BIO 204 BIOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COURSE CODE: BIO 204

COURSE TITLE: BIOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES

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BIO 204 BIOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES

MODULE 1

Unit 1: Types of microscopes and their uses.

Unit 2: Preparation of microscope slides / Examination

Unit 3: Dissection Guides

UNIT 1: TYPES OF MICROSCOPES AND THEIR USES

CONTENT

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content

3.1 Class of Microscope

• Simple
• Compound

3.2 Types of Microscope

• Light
• Compound
• Simple magnifying lens
• Stereo / dissecting
• Fluorescence
• Electron
• Digital

3.3 Light microscopy and functions

• Bright field microscopy

• Phase contrast microscopy
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• Dark field microscopy

• Oil immersion microscope

3.4 Parts and functions of a modern microscope

3.5 Operating the microscope

3.6 Handling and care of the microscope

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments

7.0 References / Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit 1 of module 1, those of you that are users of laboratory
microscopes, as well as those seeing the tool for the first time will
learn about modern microscopes, a tool used in various health
professions, research institutes, and Universities to magnify small
objects that are difficult to see with the naked eye. The intension is
tot let you have a better understanding of the microscopes and their
uses.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
• appreciate the use of microscopes
• describe the structure and functions of microscopes
• develop the skills, for focusing objects, under a microscope.
• handle and take care of a microscope

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3.0 MAIN CONTENCT

3.1 CLASS OF MICROSCOPE

There two kinds of microscopes that you can identify in any

laboratory. They are the simple and compound microscopes
magnify an object directly, and on the other hand, compound
microscopes magnify an object, and show the objects in their
reverse position. You can observe that what is left in the image is
right in the object when moving the slide in a certain direction.

3.2 TYPES OF MICROSCOPES

There are many types of microscopes that you can find in the
market today. All you need to do is to determine what it is used for.
The different types of microscopes and their basic functions are as
listed below.
• Complex Compound Microscope: Light or optical types of
complex compound microscopes combines objective, eyepiece
lenses, and light condemner lens and magnify the image of
small objects (Fig1.1)

CC

Fig. 1.1 :Complex compound (CC) microscope with Condenser Chamber. (Photo from
Bup Oyesiku Bryolab, 2011)
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• Simple Compound Microscope. A simple compound

miacroscope is similar to complex compound microscope in
function. However, the difference is that a simple compound
microscope, is most used to magnifying objects generally. It
has no light condenser attached beneath the stage as
compared to complex compound microscope. (Fig 1.2)

Fig.1.2 Simple compound microscope without condenser lens beneath the stage. (Photo
from Bup Oyesiku Bryolab, 2011)

• Simple Magnifying Lens: The simplest light microscope is the

magnifying lens (Fig 1.3). It is usually hand held. It magnifies
object and usually useful for field work.

Fig1.3: Simple Magnifying Lens (Photo from Bup Oyesiku Bryolab, 2011)
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Stereo / Dissecting Microscope: A stereo or dissecting

microscope, combines two objectives lenses, and two eyepieces
to view an object. When you use this microscope, you will see
three-dimensional images of the object on the stage. (Fig 1.4)

Fig 1.4 Stereo microscope (Photo Bup Oyesiku Bryolab, 2011)

• Fluorescence Microscopes: Fluorescence microscope is a special

microscope that uses fluorescence and phosphorescence lights
to view samples and determine their properties.
• Electron Microscope: An electron microscope is one of the most
sophisticated types of microscopes with highest magnification
(10,000X – 2,000,000X). Electrons used to illuminate the
smallest particles, which passed through magnetic field onto a
photographic film. When the film is developed magnified
images of the particles appears. We have two types, the
Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM), and Scanning
Electron Microscope (SEM). Fig 1.5. They are useful for
bacteria and studies on Viruses etc.

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Fig 1.5: Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)(Photo Bup Oyesiku Bryolab,

2011)

• Digital Microscope: A digital microscope you will see in Fig 1.6

has a digital cameral attached to it and connected to a
computer screen to view the object directly. It has the
advantages of taking the picture of the object as well.

Fig. 1.6: Digital Microscope with USB connector (Photo from Bup
Oyesiku Bryolab, 2011)

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• Digital Imager Microscope: This imager microscope (Fig 1.7) is a

type of digital video capturing microscope you mount on
compound microscope, and connect with USB or AV cable to
record the activities of mobile specimens

Fig 1.7; Digital Imager Microscope (Photo from Bup Oyesiku

3.3 LIGHT MICROSCOPY AND FUNCTIONS

You have learnt above, the types of microscopes that require visible
light to detect small objects as a well-used research tool in biology.
Yet, many of you are unaware of the important features available in
these microscopes. For you to use light microscope efficiently, you
need to understand the basic microscopy: bright field, dark field, in
addition, phase contrast, and oil immersion. When you use any of
these fields, you should consider the following; Contrast, Focal
Plane, Resolution, and Recognition (CFRR) of the sample when you
see it. You should also note that the oil immersion objective (1000x)
called “wet” objective, and other lower objectives (400x, 100, and
50x) called “dry” objectives.

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• Bright field microscopy: In bright field microscope, light

source is from below the stage. Light travels through the
specimen, through the objective lens to your eye through the
eyepiece. The microscope controls over the intensity and shape of
the light to give an image you see. Bright field microscope gives
you best images of stained specimens, naturally pigmented, or
living photosynthetic organisms. You should know here that
bright field microscope is best used for stained specimens.

• Phase contrast microscopy: Most of the detail of the

transparent living cells is detectable in phase contrast
microscopy. However, insufficient contrast between structures
with similar transparency may occur. You should know that
each transparent structure has a tendency to bend light,
providing an opportunity to distinguish them.

This translates to mean the reduction in appearance of a

structure depends on the refractive index. Highly refractive
structure, bend light at much greater angle than do structure
with low refractive index.

Phase contrast is better than bright field microscopy when the

specimen is transparent and high magnifications (400x,
1000x) are required. The health professions and in some
university programmes use phase contrast microscopy in
teaching.

• Dark field microscopy: Dark filed microscopy is a cheaper

alternative to phase contrast microscopy. The resolution and

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contrast obtained with the dark field is superior to what you

will get from phase contrast, it is important for you to know
that in dark field, reflected light from particles on the slide
passes through combined lenses (i. e. objectives and eyepieces)
to your eye. While phase contrast transmits refracted light
through specimen on your slide to your eye. To get a dark field
effect you need to place an opaque disc underneath the
condenser lens of a bright field microscope; so only external
light source (from side of stage or above it) that is scattered by
the object on the slide reaches the eye. Any time you want to
view specimens in liquid sample, dark field (100X) is best.

• Oil immersion microscopy: In microbiology lab, you use oil

immersion microscopy to observe stained smears of mixed
bacteria. You use immersion oil designed especially for oil
immersion microscopy. Oil immersion lens is essential for
viewing individual bacteria or detail of fixed specimens. To use an
immersion lens, you first focus the area of specimen to be
observed with the high and dry (400x) lens. Next, you place a
drop of immersion oil on the cover slip. Click in the immersion
lens, and bring the lens down the stage nearly touching the cover
slip, while looking from the side. Then you focus by moving the
lens up away from the slide until you hit the focal plane to see
clear image.

3.4 PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF A MODERN MICROSCOPE

Before you buy or use a microscope, it is important to know the

parts and the functions of each one. The parts of a typical

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modern complex compound microscope are described below (Fig

1.8)

Eyepiece (EP): The eyepiece lens is attached to the top of the tube
you are looking at in Fig 1.8. The eyepieces standard lens powers
are 5X or 10X of 15X or 16X.

Revolving nosepiece (RN): This moveable part house two or more

objectives lenses.

EP

RN
AR NP

CL
SC
SH ST
RS DN
FK
IL
CM
BA

PC

IC PS

Fig 1.8: Modern Complex Compound Microscope with condenser lens beneath
the stage (Photo from Bup Oyesiku Bryolab, 2011)

Nosepiece (NP): You often find three or four objective lenses on a

nosepiece with 4X, 5X, 10X, 40X, 100X powers. The low powers
(4X, 5X, 10X, 40X) are called “dry” scan objectives. Power 100X
forms the oil immersion. You should note that the shortest lens
has the lowest power; the longest one has the highest power.

Condenser Lens (CL): You may use CL to focus light onto the
specimen on your microscope stage. You need to use it most at a
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higher powers (40X and 100X) to give you a sharper image than
those microscopes without CL. Your CL adjusting knob is located
on the other side of your microscope to move the CL up and
down to focus a good quality images. The CL rated at 0.65 – 1.25
will give you maximum benefit if you operate your microscope at
40X and 100X objective powers. You should set very close to the
slide at 100X and further down away at the lower powers.

Stage (ST): The flat plate where you place your slide for viewing.

Diaphragm Knob (DN): This knob controls the disc directly above
the CL. You may use the DN to vary the amount and size of cone
light reaching the slide from below.

No rule of thumb as to setting you should use for a particular

power. The setting is a function of transparency of specimen,
contrast, and objective lens in use.

Illuminator (IL): A lighting source used in place of a mirror

Base (BA): The bottom of the microscope use for support and
house the power source, fuse and illuminator.

Power Switch (PS): This switch controls light supply to the

microscope

Illumination Control: This bar control the amount of light passing

through the illuminator condenser.

Power Cable (PC): This wire connects to the power source to

provide light to the microscope through the illuminator (IL)
Condenser Mover (CM): A knob you use to move the condenser up
or down, to attain a good quality of light.
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Focus Knobs (FN): Knobs that make rough and fine adjustments
to be focused. You have two knobs on a m microscope, large
knob is for coarse focus, and the small one is for fine focus.

The latter is used at a higher power objective. FN moves the stage

up and down when you turn the knobs.

Rack Stop (RS): You may use this knob to lock the stage level
after adjusting how close the objective lens can get to the slide.
You do this to avoid making the high power objective lens down
into the slide and break it! It is often set at the factory.

Stage Holder (SH): Seat on which the stage is resting, connect it

with me FK knob, which in turn move the stage up or down when
you turn the FK knob.

Stage Clip (SC): The stage clip holds the slide in place.

Arm (AR): It attaches the eyepieces and the objectives to the base.
Stage and Slide Mover: Stage mover knob (big upper knob) is
used to move the stage forward or backward to position the best
quality specimen. While, the small lower knob moves the slide to
either left or right to position the best specimen for view (Look at
the other side of your microscope for the combined knobs).

3.5 OPERATING THE MICROSCOPE

Now that you are conversant with the microscopes and their parts
let us now consider the operation of the microscope. The proper way
to operate your microscope is to start t focus with the lowest power
objective lens (OB) while you look through the side and move the
lens down as close to the slide without touching it. Next, you look
through the eyepiece lens and focus upward only until the image is

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sharp. If you cannot get it in focus, repeat the process over. When
you have a sharp image at low power lens, you turn the revolving
nosepiece (RN) to click the next higher power lens and do a minor
adjustments with the fine focus knob. Continue with subsequent
objective lenses and fine focusing each time.

3.6 HANDLING AND CARE OF THE MICROSCOPE

It is important at this stage to know that a good quality microscope
is unbelievably expensive! Therefore, you must observe the general
procedures and precautions when handling your microscope.

1. Always carry your microscope with one hand on the Arm (AR)
and one hand on the Base (BA), and close to your body.
2. Plug the microscope in and place excess wire on the table.
3. Always start and end focusing with low power Objectives lens
(OB)
4. Always make sure the stage and lenses are clean before you put
away the microscope.
5. Always use good quality lens tissue to clean before you put away
the microscope.
6. Always cover your microscope with a dust jacket when not in
use.

4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have learnt about the types of microscopes in the
laboratory, their component parts and uses. You have also been
provided with sufficient information on the skills needed for the
manipulation, handling and care of the microscope.

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5.0 SUMMARY
Microscopes are special lenses designed to magnify small objects
that are difficult to see with the naked eyes. There are many types
of microscope; simple, component, stereo dissecting, fluorescence
digital and electron. The type you will chose to use at any time will
depend on the type of study you want to carry out and the size of
object you want to examine. Since microscopes are fragile and
expensive equipment, care must be taken in their handling and
protection.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS (TMA)

1. List the kinds of microscopes you have learnt in this unit.
2. Distinguish between a compound and a simple microscope in
relation to object they magnify.

7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READINGS

Caprette, D. R. (2005). Experimental Biosciences, Introductory
laboratoty-BIO211.
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/methods/microscopy/microscopy/html
Microbus (2007). The microscope , parts and specifications.
http://www/microscope- microscope.org/basic/microscope-
parts/htm.
Microscope. (2007). Kind of microscopes.
http//www.microscope station.com

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UNIT 2: PREPARATION OF MICROSCOPE SLIDES

CONTENT

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Preparation of Slides

Temporary Preparation

Permanent Preparation

Use of Stains

3.2 Labelling of slides

3.3 Storage of Prepared slides
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit you will be introduced to the terminology used in slide
making, and you will also learn about a variety of techniques which
will enable you to make slides. Similar techniques are widely and
routinely used in biological laboratories in schools, colleges,
research institutions as well as in hospital pathology labs to
examine tissues and micro-organisms and to look at chromosomes.

This unit has been designed to introduce you to the care and
preparation of microscope slides.

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2.0 OBJECTIVES
After completing the study of this unit you should be able to:
1. describe some simple techniques for slide preparation.
2. distinguish between temporary and permanent slide
preparations.
3. describe the use of stains in slide preparations
4. describe how slides are labeled and stored

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 PREPARATION OF SLIDES

Slides making is an important part of many areas of biological,

medical, veterinary and forensic sciences and you will often be
required to prepare different kinds of slides in-house. Specimens
may be smears of fluids, thin sections or whole mounts of all or
part of an organ or organisms. In all cases the material is mounted
on a glass slide prior to its examination.

Two main types of preparation are used:

1. Temporary and
2. Permanent

Temporary preparations are examined and then discarded, usually

on the same day; whereas permanent preparations may remain in
good condition for years. The techniques involved in preparation are
described here.

a. Temporary Preparations

These preparations may be needed for matter of minutes or hours

only. They are mounted in water or dilute 1, 2, 3-propanetriol

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(glycerol) or other fluid of low volatility. After examination they are

discarded.

The procedure is as shown in Fig. 2.1

Fig 2.1: The technique for lowering the cover slip over the slide.

The material under examination can be fixed and stained or even

examined in a living state, for example protozoa such as amoeba. In
this case a harmless aqueous stain such as 1% methylene blue can
be used – it would then be known as a “vital stain”.

If it is necessary to keep the slide for a matter of hours it is possible

to reduce evaporative losses from the edges of the cover-glass by
painting a ring of gum or molten wax or nail polish around its edge.

It is always desirable to use a cover-glass over your temporary

preparation. If it is omitted, the curvature of the drop of liquid in
which the objects is mounted causes optical distortions. An
additional problem is the danger of contaminating your
microscope’s objectives lenses.

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The preparation of stained specimens for microscopical study either

temporary or permanent generally involves the following three
processes (additional processes are used in making permanent
preparations).

(1) Fixation
For fresh tissues, the main aim of fixation is to kill tissues
rapidly by precipitating proteins. This minimizes post-mortem
changes. The reagent used is called a fixative; the most
commonly used being 70% alcohol. Other common fixatives
are Bouin fluid and formalin. Different fixative are used
depending on the nature of the tissue whether soft of hard.
Tissues should be washed well after fixation, using the same
solvent as the stain, in order to remove all traces of the
fixative. If this is not done, tissues may not stain properly and
some types of fixative may crystallize out (fixation is not
necessary if the material is already preserved).
(2) Staining
The object of staining is to accentuate the distinction between
the different components of a tissue or organ.
(3) Mounting
Mounting media employed for temporary preparations include
water and 1, 2, 3-propanetriol (glycerol) 30%-50% aqueous
solution.
b. Permanent Preparation
If the slide is to be kept for long-term reference, for days or even
years, it must be made as a permanent preparation. This is
achieved by:

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1. Dehydrating the specimen after staining (usually with a

graded series of alcohols);
2. Clearing it – treating it with a solvent that is mutual soluble
between alcohol and the mounting medium [traditionally clove
oil or 1-2 dimethylbenzene (xylene); and
3. Mounting it under a coverglass in a preservative which dries
hard and has a refractive index similar to glass, e.g. Canada
balsam or Euparal or DPX mountant which gets dries up
easily as opposed to Canada balsam which takes longer time.

The making of a permanent stained preparation mounted in

Canada balsam involves five process:

(i) Fixation (ii) Staining (iii) Dehydration,

(iv) Clearing, and (v) Mounting

Fixation and staining have already been mentioned in the earlier

sub-section and the purpose of dehydration, clearing and
permanent mounting is outlined below.

1. Dehydration
The purpose of dehydration, i.e. the removal of water, is to allow
complete infiltration of tissues with Canada balsam. Unless all
traces of water are removed, infiltration is incomplete, the tissues
appear opaque and bacterial decay ultimately sets in.

If carried out too rapidly, dehydration causes distortion and

shrinkage, especially of delicate tissues, by setting up violent
diffusion currents. It should therefore be done gradually and
sufficient time allowed for the complete extraction of water.
Dehydration is commonly effected by the passage of the stained

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specimen or slide through successively stronger solutions of

ethanol (ethyl alcohol) ending with immersion in absolute alcohol
100% ethanol (2 changes).

CAUTION: Alcohol is a highly flammable material. Adequate

ventilation and no naked flames are essential safely precautions.

2. Clearing
Where the dehydrating agent is immiscible with the mounting
medium, it is necessary to introduce an intermediate fluid that is
miscible with both. Such as fluid is known as a clearing agent.
The purpose of clearing is to remove all traces of alcohol, thus
allowing the tissues to be infiltrated with the Canada balsam or
other mountant. Examples of clearing agents are1, 2-
dimethylbenzene (xylem) for small soft tissues; clove oil and cedar-
wood oil for thick tissues. Incomplete dehydration is indicated by
cloudiness in the clearing agent and the slide should be returned
to absolute alcohol. Toluene is another good clearing agent but it
is a bit costly.
3. Mounting
Permanent preparations are obtained by enclosing tissues in solid,
resiniferous media such as Canada balsam/DPX. After the tissues
have been cleared, they are mounted in a semi-fluid 1, 2-
dimethylbenzene (xylem) balsam mixture. The 1,2-
dimethylbenzene (xylem) subsequently evaporates and the balsam
hardens. However, there are some disadvantages of using this
mountant. Xylem is inflammable and toxic; the drying process is
prolonged and this mountant discolours with time. It is
advantageous to use DPX because it dries up easily. To hasten the

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process of drying up, slides may be kept in oven at lower

temperature for sometime.

Use of Stains
A great variety of stains are in common use. In all cases the aim is
to give different parts of the specimen different colours and colour
density and hence increase optical contrast between them. Two
different staining methods are in common usage.

1. Progressive staining: The involves leaving a tissues in the stain

until nuclei, for example, are deeply stained and cytoplasm is
only faintly stained. It is good plan to dilute the stain beforehand.
2. Retrogressive (regressive) staining: This entails deliberate, over-
staining followed by destaining which results in differentiation.
Best results are obtained when overstaining is prolonged. This
method depends on differential rates of stain extraction. For
example, acid alcohol removes haematoxylin (haemathoxylin is a
nuclear stem that stains only the nucleus) more rapidly from the
cytoplasm than the nuclei.
Other important aspects of staining procedures are as follows.
1. Stains may be used singly or in combination i.e.
counterstaining
2. The use of two stains together is known as double staining
3. Stains used in combination should be complementary in
colour, e.g. light green and safranin (green and red) used in
plant tissue staining.

Stains are either general or specific. A general stain, e. g. borax

carmine, stains all parts of a tissue usually in different densities or
shades of the same colour. A specific stain acts on one or more
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components of a tissue or organ in a selective manner, e.g. safranin

stains lignified plant cell walls red.

3.2 LABELLING OF SLIDES

Slides act as a permanent record of tissues, organs and specimens.

They may be of pathological origin, e.g. hospital patients, purchased
material, prepared “in house”, etc. In all cases it is essential that
the slide is properly indentified by adequate labelling.

Labels should therefore carry the following information:

1. The name of the organism – if the whole organism is mounted

then the slide can be marked WM=whole mount or E=entire
2. The part of the organism used, e.g. liver, root.
3. The type of preparation, e.g. smear; squash; TS = transverse
section; VS = vertical section; LS = longitudinal section.

The following information is desirable but not essential;

4. Stains(s) used, e.g. H.E. = haematoxylin/eosin.

If the slide is prepared “in house” then if should be:

5. Dated
6. Signed.

It is common to use two labels, one on each end. Self-adhesive or

gummed slide labels pre-printed with lines are available from lab
suppliers – alternatively use ordinary self-adhesive or gummed
labels. You will find it easier to write the label before you stick it on
the slide. If the label is gummed (rather than self-adhesive) you
must not lick it but use a wet sponge.

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3.3 STORAGE OF PREPARED SLIDES

Prepared permanent slides are valuable. Even mass-produced slides

are expensive these days at least from lab suppliers. They are
widely used by educational establishments in the teaching of
histology (the study of tissues of plants and animals) and cytology
(the study of cells). Slides which are individually prepared ‘in house’
may represent the investment of considerable time and care of the
part of the person who made them. In some cases the preparation
may be uniquely valuable. It could for example be an important
reference slide or a slide of the diseased tissues of a hospital
patient.

So the message is clear – take great care of prepared slides. The

following is a short list of some important pointers towards good
practice.

1. Freshly prepared permanent slides must be stored flat until the

mountant has hardened.
2. Special thermostatically controlled warming plates are available,
but alternatively an incubator may be used.
3. Once the mountant is hard the slide may be stored flat in a card
tray or upright in a slotted box or cabinet drawer.

4.0 CONCLUSION
Slide preparation is an essential component of biological and
medical research. It proceeds the observation of the specimens
under the microscope.
Slides could be prepared either for temporary or permanent use.
Prepared slides must be properly labeled for identification and
stored.
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5.0 SUMMARY
The important points to note in this unit are:
• Slides of biological / medical specimens can be prepared in
the laboratory.
• Slides are either prepared for temporary or permanent usage.
• Appropriate stains are used for specimens to reveal their
structures in details,
• Slides are viewed under the microscope to reveal their details
and
• Prepared slides must be properly labeled and stored.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Describe briefly how slides are prepared.
2. Differentiate between progressive and regressive staining.
7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READING
Adebanjo Afolabi. (1995). Science: History, Philosophy and
Importance to manking. 112p. AKOL Press Ltd. Ibadan,
Nigeria
IGNOU. (1996) Indira Gaandhi National Open University.
Laboratory Techniques in Biology.

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Unit 3: DISSECTION GUIDE

CONTENT

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Preparation for Dissection
3.2 Procuring Animals
3.3 Anaesthesizing the Animals
3.4 Theoretical Knowledge
3.5 Setting up Dissection Trays
3.6 Pithing
3.7 Flag labeling
3.8 Safe Disposal of Dissected Animals
3.9 General Instructions for Dissection
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Dissection is a major component of the biology practical. The
meaning of dissection is to cut open the animal in order to ascertain
the structure of its parts, so as to define their boundaries and
display clearly their mutual relations. Dissection consists mainly in
removing the connective tissue which binds the several parts
together. Dissection requires lots of preparations before hand.

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In this unity you are also provided with some dissecting guide to
help you through some dissections.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After doing this experiment you should be able to:
• prepare dissection trays/petriplates
• use the dissection guides provided
• anaesthesize the animals correctly,
• dispose dissected animals safely.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Preparation for Dissection

Materials Required

Dissection trays

Petridishes

Dissection kit

Chloroform

Ethane

Formalin

Urethane

Microscope

Table lamp

Animals

Procedure
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In schools, colleges and universities, dissection of chordates/non-

chordates is one of the major practical. A lab technician has to
perform several tasks before and after dissection.

3.2 Procuring Animals

Orders for animals should be placed with an animal supplier
according to the number of students in a class. This exercise should
be done two-three days before dissection is to be performed.

1.1 Anaesthesizing the Animals

Before dissection, animals are given anaesthesia. Chloroform and
ether are used as anaesthesing agents. Rats, frogs and pigeons are
generally freshly chloroformed for the dissection, though for some of
the dissections e. g. cranial nerves in rat and internal ear in frog,
preserved specimens are required. Similarly scoliodon is also
preserved after anaesthesizing them. Preservatives commonly used
are formalin (5% or 8% or 10%) and 70% alcohol.

3.4 Theoretical Knowledge

Keep a well-labelled diagram of the dissection to be done in the

classroom. You should have some theoretical knowledge of the
dissection to be performed e.g. if students have to dissect male or
female reproductive organs of rat, frog or other animals, then you
should be able to differentiate them morphologically, just by looking
at them externally.

3.5 Setting up of dissection Trays

Large animals like frog, rat, fish, pila, leech and other animals are
dissected in dissection trays whereas small animals such as
cockroach and small insects can be dissected in petriplates.
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It should be seen that wax is spread over trays uniformly and water
does not drip form the trays. The trays should be half filled with
water so that the animal can be fully immersed in it. The trays
should not be completely filled with water.

One set of dissection kit dissection tray, a microscope and a table

lamp should be arranged for the teacher/instructor. Similar sets
should be arranged for students. It should be seen that dissection
instruments are clean and sharp.

Water should be kept clean in the dissection tray during dissection

by changing it whenever it is stained with blood etc.; so that
visibility remains the same. If any animal is bleeding profusely,
alcohol dipped cotton should be applied to the affected organ blood
vessel. See that every waste of dissection is put in the petridish. It
should not be thrown carelessly on the top of table or lab floor.

3.6 Pithing
Some of the experiments like muscle twitch and heart profusion in
frog do not require chloroform-anaesthetized animals. Before
dissection is started, you have to anesthetise the frog by injecting
2.5 ml of 20% urethane intramuscularly. This would quieten the
frog. Alternatively you could immobilize the frog by pithing. You
have learnt how to pith a frog in your BIO 191. Check this out if
you have forgotten the method.

3.7 Flag Labeling

Frequently, the students are asked to dissect some organs, blood
vessels or nerves etc. and flag label them. For flag labeling, small

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pieces of paper (2.5 x0.7 cm) are prepared and a needle is passed
through each close to one end.

The names of organs, blood vessels or nerves are written on these

flags and each flag is inserted in the dissecting trays close to the
organ, blood vessel or nerve bearing the name on the flag.
Some of the dissections require black-papering. You have to cut
black paper into small and thin strips which can be inserted
underneath blood vessels and nerves.

3.8 Safe Disposal of Dissected Animals

You have already studied in Unit 4 and Exercise 13 of LT – 1 course
that the dissected animals should be buried deep in the soil. Simply
placing the material in a plastic bag and putting it in the dustbin is
not good enough.

3.9 General Rule of Dissection.

As you have learnt earlier in this unit, you need to give some
anaesthesia to animals before you dissect them. The common
anaesthesia used in the biology laboratory and chloroform and
ether. For rats, frogs and pigeons, it is better to dissect them
immediately after anaesthesia.

However, certain studies for example, of the nervous system are

better done with preserved animals. Formalin (5%, 8% or 10%) and
70% alcohol are the common laboratory preservatives. It is usually
better to do dissection after you have done the theoretical studies.

Opening Up
Invertebrates are better opened up from their dorsal side while
vertebrates from their ventral side. In both cases, you pick the skin
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up with a pair of forceps (if the animal is big), if it is small, you will
have to hold the animal with your left hand while with a pair of
scissors you make your incision with the right hand on the mid-line
of the animal with the scissors pointing upwards to avoid damage to
lower internal structures. This incision should go along the line of
the animal as much as possible. Then make side slits in the same
manner, with the scissors pointing upwards to avoid damage to
underlying tissues.

With the scapel, gently scrape the inside layer of the skin to
separate skin from the underlying tissues by cutting through
subcutaneous tissue. Once the skin has been removed the animal
must be laid down (even if it is small) and pinned securely to the
dissecting board. It is important to pin specimen securely to the
dissecting board. It is important to pin specimen securely down so
that both hands will be free for use. Seekers could then be used to
probe parts, when other walls have to be opened up to reach
internal organs, the same cautions as we took for opening up the
skill will apply.

You have to be very gently in dissecting so as to avoid damage to

internal organs. If the dissection involves cutting through tissues
(especially blood vessels) then you must take steps to ensure that
the blood flow or the contents of the cut tissues or organs do not
interfere with your studies. Usually, you may have to wash, and
soak away blood with cotton wool or blotting paper.

4.0 CONCLUSION

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In this unit, you have learnt about the materials required for
dissection; the anaesthesizing agents; dissection proper, the
precautions you must take and safe disposal of used animals.

5.0 SUMAMRY

• Dissection generally is a complex exercise

• It requires patience
• It also requires a sound theoretical knowledge of the animal to
be dissected for easy location of organs/structures.
• Dissection is done in dissection trays using kits
• Dissection animals must be buried properly

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Describe the process of setting up a dissection tray in the

laboratory.

2. What are the rules one should observe in the process of

carrying out dissection?

7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READING

Beril, N. (1979): Biology in Action London, Hainemann Edicational

Books Ltd

Soper, R. (Ed) Biology Sciences Cambridge U. K., Cambridge Press

Stone, R. N. Cozens, A. B. Emia, F. I. (1972), New Biology for

Tropical Schools, Longman Group Ltd

MODULE 2
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Unit 1: MICROTOMY AND HAND SECTIONING

CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Microtomes

3.1.1 Rocking

Rotary
Sledge
Freezing
3.1.2 Microtome Knives
3.1.3 Hand Cut sections (hand sectioning)
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Biology owes much to the allied sciences of chemistry and physics
for the development of new tools and techniques. In this unity you
will study about the equipment which is necessary for a biology lab.
You should keep in mind that mastery of simple apparatus is a
prerequisite for work with more advanced equipment. Some
equipment, which are mostly used in chemistry and physics, has
merely been referred to and you will study them in detail in
respective courses.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

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After studying this unit you will be able to:

• describe various types of microtomes, their working and use .
• list the microtome knives and describe its working.
• describe hand cut sections

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 MICROTOMES

You will come across microtomes in a biology lab. The mechanical

cutting of plant/animal materials are done by the aid of microtomes
and the process is commonly known as microtomy.

Mircrotomes can be divided into four basic groups:

1) Rocking
2) Rotary
3) Sledge (sliding)
4) Freezing

All microtomes, however, have a few things in common; all have a

means of holding a block, the chuck; all have a knife past which the
chuck can be moved in order to cut the block, and all have a
mechanism by which the chuck can be advanced micron by micron,
or in some cases by sub-micron steps, towards the blade. The blade
in all types is angled with respect to the chuck, and that angle may
be varied.

1. Rocking Microtomes
The commonest rocking microtome is called a Cambridge Rocker.
(Fig 2.1) is a basic diagram. The mechanism of the microtome is
mounted on a heavy cast iron base which helps to reduce

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vibrations by providing an inertial ‘sink’ and thus keeping all the

fixed points truly fixed.

Fig. 2.1: The Cambridge rocking microtome.

The block for sectioning is fixed to the chuck which is rocked up

and down about the pivot by the action of the pawl lever on the
arm. With each rocking movement the chuck passes the knife
which is only a little heavier than a cut throat razor, and which
has its cutting edge upward and a slide from the block on the
downward stroke. On the upward stroke the pawl itself is
engaged and moves the chuck forward by and amount which can
be varied between two and twenty microns in two micron steps,
by means of the screw. The downward stroke is neutral.

There are other rocking microtomes, but all such instruments

suffer from the same disadvantage, namely that the section is
necessarily curved since the chuck moves in an arc. For many
purposes this is unimportant but it would not do for an
embryological specimen, for example, where the juxtaposition of
groups of developing cells might be critical, or for making serial
sections of animals to ascertain the position and extent of the
internal organs. A rocking microtome is generally best for cutting
sections thicker than six microns.
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2. Rotary Microtomes
Rotary Microtomes are larger and heavier instruments even more
heavily damped to prevent vibrations and are surely capable of
making thinner sections than the rocking variety. They are much
more expensive. The pass, made past the much heavier knife by
the chuck, is straight and relatively fast and is succeeded by a
return upward stroke during which the chuck is advanced. A
basic diagram of the machine can be seen in (Fig 2.2) which
shows the flywheel used to keep sections flowing from the knife
by smoothing out the action. Rotary microtomes enable sections
of 5 microns thickness to be cut.

Fig. 2.2: The Rotary Microtome.

3. Sledge Microtomes
The sledge microtome is a devise which may weigh as much as
fifty kilograms, and consists of a heavy base into which are
machined flat tracks on which the chuck sledge slides. The
chuck holds the block with the surface to be cut uppermost. The
chuck slides past a very heavy blade which is held horizontally
on mountings which are bolted to, or drawn from, the base. (Fig
2.3) shows the basic diagram but can convey little of the weight
of the machine. Each section is cut by a movement of the sledge
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past the blade and the return stroke advances the chuck.
Various devices may be attached to sledge microtomes among
which are chuck stages for the sectioning of small entire animals.
Sledge microtomes are damped extremely well and may be used
to cut sections down to two or three microns.

Fig 2.3: A sledge microtome.

4. The Freezing Microtome

The only other type of microtome of interest here is the freezing
microtome. This device usually has a wedge blade and the
instrument is unusual as the blade is moved past the fixed
chuck rather than the other way around. Fresh tissue to be
sectioned is placed on the hollow chuck, and carbon dioxide gas
passed rapidly through the chuck under pressure from a
cylinder. The expanding CO2 is sprayed on the tissue from above,
and on the blade to cool it.
The cold blade is passed through the frozen tissue and the single
sections removed with a cooled section lifter or forceps to be
floated in water. Such microtomes are sometimes mounted in
chilled cabinets to make working with them easier. It is now
possible to cut frozen sections using freezer aerosols instead of

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CO2 and freezing chucks are made which are electrically cooled
by means of Peltier cells.

Microtomes of all kinds should be cleaned of wax after use,

possibly by using a little xylene or less harmful solvent, and any
parts liable to rust should be wiped with a little thin oil. The
action should be examined and lubricated where necessary and
any soiled paintwork cleaned. The cover should always be on if
the machine is not in use, but should be removed regularly for
examination during periods of prolonged idleness.

3.1.2 MICROTOME KNIVES

There are three basic cross sectional shapes of knives, wedge,
plano-concave and double concave, all of which are shown in (Fig
2.4).

Fig 2.4: Microtome Knives

The plane wedge knife is generally, though not exclusively used
for cutting frozen sections, and plano-concave knives are often
used for sectioning soft materials such as celloidin embedded
tissues. Botanical sectioning razors are generally plano-convex.

The best knives for the cutting of paraffin blocks are the double
concave type, which should be of a heavy pattern cross-section to
prevent vibration, i.e. the taper should be short and the base
wide.
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Blades are designed to undertake particular jobs, but

microtomists are essentially experimentalists at heart and often
use them for other purposes than those for which they were
intended. Thus anything that we say about the uses of blades
may be contradicted by someone else’s experience. Nevertheless,
there are certain things about microtome blades which are
unalterable: for instance, a blunt one won’t cut! Blades should be
treated not only as dangerous but as delicate. The weighty hunk
of stainless steel which is a microtome blade has been made with
the precision of a Swiss watch and for section cutting its edge
should look perfect when viewed under a microscope at about
fifty times. This is how they come from the manufacturer! The job
of a microtomist is to keep it that way.

3.1.3 HAND CUT SECTIONS (HAND SECTIONINGS)

Some tissue like plant stems, roots, cartilage in animals are firm
enough to be held in the hand directly or supported in a matrix
while cutting a section. The traditional supporting matrix for young
stems and roots and also leaves that are soft is pith. A recent
substitute (which you can easily obtain) is expanded polystyrene
such as that used in packaging or insulating materials. In use, the
plant specimen is sandwiched between two rods of polystyrene (in
which grooves may be cut to receive it) or pith which could be strips
of pumpkin or banana stem or potato. The support is sectioned
along with the specimen and they are then separated by flotation in
water or preservative. The aim is to obtain thin slices of the
specimen, preferably only one cell thick. Very skilled workers may be
able to cut the complete section to the correct thickness. It is usual,
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however, to cut wedge-shaped slices so that at least some part of

the section is of correct thickness (see Fig 2.5)

Fig 2.5: Sectioned wedges.

The single hollowground botanical razor is the ideal instrument for
cutting sections. However, it is difficult to sharpen the blade
adequately. A satisfactory substitute is a single-edged disposable
razor blade. The length and size of the botanical razor makes it
easier to use than the small disposable blades.
Such sections are then floated on water if the specimen is fresh or
in 70% alcohol if the material is preserved. The thinnest sections
are selected and stained in aniline sulphate or aniline chloride and
mounted in dilute glycerol. If the slide has to be preserved for future
use then the sections are stained, dehydrated, cleared and mounted
in Canada balsam or any other suitable mountant.

4.0 CONCLUSION
Microtomes as instruments used for cutting plants or animals in
the laboratory. There are four basic types of microtomes and the
one you were to use will depend on the specimen / material you
want to cut.

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5.0 SUMMARY

The important points to note in this unit are:

• Microtomy is the mechanical cutting of plant / animal materials in

the laboratory.
• The Rocking, Rotary, Sledge / Sliding and the Freezing are the four
basic groups of microtomes.
• The actual cutting is done with microtome knives or sharp razor
blades.
• The shape of knives are wedge, plano-concave and double concave.
• The purpose of sectioning in the lab is to get a thin section of the
object preferably only one cut thick for microscopic viewing.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Fill in the blank.

1. For ………………..………..sections cutting from rocking

microtomes is not advisable
2. A rocking microtome generally cuts section thicker than
………………………
3. A rotatory microtome an cut the sections of
………………………thickness.
4. In freezing microtome ……………….gas is sprayed on the tissues.
5. All the microtomes should be cleaned with ……………………………
or with some less harmful …………………………..

7.0 REFERENCES

IGNOU. (2005). Indira Gandhi Open University.

Laboratory Course 3.
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BIO 204 BIOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES

UNIT 2: PHOTOMETRY
CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Photometry and the Eye
3.2 Photometric quantities
3.3 Photometric versus Radiometric Quantities
3.4 Watts versus Lumens
3.5 Photometric Measurement Techniques
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Photometry is the science of the measurement of light, in terms of
its perceived brightness to the human eye. It is distinct from
radiometry, which is the science of measurement of radiant energy
(including light) in terms of absolute power; rather, in photometry,
the radiant power at each wavelength is weighted by a luminosity
function (a.k.a. visual sensitivity function) that models human
brightness sensitivity.
Typically, this weighting function is the photopic sensitivity
function, although the scotopic function – and others – may also be
applied in the same way.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you will be able to

• define Photometry

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BIO 204 BIOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES

• explain Photometry with its units of measurement

• compare Photometric and Radiometric quantities
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 PHOTOMETRY AND THE EYE

The human eye is not equally sensitive to all wavelengths of visible

light. Photometry attempts to account for this by weighting the
measured power at each wavelength with a factor that represents
how sensitive the eye is at that wavelength. The standardized model
of the eye’s response to light as a function of wavelength is given by
the luminosity function. Note that the eye has different responses
as a function of wavelength when it is adapted to light conditions
(photopic vision) and dark conditions (scotopic vision). Photometry
is typically based on the eye’s photopic response, and so
photometric measurements may not accurately indicate the
perceived brightness of sources in dim lighting conditions where
colours are not discernible, such as under just moonlight or
starlight.

3.2 PHOTOMETRIC QUANTITIES

Many different units of measure are used for photometric

measurements. People sometimes ask why there is need to be so
many different units, or ask for conversions between units that
can’t be converted (lumens and candelas, for example). We are
familiar with the idea that the adjective “heavy” can refer to weight
or density, which are fundamentally different things. Similarly, the
adjective “bright” can refer to a light source which delivers a high
luminous flux (measured in lumens), or to a light source which
concentrates the luminous flux it has into a very narrow beam
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(candelas), or to a light source that is seen against a dark

background. Because of the ways in which light propagates through
three-dimensional space – spreading out, becoming concentrated,
reflecting off shiny or matter surfaces – and because light consists
of many different wavelengths, the number of fundamentally
different kinds of light measurement that can be made is large, and
so are the numbers of quantities and units that represent them.

Table 2.1: SI Photometry Units

Quantity Symbol SI unit Abbr. Notes

Luminous Qv lumen second lm.s Units are sometimes called
energy talbots
Luminous F lumen(=cd.sr) Lm Also called luminous
flux power
Luminous Iv candela(=lm/sr) cd An SI base unit
intensity
Luminance Lv candela per square Cd/m2 Units are sometimes called
metre “nits”
Illuminance Ev lux (=lm/m2) lx Used for light incident on a
surface
Luminous Mv lux (=lm/m2) lx Used for light emitted
emittance from a surface
Luminous lumen per watt lm/W Ratio of luminous flux to
efficacy radiant flux
SI . Photometry

3.3 PHOTOMETRIC VERSUS RADIOMETRIC QUANTITIES

There are two parallel systems of quantities known as photometric and
radiometric quantities. Every quantity in one system has an analogous
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quantity in the other system. Some examples of parallel quantities

include:

Luminance (photometric) and radiance (radiometric)

Luminous flux (photometric) and radiant flux (radiometric)

Luminous intensity (photometric) and radiant intensity (radiometric)

In photometric quantities every wavelength is weighted according to how

sensitive the human eye is to it, while radiometric quantities use
unweighted absolute power. For example, the eye responds much more
strongly to green light than to red, so a green source will have greater
luminous flux than a red source with the same radiant flux would.
Radiant energy outside the visible spectrum does not contribute to
photometric quantities at all, so for example a 1000 watt space heater
may put out a great deal of radiant flux (1000 watts, in fact), but as a
light source it puts out very few lumens (because most of the energy is in
the infrared, leaving only a dim red glow in the visible).

SI radiometry units

Quantity Symbol SI unit Abbr. Notes

Radiant energy Q joule J energy
Radiant flux Φ watt W radiant energy per unit
time, also called radiant
power
Radiant intensity I watt per steradian W.sr-1 power per unit solid angle
L watt per steradian W.sr-1.m-2 power per unit solid angle per
Radiance per square metre unit projected source area.
called intensity in some other
fields of study.
Irradiance E,I watt per square W.m-2 power incident on a surface.

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metre sometimes confusingly called

“intensity”.
Radiant exitance M watt per square W.m-2 power emitted from a surface
/Radiant emittance metre
Radiosity J or Jλ watt per square W.m-2 Emitted plus reflected power
metre leaving a surface
Lλ watt per steradian
or per metre3
Lv or W.sr-1.m-3 Commonly measured in
Spectral radiance watt per steradian or W.sr-1.m-2 .nm-1
per square metre W.sr-1.m-2.Hz-1
per hertz
Eλ watt per metre3
Spectral irradiance or or W.m-3 Commonly measured in
watt per square Or W.m-2.nm-1
Ev
metre per hertz W.m-2.Hz-1

3.4 WATTS VERSUS LUMENS

Watts are units of radiant flux while lumens are units of luminous flux. A
comparison of the watt and the lumen illustrates the distinction between
radiometric and photometric units.

The watt is a unit of power. We are accustomed to thinking of light bulbs

in terms of power in watts. This power is not a measure of the amount of
light output, but rather indicates how much energy the bulb will use.
Because incandescent bulbs sold for “general service” all have fairly
similar characteristics (same spectral power distribution), power
consumption provides a rough guide to the light output of incandescent
bulbs.

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Watts can also be a direct measure of output. In a radiometric sense, an

incandescent light bulb is about 80% efficient: 20% of the energy is lost
(e.g. by conduction through the lamp base). The remainder is emitted as
radiation, mostly in the infrared. Thus, a 60 watt light bulb emits a total
radiant flux of about 45 watts. Incandescent bulbs are, in fact,
sometimes used as heat sources (as in a chick incubator), but usually
they are used for the purpose of providing light. As such, they are very
inefficient, because most of the radiant energy they emit is invisible
infrared. A compact fluorescent lamp can provide light comparable to a
60 watt incandescent while consuming as little as 15 watts of electricity.

The lumen is the photometric unit of light output. Although most

consumers still think of light in terms of power consumed by the bulb, in
the U. S. it has been a trade requirement for several decades that light
bulb packaging give the output in lumens. The package of a 60 watt
incandescent bulb indicates that it provides about 900 lumens, as does
the 15 watt compact fluorescent.

The lumen is defined as amount of light given into one steradian by a

point source of one candela strength; while the candela, a base SI unit, is
defined as the luminous intensity of a source of monochromatic
radiation, of frequency 540 terahertz, and a radiant intensity of 1/683
watts per steradian. (540 THz corresponds to about 555 nanometres, the
wavelength, in the green, to which the human eye is most sensitive. The
number 1/683 was chosen to make the candela about equal to the
standard candle, the unit which it superseded).

Combining these definitions, we see that 1/683 watt of 555 nanometre

green light provides one lumen.

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The relation between watts and lumens is not just a simple scaling
factor. We know this already, because the 60 watt incandescent bulb and
the 15 watt compact fluorescent can both provide 900 lumens.

3.5 PHOTOMETRIC MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

Photometric measurement is based on photodetectors, devices (of

several types) that produce and electric signal when exposed to
light. Simple applications of this technology include switching
luminaires on and off based on ambient light conditions, and light
meters, used to measure the total amount of light incident on a
point.

More complex forms of photometric measurement are used

frequently within the lighting industry. Spherical photometers can
be used to measure the directional luminous flux produced by
lamps, and consist of a large-diameter globe with a lamp mounted
at its center. A photocell rotates about the lamp in three axes,
measuring the output of the lamp from all sides.

Luminaires (known to laypersons simply as light fixtures) are tested

using goniophotometers and rotating mirror photometers, which
keep the photocell stationary at a sufficient distance that the
luminaire can be considered a point source. Rotating mirror
photometers use a motorized system of mirrors to reflect light
emanating from the luminaire in all directions to the distant
photocell; goniophotometers use a rotating 2-axis table to change
the orientation of the luminaire with respect to the photocell. In
either case, luminous intensity is tabulated from this data and used
in lighting design.

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4.0 CONCLUSION
Photometry is the measurement of light, in terms of its perceived
brightness to the human eye. Many units of measure are used for
photometric measurements.

5.0 SUMMARY
The important points to note in this unit are:
• Photometry is the measurement of light as its perceived
brightness to the human eye.
• The human eye is not equally sensitive to all wavelengths of
visible light
• Photometric and radiometric quantities are the two parallel
systems of calorimetry.
• Watts are units of radiant flux while lumens are units of
luminous flux.
• The watt is a unit of power
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1a. What is Photometry?
b. State two units of measure of light.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Nelken and Parker (1999) Advanced level Physics
Oxford University Press.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/photometry

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UNIT 3: CALORIMETRY
CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Heat and Temperature
3.2 Specific Heat Capacity and Latent Heats
3.3 Experimental Methods of Calorimetry
3.4 Applications
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Calorimetry deals, mainly, with measurement of heat energy. The
term calorimetry, as it were, is made up of two key words, calorie
which, by definition, is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1g of water by 10C and ‘metry’ that is,
measurement (from the word meter which is a device used for
making measurements). You are familiar with the metallic
container usually used for measuring the heat content of
substances in the laboratory called calorimeter. You are also aware
that, although the SI unit of heat is called joule J, some scientists,
such as biologists and nutritionists, still measure heat energy in
calories cal.

Heat is a form of energy that flows from a part of a system or body

to another as a result of the temperature gradient between them.

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Naturally, heat flows from high to low temperature parts of a

system (body).

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you will be able to

• differenciate between specific Heat and Latent heat

• carry out simple experiments on Calorimetry
• discuss simple application of Calorimetry

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

The concepts of heat and temperature are so intricately related that

there is the need to show the distinction between them.

Heat is a form of energy that flows from high to low temperature

parts of a system.
As a form of energy, the SI unit of heat is joule (J). However, there
are other units of heat in common use. One of them is the
calorie(call). One calorie was originally defined as the heat required
in raising the temperature of one gram of water by one degree
Celsus.
1 cal-4.184j exactly
Note that the “calorie” used by the nutritionists is actually the
“kilocalorie” and is denoted Calorie (call)

You already know that temperature is the degree or measure of

hotness or coolness of a body. You are also familiar with the Celsus
temperature scale. The standard SI unit of temperature is the
Kelvin (K). Other older scales such the Fahrenheit (F) are also

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available. Inter-conversions among these scales are easily worked

out.
Temperature is a property of a body that determines the direction of
heat flow in it. Heat naturally flows hot to cold parts of a body.

3.2 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY AND LATENT HEATS.

One of the effects of heat on a body is that when heat flows into a
body, its temperature rises and vice versa. One of the
measurements we will consider in calorimetry is the ability or
capacity of a material to retain or store heat flows into it.
Experimental observation reveals that the capacity of a material to
store heat depends on its mass as well as the arrangement of the
atoms or molecules and the bonding forces that hold them together.
You know that a bucketful of water, which is more massive, will
stores more heat than a cupful of water when both are heated to the
same temperature. Also, a metal block will store less heat than
wooden block of equal dimensions if both are heated to the same
temperature. Different substances require different amounts of heat
to raise temperatures by 10C. The amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of a substance by 10C is proportional to its mass
and the change in temperature.

We define specific capacity as the amount of heat required to raise

the temperature of one kilogramme of a substance by one degree
celsius.

We can measure it as follows:

amount of heat absorbed or given out by a body

Specific heat capacity = in J/kg0C
mass of substances x change in temperature

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Note that for a substance of any mass, we can define the heat or
thermal capacity as thermal capacity = mass of substance x specific
heat capacity in J/oC

Table of the values of specific heat capacity of some substances are

obtaining from standard texts of physics.

As biologists, you will no doubt be interested in the determination

of calorific values of food and other substance using the
calorimetric techniques.

We have looked at the specific hat capacity of substances. We must

note that for a given mass of a substance, all we need to measure in
order to determine its specific heat capacity is the change in
temperature, which we may achieve through calorimetry. We will
now describe another measure of heat which does not involve
change in temperature.

Another effect of heat on a substance is the change of phase or

state. During a change of phase, the heat that flows into or out of a
substance goes to break or make the bonds and the atoms or
molecules are rearranged to give rise to a different state of matter.
Until this process is completed, the temperature of substance does
not change. In other words, the heat that flows into or out of the
body is latent (hidden) since it does not manifest as change in
temperature of the substance. However, the amount of heat that the
body takes in or gives out is measurable in terms of the amount of
the substance converted into a different phase. This also depends
on the nature of the material, that is, on the type and strength of
bonds between its atoms or molecules. The amount of heat required
to change the phase of a substance at constant temperature is
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proportional to its mass. We define the specific latent heat as the

amount of heat required to change/transform one kilogramme of a
substance from one phase to another at constant temperature. We
can measure this as follows:

amount of heat absorbed or given out

Specific latent heat = in J/kg
mass of substances

For solid to liquid transition, we have the specific latent heat of

fusion. Similarly, for liquid to vapour transition, we have the
specific latent heat of vaporizations.
Table of the values of specific latent heats of some substances may
also be obtained from standard texts. We will now proceed to
discuss experimental methods of calorimetry.

3.3 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS OF CALORIMETRY

1. Method of Mixtures and Heat Exchanges
The methods depends on the fact that when a hot object and cold
object are in thermal contact, heat flows from the hot to the cold
object until thermal equilibrium is established, that is, the objects
attain the same temperature. In mathematical notation this
principle can summarized as follows:
Heat lost by the hot object= Heat gained by the cold object
The method assumes that there is no heat exchange between the
mixture and the surrounding. In practice, the mixture will always
be held in a container. Thus, part of the heat lost by the hot object
is used to heat up the container is thermally insulted or lagged from
the surrounding by a poor conductor such as felt or wool. The
figure 2.1 below is the diagram of a calorimeter (a metal cup) used
for the heat exchange experiments.
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Fig 3.1:a, a calorimeter; b, a lagged calorimeter; c, a stirrer and d, a

thermometer
The calorimeter is usually made up of copper, a good conductor so
that it reaches the same temperature as its content as soon as
possible. It is also usually polished inside and outside so as to
reduce loss of heat by radiation. As illustrated in figure 1b, the
calorimeter is placed inside a jacket (a larger container) with the
space between it the jacket filled with layers of lagging material
such as felt or cotton, which is an insulator. This helps to reduce
heat loss by conduction and convection. An insulating lid is used to
cover the calorimeter to prevent evaporation which leads to cooling
and loss of part of the liquid weighed into the calorimeter. The
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stirrer is used to maintain uniform temperature and the

thermometer is used as a sensor to measure the temperature
change of the mixture.
Experiment to Determine the Specific Heat Capacity of a Sokid
by the Method of Mixtures
We determine the mass mx and temperature Tx of a solid substance
X. Tx may be determined by placing it in boiling water long enough
for it to attain the same temperature as the boiling water. X is then
quickly dropped into a lagged calorimeter which contains water of
mass mw at temperature T0 which is less than Tx and gently stirred.
We denote the mass and specific heat capacity of the calorimeter by
mcu and ccu respectively. The final steady temperature T obtained is
recorded. The value of Cx, the specific heat capacity of X is then
calculated using the definition we have given before.
We note that
Heat lost by solid X = Heat gained by water and calorimeter
The values of T, Tx, T0, mw, mcu, and mx are easily measured while
ccu can be found from tables of specific heat.
Experiment to Determine the Specific Heat Capacity of a Liquid
by the Method of Mixtures
To determine the specific heat capacity of an unknown liquid, we
need to make the following modification to the experiment to
determine the specific heat capacity of an unknown solid outlined
above:
i. We use a solid of known specific heat capacity
ii. Use the liquid whose specific heat capacity is required instead
of water.

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The same procedure and calculations as before can then be carried

out.
2. Electrical Methods
The source of heat in this case is the electric heater. We recall that
power is the rate of which energy is generated or expended. Thus,
the power rating of the heater and the heat produced by it in a
given time interval is defined as
Heat absorbed or given out = power rating of the heater x time in
watts (W)
Now, electrical power is defined as the product of the voltage and
the current. Thus, for a given voltage, the quantity of heat
generated in a given time by an electric heater when current flows
in it in a certain time interval is

Heat absorbed or given out = voltage x current x time in joules (J)

So, the measurement of the specific heat capacity of a substance
heated electrically can then be obtained from definition as before.

3.4 APPLICATIONS
The method of calorimetry can be used to determine the
temperature of a furnace by placing a metal of known specific heat
capacity in the furnace and later removing it into a calorimeter to
determine change in temperature by the method of mixtures.
Another application of the method of calorimetry is the
determination of energy values of food substances mentioned
earlier.

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4.0 CONCLUSION
Calorimetry is a measure of heat energy. Heat is a form of energy
that flows from a part of a system to another through a temperature
gradient.

5.0 SUMMARY
The important points to note in this unit are:
• Heat is a form of energy
• Temperature is the degree of hotness or coolness of a body
• Specific capacity is amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one kg of a substance by one degree celcius.
• Specific latent heat is the amount of heat required from one
phase to another at constant temperature.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Describe one application of calorimetry methods

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Nelken and Parker (1999) Advanced level Physics
Oxford University Press.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/photometry

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UNIT 4: CHROMATOGRAPHY AND CONDUCTOMETRY

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Chromatography
3.2 Types of Chromatography
3.3 Applications of Chromatography
3.4 Conductometry
3.5 Applications of Conductometry
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Chromatography and Conductometry are separation and analytical
techniques widely used in chemistry and the biological sciences.
Most things that occur in nature are a mixture of substances which
can only be separated or analysed using any of the techniques
known. In this unit (3) you will learn about some of these
techniques

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
• Understand the principle on which chromatography as a
separation technique is based.
• Describe the different methods of chromatography available
• Mention some applications of chromatography
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• Understand the concept of Conductometry

• Describe the measuring units involved in Conductometry
• List some applications of Conductometry
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 CHROMATOGRAPHY
Chromatograpy, firstly introduced by the Russian botanist Micharl
Iswett is a method for separating the components of a mixture by
differential distribution of the components between a stationary
phase and mobile (moving) phase. Initially used for the separation
of coloured substances from the plants (Greek, Chromos meaning
coloured) is now the most extensive technique of separation and
purification of coloured/colourless organic compounds.
Separation of two sample components in chromatography is based
on their different distribution between two non-miscible phases.
The one, the stationary phase, a liquid or solid, is fixed in the
system. The other, the mobile phase, a fluid, is streeming through
the chromatographic system. In gas chromatography the mobile
phase is a gas, in liquid chromatography it is a liquid.
The molecules of the analytes (mixture to be separated) are
distributed between the mobile and the stationary phase. When
present in the stationary phase, they are retained, and are not
moving through the system. In contrast, they migrate with the
velocity, v, of the mobile phase when being there. Due to the
different distribution of the particular analytes the mean residence
time in the stationary phase differs, too, resulting in a different net
migration velocity. This is the principle of chromatographic
separation. Separation of two sample components in chroma-

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tography is based on their different distribution between two

non-miscible phases.
3.2 TYPES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY

3.2.1 Paper Chromatography is one of the most common types of

chromatography in which filter paper serves as a support for
immobile liquid phase. Removing liquid flows between the fibres of
the cellulose of the filter paper but these are not the stationary
phase. The true stationary phase is the very thin film of liquid
usually water adhering to the surface of the fibers. (Water is
adsorbed on the fibers/cellulose by strong hydrogen bonds with –
OH of the cellulose). The substrate to be separated is distributed
between the two liquids, stationary liquid that is held on the fibers
of the paper and moving liquid in developing solvent. It uses a strip
of paper and capillary action is used pull the solvents up through
the paper to separate the solutes. A small concentrated spot of
solution that contains the sample is applied to a strip of
chromatography paper about 2 cm away from the base of the plate,
usually using a capillary tube for maximum precision. This sample
is absorbed onto the paper and may form interactions with it. Any
substance that reacts or bonds with the paper cannot be measured
using this technique. The paper is then dipped in to a suitable
solvent, such as ethanol or water, taking care that the spot is above
the surface of the solvent, and placed in a sealed container. The
solvent moves up the paper by capillary action, which occur as a
result of the attraction of the solvent molecules to the paper, also
this can be explained as differential absorption of the solute
components into the solvent. As the solvent rises through the paper
it meets and dissolves the sample mixture, which will then travel up
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the paper with the solvent solute sample. Different compounds in

the sample mixture travel at different rates due to differences in
solubility in the solvent, and due to differences in their attraction to
the fibers in the paper. The components of the mixture move up the
paper with the solvent at different rates, Rf, due to their differing
interactions with the stationary and mobile phases.

Rf = Distance the solute moves

Distance the solvent front moves
This method has been largely replaced by thin layer chromatography

Developing Solvent

Fig. 4.1: Set up of a typical paper chromatography tank.

3.2.2 Thin-layer Chromatography
The surface of the plate consists of a very thin layer of silica gel on a
plastic or Aluminium backing. Silica gel is a form of silicon dioxide
(silica). Thin layer chromatography is similar to paper
chromatography in that it involves spotting the mixture on the plate
and the solvent (mobile phase) rises up the plate in the
chromatography tank. It has an advantage over paper
chromatography in that its separations are very efficient because of
the much smaller size of the particles in the stationary phase. Gas
chromatography and high performance liquid chromatography are
more sophisticated chromatographic techniques.
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3.2.3 Column Chromatography

Column chromatography is frequently used by organic chemists to
purify liquids (and solids). An impure sample is loaded onto a
column of adsorbent, such as silica gel or alumina. An organic
solvent or a mixture of solvents (the eluent) flows down through the
column. Components of the sample separate from each other by
partitioning between the stationary packing material (silica or
alumina) and the mobile elutant. In column chromatography, the
stationary phase is packed into a glass tube to form a cylinder or
column of granules. Solvent or buffer can flow freely between the
granules. Stationary phase may be silica gel or ion exchange resin
or a variety of other substances that may have particular affinity for
amino acid molecules. The sample is applied with care as a layer on
top of the stationary phase. Then solvent is added and flows
through the column. Samples molecules move while they enter the
flowing solvent. The stationary phase in polar compounds are
attracted to the polar column packing by hydrogen bonding or
dipole-dipole attractions. The more polar component interacts more
strongly with the stationary phase. Polar compounds are moved
slowly. Non-polar compounds are going to come off the column first,
while the polar compounds are going to come off the column last.
Usually, one starts with a less polar solvent to remove the less polar
compounds, and then slowly increase the polarity of the solvent to
remove the more polar compounds. Molecules with different polarity
partition to different extents, and therefore move through the
column at different rates. The eluent is collected in fractions.

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3.2.4 Gas Chromatography (GC)

A gas is the mobile phase and the stationary phase can be either a
solid or a non-volatile liquid. There are five basic GC components:

1) Pneumatic system –gas supply (flow control and measurement).

Fig. 4.2: set up of a typical Gas Chromatography.

2) Injection system – heated injector port, where the sample is

vaporized if necessary
3) Column – where the separation occurs
4) Oven – the coiled column is wholly contained in a
thermostatically controlled oven.
5) Detector – integral detector or link to a mass spectrometer

3.2.4.1 How does Gas Chromatography Work?

1) A carrier gas, examples of which are Helium and Neon flows

through the system. A valve controls the flow rate.

2) A sample of the volatile mixture is injected into the carrier gas.

The sample is vaporized in the heated injector port.

3) The carrier gas carries the vaporized sample into the column.
The columns are stainless steel or glass tubes. They can be up
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to 25 m in length and are of narrow bore (2-10mm). Therefore

the column is often wound into a coil. The packed columns
contain porous support material. The sample mixture
undergoes a series of interactions between the stationary and
mobile phases as it is carried through the system by the
carrier gas. Due to the wide choice of materials available for
the stationary and mobile phases, it is possible to separate
molecules that differ only slightly in their physical and
chemical properties.

4) The coiled column is contained in the thermostatically

controlled oven.

5) Separated components emerge in the order of increasing

interactions with the stationary phase. The least retarded
component comes through first. Separation is obtained when
one compound is sufficiently retarded to prevent overlap with
another component of the sample, as it emerges from the
column.

6) Two types of detector can be used: (1) thermal conductivity

detectors which respond to changes in the thermal
conductivity of the gas leaving the column and (2) flame
ionization detection (FID), which is more commonly used. In
thermal conductivity, as the carrier gas leaves the column, it
cools the detector. When a solute emerges with the carrier gas,
it does not cool the detector to the same extent. Alternatively,
samples can be passed from the oven directly into a mass
spectrometer, where they are analysed.

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Retention time is defined as the time taken for a component to go

from injection to detection. This varies depending on

a. The nature of and the interactions between the solute and the
stationary and mobile phases.
b. The flow rate of the carrier gas,
c. The temperature of the column (shorter retention times are
obtained at higher temperatures),
d. The length and diameter of the column,
Once GC has separated a mixture, the components can be
indentified using known retention times. For unknown
compounds the solutes are collected individually and anlysed
using another method, e.g. mass spectrometry.
For each compound in a mixture one peak is observed on the
chromatogram. In the particular set of operating conditions relating to
the column, the retention time will increase with the size and polarity of
the compound. To find the concentration of a particular compound, the
peak height should be measured.

3.2.5 High Performance Liquid Chromatography

Basic Components:
1. Solvent Reservoir.
2. The Pump System controls the flow and measures the volume of
solvent (the mobile phase). The flow rates of HPLC columns are slow
– often in the range of 0.5 -5 cm3 min-1
3. The Injector System: The sample to be separated is injected into
the liquid phase at this point.
4. The Column is made of steel and packed usually with porous silica
particles (the stationary phase). Different materials can be used

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depending on the nature of the liquid. A long column is not needed

because separation in HPLC is very efficient. Columns are usually
10-30 cm long, with an internal diameter of 4 mm.
Different components of the sample are carried forward at
different rates by the moving liquid phase, due to their
differing interactions with the stationary and mobile phases.
5. The Detector: When the components reach the end of the column
they are analysed by a detector. The amounts passing through the
column are small, so solutes are analysed as they leave the column.
Therefore, HPLC is usually linked to a spectrometer (e.g. ultra violet
or mass spectrometry).

The length of time it takes for a compound to reach the detector

allows the component to be identified. Like the GC, once the
retention time of a solute has been established for a column using a
particular set of operating conditions, the solute can be identified in
a mixture. A chromatogram is obtained for the sample.

3.3 APPLICATIONS OF CHROMATOGRAPHY

Thin layer chromatography is particularly useful in forensic work,
for example in the separation of dyes from fibres.
Gas Chromatography is used to analyse blood samples for the
presence of alcohol. It is also used to analyse samples taken from
athletes to check for the presence of drugs. In each case, it
separates the components of the mixture and indicates the
concentrations of the components. Water companies test samples of
water of pollutants using Gas Chromatography to separate the
pollutants, and mass spectrometry to identify them.

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HPLC has many uses such as drug testing, testing for vitamins in
food and growth promoters in meat. In each case components of the
mixture are separated and detected.

1.2 CONDUCTOMETRY
One of the most important characteristics of electrolyte solution is
their capability to carry electric current. The electrolyte
conductance is possible through movement of positive and negative
ions which originate through dissociation of electrolyte.
Conductometry deals with the conductivity of electrolytes. The
resistance of the solution is measured by applying an alternating
voltage to the measuring cell (if direct current was applied,
electrolytic processes occurring within the solution could alter the
resistance). Experience has shown that, due to polarization effects,
more precise results are obtained if the measuring frequency is
adapted to the measuring range, e.g. 300Hz at low and 2.4 Hz at
higher conductivities (7/12 Conductometer). The conductivity of a
solution depends on;
• the number of ions. The more ions a solution contain, the
higher its conductivity.
• the ionic mobility in a general way. The mobility in turn
depends on:
 the type of ion: the smaller an ion, the more mobile it is and
the better it conducts electrical current. Ions of very high
conductivity are H2O+, OH-, K+ and CI-. If an ion is surrounded
by water molecules (hydratization) and therefore becomes
larger, its conductivity decreases.
 the solvent: the more polar a solvent, the mor completely
ionized are the compounds dissolved in it. Water is an ideal
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solvent for ionic compounds. In alcohols the ionization

decreases with increasing chain length (methanol>ethanol
>propanol). In non-polar organic solvents, e.g. chlorinated and
non-chlorinated hydrocarbons, there is practically no
ionization.
 the temperature: in contrast to what is found with solids, the
conductivity of solutions increases with increasing
temperature at a rate that ranges from 1 to 9% per Kelvin,
depending on the ion.
 the viscosity: the ionic mobility decreases with increasing
viscosity, which means that the conductivity also deceases.
1.2.1 Measuring setup
The minimal measuring setup consists of a conductometer and the
conduntivity cell connected to it. Generally the following items are
also used: temperature sensor closed measuring/titrating vessel
that can be thermostatted, and a magnetic stirrer.
A conductometer is an instrument for measuring complex
resistances using alternating voltages (in contrast to the
measurement of the purely ohmic resistances of metallic
conductors, liquids, together with the measuring cell, constitute a
network of resistances and capacities). The alternating voltages
applied are available at minimum two frequencies. Quasi-ohmic
conditions can be obtained, however, by the appropriate selection of
the measuring frequency, cell constant and electrode material.
Under these conditions the electrical conductivity can be
determined from the measured resistance.
A conductivity measuring cell consist of two electrodes that face
each other and are as inert as possible. Platinum is generally used

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as the electrode material. Smooth (shiny) electrodes should only be

used for conductivities <20 S/cm. For higher conductivities,
platinized electrodes are used (coated with platinum black). To
avoid measuring errors due to changes in the electrical field, the
measurement is carried out in a strictly defined volume. This is why
immersion measuring cells are usually surrounded by glass or a
plastic material. As stated above, the same cell cannot be used for
the whole conductivity range. Accordingly, different cells are used
that are optimized for the conductivity range to be covered. The
measuring cells are characterized by their cell constant c. For low
conductivities, cells with a small cell constant are used while cells
with a high cell constant serve to measure high conductivities.

1.3 APPLICATIONS OF CONDUCTOMETRY

• The experimental determinations of the conducting properties
of electrolytic solutions are very important as they can be used
to study quantitative behavior of ions in solutions.
• They can also be used to determine the many physical
quantities such as degree of dissociation and dissociation
constants of weak acids and bases.
• They can be sued to determine the ionic product of water,
solubility and solubility products of sparingly soluble salts.
• They form the basis for conductometric titration methods.

4.0 CONCLUSION
Chromatography and Conductometry are two types of analytical
and separation techniques used in the laboratory by chemists,
biologists and other natural scientists to determine the quality and
quantity of particular substances in different mixtures.

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5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you learnt the following:

• in chromatography, the separation of two sample components is

based on their different distribution between two non-miscible
phases.
• chromatography, High Performance Liquid Chromatography are all
type of Chromatography with various applications in the chemical
industry.
• conductometry measures the strength of the current between two
electrodes in a solution containing ions. This strength depends on
the electric potential between the electrodes and the concentration
of ions in the solution.
• conductomery is thus used to measure the ion concentration in a
solution among other uses.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What do you understand by the term Conductometry?

2. Write short notes on the following;
a. Paper Chromatography
b. Gas Chromatography
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Anonymous: Unit 4 Conductometry vedhara.ignou.ac.in/wiki

Anonymous: Basics of Conductometry
www.metrohm.com/com/basics of conductometry.pdf
Kenndler Ernst (2004): Introduction to Chromatography
www.rpi.edu/chem-cm

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MODULE 3

UNIT 1: SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF INVESTIGATION

CONTENT

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Scientific Methods
3.1.1 Observing and Communicating
3.1.2 Observation
3.1.3 Interpretation
3.1.4 Prediction
3.1.5 Repetition
3.1.6 Consensus
3.1.7 Experiment
3.1.8 Keeping record of your investigation
3.2 Writing a report of Scientific Investigation

3.2.1 Introduction

3.2.2 Materials

3.2.3 Methods

3.2.4 Results

3.2.5 Discussion

3.2.6 Conclusion

3.3 Communicating Scientific findings

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3.3.1 People

3.3.2 Journal

3.3.3 Reports

3.3.4 Patent

3.3.5 Trade Literature

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0 References / Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The methods employed in the various sciences are determined both by
the general nature of the objective in mind and by the nature of the
subject matter. A prerequisite to nearly every science is a suitable
method of description of its subject matter. The language of such
description must be capable of reproducing the subject matter with
precision and uniqueness. If description is of an object, there should
be only one corresponding object, which it should be possible to
reproduce or reconstruct from the description. Specialized vocabulary
are usually involved, often coined or derived from Greek or Latin
words or roots. The specialized languages of the various sciences also
usually permit statements to be made much more concisely than is
possible with conventional language.

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2.0 OBJECTIVES
As you go through this unit, you should be able to:
• know the qualities / attributes of a good Scientist
• appreciate the use of instruments for research
• observe experiments, predict and interpret scientific result
• conduct experiment and keep record.
• report your investigations as done universally and
• communicate your scientific findings.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Scientific Methods

3.1.1 Observing and Communicating

One of the most important scientific methodologies is the possession of

a very keen sense of observation and the skill to vividly describe or
express such observation correctly to someone not present at the
scene. We should be curious about things we can touch, taste, hear,
smell and see. We also use instruments so that we can make
observation that would not otherwise be possible. For example, with a
magnifying lens or microscope, we can see details not visible to the
unaided eye. Such details as the structure of the Amoeba sp. and the
hypha or vegetative structure of a fungus. Here are some observations
about flowering plants that you can repeat without special equipment.

3.1.2 Observation

a) Seeds are produced in fruits

b) If seeds taken from a fruit are sown they will grow into plants if
conditions are right.

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c) These plants will be similar to those from which the fruits were
taken and will produce similar fruits.

3.1.3 Interpretation

After making such observations about seeds from different kinds of

plants you might come to certain conclusions:

a) Seeds are produced only in fruits

b) There is something in a seed that can develop into a plant
c) All plants grown from seed are similar to those from which the fruit
was taken and they produced similar seeds.

3.1.4 Prediction

On the basis of these conclusions, a scientist might predict that seeds

from the fruit of a kind of plant he has not yet studied would produce
more plants of that kind if they were sown in suitable soil.

Thus, observation, interpretation and prediction are things people do

well. These are part of the common sense way of working that
scientists call the scientific method.

Quite often, many scientific investigations should include many or all

of the following:

a) Identification and classification of the problem your set out to solve

or shed some light. Is it on plant, animal, soil or their components?
b) Working safely.
c) Observing carefully
d) Measuring precisely
e) Recording observations accurately
f) Analyzing data (recorded observations) carefully

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g) Interpreting the results of your analysis of data in the light of your

own and other people’s work.
h) Preparing a written record of your work with appropriate reference
to the work of others.

Possible sources of error in any investigation include insufficient

thought in planning the investigation, use of impure chemicals or
faculty equipment, and insufficient care in reading instructions,
observing, measuring, recording and analyzing data, interpreting
results or in preparing a written account of the work. Our ability to
observe is also affected by the limitations of our seasons and by the
fact that we interpret observations in terms of our previous
experience. This may result in their misinterpretation. The influence of
previous experience is also indicated by the fact that different
scientists may interpret the same evidence and come to different
conclusions.

3.1.5 Repetition

One of the most potent methods of checking for correctness or

truth is repetition. It is a matter of experience that there are objects
and situations which repeat. It is part of the task of scientific
investigations to formulate the conditions under which a situation
repeats. If scientists can establish the conditions necessary for
repetition, they can verify a previous description or observation by
finding whether they now get the same result as before. Thus, they
guard against possible previous mistakes on their part and at the
same time increase the presumptive probability that they have
correctly stated the conditions necessary for repetition.

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3.1.6 Consensus
Another method of checking or confirming the correctness of an
observation is agreement between different observers. Here the
multiplicity of observations by different persons corresponds to the
multiplicity of the repeated occurrence. The matter of the consensus
among different observers is regarded by many people as so important
that it is often incorporated into the definition of science, which is
sometimes partially defined as the consensus of qualified persons.

3.1.7 Experiment
One of the potent tools of many of the Sciences, both for the discovery
of new facts and for more adequate understanding of existing facts, is
experimentation. Experiments artificially vary the conditions under
which phenomena occur. In this way, they may create conditions
never observed in nature. Used in this way, experiment becomes an
enormously potent instrument in acquiring understanding and for
understanding a situation or phenomenon.

3.1.8 Keeping Record of your Investigations

Scientists keep records as part of their work, to help them think, plan,
observe, describe and remember. Usually a record of all practical work
is kept in a special science note-book. You should note first the date
and give each investigation a title. Then keep a concise note of exactly
what you do. Write in carefully constructed sentences and prepared
drawings or diagrams to ensure that your records cannot be
misunderstood or misrepresented later.

Entering your observation in a table, as you make them, will help you
to concentrate, to prepare complete and accurate records, to think
about your work, and to arrange your thoughts. Any observations
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recorded during an investigation are called DATA. These are facts of

any kind recorded as words or numbers (Numerical data) as you count
and measure. Counting and measuring enable scientists to be précise.

The records you have made so far during your investigation are the
kind a scientist would make in a laboratory note-book or filed note
book. Scientists also prepare accounts of their investigations for their
own further references and for publication so that other scientists
can be informed of any thing new. Communication is an essential part
of the scientific method.

Start each account, or report, with a suitable title, your name and the
date. Then use these headings to sign post the parts of your account.

3.2 Writing a report of Scientific Investigation

3.2.1 Introduction: What was the purpose of your investigation?

3.2.2 Materials: List the materials you used

3.2.3 Methods: What did you do and how did you do them?

3.2.4 Results: State concisely your findings. These may be presented mainly
in tables, graphs or other diagrams.

3.2.5 Discussion: How did you interpret your results?

3.2.6 Conclusion: List any conclusions

The use of these headings makes report writing easier and helps
readers find the information they need. If you could suggest possible
explanations for your findings, each such possible explanation would
be your hypothesis. For example, you might propose the hypothesis

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that plants give off oxygen after photosynthesis (process of making

food) in the presence of sunlight.

To test this hypothesis, you could repeat your investigation with the
same plant recording your observation, use natural bright sunlight,
dull sunlight, light with a bulb, light with a fluorescent tube and of
course in darkness. Record your observation. In science an
experiment is an investigation in which a hypothesis is tested. If
oxygen is given off using those light sources and amount and if none
is given off, this will be validated by your observations hence your
results.

3.3 Communicating Scientific Findings

Scientists publish accounts of their investigations so that other
scientists, any anyone else, can read about their work and make use
of their findings.

Some of the avenues for publishing their work includes:

3.3.1 People: The first obvious but very important way of spreading
information is by word of mouth. People talk to friends and
colleagues, passing on news about their own work and often
including pieces of information they have read elsewhere.
Information is also spread in this way in a more organized fashion by
people talking at seminars, conferences and so on.

3.3.2 Journals: New research which does not have to be kept secret for
commercial or defence reasons is nearly always published in the
form of articles or papers in journals. There area large number of
journals publishing research in many scientific fields.

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3.3.3 Reports: A significant proportion of applied research and

development is first written up in the form of reports. Some reports
are made openly available to anyone interested except it is of
commercial or military values which are restricted.

3.3.4 Patent: Industrial research and development which has some

commercial value is normally published as patent. These are
documents granted by governments to the owners of the invention
allowing them a monopoly for a limited period of time in order to
exploit the invention.

3.3.5 Trade Literature: Trade literature-advertisements, catalogues and

company magazines – is a well – used sources of information,
particularly in engineering and construction.

Other media of publication are Books, Reviews, Abstracts, Indexes,

References and Databases.

4.0 CONCLUSION
The scientific methods of investigation involves experimentation,
observation an interpretation of your findings. Your experiments
should be capable of repetition by another person anywhere in the
world and capable of production of a similar result.

The scientific investigations are also reported and communicated by

many conventional methods.

5.0 SUMMARY
The important points to note in this unit are:
• possession of a very keen sense of observation is one of the
most important scientific methodologies,

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• science involves vivid description or expression of observations

made,
• an analytical interpretational method is required of a Scientist
• a good study in science involve experimentation and repetition
of such study.
• the report of a scientific investigation should include a title
introduction; materials and methods; results, the discussion of
the result and perhaps a conclusion.
• accounts of scientists are published in journals, books or
patented.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1a What is scientific investigation?

b How do you report your scientific investigation?

7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READING

Adebanjo Afolabi. (1995). Science: History, philosophy and

Importance to Mankind. Akol Press Ibadan 19-24.

Beveridge, W. I. B. (1978). The Art of Scientific Investigation.

Heinemann, London.

Giere, R. N. (1979). Understanding Scientific Reasoning. Macmillan

Press, New York.

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Unit 2: EVALUATING ORIGINAL RESEARCH PAPERS

CONTENT

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Quality
3.2 Originality
3.3 Focus
3.4 Methodologies
3.5 Contribution(s) to Knowledge
3.6 Application
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
You will be introduced to the parameters one needs to look for when
evaluating an original research paper in this unit. You will recall
that in unit 1 of this module, we discussed the research methods
and techniques and reporting scientific investigations. When
evaluating an original research paper, many of but not necessary all
the points listed in this unit must be considered.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After completing the study of this unit you should be able to;

• know an original research paper

• list the criteria for evaluating an original research paper
• evaluate an original research paper

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• state if any, the contributions of a research paper to knowledge

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Quality:-Quality refers to the standard of something when it is

compared to other things like it. When you have a research paper to
evaluate, and you compare it with others you have read before or
had a knowledge of, will it be able to compare favourably with
them? How good or bad is the paper? Does it have all the necessary
parameters of a very good research paper? Is it well written
following the laid down standards?
Does the paper contain substances or information that will be
useful to other researchers nationally and internationally? Will
research students learn something from the paper that will facilitate
their studies and research?
If most of the answers to these questions are positive, it goes to
confirm that the research paper is of good quality.
3.2 Originality:- Ancillary to 3.1 is the originality of the research
reported in the paper being evaluated. How genuine are the content
of the paper? Do the content contain well thought out and well
executed research? Is the work a continuation of somebody’s idea or
is the idea new? These are a few of the questions to be raised when
one thinks about originality of a research paper.
3.3 Focus:- Does the research to be published give attention to one
particular problem or does it attend to many problems in a single
study? If it is a single study, is it an indepth on superficial study? Is
the study directed at a goal? This is all what a focused research
paper tends to address.
3.4 Methodologies:- What was done in the study and how this was
done are the pertinent questions to be asked in methodology. Does
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the method follow the standard techniques and procedure. Were

standard equipment and procedure for such study rigidly followed.?
Were the steps “diluted” or watered down. Are there improvisation
and why? Will this not affect the outcome of such study?
Which ever way, the methodology must follow the laid down
standard and procedure for a paper to be rated high.
3.5 Contribution to Knowledge:- What is the outcome of the research
findings stated in the research paper? Is the finding of note? Has it
added to knowledge on the subject matter? Is there any new
information for the scientific community? In all its ramifications
methodology, results and findings, has any contribution of note
been made to knowledge? These are important questions to be
answered to be able to ascertain if the paper had any added value
to knowledge.
3.3 Application:- Is the research finding of any immediate or future
socio-economic or medical application? Can private sector key in
into the findings and “Power” it? Is it of significant for military
application? What are the other benefits derivable from the study?
Those are some of the questions to be answered regarding
application of a research finding.
4.0 CONCLUSION:- In evaluating an original research paper, care
must be taken to assess its quality, focus and contribution to
knowledge.
5.0 SUMMARY- The important points to note in this unit are:
• The quality of a research paper will determine its
acceptability.
• The originality and focus of such paper are of paramount
importance.

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• The method for the study must be standard and the study
should be able to contribute useful information to knowledge
now or latter.
• It will also be good if the paper can be of useful application
now or thereafter.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1a. What is research?
b. List four major points you need to consider when evaluating
an original research paper.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Adebanjo Afolabi. (1995). Science; History Philosophy and
Importance to mankind. Akol publishers, Ibadan.
Giere, R.N. (1979). Understanding Scientific reasoning. Macmillan
Press, New York

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