~~'

270

elevation of 100.00 metres. The area enclosed in 100, 90, 80

m and
SURVEYING

...... contours may be measured

90 m contour will then be
[(m
by a planimeter. The volume of water between 100
multiplied by the contour interval. Similarly,
equal to the average areas of the two contours
can be calculated. The total volume
the volume between the other two successive contours
will then be equal to the sum of the volumes between
the successive contours.
contours and h is
Plane Table Surveying
Thus, if A1, A2 , ......... , An are the areas enclosed by various
contour interval, the reservoir capacity will be given by
. V =~~(A,+ A,) by trapezoidal formula
11.1. GENERAL: ACCESSORIES
field observations and.
and V = l: ~ (A 1 + 4A, +A,) by primoidal formula Plane tabling is a graphical method of survey in which the
ript map in the field while
calculation of Volumes. plotting proceed simultaneously. It is means of making a manusc
For detailed study, reference may be. made to Chapter 13 on the ground can be seen by the topographer aod without
interme diate steps of recording
Work : See Chapter 13. control and to
6. Intersection or Surfaces and Measurement or Earth aod rranscribing field notes. It can be used to tie topcgra pby by. existing
lation or traverse and by lines of levels.
carry its own control systems by triangu
PROBLEMS .•' Instruments used
1. Describe various methods of contouring. Discuss the ,.~erits
and demerits of each. The following instuments are used in plane table survey
for (a) levelling,
of contours. I. The plane table with levelling bead having arrangements
2. Describe with the help of sketches the characteristics (b) rotation about vertical axis, and (c) clampin g in any required position.
3. What is grade contour 1 How will you locate it (a)
on the ground, (b) on Ill.:. map. "' 2. Alidade for sighting
4. Explain, witlt sketches, the t!Ses of con_tp,ur maps. 3. Plumbing fork and plumb bob.
s. 4. Spirit level.
5. Discuss various methods of intcrploating the contour
5. Compass.
6. Drawing paper with a rainproof cover.
1. The Plane Table
for levelling the plane
Three distinct types of tables (board and tripod) having devices
table and conrrolling its orientation are in common use
:
Coast Survey Table.
(z) the Traverse Table, (iz) the Johnson Table and (iii) the
small drawin g hoard mounted
The Traverse Table : The traverse table consists of a
can be rotated about the vertical axis
on a light tripod in such a way that the board legs, usually
table is levelled by adjustin g tripod
and can be clamped in any position. The
by eye-estimation.
usually 45 x 60 em
Johnson Table (Fig. 11.2) : This consists of a drawing bo.ard
a ball-an d-socke t joint and a vertica l spindle with
or 60 x 75 em. The bead consists of
The ball-an d-socke t joint is operate d by the upper
two thumb screws on the underside. ball-an d-socket
screw is free, the table may be tilted about the
thumb screw. When the upper position. When
in a horizon tal
for levelling. The clamp is then tightened to fix the board axis and can
about the vertica l
the lower screw is loosened, the table may be rotated
thus be oriented.

(271)
 273
SURVEYING PLANB TABLB SURVEYING
272
the ground station are in the same
above two types and is point on to the sheet so that the plotted point and
The Coast Survey Table : This table is superior to the verucal line.
of the table is done very accllrately having arma of equal length,
generally used for work of high precision. The levelling The fork lconsists of a hair pin-shaped light metal frame
be turned about the verucal axis arm. The fitting can he
with the help of the three foot screws. The table can in which a plurilb-bob is suspended from the end of
the lower-
the help of a clamp and tangent lower arm below it,
and can be fixed in any direction very accurately with placed with the upper arm lying on the top of the table and the
over the ground mark and the
screw.
with some form of sighting the table being centred when the plutnb-bob hangs freely
2. Alldade : A plane table alidade is a straight edge lent point on the plan.
pointed end of the upper arm··· coincides with the equiva
(il) telesco pic alidade. for ascertaining if the table
device. Two types are used : (1) Plain alidade and 4. Spirit · Level : A small spirit level may be used
used for ordinary work. It r variety or of the circular type,
Plilin Alidmle. Fig. 11.3 shows the simple form and is properly level. The level may he either of the tubula
.vanes at the ends. The two vanes the table and is truly level when
generally consist of a metal· or wooden rule with two essentially with a flat base so that it can be laid on
the alidade is not in use. One of level on the board in two positions
or sights are hinged to fold down on the rule when the bUbble is central. The table is levelled by placing the
is open and carries a hair or positions.
. the vanes is provided with a narrow. slit while the other at right angles and getting the bubble central in both
e line of sight which can be made to pass plane table to magoetic north.
thin wire. Both the slits thus provide a definit
about the point representing S. Compass : The compass is used for orienting the
through the object to be sighted. The alidade can be rotated compa ss in which the longer sides of
The compass used with a plane table is a trough
sight passes through the object •to
the instrument station on the sheet s~ that the line of the trough are parallel and flat so tjlat either slde can he used as a ruler or laid down
edge (known as the fiducial edge)
be sighted. A line is then drawn against the working to coincide with a straight line drawn on the paper.
dicular, be the surface of the sheet. tabling must be of superior
of the alidade. It is essential to have the vanes perpen 6. Drawing Paper : The drawing paper used for plane
billy area sinc~··'the inclination of the line of in the humidity of the atmosphere.
The alidade is not very much suitable on quality so that it may have trtinimutn effect .of changes
vanes is sometimes provided to' .use es expansion and contraction in different
sight is limited. A string joining the tops of the· two The cbauges in the humidity of the atmosphere produc
taken.
it when sights of considerable inclination have to be directions and thus alter the scale and distOrt the map. To
overcome this difficulty, sometimes
The telesco pic alidade is used when it is reqJlired angles and with a sheet of muslin between
Telescopic Alidode. (Fig. 11.4) two sheets are mounted with their grains at right
of sights are increa.sed by its use. exposing it alternatively to
to take inlined sights. Also the accuracy and JaDge them. Single sheet must he seasoned previo us of the use by
tube and graduated arc mounted on, fibre glass sheets or paper
It essentially consists of a small telescope wiili a level a damp and a dry atmosphere. For work of high precisi
e fitted with verniers fixed in
on horizontal axis. The horizontal axis rests on a A-fram backed with sheet aluminiutn are often used.
transit. All the parts are finally supported on
position in the same manner as that ·in a 11.2. WORKING OPERATIONS
g edge along which line may he
a heavy rule, one side of which is used as the workin
on the verucal circle. The horizontal Three operations are needed
drawn. The inclination of the line of sight can he read
can he computed by taking stadia (a) Fixing : Fixing the table to the tripod.
distance between the instrument arid the point sighted (iiz) Orientation.
readings on the staff kept at the point. The elevation
of the point can also be computed (b) Setting : (I) Levelling the table (il) Centring
te calculation work, a Beaman
by using usual tacheometric relations. Sometimes, to facilita (c) Sighting the points.
tion. For work of accuracy,
stadia arc may be provided. as an tx.ua. Thus.
rht: Levelling. For small-scale work, levelling is done by estima
table is levelle d by placing the level on the
observer can very quickly and easily obtain the true an ordinary spirit level may he used. The
bubble central in both directions.
board in two positions at right angles and getting the
.,.Point
horizontal distance from the plane table to a levelling
Survey Table may he used.
otaff placed at the point and the diffemce in elevati on For more precise work, a Johnson Table or Coast
ori the ground that the
between !hem. The same geomem" principle apply to Centring. The table should he so placed over the station
occupi ed should he exactly over
the alidade as to the transit, but the adjustments are point plotted on the sheet corresponding to the station
as centrin g the plane table. As already
somewhat modified in accordance with the lower degree the station on the ground. The operation is known
of accuracy required. described this is done by using a plutnb ing fork.
table into some fixed direction
3. Plumbing Fork : The plutnbing fork (Fig. Orientation. Orientation is the process of putting the plane-
is parallel to that direction on
11.5), used in large scale work, is meant for centring so that line representing a certain direction on the plan
more than one instrument stalion
the table over the point or station occupied by the the ground. This is essential condition to be fulfilled when
he parallel to itself ar different
plane table when the plotted position of that point is _is ro be used. If orientaion is not done, the table will not
The proces ses of centring and orientaion
already known on •he sheet. Also, in the beginning positions resulting in an overall distortion of the map.
table will have to he rot2ted about its
of the work, it is meant for transferring the ground are dependent on ..each other ... For orientation, the
FIG. ILl
 275
PLANE TAIILB SURVEYING ,III
SURVEYING II
274
are finally plotted on the corresponding
e work requires that the plotted poinl rays to other points to be sighted are drawn. The points •I·
;j
vertical axis, !hus disrurbing the centring. If precis as descn'bed in the following articles.
orienllltion and shifting of the whole rays either by way of intersection or by radistion )j

should be exactly over the ground point, repeated 11.3. PRECJSS" PLANE TABLE EQUIPMENT i
that centriog is a needless refinement
table are necesmy. It has been shown in §11.9 available, having (I) precise levelling
for small-scale work. Modified versions of plane table equipment are now c]l
and (ii1) telescopic alidade with
~I
orientation
There are twO main methods of orienting the plane
!able : besd (il) clamp and tangent screw for exact
shows the photog raph of such a table, with telescopic
ss. auto-reduction stadis system. Fig ... ll.6. 1.•

(I) Orlenllltion by means of trough compa equipped with diagram of Hammer-Fennel ~

alidade by Fennel-Kassel. The telescopic alidade is
(i1) Orientaiton by means of backsi ghting . d horizontal disrances and difference
auto reduction system (see Chapteer 22) giving reduce

I
(1) Ornnlillion by trough compass. The compa
ss, though less accurate, often proves In addition, the instrument is provided
orientation to be made prior to the of elevation directly, using Hammer-Fennel Stadia rod.
rapid approx imate read by a screw focusing eye-piece along
a valuable adjunct in eoabliitg the with a vertical circle of glass which can be
compass under the following conditions: of view of the telescope as it appears
final adjustment The plane table tal\. be oriented by with .the telescope. Fig 11.7 demonstrateS the field
When speed is more .·i!Jlpilitant that accuracy. ding line of sight.
(a) in the case of a horizorual, ascending or aescen
lltion.
(b) When there is no second poinl available for orienl
(c) When the traverse is so long that accum ulated errors in carrying the. azimuth
ss.
:I
forward might be greater than orientation by compa
For approximate orientation prior to final adj}l'trnent
(rl)
(e) In certain resection problems.
plane table that the needle flpats
For orientation, the compass is so placed on the
t the long side of the box. At any other
centrally, and a fine pencil line is ruled agains
compass is placed against this line and
station, where the table is to be oriented, the
centrally. The table is then clamped
the table is oriented by rurning it until the needle floats CI10N SYSTEM)
FIG. 11.7. FIELD OF VIEW (FENNEL'S AlJTO.REDU
in position.
(il) Orknlillion 1Jy back sighting. Orienllltion
can ·be done precisely by sighting the • ed with a circular spirit level and
The blade with parallel rule attachment is provid
points already plotted on the sheet. Two cases
may arise : r spirit level as well as the tangent
a trough compass for magnetic· orienllltion. A tubula
(a) When it is possible to set the plane table
on the poinl already plotted on the screws are built into the pillar, assuring easy operat
ion.
sheet by way of observation from previous station
.
The plane rable is locked to the levelling head by means of three screws. The levelling
plane table on the poinl. for exact oriemation. A plumbing fork
(b) When it is not possible to set the bead, is provided with clamp and tangent screw
has been dealt in § 11.6. When
Case (b) presents a problem of Resection and serves precise centriog.
conditions are as indicated in (a), the orientation
To orient the rable at the ne.t stanon, say B, repres
is said to be done by· back sighting.
ented on the paper by a poim
8 ·
METHODS (SYSTEMS) OF PLANE TABLING
Methods of plane rabling can be divided into four
distinct heads :
us station A, the alidade is kept on
b plotted by means of line ab drawn from a previo I. Radiation. 2. Intersection. 3. Traversing. 4. Resection.
vertical axis in such a way that the
the line ba and the !able is hlrned about its The jirsr two methods are generally employed
for locating the derails while the orlwr
A. When this is achieved, the plotted
line of sight passes through the ground station stations.
AB ( provided the centring is perfect) two methods are used for locating the plane table
line ab will .be coinciding with the ground line
clamped in position. RADIATION
and the table will be oriented. The table is then ent station towards the point, the
The method is equivaleru to that einployed in azimuth traversing with the transit. In this method, a ray is drawn from the instrum
ss, but an error in direction of a line and. that pq_\nt, and the poinl is located
Greater precision is obtainable than with the compa distance is measured between the mstrument station
Evidently, the method is more suitable
is transferred to succeeding lines. by plotting to some scale the distance so measured.
) and one single instrument can control
set, i.e., when. levelling, ceruring · when the distanCes are sman (within a tape length
Sighting the points. When once the table has been scope If the diStances are obtained
located are sighted through the alidade. the pomts to be detailed. The method has a wider
and orientation has been done, the points to be alidad e (See chapter 22).
n of the instrument station and is turned tacheometricolly with the help of telescopic
·The alidade is kept pivoted about the plotted locatio the poinls from an instrument station
at the point to be plotted. A ray The following steps are necessary to locate
so that the line of sight passes or bisects the signal
the edge of the alidade. Similarly, the T (Fig 11.8) :
.is then drawn from the instrument station along
 PLANE TABLE SURVEYING
m -'II
SURVEYING i.
276 '
along the ray to get b. The base line ab is thus drawn.
I. Set the table at T, level it and c draw corresponding
E (4) Pivoting the alidade about a, sight the details C, D, E etc, and
tranSfer the point on to the sheet by means ... ,,'
'
of plumbing fork, thus getting point 1 rep-
' rays. 1'
' ' ", D
I ,'/
(5) Shift tlie table at B and set it there. Orient the table
roughly by compass and
resenting T. Clamp the table.
2. Keep the alidade touching 1 and
' '
...... :I . /'
/
finally by backsighting A.
,J
', I /
(6) Pivoting the alidade al;)out b, sigh! the details C, D, E etc. and draw the
sight to A. Draw the ray along the fiducial '\
...... :I /

of the alidade to intersec t with the previously drawn l't'

edge of the alidade. Similarly, sight different corresponding rays along the edge
.
rays in c, d, e etc. The positions of the points are thus mapped by way of intersection.
I~

~
points B. C, D, E etc., and draw the If this is to be used
corresponding rays. A pin. may be i1Jserted The method of intersection is mainly used for mapping details.
at 1, and the alidade may be kepr·touching for l<X:ating a point which will be used as subsequ ent plane table station, the point should
Triangl should be well
es
-I
be got by way of intersection of at least three or more rays.
the pin while sighting the points.
3. M~ure TA, TB, TC, TD, TE
a~.:c···--·····
-·· b
] .a. I -
f ----- ........... _,F conditioned and the angle of intersection of the rays should not be less -than- 45' in such :~
ary measure ment of the base,
etc., in the field and plot their distances cases. Graphic triangulation can also proceed without prelimin
the scale of plotting .
to some scale along the corresponding rays, as the length of the base line influences only I•
thus getting a, b, c, d, e eiC. Join these 11.6. TRAVERSING . ~ I'I'
if needed. Plane table traverse involves the same principles as a transit traverse
. At each successive i
taken to the followin tation and its location is '
11.5. INTERSECTION FIG. 11.8. RADIATION. station the table is set. a foresight is l~

twee!Uh e"-iwo · ns as-in the radiatio n method described

(GRAPHIC TRIANGULATION) pi tted by meas • th · tan
and the instrument earlier. Hence, traversing is not much different m radiition ·a. far as working principles
Intersection is resorted to when the distance between the point n the observations are
station is either too large or cannot be measured accurate ly due to W)!e nelif contittions. are concerned - the only difference is that in the case of radiatio
taJcen to those points which are to be detailed or I!!!IJli"'d
by st@,jtillg at the object from two plane table while in the case of traversing
The locanon of an object IS deterrnmed ently be_used a5 instrument
diawing !lie rays. The !Diersec tio!i of these rays will give the~bservations are made to those points which
will subsequ
stations (previously plotted) and
the position of the object. II Ii is therefore very essential to have
at least two lDStrum ent sta~ TIJe metlll!if1S'Widely used to lay dOwn survey lines between the Instrum ent stations
instrum ent stations is measure d of a closed or unclosed, traverse.
stations to locate any pornt. The distance between the two
and plotted on the sheet to some scale. The line joining the two instrum ent stations is
Procedure. (Fig.ll.IO) II
-------------[Q,. ]d
of the base line is made.

~
known as the base line. No linear measurement other than that (I} Set the table at A. Use c II
int of intersection of the two rays forms the vertex of a triangle having the two
plumbing fork for tranSferring A . •1!_ ....... ....
rays ~ rY:'o sides and the base !me ~ c on to the sheet. Draw the direction
~ ~ , .... ·""
.•
a
b !
the third lrne of the trtangJe. DUe to this 0 of magnetic meridian with the ,
~ / \_
... ::>.:::~~·
\ '' ·----:.::
reas9n. imersec tion is
as gr_aphic triangulalion.
also someumes known
\ '...... , , help of trough compass. D ! C \

./, i (2) With the alidade pivoted I . 8 _....- ·-·-.•~.... \

Procedure (Fig. 11.9) : The fol- \ .......... , \

0'c
about a, sight it to B and draw ! CP",k·"'"" .....":.,.
lowing is the procedure ,to locate, the \ ":( , /, !
! ......... -.,.. [ ] \

· ·-. ,·-. D
I ', I \ ,' I
: the ray. Measure AB and scale
I
~ ,' '"/., ,"""
pomcs by the .method of mtersect10n: off ab to some scale. Similarly,
,

-. -.
I
1
:
1
/ / ;.<.,
I ' I
,~,.. \
' \
: draw.....a. ray towards E, measure E•.•
.i .•·•·•
{1) Set the table at A, level it and

lll]•
' 1
'~.. :
' , ''
,
by
I
\ /I
/ 1
/ ;'
'x' \ AE and plot e.
transfer the pomt A on to the sheet "' \
I e a
// '',,._ '~~'" \ \
I I I ' '
I
/ / /
way of plumbing fork. Clamp the table. \
1 I I 1 ,

~9
L

I (3) Shift the table to B

and set it. Orient the table ac-
•.,
-.
B

~
(2) With the help of the trough curately by backsightingA. Clamp
compass, mark !he norttr direction on the
sheet. the -table. ·~ a
a b A
_ (3) Pivoting the alidade about a, (4) Pivoting the alidade
sigh• it 10 B. Measure AB and p!01 it A
8 about b, sight to C. Measure BC FIG. li.IO TRAVERSING.
FIG. I !.9. INTERSECfiON. and plot it on the drawn . ray .
 279 lIIi
SURVEYING PLANl! TABLE SURVEYING
278 "
~
the traverse is (I) Let C be the station to be .•.•.•.•.• .•.•.•.•.• .•.•.•.•.• .•.•.•.•.• .•.•.
J
EJ
to the same scale. Similarly, the table can be se1 at other stations and
A
located on the plan and A and B be .
completed. two visible poin!S which have been ploned _,.,.''
If there
It is to be noted here that the orientation is to be done by back-sighting. on the sheet as a and b. Set the table
are n stations in a closed traverse, the table will have to be set on at least (n- I) stations
at A and orient it by backsighting B \ , / ..
to know the error of closure though the traverse may be closed even
by setting it on
along ab.
'\ /
. ,,
be cbeclced if two or niore _,.,·/ ,.
(n- 2) stations. At any station a portion of the traverse may (2) Pivoting the alidade at·a, sight
\\
straight line with the station \I
of the preceding stations are visible and are not in the same C and draw a ray. Estimate roughly \ _,·'
!ii
occupied. the position of C on this ray as c,. '\
\ ·'
/ '
.t·;

~
11.7. RESECTION {3) Shift the table to C and centre -~
.·,;,~
Resection is the process· of determining the pwned position of the sralion f!ffUPied it approximately with respect to c,. Keep ii~
'ITy the pllliie table, ITy means oj·slghls taken towardS kiiOwn poznts,
locations of which the alidade on the line c1 a and orient
have been p/Qned. the table by back-sight to A. Clamp the !ii
i!'.,~!
location on
The method consists in drawing two rays to the two points of known table which bas been oriented.
oriented. The rays drawn from the unplotted location c
the plan after the table has been (4) Pivoting the alidade about b,
location are called resectors , the intersect ion of which· FIG. 11.12. RESEcnON AFTER ORIENTATION .BY
·of the station to the points of known sight B and draw the . resector bB to BACKSIGIITING.
correctly oriented :'
gives the required location of the instrument station. If thoi.,)ible is not intersect the ray c1 a in c. Thus, c is i:
resectors will· not
at the station ·io be located on the map, the intersection of the two the location of the instrument station.
~ orie_nting table' at
give the! correct location of the station. The p~blem, therefore, lies
Resection by Three-polnl Problem and Tw"'polnl Problem
'
by the followm g four methods of onentah on. the errors
the statibns and can be solved Of the two methods described above, the first method is rarely used as
(!) Resection after orientation by compass . etc., are inevitable. In the second method, it is necessar y to set
due to local attraction
(iz) Resection after orientation by backsigbting. the station to be located.
the table on one of the known points and draw the ray towarda
(iil) Resection after orientation by three"j)Oint prob_lem. In the more usual case in which no such ray bas been drawn,.·
the data must consist
(lv) Resection after orientation by two-point _problem. of either : ··
A<r:·········-·-···-···-·····-·-·········-·-···-·····-···-···;~
B
-. ~--------·---------·-·······-···············-·~ and their ploned \ ,.;t·
{!) Resection after orientation by compass (a) Three visible points
',, / \\ //
The method is utilised only for small-scale or positions (The three-point problem).
',,, / , / _/
rough mapping for which the relatively large errors \\

\•yb'
(b) Two visible points and their plotted
\ / / ,/
due to orienting with the compass needle would not positions (The two-poin t problem ). \ \
\ /
',, / \
1
impair the usefulness of the map. ll.ll. THE TIIREE-PO!NT PROBLEM \ \ /
\ '\ ,/ i
The method is as foilows (Fig. 11.11). Statement. LocoJjon of the position, ' '
(I) Let C be the instrument station to be located
on the plan, of the station occupied by
.,~
'
., b I i
i
i

on the plan. Let A and B be two visible stations c i

the plane tabk ITy means of observalions i
i
which have been ploned on the sheet as a and b. 0 to three weU-defined points whose positions i
Set the table at C and orient it with compass. Clamp have been previously p/QUed on the plan. '
'
p
the table. I
FIG. 11.11. RESEcnON AFTER In other words, it is required to orient
(2) Pivoting the alidade about a, draw a resector ORIENTATION BY COMPASS. the table at the station with respect to three "\. i /
(ray) towarda A ; similarly, sight B from b and draw ' . '
a resector. The intersection of the two resectors will give c, the required
point. visible points already located on the plan.
Let P (Fig. 11.13) be the instrument station
\ l ./
\ i /
(iz) Resection after orientation by backsightlng and A, B, C be the points which are located '.i i
t line, ii,.
If the table can be oriented by backsighting along a previously ploned backsigh as a. b, c respectively on the plan. The "i/
intersection of the backsigh t line and the resector drawn c
the station can be located by the table. j:! said to be correctly oriented at P
The method is as follows (Fig. 11.12) : F1G. 11.13.
through another known point. when the three resectors through a, b and CONDmON Of CORRECT ORIENTATION
.,.17~1~c A. l~s..--d"}t,»'' • - j..ll.
t
~~~~a:~~. \l\1#-"' ~ ~""-' M.t.-~ 7... r v'l"c/ ~
1J ~~ AA[. ~.(ol. \" rr(.~ f~~ ~ et~ ~}.t.1
• . . l- . .,_ ~,..e<)·
111 rAM..,;( nt-Z ,k ~"'- I
 281
SURVEYING PLANE TABLE SURVEYING
2aO
(2) Pivoting the alidade about b, sight to C and draw the ray x y along the edge
c meet at a point aod not in a triangle. The intersection of the three resectors in a point
gives the location of the instrumem station. Thus, in rhree-poinl problem, orienlalion and ' of the alidade [Fig. 11.15 (a)].
(3) Keep the alidade along ab and rotate the table till B is bisected. Clamp the table.
resecrion are accomplished in lhe some operalion.
(4) Pivoting the alidade about a, sight to C. Draw the ray along the edge of the
The following are some of the important methods available for the solution of the
alidade to intersect the ray x y in c' [Fig. 11.15 (b)]. Join cc',
problem :
(a) Mechanical Method (Tracing ,A
Paper Method) \
\
\
(b) Graphical Method \

(c) Lehmann's Method (Trial aod Error Method)

\
\ •
B
\ oB
1. MECHANICAL METHOD ,(Tl\ACING PAPER METHOD)
.
\
\
~A .i c.
The method involves the use -of, :('tracing paper aod is, therefore, also known as \ '\ j
rracing paper melhod. "' ;
oA ,s --- ~ 'l

u:
\
Procedure (Fig. 11.14) -, i
\ i p
Let A, B. C be the known points \ ,/
and a, b, c be their plotted positions. Let '-\
P be the position of the instrument station '-, ,./
\ i
to be located on the map. \
\ i I•)
! •A
(I) Set the table on P. Orient the '\ !
c
(a) ,a
table approximately with eye so that ab is a,w.a
0
/b' •C, ............ oA
,.-c
parallel to AB. ... ,.,/" .....................
(2) Fix a tracing paper on the sheet
,PI ". ., .e.... rt ,B ,l;
I
aod mark on it p' as the approximate location p' I n
of P with the help of plumbing fork. FIG. IL14,
(3) Pivoting the alidade at p', sight A, B,
C in rum aod draw the corresponding lines p'a', p'b' aod p'c' on the tracing paper. These
lines will not pass through a, b, aod c as the orientation is approximate.
(4) Loose the tracing paper and rotate it on the drawing paper in such a way that
8
the lines p'a', p'b' aod p'c' pass through a, b and c respectively. Transfer p' on to the ,.. c
sheer and represent it as p. Remove the tracing paper and join pa, pb and pc. ,.c
·~
/
/
(5) Keep the alidade on pa. The line of sight will not pass through A as- the oriemstion (b) / /
has not yet been corrected. To correct the oriemstion, loose the clamp aod rotate the /
plane table so that the line of sight passes through A. Clamp the table. The table is thus a,• ,,''
m
c
lP
oriented. I /
(6) To test the orientation, lreep the alidade along pb. If the orientation is correct, /
the line of sight will pass through B. Similarly, the line of sight will pass through C 0
'
(c)
when the alidade is kept on pc.
2. GRAPHICAL METHODS p
m
There are several graphical methods available, but the method given by Bessel is
more suitable aod is described first
(c)
Bessel's Graphical Solution (Fig. I 1.15)
FIG, 11.16
(I) After having set the table at station P, keep the alidade on b' a ·aod rotate the FIG, IUS. THRI!ll-PO!Nf PROBLEM : BESSEL'S
Ml!THOD.
table so that A is bisected. Clamp the table.
 PLANE TABLE SURVEYING
283
l·i;'!' I'
SURVEYING
282 .
the triangle of error is reduced to one point
The orientation will be correct only when
(5) Keep the alidade along c' c and rotate
the table till C is bisected. Clamp the
11.15 (c)].
To do this, choose the point p' as shown.
The appro ximat
descnbed later.
e choice of the position may
il
table. The table is comctly orien!ed [Fig. of Lehm ann's Rules
(6) Pivoting the alidade about b, sight
to B. Draw the ray to intersect c c' in p.
be done witli the help
(4) Keep the a!idade along p'a and rotate
the table to sight A. Clamp the table. .,I\
A is sighted, the ray will pass through
p
(but more accurate than the previous ooe). ~
Similarly, if alidade is pivoted about a and This will give next approximate orientation
if the work is accurate. the ray. Similarly, keep the alidade
(5) Keep the alidsde at .. b to sight B and draw
ilateral and all the four points lie along rays will again meet in one triangle, the size
The points a, b, c' and p form a quadr at c and sight C. Draw the ray. These
method is known as 'Bessel's Method of Inscr
ibed le of error, if p' has been chosen judiciously
the circumference of a circle. Hence, this of which will be smaller than the previous triang
Quadrilaleral'. .
keeping in the view the Wm •nn 's Rules
was done through a and b, and , the ttiangle of error can be reduced to
In the first four steps,. the sighting for orientation (6) Thus, by successive trial and error
two points may be used for sighting and the
rays were drawn through c. However, any a point.
is then sighted in steps 5 and 6. be such thai the rays Aa. Bb and Cc
rays drawn towards the third point, ·which The final and correct position of the table will
)
Allernative Graphical Soludon. (Fig. 11.16 meet in oue single point, giving the point
p.
(1) Draw a line ae petpendlcular to ab at
a. Keep the alidade along ea .and rotate The whole problem, thus, involves a fair knowledge of Lehmann's Rules for the
the table. With b as centre, direct the alidilde le of error may be reduced to a minimum.
the plane table till A is bisected. Clamp approximate fixation of p' so that the triang
to sight B and draw the ray be to cut
ae in e [Fig.. 1J.16 (a)]. a triangle known as the Great Triangle.
c. Keep' ihe alidsde along fc and rotate The lines joirting A. B. C (or a, b, c) form
(2) Similarly, draw cf perpendicular to be at table. Similarly, the circle passing through A, B,
C or (p, b, c) is known as the Great Circle.
p the
the plane table till C is bisected. Clam
With b as centre, direct the alidade to sight B and draw the ray bf to cut cf in Lehmann's Rules
ttiangle ABC: the triangle of error will
(1) If the station P is outside the great le
I [Fig. 11.16 (b)J. point p' should be chosen outside the triang
bp perpendicular to ef. Then p represents also fall outside the great triangle and the le of error ·will
(3) Join e and f. Using a set square, draw of error. Similarly, if the station P is inside
the great triangle, the triang
on the ground. p• shnuld be chosen inside the triangle
on the plan the position P of the table also be inside the great triang le and the point
along pb and rotate the plane table till
(4) To orient the table, keep the alidsde d pass of error (Fig. 11.18). ·
B is bisected. To check the orientation
, draw rays aA, cC, both of which shoul
· through p. as shown in Fig. 11.16 (c).
Ore at biangle
•-K --- --- -/1 -::: ?/
3. LEHMANN'S METHOD
We have already seen that the three-point probl
em lies in orienting the table at the • '('-. . )o •b ',, ~//

nt t
:t:~~lsough
the orientation is done by trial and error

nt :.~
poi~~;
point occupied by the table. In this method,
and is, therefore, also known as the trial
•A Gma: ·:lrc!e
...--,_
, .r.
. "' ~
....·~· ..............
and e"or merho d. ' \. /
' ..., /
Procedure. (Refer Fig. 11.17) ',
', ,,' / c
(I) Set the table at P and orient
the table approxima tely so that ab is parallel
',
' ..., \
/
,
I
•B
:I ,,.
\
\

I I
I
I

AB. Clam p the table.

...
......... :I I
: :/ FIG. 11.18
FIG: I i.19
to I I.

its distance from the rays Aa. Bb, and

\ I
\,1
(2) The point p' should be so clx>sen that
I
(2) Keep the alidade pivoted about
P from A, B and C respectively.
a and sight A. Draw the ray. Similarly,
draw rays from b and c towards B and ......
~
.,·~
..
I
Cc is proportional to the distance of
(3) The point p' should be so chosen that
it is to the same side of all the three
p' is chosen to the right of the ray Aa.
C respectively. If the orientation is correct, p rays Aa, Bb, and Cc. Thst is, if point
' \ ' ' {b- -p'
the three rays will meet at one point If it should also be to the right of Bb and
Cc (Fig 11.19).
not, they will meet in three points forming location of p', the folloWing sub-rules
Triangle Though the above rules are sufficient for the
one small triangle of e"or. of error
may also be useful :
(3) The triangle of error so formed
will give the idea for the further orientation. FIG. tl.l7. TRIANGLE OF ERROR METH
OD.
 28S
SURVEYING PLANE TABLB SURVEYING
284

(3 a) If lhe point P is outside lhe great

circle, lhe position of p' should be so chosen _,.-·-·'"7.1"\:·· •.•. b -,-c b
a' ;.· : .,,. /"' , .. --:-:.:;;- ,·.......... ,
lhst lhe point e (got by lhe intersection of lhe I
Pt.c.:.-- I ·~p2
'\',, :'1 .... \ '.
two rays drawn to nearer points) is midway between /,'
II "'..,.., I
.... ~..
\
\
lhe point p' and lhe ray to lhe most distsnt point !,' \ "'.,., I C
(Fig. 11.19). !t ' ,II. I
a.......
;• \ .............. \ .~.'
(3 b) When P is outside lhe great triaogle
but inside lhe great circle (say in one of lhe
,.
i \ ...........•,;·
segments of great circle), lhe point p' must be ,·
,·"-Great
clrole
\~:;'~< ..................·
''P3'

so chosen lhst lhe · ray to middle point may lie ......... ..

·~
FIG. it.24
between p' and lhe point e which is lhe intersection FIG. 11.23
FIG. 11.20
of lhe rays to lhe olher two extreme points (Fig. 11.9. TWO-POINT PROBLEM
1\.20) Statement. LoCIUion of the posilion on the plan, of the station oicupitd by the
Spedal Cases plane table by means of observlllions to two weU defined poinls whose positions have
The following are few rules for special cases: been previously plDtted on the plan. "
(4a) If lhe positions of A, B, C aod P are such ~-P lies on or near lhe side Let .us take two points A aod B, lhe plotted positions of which are known. Let
of AC of lhe great triaogle, lhe point p' must be so chosen lhst it is in between lhe C be lhe point to be plotted. The whole problem is to. orient lhe table at C.
two parallel rays drawn to A aod C aod to lhe right (or to lhe same side of each of Proc:edure. Refer Fig. 11.25
lhe rays) of each of lhe lhree rays to satisfy Rule 3 (Fig. 11.21). (I) Choose ao auxiliary point D near C, to assist lhe orientation at C. Set lhe table
at D in such a way lhst ab is approximately parallel to AB (eilher by compass or by
eye judgment). Clamp lhe table.
b (2) Keep lhe alidade at a and sight A. Draw lhe resector. Similarly, draw a resector
•• from b aod B to intersect lhe previous one in d. The position of d is lhus got, lhe
••• degree of accuracy of which depends upon lhe approxintation lhst has been made in keeping
•
•• ab parallel to AB. Transfer lhe point d to lhe ground aod drive a peg .
c ~ / /.p.
---~---
. (3) Keep lhe alidade at d and sight C. Draw lhe ray. Mark a point c, on lhe
ray by estimation to ·represent lhe distsnce DC.
(4) Shift the table to C, orient it (teutatively) by taking backsight to D aod centre
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____J
~---

it with reference to c1• The orientation is, thus, t.he same as it was at D.
A
FIG. 11.21. FIG. 11.22 .... ',
~

-----;\
B

(4b) If lhe point P (as in 4 a) lies on or near lhe prolonged line AC, lhe point ... ... /
/ ''
p' must be chosen outside lhe parallel rays aod to lhe right of each · of lhe lhree rays
... ... /
/ ''
' ......... /
/ \\
to satisfy bolh Rules 2 and 3 (Fig. 11.22). ... / ''
(4c) If A, B and C happen to be in one straight line lhe great triaogle will be /
/
)<
... ..... '\
one straight line only and lhe great circle will be having abc as its arc lhe · radius of
~ ...... \

~ ~---:--------~
which is infinite. In such cases, lhe point p' must be so chosen lhst lhe rays drawn to
lhe middle point is between lhe point p' aod lhe point e got by lhe intersection of lhe
rays to lhe extreme poiut (Fig. 11.23).
(4d) If lhe positions A, B, C aod P are such lhst P lies on lhe great circle, lhe
0 c ;
point p' cannot be determined by lhree-point problem because lhree rays will intersect in
FIG. 11.25. TWO·POINf PROBLEM.
one point even when lhe table is not at all oriented (Fig. 11.24).
 l87
286 SURVEYING . PLANE TABLE SURVEYING

by sighting B through b. The ray Bb should pass through c if the orientation is correct.
(5) Keep the alidade pivoted at a and sight it 10 A, Draw the ray 10 intersecr
11 shor#d be ·noled lhol the twa-point resection and three point reseaion give bath
with the previously drawn ray from D in c. Thus, c is the poinl representing the sration
C, with reference ro the approximate orieoration made ar D. an orientatidiJ. as weU as fixing.
(6) Pivoting the alidade about c, sight B. Draw the ray ro iorersecr with the ray 11.10. ERRORS IN PLANE TABLING
drawn from D to B in b'. Thus b' is the approximate represeoration of B with respecr The degree of precision 10 be attained in plane rabling depends upon the character
10 the orieoration made at D. · of the survey, the quality of the instrument, the system adopted and upon the degree 10
(7) The angle berween ab and ab' is the error in orientation and must be corrected which accuracy is deliberately sacrificed for speed. The various sources of errors may be
for. In order that ab and ab' may coincide (or may become parallel) keep a pole P in classified as :
line with ab' and ar a great disrance. Keeping the alidade along ab, rorare the rable till 1. Instrumental Errors : Errors doe to bad qoality of the instrument. This includes
P is bisected. Clamp the ·rable. The rable is thus correcdy oriented. all errors descn'bed for theodolite, if telescopic alidade is used.
(8) After having oriented.· ~/ lable as above, draw a resec10r from a 10 A and 2. Errors or plotting.
another from b to B, the inlersection· of which will give the position C occupied by the 3. Error due to manipulation and sighting. These include
rable. , (a) Non-horizontality of board.
It is 10 be noted here that unless the point P is chosen infinilely disr8nr, ab, and (b) Defective sighting.
ab' cannot be made parallel. Since the disrance of P from C is limited due 10 other considerations, (c) Defective orientation.
rwo-poinl problem does nor give much accurate resulls. ·,,/it the same time, more lBbour (d) Movement of board berween sights.
is involved because the rable is also 10 be set on one more sration to assist the orienration. (e) Defective or inaccurate centring.
Alternative Solution of Two-point Problem (Fig. 11.26) ·
.r (a) Non-horiVJII/IIlily of board · ·.,
(I) Select an auxiliary point D ver/
near to B and orient the rable there by estimation The effect of non-horizontality of board is more severe when the difference in elevation
(making ba approximately parallel 10 BA).
heiWeeri the poinls sighted is more.
If D is chosen in the line BA, orientation

·~·
can be done accurately. (b) Defecli¥e sighting
The accuracy of plane rable mapping depends largely upon the precision with which
(2) With b as centre, sight B and c
points are sighted. The plain alidade with open sight is much inferior 10 the telescopic
draw a ray Bb. Measure the disraoce BD
and plot the poinl d to the same scale 10 alidade in the definition of the line of sight.
which a and b have been; previously plotted.
Since the disraoce BD iS small, any small
I
. i. \\ r. (c) Defecli¥e orien/111ion
Orieoration done with compass is uoceliable, as there is every possibility of local
error in orientation will nor have appreciable attraction. Erroneous orieoration contribute 10wards dis10rtion of the survey. This orieoration
I I ·
should be checked at as mu.ny sta~nrLc: as possible hy g!ghring distant prominent objects
effect on the location of d' The dotte<J lines I. i. \\
show the first position of plane rable with I I · already plotted.
approximare orienration. .I I. '\ (d) Movemerrl of board between sights
(3) Keep the alidade along da and I j . Due to carelessness of the observer, the rable may be disturbed between any two
rorare the rable .10 sight A, for orientation. .I .I '\ sights resulting in the disrorbaoce of orientation. To reduce the possibility of such movement,
I I. .
the clamp should be finuly applied. It is always advisable 10 check the orienration at the
Clamp the rable. The finn lines show the I . \
second position with correct orientation. I. I. \. end of the observation from a sration.

'·, ,..\ ~
(4) With d as centre, draw a ray B( --- ------·"' \ . (e) Inaccurate centring
towards C, the point to be acmally occupied :'I ___-,.,\ It is very essential 10 have a proper conception of the extent of error introduced
by the plane rable.
• I I
, .."' / '
_..,... ,..\ by inaccurate centring, as it avoids uooecessary waste of time in setting up the rable by
. ," .,..../
(S) Shift the rable 10 C and orieoc repeated trials.
it by backsighting 10 D.
D '·
b w•• • • <:,::.. .........
-• Let p be the plotted position of P (Fig. 11.27), while the position of exact centring
_. a j' should have been p', so that linear error in centring is ~ e ~ pp' and the angular error
(6) Draw a ray 10 A through a, in- d ~~-------- ~
rersecting the ray de in c. Check the orienration in centring is APB - apb ~ (a + ~).
FIG. 11.26. TWQ-POINT PROBLEM.
 289
288 SURVEYING PLANE TABLE SURVEYING

e= 0j~ =0.025 m =2.5 em

{,
~\;~>·
"'~"
Ray due to __..:.r,, ·......
. '
/'1~/
'
,.,;~/
~
which shows I that for large scale work (such as I em to I metre), the maximum value
of e = 2.5 em only and centring should be done carefully.
of small scale work also, such as I em = 20 metres.
wrong centring '\ '·, / / Let us take the case
...\ ...\·.............. ,.,.,...·':,/,.' s=--
l··
2000
\,_j "'·..., 1·/
e = ~·= = 0.5 m = 50 em.
(P) ,./
·........... ,.........·
a ·...... p' _,_,. b This shows that for such small scales, we can have the position of the ground points
•.<~ /\.
. . '\ / ¥: ' 9(,,/
within the limits of the board .

Aaydua to
,, Example 11.1. In setting up the plone table at a station P the corresponding point
on the pion . was not accurately centred above P. If the displacement of P was 30 em
correct centring
in a direction at right angles to the ray, how much on the pion would be the consequent
p displacement of a point from its true position. if.
(i) scale is : I em = 100 m (i<) scale is : I em = 2 metres.
FIG. 11.27. ERROR DUE TO WRONG;•cBNTIUNG.
Solution.
Drop perpendiculars from p' to ap and bp at f and g respectively. Oil'= e. s metres
Ca<r (<)
Then p'f =AP sii!. a. p'g =BP sii!. ~ ".(I)
'I • Scale : I em= 100 m .. s=-1-
10,000
Now siiJ. a. = ~P "a.. as a. is sDjllll and siiJ. ~ = ~~ " ~. as ~ is small.
oo' =e. s = 30 x ~ em = 0.03 m.m (negligible)
:~ Let us find out the error in the plotting of a and b. Let us say that a • and b • .. 1
are the positions of A and B for correct centting. Then the error in the position of A s =-1-
and B will be aa • and bb • respectively. Case (u) Scale : I em == 2 m ; .. 200

aa• =pa. a=pa. ~~ and bb' =pb. ~ =pb. ~~ ".(2) .. oo'= e s = :~ = 1.5 mm (large).
Let p'f = p'g = e metres and s = fractional scale (R.F.) 11.11. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PLANETABLlNG
Then pa = PA. s and pb = PB. s Adnntages
Heoq: from (2), (I) The plan is drawn by the out-door surveyor himself while the country is before
his eyes, and therefore, there is no possibility of omitting the necessary measureruents.
aa• = s. PA. ~;, s. e metres and bb' = s. PB. ;B = s. e metres.
(2) The surveyor can compare plotted work with the actual features of the area.
Hence, we find that the displacement of the points is es metres. If we take 0.25 (3) Since the area is in view. contour and irregular objects may be represented accurately.
mm as the unit of precision in plotting, (4) Direct measurements may be almost .entirely dispensed with, as the linear and
e. s = aa' = bb' = 0.00025 metre angular dimensions are both to be obtaiped by graphial means.
(5) Notes of measurements are seldom required and the possibility of mislal<es in
0.00025 metre ".(3) booking is eliminated.
e= -.- (6) It is particularly useful in magoetic areas where compass may not be used.
Thus, we have got an expression that the value of e should be less than °·00025
s
metre. (7) It is simple aod hence cbesper than the theodolite or any other type of survey.
(8) It is most suitable for small scale maps.
! Centting must be performed with care in large scale work. For a scale of 1 em (9) No great skill is required to produce a satisfactory map and the work may be
= metre, s = 1/100.
entrUSted to a subordinate.
"'
290

Disadvantages
not recorded, it is a great inconvenienc.:e if
SURVEYING

@]
(I) Since ootes of measurements are
duced to some different scale.
the map is required to be repro
(2) The plane tabling is not in!en
ded for very accurate work .
. (3) It is essentially a ttopical
instrumen!.
n and in wet climate.
Calculation of Area
It is most inconvenien! in rainy seaso
(4)
nt to transport,
(5) Due to heavyness, iE is inconvenie
es, there is every likelihood of these being
(6) Since there are. so many accessori
lost. 12.1. GENERAL the tract
PROBLEMS surveying is to determine the area of
One of the primary objects of land land in plane surve ying
of earthwork. The area of
vantages of plane table surveying over other
methods. surveyed and to determine the quantities urem ents of area
I. (a). Discuss lhe advantages and disad ontal plane. The units of meas
ng a point by plane_ table survey. means the area as projected on a horiz units are sq. metr es or
Explain with sketcbfs. the follow ing methods of locati while in metric units, the
(b) of tbe foUowing methods : in English units are sq. ft or acres,
Also discuss the relative merits and appli cation the relation between the two systems.
(ii) Inter section hectares. The following table gives
(l) Radiatioo. VALI!NTS
(A.M.I.E.) RE MEASURE WITH METRIC EQUI
(iii) Resection.
.. ·; TABLE 12.1. BRITISH VNITS OF SQUA
us iccessories of a' pJane table. e yards Square Jeer Square links Merrie j
2. Describe briefly the use of vario Sq. mih AtrtS Square clwim Sq. polts OT· Squar Equiva/e,us
us methods of orienting lhe plane table.
1

Pen:hes
3. Diseuss with sl:etcbes, the vario 258.99 ha
I

be carried out at a scale of I : 5000

. Show that at 4'
640 6,400 102.400 3.097.000 - -
4. (a) A plane rable survey is to y station is DOt neces sary. What error I
43,560 100,000 0.40467 ha I
table over dle surve 4.840
this scale, accurate centring of the plane point is 45 em out of the vertical lhrougb the station? I 10 160
if lhe
would be caused in position on a map
2
16 484 4,356 10.000 404.67 m
g paper method. I
(b) Define three-point problem and
show how it may be solved by tracin 625 2
I 30.25 272.25 25.29 m
hes, Lehmann's Rules.
5. Describe, with lhe help of sketc 20.7 1
1 9 0.836 m
is it solved ?
6. What is two-point problem ? How 2
gle of 2.3
solved by m Bessel's method (i1) Trian 1 929 m
7. Wbat is three-point problem ? How is it 2
error melhod. I 404.67 cm
eliminated ?
errors in plane tabling ? How are they
8. What are the different sources of
ting plane table by backsighting. is the Acre.
9. (a) Describe lhe inethod of orien Note. The sWldard of square measure
rable surveying.
'intersection' methods as applied to plane SQUARE MEASURE W1T1I BRITISH -
EQUIVALI!NTS
(b) Distinguish between 'resection' and iency? TABLE 12.1 (a) METRIC VNITS OF -
chain surveying in point of accur.icy and exped
(c) How does plane table survey compare with Sq. tentinutres British
AT< (a) Sq. marts
(A.M .J.E.) SqUllrt kilometre H<ctam Equiva/e~ts
(/r4) (m'J (<m'l
vantages of plane !able surveying with those
of chain (tm'J
10. (a) Compare tha advantages aod disad 100 10.000 1.000.000 - 0.3861 sq. mile
surveying. I I
trial method giving 100 10,000 - 2.4710 acres
(b) State three-point problem in
plane tabling aod describe its solution by (A.M. I.E.).
I
the position of lhe point SOUght. 1,000.000 1076.4 sq. ft.
the rules which you will follow in esrimaling I 100 I
1 10.000 10.764 sq. ft. I

I 0.155 sq. ft. J

ure is the Are.

Note. The standard of square meas (291)