Hdyry HTHFJ
Hdyry HTHFJ
http://www.researchersworld.com/ijms/
DOI : 10.18843/ijms/v5i2(6)/13
DOI URL :http://dx.doi.org/10.18843/ijms/v5i2(6)/13
ABSTRACT
The aim of this paper is to examine the influence of HRD practices on organizational effectiveness
by means of employee competencies. An integrated research model was developed by combining
principal factors from existing literature. Data were collected through questionnaire from 600
employees of the selected SME’s. The validity of the model and hypotheses were tested using
structural equation modeling (SEM). The reliability and validity of the dimensions are established
through confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The results indicate that some human resource
development practices impact organizational effectiveness through their influence on employee
competencies. Performance management do not influence employee competencies of the firms
studied. The findings of the study have the potential to help stakeholders and policy makers of
SME’s in adopting properly and well-articulated HRD practices to improve employee
competencies in enhancing organizational effectiveness.
INTRODUCTION:
Human resource development (HRD) is increasingly one of the most comprehensively researched areas in the
broader sphere of human resource management (Garavan et al., 2012). HRD practices are programs which are
designed to be strategically oriented to organizational process for managing the development of human
resources to contribute to the overall success of the organization (Werner and DeSimone, 2006, p.26). Swanson
and Holton (2009) posited that, there is an increasing demand to develop effective and efficient human resource
development practices to improve the competence of the workforce and for enhancement of organizational
effectiveness. Martinelli and Waddell (2007) defined competencies as „„a cluster of related knowledge, skills,
personal qualities and experience‟‟. Roy and Dugal (2005) opined that, organizational effectiveness is the net
satisfaction of all constituents in the process of gathering and transferring inputs into outputs in an efficient
manner. HRD as a concept emerged over four decades ago (Hamlin and Stewart, 2011), however, it remains
understudied in the SME context, in spite of the fact that it is prominently practiced in these organizations (Pajo
et al., 2010). Small and medium enterprises (SMEs) occupy a place of pride in virtually every country or state
due to their significant roles in the development and growth of various economies. Small and medium scale
enterprises in Ghana are said to be a characteristic feature of the production landscape and have been noted to
provide about 85% of manufacturing employment of Ghana (Abor and Quartey, 2010), contribute about 70% to
Ghana‟s GDP and account for about 92% of businesses in Ghana (Ackah et al., 2014). Dominant theorizing in
HRD has evolved from and is oriented towards the study of atypical (large) enterprises (Iles and Yolles, 2004).
As a consequence, mainstream conceptualizations of HRD are overly narrow in focus and the resultant
discourse does not readily connect with models of HRD in small firms (Clarke, et al., 2006; Hill, 2004). A
corollary of this is when the formal policies and practices through which HRD is articulated are not found in
small firms, the resultant conclusion is that their practice is lacking or inferior (Rigg and Trehan, 2002).
Research suggests that interventions, systems and processes in this context are considerably less sophisticated
(Sadler-Smith, et al., 1999) and insufficient (Kitching, 2007) when compared to the approaches allegedly
undertaken within large businesses. However, Kuchinke (2003) maintains that the reasons for variation in HRD
practices between large and small firms are “theoretically underdeveloped and empirically under researched”
(p.295). Therefore, this study, attempted to (1) examine the influence of various human resource development
practices on employee competencies and (2) to study the role of employee competencies on the association
between HRD practices and organizational effectiveness in SME‟s. In order to address this objective; the study
is structured as follows. Section two explains the theoretical framework used and provides the justification for
the research hypotheses. The next section describes the methodology of the empirical study, the research
context, the information gathering and the sample and measures used. The results obtained are presented in
section four, and the paper concludes with the discussion of the key findings and limitations of the study, in
addition to highlighting further lines of research.
Quinn and Rohrbaugh, 1981).The goals model defines effectiveness as the degree to which an organization has
achieved its goals (Price, 1968). The goal approach is the most widely used, and it assesses the effectiveness of
an organization in terms of its success in realizing its goals (Weese ,1997). Yuchtman and Seashore (1967) who
proposed the system resources model, defined effectiveness as „„the ability of the organization, in either
absolute or relative terms, to exploit its environment in the acquisition of scarce and valued resources‟‟.
According to the internal process model, organizations that can offer a harmonious and efficient internal
environment are viewed as effective operations (Chelladurai, et al., 1987). This model emphasizes the internal
logic and consistency among the throughput processes of the organization since they convert an organization's
inputs into desired outputs (Chelladurai, et al., 1987; Pfeffer, 1977). The strategic constituency approach is
based on a view of organizational effectiveness in which several different effectiveness statements can be made
about the focal organization, reflecting the criterion sets of different individuals and groups we shall refer to as
constituencies (Connolly et al.,1980). The emphasis on human resources leads to the framework, where the
identification of the key stakeholder‟s view of effectiveness is considered paramount (Connolly et al.,1980).
The competing values approach and its effectiveness criteria emerged from the judgements of organizational
effectiveness in profit organizations. The most rigorous and influential multidimensional approach build the five
framework of organizational effectiveness, the competing value approach by Quinn and Rohrbaugh
(1981;1983).
Human Resource Development contributions to Organizational Effectiveness:
Several human resource development scholars (Alagaraja et al., 2015; Clardy, 2008; Tseng and McLean, 2008)
examined and worked towards establishing human resource development and organizational performance and
effectiveness linkage. Alagaraja et al. (2015) identified five important approaches for examining the linkage of
human resource development and organizational performance and effectiveness: best-fit model, best-fit
approach, best-practice model, combination of best-fit approach and best-practice model and stake holders‟
perception based. HRD research has conceptualized and empirically established positive relationship between
single or interrelated sets of HRD practices and organizational effectiveness (Colbert et al., 2014; Jiang and Liu,
2015), employee involvement (Riordan et al., 2005), employee communication (Chen, 2008), personality
(Colbert et al., 2014), knowledge management process (Rahman et al., 2013). Nilsson and Ellstrom (2012)
emphasized that developing human resources development strategies in an organization is an opportunity for
employees to enrich their competencies that contribute, in aggregate to firm performance.
Human Resource Development Practices and Employee Competencies:
Organizations use human resource (HR) practices as critical strategic tools for promoting favourable behaviour
among employees and leveraging their knowledge, skills, and abilities, which increase productivity and
performance (Bates and Chen, 2004; Clardy, 2008). Sung and Choi (2014) proposed that, organizations should
design and implement human resource development practices to enable people to work effectively and attain
performance expectations through improved individual competencies. Kehoe and Wright (2013) opined, human
resource development was the basic factor for employees to acquire competencies that in turn significantly
improve organizational functioning. Haslinda (2009) postulated that, human resource development practices
improve employees‟ capabilities on the job, productivity and efficiency, as well as enhance the quality of goods
and services.
Training and Development and Employee Competencies:
Agnew et al. (1997) opined that to promote organizational performance and industry competitiveness, workforce
training and development is an important adjunct. Swanson (2001) defined training and development as, “the
process of systematically developing expertise in individuals for the purpose of improving performance” (p. 304).
Hornsby and Williams, (1990) contend that, organizations rely on training to enhance the productivity and
performance of their employees. This is consistent with the findings of Harrison (2000) and Appiah (2010) who
emphasized that, training generate performance improvement related benefits for the employee and organization
by positively influencing employee performance through the development of employee knowledge, skills, ability,
competencies and behaviour. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed.
H1: Training and development has a positive influence on employee competencies.
Career Development and Employee Competencies:
Hall and Associates (1986) define career development as „„the outcomes emanating from the interaction of
individual career planning and institutional career management processes‟‟. Kaye (2005) assert that, a well-
designed career development system enables organizations to tap their wealth of in house talent for staffing and
promotion by matching the skills, experience, and aspirations of individuals to the needs of the organizations.
Similarly, Gilley et al. (2009) postulate that career development interventions assists in building a partnership
between the organization and its employees, enriching their knowledge, skills and abilities, by improving
individual competencies. This is consistent with the study of McGraw (2014) who argue that the effective
implementation of individual career management processes significantly enhances employee competency and
improve individual performance. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed.
H2: Career development has a positive influence on employee competencies.
Performance Management and Employee Competencies:
Kinicki et al. (2013) defined performance management as „„a set of procedures and managerial behaviour
intended at describing, encouraging, measuring, and developing the anticipated performance of the employees,
which has implications for individual and organizational performance‟‟. Meyer and Kirsten (2005) contend that,
managing performance of employees forms an integral part of an organization and reflects how they manage
their human capital. Along the same lines, several authors (Caldwell et al., 1990; Kinicki et al., 1992;
Ostroff,1992) assert that the integrated HR and PM policies has significant influence on employee attitude and
commitment and these in turn influence the performance of the organization. This is consistent with the findings
of Berger and Berger (2011) who emphasized that, an effective performance management system provides for
assessment of individual performance and developing them to create sets of competencies that the organization
requires. The following is hypothesized.
H3: Performance appraisal has a positive influence on employee competencies
Employee Competencies and Organizational Effectiveness:
Employee competencies are the competitive capabilities that a firm can develop to survive in a dynamic
environment (Wright and McMahan, 1992). Cartwright and Baron (2002) argued that, the achievement of the
anticipated strategic results depends upon employee‟s cohesion, communication, coordination, commitment,
and enhancement of appropriate competencies. Along the same line, Kehoe and Wright (2013) contended that,
the enhanced levels and quality of in-role and extra-role task efforts driven by increased commitment and
competence of employees contribute to effective organizational functioning. This is consistent with the study of
Nilsson and Ellstrom (2012) who emphasized that developing human resources development strategies in an
organization is an opportunity for employees to enrich their competencies that contribute, in aggregate to firm
performance. The following is hypothesized.
H4: Employee competencies has a positive influence on organizational effectiveness.
The Structural equation model is depicted in figure I
METHODS :
Research Setting and Data Structure:
In order to test the proposed model, an empirical study was conducted in small and medium scale enterprises in
the trade and manufacturing sector of the Greater Accra region. The selected SME‟s were identified through
several sources, namely, statistics from the Ministry of Trade and Industry and National Board for Small Scale
Industries. According to the sources used, 35 SMEs met the conditions for inclusion in the study. Small and
medium scale enterprises have a series of characteristics that are very suitable for this study. They have aptly
been referred to as the engine of growth and catalysts for socio-economic transformation of any country (Basil,
2005). The Yamane (1967) simplified formula was used in determining the sample size. In order to obtain their
cooperation, a cover letter was sent to the general managers explaining the purpose of the study. They were later
contacted by phone for a meeting. Employees were chosen as key informants for the study. A total of 850
respondents were identified and reached in the selected hotels and 600 respondents reverted back with full
required information corresponding to a response rate of 70.58 %. From Table 1, the majority of respondents
(52.5%) were males. More than half (52%) of respondents were in the age group 26–35 years. The majority of
the firms (60%) were medium enterprises.
MEASURES:
The variables used in this study were assessed using multiple items from different studies in the extant
literature. All the items were measured using a 5-point Likert-type scale, where the respondents had to indicate
their level of conformity with the different statements (1: strongly disagree to 5: strongly agree).
Training and Development: Training and development was measured using the scales of effective
implementation of training programs developed by Singh (2004) and Santos and Stuart (2003). The scale which
consists of fifteen items were modified according to the current research settings and generated three items with
a reliability of 0.84.
Career Development: Career development was measured using Sturges et al., (2002) scale of organizational
support for career development and the Coachline‟s career development need survey (available at:
http://www.orghealth.com/cdn/) . The scale which consists of twelve items were modified according to the
current research settings and generated four items with a reliability of 0.80.
Performance Management: Performance management was measured using Walker et al. (2011) and Singh
(2004) scale of performance management. The scale which consists of nine items were modified according to
the current research settings. The three item scale has the reliability of 0.74.
Employee competencies: To measure employee competencies, five competencies which are necessary to
enhance organizational performance was measured: team competency, change competency, communication
competency, self-competency and ethical competency.
Self-competency: Self-competency was measured using self-liking/self-competence scale (SLCS) developed
by Tafarodi and Swann Jr. (1995). The scale which consists of 10 items in each dimension of self-liking and
self-competence, were further divided into equal number of positively and negatively worded items. The scales
were modified according to current research settings and generated four items. The negatively worded self-
competence items are converted into positively worded items, such as, “I perform inadequately in many
important situations” is converted to “I perform adequately in many important situations”. The three item scale
has a reliability of 0.77
Team competency: Team competency was measured using the teamwork, self-efficacy scale developed by Eby
and Dobbins (1997). The scale which consists of eight items were modified according to the current research
settings and generated three items with a reliability of 0.76.
Change competency: The self- efficacy scale developed by Ashford (1988) was adopted in measuring change
competency. In the context of organizational change, change related self-efficacy can be defined as an
employee‟s perceived ability to function well on the job, despite the demands of the changing work
environment (Ashford, 1988; Jimmieson et al., 2004). The scale which consists of ten items were modified
according to the current research settings. The two item scale has a reliability of 0.82.
Communication competency: Communication competency was measured using Wierman‟s (1997)
communication scale (affiliation/support, social relaxation, empathy, behavioral flexibility, and interaction
management skills). The scale which consists of 36 items were modified according to current research settings
and generated four items with a reliability of 0.82.
Ethical competency: Ethical competence was measured using Rest (1994) competent model” for determining
moral behaviour scale (moral sensitivity, moral judgment, moral motivation, moral character) and Duckett and
Ryden (1994) implementing the moral decision scale. The scale which consists of thirty –five items were
modified according to the current research settings and generated four items with a reliability of 0.75.
Organizational effectiveness: organizational effectiveness was measured by adapting the organization
effectiveness measure developed by Gold et al. (2001). The scale which consist of twelve items were modified
according to the current research settings and generated seven items with a reliability of 0.79.
Analytic approach
The efficacy of the proposed model and hypotheses were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social
Science (SPSS) 20.0 and the Analysis of Moment Structure (AMOS) 20.0. In the first step, the researcher tested
the measurement model. To establish construct validity, the researcher examined: (a) the relationship between
the observable indicators and their latent constructs and (b) correlations among sub-dimensions. The second
step was to test the overall model. Baron and Kenny (1986), classical product method was used to examine the
role of employee competencies on the association between HRD practices and organizational effectiveness.
Handling Common Method Bias
Podsakoff et al. (2003) define common method bias is the bias that is “attributable to the measurement method
rather than to the constructs the measures represent” (p. 879).) Since method biases are the main sources of
measurement error, they pose a problem in the form of confounding empirical results. Conway and Lance
(2010) suggested four approaches to handle common method bias. The approaches are: a) an argument for why
self-reports are appropriate; b) construct validity evidence; c) lack of overlap in items for different constructs;
and d) evidence that pro-active steps were taken to mitigate threats of method effects (p. 325). This study was
conducted at the functional level and the respondents were employees. They were in the best position to
respond to human resource development practices, employee competencies and organizational effectiveness.
Scales were adopted from established sources and validity tests were performed by running confirmatory factor
analysis The results showed that the established criteria were satisfactory. Throughout the process, respondents
were assured of the protections of their anonymity thus reducing evaluation apprehension (Conway and Lance,
2010; Podsakoff et al., 2003). These steps ensured that the effect of common method bias was minimal.
RESULTS:
Descriptive Statistics:
The descriptive statistics estimates are provided in Table II. The results show that each of the constructs is
positively and significantly correlated.
Items Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5
1.Training and Development 10.68 3.35 1
2.Career Development 13.74 3.83 0.419** 1
3.Performance Management 10.15 2.99 0.305** 0.296** 1
4.Employee Competencies 52.86 14.61 0.503** 0.487** 0.230** 1
5.Organizational Effectiveness 23.45 6.05 0.348** 0.183** 0.255** 0.215** 1
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Measurement Model:
The overall fit of the measurement model as reported in (Table 3) was found to be reasonable. The chi-square/df
ratios (3.60) were within suggested threshold (i.e., less than 5.0) indicating a reasonable fit (Wheaton et al.,
1977). The root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) value (0.06) and standardized root mean
residual (SRMR) value (0.04) were lower than 0.08, indicating adequate fit (Chen et al. 2008; Hu and Bentler,
1999). In addition, all other indices (i.e., TLI and CFI estimates) were greater than the recommended 0.90,
indicating adequate fit (Bentler, 1990; Kline, 1998).
Structural model -Overall model 118.372 39 3.03 0.000 0.058 0.038 0.953 0.972
Note: RMSEA=Root mean square of approximation; SRMR=Standardized Root Mean Residual; TLI=Tucker-
lewis index; CFI=Comparative fit index; p < 0.05
HRD Practices
Direct Indirect Total Effect p value
Employee Competencies 0.492 0.492 p < 0.05
Organizational Effectiveness 0.325 0.078 0.404 p < 0.05
Test of Hypotheses:
The proposed hypotheses were tested using structural equation modeling (SEM). The results of the
structural model test depicted in Table 3, indicate a good fit to the data. The chi -square/df ratios of (3.0)
were within the suggested threshold (i.e., ≥ 3.0) indicating good fit (Hoe 2008; Kline, 1998).The root mean
square error of approximation (RMSEA) value of (0.04) and standardized root mean residual (SRMR)
value (0.05) were lower than the suggested thresholds (i.e., less than 0.60 and 0.05) indicating a good fit
(Fan et al. 1999; Kline, 2011) In addition, all other indices (i.e., TLI and CFI estimates) were greater than
the recommended cut off value of (0.95) indicating a good fit (Hopper et al. 2008, Bentler and Bonett,
1980). Thus, the overall structural model reflects desirable psychometric properties. Table 6, which report
the results of the hypotheses show that, three out of the four hypotheses were supported and accepted in
data set.
DISCUSSION:
This study reveals important empirical results that make a significant contribution to clarifying the
question of HRD practices and organizational effectiveness by means of employee competencies. Results
confirmed hypothesis 1 by showing that training and development had a significantly positive influence
on employee competencies. The result is consistent with the findings of Mackelprang et al. (2012) who
contend that, training enhances employees‟ capabilities which are instrumental in improving overall
performance. The second hypothesis also had a similar result showing a significant influence of career
development on employee competencies. The result is consistent wit h the study of McGraw (2014) who
argued that, the implementation of individual career management process significantly enhances
employee competency and improved individual performance. Results of H3 suggest that performance
management does not have any significant influence on employee competencies. The results are in
conformity with the findings of Meyer and Kirsten (2005), who contend that, managing performance of
employees forms an integral part of an organization and reflects how they manage their human capital.
Finally, results for H4 indicate that employee competencies have a significantly positive influence on
organizational effectiveness. This is consistent with the findings of Swanson and Holton (2009) who
emphasized that, the development of effective and efficient human resource development practices
improves the competence of the workforce and enhances organizational effectiveness. Results of the
study objective are in conformity with Baron and Kenny (1986) assertion that, to claim the mediator is
completely responsible for the association between cause and outcome, the coefficient should be zero.
The results are consistent with the findings of Nilsson and Ellstrom (2012) who emphasized that,
developing human resources development strategies in an o rganization is an opportunity for employees
to enrich their competencies that contribute, in aggregate to firm performance.
Theoretical Implications:
From an academic perspective, this study contributes to the literature by addressing the subject of
improvements of employee competencies suggested by Levenson (2005) and Palan (2005) about which
further research is needed in small and medium scale enterprises. HRD plays an important role in all
sectors of the economy; however, it is especially important in small and medium scale enterprises where
their significance is even greater. This industry is characterized as lacking managerial capabilities and
human capital (Decker et al., 2006). The present study addresses these recommendations by further
investigating the relationship between HRD practices and employee performance, based on the premise
that investment in human resource development (HRD) enhances the quality of human capital and create
sustainable competitive advantage (Arag´on-S´anchez et al., 2003). Few studies have performed an in-
depth analysis of the influence of HRD practices on organizational effectiveness within the industry
(Hill, 2004; Sadler-Smith et al., 1999). Along the same line, few studies have focused on the employee
competencies of this type of organization (Cardon and Stevens, 2004; Kitching, 2007). For this reason,
and in line with other studies, this study can confirm, HRD practices influences employee competencies
in SME‟s through training and development initiatives which enhance employee‟s skills and
competences and in turn increase their productivity and performance ( Salas and Cannon, 2001) and
career development initiatives which builds a partnership between the organization and its employees,
enriching their knowledge, skills and abilities by improving individual competencies and enhancing
organizational effectiveness (Gilley et al.,2009). Another important contribution of this study is the role
of employee competencies on the association between HRD practices and organizationa l effectiveness.
This situation addresses the important demand in literature related to the need to develop human
resources development strategies for employees to enrich and improve their competencies to generate
prospective returns through increased productivity and business performance (Nilsson and Ellstrom,
2012). Previous empirical and theoretical research on the HRD and organizational effectiveness linkage
focused on design and strategy, whereas this study focused on employees. For these reasons, thi s study
contributes to the scarce number of previous studies that have focused on the important role of employee
competencies in the HRD and organizational effectiveness linkage literature in SMEs.
Managerial Implications:
In practical terms, the results lead to the consideration of a series of implications for the small and
medium scale enterprises. First, it is recommended for policy makers, stakeholders and management of
SMEs to encourage the adoption of properly and well-articulated HRD practices. These HRD practices
the research revealed are important strategic mechanisms that stimulate positive behaviour in individuals
and impact their knowledge, skills and attitudes, which increase productivity and performance (Clardy,
2008), improve employee competence and enhance organizational effectiveness (Swanson and Holton,
2009). Employee competencies provides the potential for effectiveness in task performance (Draganidis
and Gregoris, 2006). Therefore, small and medium scale enterprises should encourage the improvements
of these competencies since they affect the behaviour of individuals, teams and effectiveness of the
organization (Bhardwaj, 2013; Levenson et al. 2006). Furthermore, the study suggests that HRD
practices should be configured in a way that an individual can perform effectively and meet performance
expectation through improving individual competencies which will enhance organizational effectiveness.
There are certain limitations that offer important avenues for future research. The results of this study cannot be
generalized because they come from a sample of SMEs in a specific context. We should also be careful when
applying the results obtained to other sectors, given the specific characteristics of SMEs. Furthermore, the data
used in this research are largely subjective opinions of employees. Subjective assessment obtained through
multi-item scales are in general fairly consistent with objective measure. Future studies could adopt the use of
objective measures. Moreover, in this research the analysis is based on cross-sectional data, and so future
studies could adopt a longitudinal research design to test causal relationships among the variables. In addition,
the possible moderating role of other variables, such as employee performance, has not been analyzed. Based on
this limitation, future research could explore how employee performance mediates the association between
human resource development practices and organizational effectiveness. Finally, the possible mediating effects
of employee performance on human resource development practices and organizational effectiveness have not
been analyzed because this would require a change in the paper‟s structure and extend it beyond its original
purpose. We encourage future research to explore the effects of employee performance on organizational
effectiveness using different human resource development interventions.
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