A STUDY ON THE EFFECTS OF LUBRICANTS ON FUEL

EFFICENCY IN AUTOMOBILES

REVIEW PAPER

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of

Bachelor of Technology
in
Mechanical Engineering

by

SACHIN KURUTTUKULAM

(Roll No.: B140129ME)

Department of Mechanical Engineering

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY CALICUT
March 2018
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the report entitled “A study on the effects of lubricants on fuel efficiency
in automobiles ” is a bonafide record of the review paper presented by Sachin Kuruttukulam
(Roll No.: B140129ME), in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree
of Bachelor of Technology in Mechanical Engineering from National Institute of Technology
Calicut.

FACULTY IN CHARGE

Place : NIT Calicut Dr. G Unnikrishnan

Date : 03-04-2018 Dept. of Chemical Engineering

 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this report is my sincere effort to review five research papers on the central
topic “ A study on the effects of lubricants on fuel efficiency in automobiles”.

List of articles used:

1) Roberto Cipollonea, Davide Di Battistaa,*, Marco Maurielloa, Effects of oil warm up

acceleration on the fuel consumption of reciprocating internal combustion engines, ATI
2015 - 70th Conference of the ATI Engineering Association

2) R. Castle, S. Arrowsmith, Modelling Lubricant Related Fuel Economy in Heavy Duty

Diesel Engines , 2003 Published by Elsevier B.V

3) G Hawley1, C D Bannister1*, C J Brace1, S Akehurst1, I Pegg2, and M R Avery3 ,

The effect of engine and transmission oilviscometrics on vehicle fuel consumption
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bath, Bath, Avon, UK European
P/T Research & Advanced, The Ford Motor Company Limited, Basildon, UK Global
Lubricants Technology, BP plc, Reading, UK

4) Victor W. WONG1,*, Simon C. TUNG2,*, Overview of automotive engine friction

and reduction trends–Effects of surface, material, and lubricant-additive technologies ,
Springerlink.com (2016)

5) Margareth Judith Souzade Carvalho a,1, Peter Rudolf Seidl a,2,Carlos Rodrigues
Pereira Belchior b,3, Jose´ Ricardo Sodre´, Lubricant viscosity and viscosity improver
additive effects on diesel fuel economy, www.elsevier.com/locate/triboint
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I would like to thank Dr. G. Unnikrishnan, our faculty in charge for guiding us through this
work. I thank my friends who have helped me in various ways, from giving me constructive
criticisms, to judging me. I thank my parents who have been a constant source of
encouragement. I thank God for helping me complete this project without any major difficulties
 ABSTRACT

Fuel economy is affected, both by fuel and engine lubricant quality. Engine lubricant quality
plays a vital role in reduction of fuel consumption by effective reduction of friction between
the contact surfaces of engine parts (piston ring assembly, bearings and valve train). Engine
net components are exposed to various lubrication regimes such as hydrodynamic, elasto-
hydrodynamic, boundary and mixed lubrication during engine operation. In each of these
regimes, the factors which influence engine friction are different. Hydrodynamic friction is
influenced by lubricant rheology, film thickness and sliding speed of interacting surfaces,
whereas boundary and elasto-hydrodynamic friction is a function of surface properties like
roughness and hardness and the type of friction modifier used in engine lubricant. So the
principal factors which influence engine friction power are speed, load, and surface topography
of engine components, oil viscosity, oil temperature and type of friction modifiers used.
 CONTENTS

TITLE Page Number

1 ARTICLE REVIEW 1

1.1 ARTICLE 1 1

1.2 ARTICLE 2 4

1.3 ARTICLE 3 7

1.4 ARTICLE 4 10

1.5 ARTICLE 5 13

2 CONCLUSION 15

3 REFERENCES 16
 ARTICLE REVIEW
1. Effects of oil warm up acceleration on the fuel consumption of
reciprocating internal combustion engines
Roberto Cipollonea, Davide Di Battistaa,*, Marco Maurielloa, 2015 - 70th Conference of
the ATI Engineering Association

ABSTRACT
The homologation cycle of vehicles for private passenger transportation or for light duty
applications considers a cold start from ambient temperature. The most part of harmful
substances (≈ 60-65 %) are produced during the thermal engine stabilization which occurs in
the very of the driving cycle. This strongly influences also engine efficiency, i.e. Fuel
consumption. The more recent commitments on CO2, therefore, reinforce the concept of
reducing warm up time encountering it in the low carbon engine technologies. Due to this
importance, engine thermal management has been the subject of a huge interest opening the
way to new components, technologies and control strategies. This regards not only the coolant
fluid, which undoubtedly influences engine warm up, but also the lubricant: an its heating
acceleration produces much faster benefits.. The purpose of this paper is to assess the effect of
a faster oil heating during the homologation cycle on the fuel consumption. An experimental
campaign has been done on a 3L IvecoF1C engine mounted on a dynamometer test bench
operated in order to reproduce the NEDC.

INTRODUCTION

In response to actual global sensibleness on environmental issues, internal combustion engines

lives a technological revolution in order to to achieve more efficient energy conversion and
reduce pollutants emissions.In this regards, European Community and others international
governments set important targets on pollutants (HC, CO, NOx and PM) and CO2 emissions
from passenger cars and light dutyvehicles. European manufacturer are on-the-road to achieve
the 95 g/km target (which is an average fleetvalue, based on the vehicle mass) on the carbon
dioxide emissions: they reached a strong reduction inrecent years, touching an average value
of about 130 g/km in 2013 (Figure 1), but the yearly reduction can
not keep this trend without a technological breakthrough. In fact, before EC first proposal of a
regulation on the transportation emissions (2007) the yearly reduction was about 1%, and only
after this milestone the average reduction reaches 3-4% per year (Figure 2)

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Lubricating oil plays an important role in overall engine efficiency: a faster oil warm up would
improve mechanical efficiency which is particularly low during homologation cycle when
engine is cold. A decrease in lubricant warm up time, however, is more critical to be reached:

oil warm up rate is about three times lower than the coolant one [12] and it does not reach its
optimal temperature during a traditional homologation drive cycle [13]. During the warm up
phase, oil viscosity is much higher than at regime condition and, so the engine

FMEP can be till 25% higher during cold phase with respect to the hot stabilized phase [14,
15]. Only recently, the possibility to reduce the warm-up time of the transmission
and engine oils have been introduced [16, 17]: using exhaust heat to increase their temperature,
the fuel economy improvement is up to 4.4% on regulatory cycles.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The engine OEM has been characterized and the effect of the oil temperature on the fuel
consumption has been studied following to approaches: (a) oil is heated by an external heat
source before engine start;(b) oil is heated by the exhaust gases which represent an effective
heat source almost immediately available. Two preliminary trials with stationary operating
points (1800 RPM -60 Nm and 2500 RPM -100 Nm) were considered: fuel consumption, water
and oil temperatures were monitored. Three tests were done and specified as “cold engine and
cold oil”, “cold engine and hot oil” and “hot engine and hot oil”.

2
Table 2 summarizes main testing data and results. Data in Table 2 show that heating the oil
before engine start produces an interesting reduction of the fuel consumption rate (averaged on
the 900 s); at 60 Nm@1800 RPM this reduction is 1.5%, while it is2.6% at 100 Nm@2500
RPM. This was due to the faster oil warm up when the engine is run at higherload.Engine
efficiency and CO2 emissions follow similarly. Coolant follows a dynamic which is close to a
first order model, a discontinuity happens when the thermostat opens towards the radiator,
producing temperatures oscillations. Oil temperature seems to have a faster warming up at the
beginning of the test, but the continuously cooling by the water delays the reaching higher
temperatures. Summarizing, in both steady cases presented in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 the benefits
related to a hotter oil are evident: fuel consumption is significant lower when the oil is hotter,
in particular at higher engine load; the temperature behaviour shows, however, the effect of the
oil-coolant exchanger after the very start of the engine: oil temperature falls down and follows
coolant temperature. This is a detrimental aspect, because it nullifies the effect of the heating.
This issue can be solved bypassing with a thermostatic valve the oil/water heat exchanger.

CONCLUSION

In this paper, the effect of the acceleration of the engine oil warm-up has been treated in terms
of fuelsaving and, consequently, CO2 emissions. An experimental campaign has been realized
on a IVECO F1C3.0L engine to evaluate all relevant quantities required to measure the oil and
cooling fluid dynamics andthe effects on fuel consumption. Two steady engine operating points
have been set (60 Nm@1800 RPMand 100Nm@2500 RPM). The NEDC has ben also
implemented as reference homologation procedure.In order to subdivide the effects due to the
oil warm up from that due to the cooling fluid, differenttesting modes have been conceived. In
the engine tested, if a NEDC is started having the oil already hot, areduction in fuel
consumption of about 2.8 % and CO2 emissions of 6.8 g/km have been measured. Thisresult
is limited by the presence of the oil heat exchanger which produces a detrimental effects being
thecooling fluid colder than the oil.

3
 2. Modelling Lubricant Related Fuel Economy in Heavy Duty Diesel
Engines
R. Castle, S. Arrowsmith, 2003 Published by Elsevier B.V

ABSTRACT

Current and future legislation controlling the exhaust emissions from Heavy Duty Diesel
(HDD) vehiclesrequires an overall improvement in engine efficiency as well as the use of
specialised after treatment systems toremove harmful species from the exhaust gas, and prevent
these from entering the environment. Engineefficiency can be improved in a number of ways,
and a combination of all approaches is required to ensure thatthe desired levels can be achieved.
One approach is to improve the fuel efficiency of crankcase lubricants tooptimise fuel
consumption and minimise the amount of harmful combustion gas generated. In addition to
theenvironmental benefits, reductions in overall fuel consumption in heavy duty diesel vehicles
will representsignificant cost savings to transport fleet operators.It is well known that vehicle
fuel economy can be improved significantly by using oils of lower viscositygrades. More
recently it has been shown that improvements in HDD fuel economy can also be achieved
byoptimisation of the lubricant additive package 1, and that the appropriate selection of
lubricant viscometrics andadditive package can generate improvements in fuel economy
without compromising wear performance.

INTRODUCTION

Proposed legislation controlling exhaust emissions from heavy duty diesel vehicles will
Require significant reductions in the levels of harmful gases and particulates escaping to the
Environment. The allowed limits will decrease in some cases by an order of magnitude over
the next five to eight years. A number of different approaches will be needed to ensure that
these targets can be met, including the use of after treatment devices, design changes to improve
engine efficiency and maximising the contribution of the crankcase lubricant to fuel economy.
In addition to the legislative requirements for reduced emissions, there is considerable pressure
from haulage operators to improve the fuel efficiency of heavy duty diesel vehicles. Fuel costs
represent a significant part of the total running costs of any
transport fleet. Estimates vary 2'3 between 30% and 50% and will depend upon taxation
schedules in different ~countries, type of vehicle and service requirements. The ability of the
engine lubricant to reduce fuel consumption is therefore an important route not only to the
reduction of vehicular emissions, but also to enhanced operating profits for the consumer.

4
4.1. Effect of Viscosity Grade and Newtonian Viscosity

The effect of viscosity grade and Newtonian viscosity within a given viscosity grade on friction
and fuel economy was evaluated using the rigs The graph in Figure 7 shows the impact of
changing viscometrics on bearing friction. All oils were blended using the same additive
package and viscosity modifier. In the 15W40, 0W20 and 5W30(max) oils, the Newtonian
viscosity has been maximised. A comparison of these three oils shows clearly that the bearing
friction is reduced over the majority of the speed range by moving to a lower viscosity grade.
However, it should be noted that at low speeds, the lubrication transitions from full film to
mixed hydrodynamic, and that this transition occurs at progressively higher speeds as the
viscosity grade is reduced. The result is that at low speeds the 0W20 oil exhibits considerably
higher friction than the 15W40 oil.

4.2. Effect of Additive Package

Three oils containing different additive systems were used to evaluate the impact of additive
Chemistry on HDD fuel economy. Figure 11 shows the measured bearing friction as a function
of journal speed for these oils. The graph in Figure 11 demonstrates that no reduction in friction
is achieved under these conditions by optimising the additive package. However, the relative
improvement in friction of the 5W30 oils compared with the 15W40 is clearly seen.

5
 Figure 12 shows the effect of optimising the additive package on boundary friction. In this
case, the 0W20 oil is added for comparison.

6. CONCLUSIONS

Fuel economy benefits in heavy duty diesel engine testing have been observed for oils of lower
Viscosity grade. Optimising the balance of Newtonian to non- Newtonian viscosity within a
grade has been shown to give measurable benefits in fuel economy. The addition of lubricant
additives can provide improvements in fuel economy, particularly under transient running
conditions. The chemical structure of viscosity modifiers has been shown to have a significant
effect on both bearing friction and engine fuel economy,

6
 3. The effect of engine and transmission oilviscometrics on vehicle fuel
consumption
G Hawley1, C D Bannister1*, C J Brace, S Akehurst, I Pegg, and M R Avery, P/T
Research & Advanced, The Ford Motor Company Limited

ABSTRACT

An extensive programme of work has been undertaken to assess the potential benefits of
modulating the properties of both the engine and the transmission lubricating oils to achieve
lower fuel consumption. The performance of the engine lubricants was evaluated on a
production diesel engine on a transient test bed. The main engine lubricating-oil viscometric
properties investigated were the cold cranking shear, the kinematic viscosity at 100 uC, and the
High-temperature high-shear value.

INTRODUCTION

The average carbon dioxide (CO2) for new UK car registrations during 2009 was 158 g/km
[1], down from 190 g/km in 1997. CO2 reduction proposals and recommendations have
changed frequently over thelast few years ranging from a voluntary target of120 g/km by 2012
proposed by the Association desConstructeurs Europe´ens d’Automobiles (ACEA)(European
Automobile Manufacturers’ Association)[2], to 100 g/km by 2020 outlined in the King
reviewing March 2008 [3]. However, with the adoption of the new-car CO2 regulation within
the European Union in December 2008, reducing the fleet average target to 130 g/km by 2015,
the automotive industry faces stiff challenge in the coming years. Manufactures which fail to
achieve the necessary CO2 reductions will face substantial penalties of up to J95 per excess
gram per vehicle produced

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

At an ambient temperature of 25 uC it can be seenfrom Fig. 13 that the transmission oil

temperaturenaturally rises by about 20 uC (from 24 uC to 44uC)over the 20 min NEDC,
primarily because of churning of the oil in the transmission. The addition of electrical heating
of 495W from the engine start causes the transmission oil to rise by an extra 12 uncover the
NEDC (i.e. from 24 uC at the start to 56 uC at the end of the NEDC). As expected, this results
in a0.5 per cent reduction in fuel consumption attributable to the electrical heating.

7
Figure 13 shows that at an ambient temperature of27 uC the transmission oil temperature
naturally rises by 31 uC (from 27 uC to 24uC) over the NEDC without any additional heating.
The increased warming over that seen in the 25 uC tests is most probably attributable to the
increased work done to shear the highly viscous oil at the very low temperatures. This increased
work is a significant proportion of the extra parasitic load which, when combined with the
thermodynamic effects on the engine combustion, and temperature-dependant fuelling maps,
gives a fuel consumption increase of15 per cent when compared with the results at 25 uC.

As expected, doubling the electrical heating to1080W approximately doubles the temperature
riseof the transmission oil with the oil temperature increasing by an extra 30 uC over the NEDC
(i.e. from24 uC at the start to 74 uC at the end of the NEDC).This increase in temperature
results in a 0.7 per cent reduction in the fuel consumption. Preheating the transmission oil to
70 uC immediately prior to the test yielded a 1.4 per cent reduction in the fuel consumption
compared with the baseline.

Examining Figs 14 and 15, it can be seen that, as expected, preheating significantly reduced
the predicted transmission oil viscosity during the cycle, in particular through the ECE cycle
part. It is highly probable that the reduction in the fuel consumption is due to the reduced
viscosity of the oil at the elevated temperature, Use of a lower-viscosity oil gave a 1.1 per cent
reduction in the fuel consumption when compared with the ‘production’ transmission oil if
neither are heated over the NEDC.

As with the preheated oil investigated during phase 4 testing, the fuel consumption benefits are
attributed entirely to the lower oil viscosity and reduced churning losses in the
transmission.Heating the lower-viscosity oil during the cycle resulted in a further 0.4 per cent
reduction in the fuel consumption over the NEDC, giving a total improvement of 1.5 per cent
in the fuel consumption compared with the unheated ‘production’ oil

8
CONCLUSION

An experimental programme has been conducted to evaluate the effect of engine oil
viscometrics on the fuel consumption of a Euro 3 common-rail diesel engine-powered vehicle.
It was found that the CCS is the dominant factor on fuel consumption during the early stages
(ECEcycle) of the NEDC when the engine oil temperatures still low. A reduction in the CCS
of approximately 30 per cent resulted in a fuel economy improvement of 5.5 per cent over the
cycle. However, this benefit is not observed during the later ‘hot’ EUDC portions of the cycle.
As the majority of fuel is consumed during the hot high speed portion of the cycle, the benefit
observed for the NEDC as a whole is slight at 1.5 per cent

9
4. Overview of automotive engine friction and reduction trends–Effects of
surface, material, and lubricant-additive technologies
Victor W. WONG, Simon C. TUNG , Springerlink.com (2016)

INTRODUCTION

The increasing global environmental awareness, evidenced by recent worldwide calls for
control of climate change and greenhouse emissions, has placed significant new technical
mandates for automotives to improve engine efficiency, which is directly related to the
production of carbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas. Reduction of parasitic losses of the
vehicle, powertrain and the engine systems is a key component of energy conservation. For
engine efficiency improvement, various approaches include improvements in advanced
combustion systems, component system design and handling—such as down-sizing, boosting,
and electrification—as well as waste heat recovery systems etc. Among these approaches,
engine friction reduction is a key and relatively cost-effective approach, which has been
receiving significant attention from tribologists and lubricant-lubrication engineers alike. In
this paper, the fundamentals of friction specific to the environments of engine components
tribology are reviewed, together with discussions on the impact of developing vehicle
powertrain technologies, surface and material technologies, as well as lubricant and additive
technologies on promises of continuing friction and wear reduction trends.

INTRODUCTION

The trend towards greater energy conservation and the reduction of green-house gases demands
that fuel consumption of automotive engines continues tobe improved. Although the useful
work loss due to engine friction is relatively small for modern engines, the reduction of all
parasitic energy losses, including friction, remains as a valuable contribution to overall
efficiency improvement. A small gain in fuel consumption, even by 1% over existing levels, is
an important achievement. The macroscopic energy and economic savings from improved
engine efficiency are huge. Lubrication and friction play essential roles in energy
conservation.There are many moving parts in an engine. Proper lubrication keeps them in good
working order, extends component longevity, and minimizes energy losses due to friction.
Many engine durability and reliability issues, such as excessive wear, component seizure and
catastrophic failure, are traced to problems within adequate lubrication of essential
components.

10
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

SI ENGINES

The emerging technology in today’s engines, as shown in Fig. 15, has created a deep impact to
improve fuel economy and reduce greenhouse emissions. These emerging technologies
incorporate (1) modular and flexible architectures, (2) reduced mass, (3) improved combustion
technology, (4) improved turbo-charged engines, and (5) integration of leading edge
technologies. In the early 1990s, most new light vehicles had replaced carburettors with indirect
fuel injectors, sometimes called port-fuel injection (PFI). With PFI,the air and fuel are mixed
in the intake manifold and controlled by computerized electronic control units However,
additions such as turbocharging, variable-valve timing (VVT) [46], and direct injection were
still rare and considered high-cost performance features. Direct injection uses high-pressure
fuel injectors to spray a fuel mist directly into each cylinder, where it is mixed with air and
ignited. This improves the engine’s transient response and increases engine efficiency. Direct
injection enables greater compression ratios, which also improves fuel economy

DIESEL ENGINES

In general diesel engines are more efficient than gasoline engines. Diesel engines typically run
at higher compression ratios, use lean mixtures, and exhibit fewer internal losses. They also
use a fuel that contains about 11% more energy per gallon than gasoline. All diesel engines
inject fuel directly into the cylinder. The major difference is that compressing the fuel/air
mixture auto-ignites the fuel. All diesels used for light-duty vehicles through 2010−2014 were
direct injection and turbocharged [46]. A major drawback of diesel engines compared to
gasoline engines is that diesel engines tend to generate more emission problems. Diesel fuel is
injected directly into the cylinder and never mixes thoroughly before and during ignition.
Burning pockets of rich fuel induce soot formation.

11
CONCLUSION

Emerging powertrain technologies including gasoline direct injection (GDI), turbocharged, and
hybrid vehicles are critical to meet fuel economy and reduced emission targets which will
generate unique opportunities for future propulsion systems and lubrication requirements.

In summary, the major development trends will be focused on the following:

 Automotive tribology development is a critical enabler for improved engine fuel efficiency,
powertrain durability, and vehicle performance.

 Automotive tribological research and applications will be driven by powertrain

manufacturers and additive suppliers who want improved fuel economy, powertrain system
efficiency, and improved product performance.

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5. Lubricant viscosity and viscosity improver additive effects on diesel fuel
economy
Margareth Judith Souzade Carvalho a,1, Peter Rudolf Seidl a,2,Carlos Rodrigues Pereira
Belchior b,3, Jose´ Ricardo Sodre , www.elsevier.com/locate/triboint

ABSTRACT

This work verifies the impact of lubricant viscosity and viscosity improver additives on diesel
fuel economy. Eight lubricants were tested in a single-cylinder, four-stroke, direct injection
diesel engine mounted on a dynamometer, under different load and speed conditions. Engine
friction power was also investigated through Willans’ line. The results demonstrate that fuel
economy obtained from multigrade viscosity oils is higher than that obtained from monograde
viscosity oils. A linear relationship was obtained between the high temperature high shear
viscosity and specific fuel consumption. The lubricant which provided lower fuel consumption
also required lower friction power.

INTRODUCTION

World initiatives to increase the energy efficiency of auto- motive vehicle lead many countries
to implement fuel consump- tion monitoring programs that allow for comparison of different
vehicle models from the same classification. Apart from stimulat- ing conscious choices by the
consumers, these programs induce to manufacturing of low fuel consumption, low exhaust
emission vehicles. In Brazil, the National Vehicle Stamp Program was launched in 2008, being
the first energy efficiency program dedicated to the automotive sector in Latin America. The
stamp informs the consumer about the vehicle classification regarding an energy efficiency
using a scale from A to E, where level A means the vehicle fully attends fuel economy
requirements. The stamp also displays fuel consumption reference values for urban and road
traffic, according to an NBR 7024 standard

13
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The kinematic viscosity of the lubricants was analysed at 40 and 100 1C, according to the
ASTMD 445 standard, as shown by Fig. 1. Mineral oil SAE50 showed consistently higher
viscosity values than all other lubricants tested. Synthetic oil SAE 0W20 showed the lowest
viscosities, followed by synthetic oil SAE 5W30. Lubricants SAE 5W40, SAE10W40 and
SAE15W40 showed close intermediate viscosity values. At 40 1C, monograde mineral oil
SAE40 showed higher viscosity than all multigrade lubricants, but, at100 1C, its kinematic
viscosity was close to those of lubricants SAE5W40,SAE10W40andSAE15W40.

CONCLUSION

In general, monograde lubricants showed higher viscosity and higher specific fuel consumption
than multigrade lubricants at different engine torque and speed conditions. The use of a high
shear stable polymer as an additive to multigrade mineral oil SAE 15W40 reduced viscosity
and fuel consumption in compar- ison with the use of a low shear stable polymer in the same
oil. For all lubricants tested, the highest specific fuel consumption was observed at low engine
speed and load (1500 rev/min and 10 N m) and the lowest SFC was noticed at moderate speed
and load (2000 rev/min and 20 N m). A relationship between HTHS viscosity and SFC was
found: increasing lubricant HTHS viscosity increased the specific fuel consumption linearly.
The Willans’ lines showed that operating the engine with a high viscosity monograde lubricant
produces higher friction power than an operation with low viscosity multigrade oil.

14
 CONCLUSION

The addition of lubricant additives can provide improvements in fuel economy, particularly
under transient running conditions. The chemical structure of viscosity modifiers has been
shown to have a significant effect on both bearing friction and engine fuel economy, with an
advantage observed for star polymers and block copolymers over OCPs. Statistical analysis of
the data set suggests EHD/HD mixed lubrication are the dominant regimes, but engine test data
also shows importance of boundary friction control in heavy duty diesel fuel economy.

15
 REFERENCES

[1] International Council on Clean Transportation Europe - European Vehicle Market Statistics
Pocketbook 2014

[2] Will F., Boretti A., A new method to warm up lubricating oil to improve the fuel efficiency
during cold start, SAE International J. Engines Paper, 2011-01-0318, Published 04/12/2011,
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[3] F. Chiara, M Canova, A review of energy consumption, management, and recovery in

automotive systems, with Considerations of future trends, Proceedings of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering June 2013 vol. 227 no. 6
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[4] Pang H. H., Brace C. J., Review of engine cooling technologies for modern engines,
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile
Engineering November 1, 2004 vol. 218 no. 11 1209-1215,

[5] Andrew Roberts, Richard Brooks, Philip Shipway, Internal combustion engine cold-start
efficiency: A review of the problem, causes and potential solutions, Energy Conversion and
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[6] Roberto Cipollone, Davide Di Battista, Sliding vane rotary pump in engine cooling system
for automotive sector, Applied Thermal Engineering, Volume 76, 5 February 2015, Pages 157-
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[7] R. Cipollone, D. Di Battista, A. Gualtieri - Head and Block Split Cooling in ICE – IFAC
Workshop on Engine and Powertrain Control Simulation and Modeling (ECOSM12), Les
Rencontres Scientifiques d'IFP Energies nouvelles, Rueil-
Malmaison, France 23 - 25 Oct. 2012.

16