I

ntroducti
on
1.
1Basi cDefini
ti
ons
El
ectri
ccurrent:
Thecontinuousflowofel
ect
ronsconst
it
utesel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Iti
sdenot
edby‘
I
’andi
s
measured
i
namper es.
‘
I’i
salsogivenbyI=coulomb/sec

El
ectri
cPotenti
al:
Theelect
ri
cpotential
atanypoi
ntinanelect
ri
cfiel
disdefi
nedast
heworkdonei
n
bri
ningan
uni
tposit
ivecharge(Q)f
rom i
nfi
nit
ytothatpoi
ntagainstt
heel
ect
ri
cfi
eld

Resi
stance:
I
tistheproper
tyofaconduct
orbywhi
chi
topposest
hef
lowofcur
rent
.Iti
sdenot
edby
Rand
i
tsuniti
sohms

NODES,BRANCHESANDLOOPS:
Networ
kisani nter
connectionofelement
sordevices,ci
rcuiti
sanet workpr
ovi
dingone
or
morecl
osedpat hs.
A BRANCHr epresentsaelementsuchasv ol
tagesourceorar esi
stor.
A NODEisthepoi ntofconnecti
onoft woormor ebranches.
ALOOPi sanyclosedpat hinacircui
t.
AJUNCTI ONisthepoi ntofconnecti
onofthr
eeormor ebranches

Kirchhoff’
slaw:
Kirchhoff'
sCur r
entLaw:
Statement :
Thesum oft hecurrent
sflowi
ngtowardsanyjunct
ioni
nanel
ect
ri
cci
rcui
tequal
tot
he
sum of cur
rentsflowingawayfrom t
hejunct
ion.

Kirchhoff'
sCur rentlawcanbest at
edi nwor dsasthesum ofallcurrents
fl
owi ngintoanodei szero.Orconversely,t
hesum ofallcur
rentsleav i
nganodemust
bezer o.Ast heimagebel owdemonst r
ates,thesum ofcurr
entsIb,I
c,andId,
must
qual thetotalcurrenti
nIa.Curr
entflowst hr
oughwi r
esmuchl i
kewat erfl
ows
throughpi pes.Ifyouhaveadef i
nit
eamountofwat erenteri
ngacl osedpipesy st
em,
theamountofwat ert
hatenter
sthesy stem mustequaltheamountofwat erthat
xiststhesy stem.Thenumberofbr anchingpipesdoesnotchanget henetv olumeof
wat er(orcurrentinourcase)inthesy st
em.
Kirchhof
f'
sVolt
ageLaw:
Statement:
I
nanycl osedci
rcui
tormesh,t
heal
gebr
aicsum ofal
ltheel
ect
romot
ivef
orcesandt
he
voltagedr
opsisequalt
ozero.

Kir
chhoff'
svolt
agel awcanbest atedi nwordsasthesum ofal l
v olt
agedropsandr i
ses
i
n
aclosedloopequalszer o.Astheimagebel owdemonst r
ates,l
oop1andl oop2ar e
bothclosed
l
oopswi thi
nthecircuit.Thesum ofallvolt
agedropsandrisesar oundloop1equals
zero,and
thesum ofallvol
tagedr opsandrisesinloop2mustal soequal zero.Aclosedl
oopcan
be
definedasanypathi nwhi cht
heor i
ginat
ingpointi
ntheloopisal sotheendingpointf
or
the
l
oop.Nomat t
erhowt heloopisdefi
nedordr awn,thesum ofthev olt
agesintheloop
mustbe
zero.

MeshAnal
ysi
s
TheMeshCur rentMet hod,al
soknownast heLoopCur rentMet hod,
Kirchhoff
'sVolt
age
Law, andOhm' sLawt odetermi neunknowncur rentsinanet work
Thef i
rststepint heMeshCur rentmethodist oidenti
fy“loops”withi
nthecircui
t
encompassi ngal lcomponent s.Inourexampl ecircui
t,t
hel oopformedbyB1, R1,andR2
wil
l bethefir
stwhi letheloopf ormedbyB2, R2,andR3wi llbethesecond.Thest r
angest
partoftheMeshCur r
entmet hodi senvi
sioningcircul
ati
ngcur rentsi
neachoft heloops.
Infact,t
hismet hodget si
tsnamef r
om theideaoft hesecur r
entsmeshi ngtoget
her
betweenl oopslikesetsofspi nninggear
Thechoi ceofeachcur rent'sdirecti
oni sent ir
elyarbit
rary,justasi ntheBr anchCur r
ent
met hod,butt her esult
ingequat i
onsar eeasi ertosol veifthecur r
entsaregoi ngt he
same
direct
ionthroughi nter
sect ingcomponent s(notehowcur r
ent sI1andI 2arebot hgoi ng
“up”throughr esi st
orR2, wherethey“ mesh, ”orintersect).Iftheassumeddi rect ionofa
meshcur r
enti swr ong, theanswerf orthatcur rentwillhaveanegat i
vev alue.
Thenextst epi st olabel allvol
tagedr oppol ari
ti
esacr ossr esistorsaccor dingt ot he
assumeddi rectionsoft hemeshcur rents.Remembert hatt he“ upstr
eam”endofa
resist
or
willal
way sbenegat i
ve, andthe“ downst ream”endofar esi storpositi
vewi thr espectto
eachot her,sinceel ectronsar enegat i
velychar ged.Thebat terypol ar
it
ies, ofcour se,ar
e
dictat
edbyt heirsy mbol or
ientati
onsi nthedi agram, andmayormaynot“ agr ee”wi th
the
resist
orpolar i
ti
es( assumedcur rentdirections):

Nodal
Vol
tageAnal
ysi
s
Aswel lasusi ngMeshAnal ysistosol v
et hecur r
entsfl
owi ngar oundcompl excircui
tsit
i
s
alsopossi blet ouseNodal Anal ysismet hodst oo.Nodal Vol
tageAnal ysi
scompl ements
MeshAnal ysi
si nthatitisequal lypower fulandbasedont hesameconcept sofmatrix
anal ysi
s.Asi tsnamei mplies,Nodal VoltageAnal ysisusest he" Nodal "equati
onsof
Kirchof f
´sFirstLawt ofi
ndt hev ol
tagepot entialsaroundt heci r
cuit.Byaddi ngtogether
allthesenodal voltagethenetr esultwillbeequal t
ozer o.
Ateachnodepoi ntwrit
edownKi r
choff´sfir
stl awequat ion,
t hatis:"thecurrents
Enter i
nganodear eexact l
yequalt othecur rentsLeav i
ngt henode"t henexpr esseach
currentint ermsoft hevoltageacr osst hebr anch.For" N"nodes, onenodewi ll
beused
as
ther eferencenodeandal ltheot hervoltageswi l
lbereferencedormeasur edwi th
respect
tot hiscommonnode.

NodalAnal
ysi
s
Nodal analysi
si saf ormalizedpr ocedurebasedonKCLequat ions.
Steps:
1.Identi
fyallnodes.
2.Choosear ef erencenode.I denti
fyitwithrefer
ence( ground)symbol .Agood
choiceisthenodewi ththemostbr anches,oranodewhi chcani mmedi atel
ygi
ve
youanot hernodev oltage(e.g.,bel
owav olt
agesour ce).
3.Assignv olt
agev ar i
ablestot heot hernodes( t
hesear enodev oltages.
)
4.Wr i
teaKCLequat ionforeachnode( sum thecurrentsleavi
ngt henodeandset
equaltozer o).Rear ranget heseequat i
onsintotheform A* V1+B*V2=C( or
simil
arforequat ionswi thmor evoltagevari
ables.)
5.Solvethesy stem ofequat i
onsf rom step4.

INDEPENDENTSOURCESANDDEPENDENTSOURCES
Ani dealvolt
agesourcei sonewhi chmaintai
nsaconst antv
olt
ageatit
sterminal
s,
i
rrespecti
veofthecur r
entdel i
veredtothenetwork.
Practical
l
yav ol
tagesour ceshasi nt
ernalr
esist
ancesandhence,whenitdel
iv
ersa
current,
thereisalwaysaninternalvolt
agedr opwhichincreasesast
hesuppl
iesmoreandmore
current.
Thusi tst
erminal
sv ol
tagepr ogressi
velyf
all
s.

I
deal
Vol
tage Pr
act
ical
Vol
tageSour
ce

AnI DEALCURRENTSOURCEi sonewhichdel

iver
sacurrentofconst
antmagni
tude,
totallyi
ndependentoftheexternal
net
workconnected.
I
npr acti
cal
,nocurrentsour
cecanbeideal,pr
acti
calcur
rentsour
ceisal
waysshown
with
resistancei
npar al
l
el.

I
deal
Cur
rentSour
ce Pr
act
ical
Cur
rentSour
ce

DEPENDENTORCONTROLLEDSOURCES:
Insomenetwork,i
nwhichsomeofthevol
tagesourcesorcur
rentsour
cesare
contr
oll
edby
changi
ngofcur
rentorv
oltageel
sewher
eintheci
rcuit
.Suchsourcesar
eter
medas
“DependentorCont
rol
l
edsour ces”
.
Therearefourt
ypesofdependentsour
ces.

DependentVol
tageSour
ce(
DVS) DependentCur
rentSour
ce(
DCS)

1)CDVS(CurrentDependentVoltageSource)
2)CDCS(Cur
rentDependentCurr
entSour ce)
3)VDVS(Vol
tageDependentVol
tageSource)
4)VDCS(Vol
tageDependentCurrentSource)

SOURCETRANSFORMATI ON:
Apract
ical
vol
tagesour
cecanber eplacedbyacur
rentsour
ceandvi
cever
sa.
Thi
scanbeest
abli
shedifanequi
valencebetweenavolt
agesour
ceandacurr
entsour
ce.

Vol
tagesour
ceinser
ieswit
hr esi
stanceRscanbeconver
tedtocur
rentsour
ceof
magnit
udeVs/Rswit
hr esi
stanceRsi npar
all
elandv
icever
sa

Ohmsl aw
Ohm’ sl
aw ofcurr
entelect
ri
cit
y st
atesthatthecurr
entf
lowi
nginaconductorisdir
ect
ly
proport
ionalt
othepotenti
aldi
fferenceacrossi
tsendsprov
idedt
hephysicalcondi
ti
ons
andtemper at
ureoft
heconduct orremainsconstant
.
Vol
tage=Cur
rent
×Resi
stance
V=I
×R
whereV=v ol
tage,I
=currentand R=r esi
stance.TheSIunitofresist
anceis ohms andis
denotedby  
Ω. I
nordertoestabli
shthecurrent-vol
tager
elati
onship,t
her at
ioV/  Ir
emains
constantforagivenresi
stance,theref
oreagr aphbetweenthepot enti
aldi
fference(V)and
thecurrent(I
)mustbeast r
aightli
ne.

Li
mit
ati
onsof
 Ohm’
sLawofCur
rentEl
ect
ri
cit
y

 Thelawi snotappli
cabletouni
l
ater
alnet
works.Uni
l
ateralnet
worksal
lowt
hecur
rent
tofl
owi nonedirect
ion.Suchty
pesofnetwor
kconsistofelement
sli
keadi
ode,
tr
ansist
or,etc.

 Ohm’slawisalsonotapplicabletonon–l i
nearelement
s.Non-li
nearelementsare
t
hosewhi chdonothav ecurrentexact
lyproport
ional
totheappli
edv olt
agethat
meanst heresi
stanceval
ueoft hoseelementschangesfordif
fer
entv al
uesof
vol
tageandcurrent.Ex
ampl esofnon–l inearel
ementsarethethyri
stor.

 Therel
ati
onbet weenVandIdependsont hesignofV.I
not herwords,i
fIist
he
curr
entf
oracer tai
nV,t
henr ever
sing 
thedir
ectionofVkeepingit
smagni t
udefix
ed,
doesnotproduceacurrentofthesamemagni t
udeasIintheoppositedi
rect
ion.
Thi
shappensf orexampleinthecaseofadi ode

Thislawhelpsusindeter
miningeit
hervol
tage,curr
entorimpedanceorresi
stanceofa
l
inearelect
ri
ccir
cuitwhentheothertwoquanti
tiesareknowntous.Ital
somak espower
calcul
ati
onsimpl .
er

STAR–DELTATRANSFORMATI ON
Starconnect
ionanddeltaconnect
ionar
ethet
wodiff
erentmet
hodsofconnect
ingt
hreebasi
c
el
ement swhichcannotbefurt
hersi
mpli
fi
edi
ntoser
iesorpar
all
el
FROM STARTODETLACONVERSI
ON

RA=(
R1*
R2)
/(R1+R2+R3)

RB=(
R3*
R2)
/(R1+R2+R3)

RC=(
R1*
R3)
/(R1+R2+R3)

DELTATO STARCONVERSI
ON

R1=RA+RC+RARC/
RB

R2=RA+RB+RARB/
RC

R3=RC+RB+RCRB/
RA