68.5 ± 0.8b 14.4 ± 0.0b 49.2 ± 0.2b 65.2 ± 1.0b 79.4 ± 0.7b 72.3 ± 0.8b
Germinated 80.2 ± 1.0a 24.5 ± 0.1a 66.8 ± 0.8a 81.0 ± 1.2a 88.2 ± 0.6a 85.2 ± 0.6a
TVx 3236
Ungerminated 60.6 ± 0.6c 7.5 ± 0.4c 35.2 ± 0.4c 54.6 ± 0.7c 69.4 ± 0.8c 64.3 ± 1.0c
Germinated 68.7 ± 0.5b 16.4 ± 0.2b 41.5 ± 0.0b 58.7 ± 0.6b 76.8 ± 1.0b 70.7 ± 0.8b
1 Mean ± standard deviation of triplicate determinations.
a,b,c Means with the same superscript within the same column do not differ (p > 0.05).
 69
Table 5. Bulk density, water and fat absorption capacities of ungerminated and germinated
samples of selected advanced lines of cowpeas

Sample Functional properties1

Bulk density Water absorption capacity Fat absorption capacity
(g per ml) (g per gram) (g per gram)

IT81D-699
Ungerminated 0.47 ± 0.03a 2.4 ± 0.2b 2.2 ± 0.3b
Germinated 0.15 ± 0.02b 1.7 ± 0.1c 3.6 ± 0.2a
IT82E-18
Ungerminated 0.44 ± 0.05a 2.5 ± 0.3b 2.3 ± 0.1b
Germinated 0.13 ± 0.01b 1.8 ± 0.0c 3.2 ± 0.3a
IT84S-2246-4
Ungerminated 0.40 ± 0.04a 2.3 ± 0.2b 2.4 ± 0.0b
Germinated 0.13 ± 0.03b 1.6 ± 0.1c 3.1 ± 0.2a
TVx 3236
Ungerminated 0.45 ± 0.03a 3.2 ± 0.3a 3.2 ± 0.3a
Germinated 0.18 ± 0.02b 1.9 ± 0.1c 1.9 ± 0.1c
1 Mean ± standard deviation of triplicate determinations .
a,b,c Means with the same superscript within the same column do not differ (p > 0.05).

lead to an increase in protein solubility as a result of hydrolysis of the storage

proteins.
Data on bulk density, water and fat absorption capacities of the cowpea
lines are shown in Table 5. The values for water absorption capacities (2.4
to 3.2 g/g) and fat absorption capacities (2.2 to 2.4 g/g) of the ungermin-
ated cowpea lines compare with water absorption (1.8 to 3.6 g/g) and fat
absorption (1.2 to 2.9 g/g) capacities in various ungerminated legumes, oil
seeds and other edible seeds used as soup condiments in Nigeria [7, 12, 19].
Water absorption capacity (3.2 g/g) of ungerminated samples of TVx 3236
was significantly (p < 0.05) higher than the values (2.3 to 2.5 g/g) obtained
for the other ungerminated lines. These results suggested that flour from un-
germinated samples of TVx 3236 would be useful in food systems such as
bakery products which require hydration to improve handling characteristics.
McWatters [20] encountered no problems in preparing and handling doughs
that contained up to 30% ungerminated cowpea (cultivar: California blackeye
5) flour in the making of biscuits, sugar cookies and doughnuts.
Germination decreased (p < 0.05) water absorption capacities and bulk
densities but increased (p < 0.05) fat absorption capacities of all advanced
cowpea lines studied. An important functional significance of bulk density
is in the preparation of weaning food formulations. Germination has been
 70
Table 6. Foaming properties of ungerminated and germinated samples of selected advanced lines of cowpeas

Sample Foaming properties1

Foam capacity2 Volume increase Foam volume (ml) after time (min): Decrease over 2 h
(ml) (%) 30 60 120 (%)

IT81D-699
Ungerminated 146.0 ± 2.5c 46.0 145.0 ± 2.0b 116.5 ± 1.0b 98.2 ± 2.0c 32.7
Germinated 162.3 ± 1.5b 62.3 125.0 ± 1.5c 8.5 ± 2.0d 0 100
IT82E-18
Ungerminated 136.0 ± 2.0c 36.0 128.5 ± 1.0c 118.5 ± 2.0b 110.0 ± 0.5b 19.1
Germinated 152.5 ± 2.2b 52.5 98.5 ± 1.5d 14.0 ± 1.0d 0 100
IT84S-2246-4
Ungerminated 142.0 ± 1.0c 42.0 148.5 ± 1.2b 129.2 ± 1.3b 114.0 ± 2.5b 19.7
Germinated 160.5 ± 1.5b 60.5 130.0 ± 1.8c 101.0 ± 1.2c 88.5 ± 0.8c 44.9
TVx 3236
Ungerminated 165.0 ± 2.5b 65.0 160.2 ± 2.0a 155.0 ± 1.2a 145.0 ± 1.0a 12.1
Germinated 172.5 ± 2.2a 72.5 142.0 ± 1.5b 120.5 ± 1.4b 112.4 ± 0.8b 34.8
1 Mean ± standard deviation of triplicate determinations.
2 Determined at pH = 7.0.
a,b,c Means with the same superscript within the same column do not differ (p > 0.05).
 71
Table 7. Effect of pH on foam volume increase (%) of ungerminated
and germinated samples of selected advanced lines of cowpeas

Sample pH1
2 4 6 8 10 12

IT81D-699
Ungerminated 45.0c 33.5c 45.7c 58.4c 60.2c 45.0c
Germinated 55.2b 45.2b 54.8b 60.2b 64.4b 52.4b
IT82E-18
Ungerminated 40.5c 28.8c 42.2c 56.4c 58.0c 37.2c
Germinated 50.2b 47.4b 52.0b 64.5b 68.5b 50.6b
IT84S-2246-4
Ungerminated 40.4c 30.5c 44.6c 54.2c 56.4c 37.4c
Germinated 54.6b 45.0b 50.4b 60.0b 68.2b 52.6b
TVx 3236
Ungerminated 50.4b 46.4b 52.3b 62.7b 68.8b 54.2b
Germinated 64.2a 57.6a 69.4a 75.0a 76.4a 68.5a
1 Mean of triplicate determinations.
a,b,c Means with the same superscript within the same column do not
differ (p > 0.05).

reported to be a useful method for the preparation of low bulk weaning foods
[21].
Germination increased foam capacity and foam volume, but decreased
foam stability of the cowpea lines (Table 6). Foams prepared from IT81D-
699 and IT82E-18 completely collapsed within 2 h. The formation of a stable
foam is essential in the preparation of several traditional cowpea-based food
products in Nigeria [2, 20].
Foam volume increase of the cowpea lines, as influenced by pH, is shown
in Table 7. Like nitrogen solubility, foam volume increase was pH dependent
with minimum volume increase at pH 4.0 and maximum volume increase
at pH 10.0 for all cowpea lines. Foaming properties may, therefore, be de-
pendent on solubilized protein. Germination increased foam volume at every
pH studied. TVx 3236 exhibited the highest foam volume increase in the pH
range investigated. Addition of up to 0.2 M NaCl increased foam volume
of both ungerminated and germinated cowpeas while greater concentrations
decreased it considerably (Table 8). For all cowpea lines, the foam volume
increases of the ungerminated samples at 1.0 M NaCl were higher than in
water, while those for the germinated samples were lower.
This study has shown that all the cowpea lines investigated produced flours
with good potential for incorporation into human food products as protein
72
Table 8. Effect of NaCl molarity on foam volume increase of un-
germinated and germinated samples of selected advanced lines of
cowpeas

Sample NaCl molarity1

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

IT81D-699
Ungerminated 46.0c 74.2b 70.0b 64.5b 62.3b 58.6b
Germinated 62.3b 63.80 54.2c 50.1c 47.6c 40.2d
IT82E-18
Ungerminated 36.0d 54.2c 48.4d 48.4d 40.8c 38.5d
Germinated 52.5c 60.0c 42.3d 42.3d 35.6b 31.4d
IT84S-2246-4
Ungerminated 42.0c 79.4a 73.0b 73.0b 64.4b 62.7b
Germinated 60.5b 76.6b 71.7b 71.7b 57.2b 54.3c
TVx 3236
Ungerminated 65.0b 88.5a 84.6a 84.6a 74.6a 69.0a
Germinated 72.5a 82.6a 74.4b 74.4b 66.4b 63.2b
1 Mean of triplicate determinations.
a,b,c Means with the same superscript within the same column do not
differ (p > 0.05).

supplements or functional agents in a variety of formulated foods. However,

evaluation of the functionality of the defatted and undefatted flours from all
ungerminated and germinated cowpea lines in real food systems would be
desirable.

References

1. Uwaegbute AC (1991) Weaning practices and weaning foods of the Hausas, Yorubas and
Ibos of Nigeria. Ecol Food Nutr 26: 139–153.
2. Ngoddy PO, Enwere NJ, Onuorah VI (1986) Cowpea flour performance in ‘akara’ and
‘moin-moin’ preparations. Trop Sci 26: 101–119.
3. Singh BB, Mare BR (1985) Development of improved cowpea varieties in Africa. In:
Singh SR, Rachie KO (eds), Cowpea Research, Production and Utilization. Chichester:
John Wiley and Sons, pp 105–114.
4. Longe OG (1983) Varietal differences in chemical characteristics related to cooking
quality of cowpea. J Food Process Pres 7: 143–150.
5. Akinyele IO, Onigbinde AC, Hussain MA, Omololu A (1986) Physicochemical char-
acteristics of 18 cultivaters of Nigerian cowpeas (Vigna unquiculata) and their cooking
properties. J Food Sci 51: 1483–1485.
 73

6. Ologhobo AD, Fetuga BL (1984) Effect of processing on the trypsin inhibitor, haemag-
glutinin, tannic acid and phytic acid contents of seeds of ten cowpea varieties. Trop Agric
61: 261–264.
7. Giami SY (1993) Effect of processing on the proximate composition and functional
properties of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) flour. Food Chem 47: 153–158.
8. Giami SY, Okwechime UI (1993) Physiocochemical properties and cooking quality of
four new cultivars of Nigerian cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.). J Sci Food Agric
63: 281–286.
9. AOAC (1984) Official Methods of Analysis, 14th edn. Washington, D.C. Association of
Official Analytical Chemists.
10. Wilson MF, Blunden CA (1983) Changes in the levels of polyphenols in three pear
varieties during bud development. J Sci Food Agric 34: 973–978.
11. Wheeler EL, Ferrel RE (1971) A method for phytic acid determination in wheat and
wheat fractions. Cereal Chem 48: 312–316.
12. Giami SY, Okonkwo VI, Akusu MO (1994) Chemical composition and functional prop-
erties of raw, heat-treated and partially proteolysed wild mango (Irvingia gabonensis)
seed flour. Food Chem 49: 237–243.
13. Steel RG, Torrie JH (1960) Principles and Procedures of Statistics. New York: McGraw-
Hill.
14. Ologhobo AD (1986) Composition and food potentials of dry and germinated legume
seeds and their sprouts. Nig Food J 4: 34–44.
15. Ekpenyong TE (1985) Effect of cooking on polyphenolic content of some Nigerian
legumes and cereals. Nutr Rep Int 31: 561–565.
16. Igbedioh SO, Olugbemi KT, Akpapunam MA (1994) Effects of processing methods on
phytic aid level and some constituents in bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) and
pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan). Food Chem 50: 147–151.
17. Maga JA (1982) Phytate: Its chemistry, occurrence, food interactions, nutritional
significance and methods of analysis. J Agric Food Chem 30: 1–9.
18. King RD, Puwastein P (1987) Effect of germination on the proximate composition and
nutritional quality of winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus) seeds. J Food Sci 52:
106–108.
19. Giami SY, Wachuku OC (1997) Composition and functional properties of unprocessed
and locally processed seeds from three underutilized food sources in Nigeria. Plant Food
Hum Nutr 50: 27–36.
20. McWatters KH (1985) Functionality of cowpea meal and flour in selected foods. In:
Singh SR, Rachie KO (eds), Cowpea Research, Production and Utilization. Chichester:
John Wiley and Sons, pp 361–366.
21. Desikachar HSR (1980) Development of weaning foods with high calorie density and
low hot-paste viscosity using traditional technologies. Food Nutr Bull 2: 21–23.