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A Brief Review of Chemistry: Positively Charged

This document provides a brief overview of key concepts in chemistry. It discusses the components of atoms, including protons and neutrons in the nucleus and electrons orbiting the nucleus. Elements are pure substances made of atoms with the same number of protons, while isotopes of an element differ in their number of neutrons. The document also summarizes chemical bonds such as ionic bonds between oppositely charged ions and covalent bonds where atoms share electrons. Additionally, it introduces important biomolecules like carbohydrates, lipids, and discusses properties of acids, bases and biochemical reactions involving carbohydrates.

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Elijah Punzalan
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70 views50 pages

A Brief Review of Chemistry: Positively Charged

This document provides a brief overview of key concepts in chemistry. It discusses the components of atoms, including protons and neutrons in the nucleus and electrons orbiting the nucleus. Elements are pure substances made of atoms with the same number of protons, while isotopes of an element differ in their number of neutrons. The document also summarizes chemical bonds such as ionic bonds between oppositely charged ions and covalent bonds where atoms share electrons. Additionally, it introduces important biomolecules like carbohydrates, lipids, and discusses properties of acids, bases and biochemical reactions involving carbohydrates.

Uploaded by

Elijah Punzalan
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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A brief review of chemistry

Protons – positively charged protons along with


neutrons are found in an atoms nucleus
Electrons – negatively charged electrons orbit
around nucleus
Element – pure substance that consists only of
atoms with the same number of protons
Isotopes – forms of an element that differ in the
number of neutrons
Radioisotope – isotope with an unstable nucleus
A brief review of chemistry
A brief review of chemistry
An outermost shell filled
with electron are most
stable
Valence - relating to or
denoting electrons
involved in or available for
chemical bond formation
A brief review of chemistry
An outermost shell filled with
electron are most stable
Valence - relating to or
denoting electrons involved in
or available for chemical bond
formation
Octet rule – atoms are stable
when their outer shell is full
- For many, but not
all, types of atoms, their shell
is full when it contains eight
(8) electrons
A brief review of chemistry
Free radicals – Solitary atoms that have unpaired
electrons
Ions – unequal number of protons and electrons, carry a
net charge
A brief review of chemistry
Valence electrons – participate in a chemical bond with
another atom
Molecules – formed when a chemical bond is made with
another atom
A brief review of chemistry
Electronegativity – electrons are not always evenly
shared between atoms!
- is a measure of an atoms ability
to attract electrons in a bond with another atom
- atoms with different
electronegativity form a covalent bond the shared
electrons are more likely to be closer to the atom
with a higher electronegativity
- such bonds are called polar
covalent bonds; molecules with more polar
covalent bonds are polar molecules
A brief review of chemistry
A brief review of chemistry
Ionic bond – strong mutual attraction links ions of
opposite charge
- Ions retain their respective charges when
participating in an ionic bond
A brief review of chemistry
Ionic bond – strong mutual attraction links ions of
opposite charge
- Ions retain their respective charges when
participating in an ionic bond

Covalent bond – two atoms share a pair of electrons


- Formed between atoms with a small or
no difference in electronegativity
- Covalent bonds are often stronger than
ionic bonds (But not always)
A brief review of chemistry
Hydrogen bond – bonds that form and break much more
easily
- bonds that stabilize DNA and protein
structure
- hydrogen bonds among water
molecules are collectively stronger
than an ionic bond
A brief review of chemistry
Dihydrogen monoxide
- Substances that dissolve
easily in water are hydrophilic
- Ionic solids, such as
sodium chloride (NaCl), dissolve
in water
A brief review of chemistry
Dihydrogen monoxide is a powerful solvent!
- Solute: a dissolved substance
- Solution: uniform mixture of solute
completely dissolved in solvent
- Chemical bonds do not form between
molecules of solute and solvent
- Substances that resist dissolving in water are
hydrophobic (e.g., oils)
A brief review of chemistry
Properties of Dihydrogen monoxide
- Cohesion is the tendency of molecules to
resist separating from one another
- Water has cohesion because hydrogen
bonds collectively exert a continuous pull on its
individual molecules
- Stabilizes temperature due to hydrogen
bonding; it takes more heat to raise the
temperature compared with other liquids
- Is less dense in its solid state than its
liquid state
A brief review of chemistry
Acids and Bases
- acids give up hydrogen ions
acid is a substance that can release a proton
Lowers pH levels
- bases accept hydrogen ions
base is a substance that can accept a proton
Raises pH levels
pH – The measure of concentration of hydrogen ions in a
solution
A brief review of chemistry
Acids and Bases
- acids give up hydrogen ions

- bases accept hydrogen ions

pH – The measure of concentration of hydrogen ions in a


solution
A brief review of chemistry
Acids and Bases
Carbon based life
Biomolecules: Carbohydrates and Lipids
Six
Carbon
4 unpaired electrons in its outer shell

Octet rule – atoms are stable when


their outer shell is full
The most important list
you have to know
Functional groups
– specific groups of atoms within
molecules that have very characteristic
properties regardless of the other atoms
present in a molecule
- in biological molecules play an
important role in the formation of
molecules like Nucleic Acids, proteins,
carbohydrates, and lipids
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates
- Have the general formal Cn(H2O)n
- Hydrated Carbon containing compounds
- Carbons that are linked by a hydrogen atom and
a hydroxyl group
• Three main types of carbohydrates in living
systems
• Monosaccharides
• Oligosaccharides
• Polysaccharides
Monosaccharides
Single Sugars

Pentose – Five
carbon sugars e.g.
Ribose
Hexose – Six carbon
sugars e.g. Glucose
Monosaccharides
Enantiomers – exists as a pair of molecules that
are mirror images of each other
- Four different atoms can bind to a
single carbon atom in Two ways: Left handed and
a Right handed structure
- identical chemical properties, such
as solubility and melting point, However due to
the different orientations of atoms in space,
noncovalent interactions maybe very different
- D- glucose biologically active
- L- glucose biologically inactive
Monosaccharides
Two traditional ways in depicting the bonds
between atoms in monosaccharide Linear
structure & Ring structure

Ring structures better approximate the true


shape of the molecule as it mostly exists in a
solution

The Ring is from the linear structure by an oxygen


atom which forms a bond that bridges carbon 1
and 5 in glucose
Monosaccharides

Fischer Projection Haworth Projection


Disaccharides
Two monosaccharides can form a
Glycosidic bond through a
Dehydration reaction to create a
Disaccharide e.g. Sucrose (Table
sugar), Lactose (Milk)
Polysaccharides
Two monosaccharides can form a
Glycosidic bond through a
Dehydration reaction to create a
Disaccharide e.g. Sucrose (Table
sugar), Lactose (Milk)

When Many monosaccharides are


linked together, they form
Polysaccharides
Polymers of glucose

Cellulose

Starch Glycogen
Metabolic Reactions involving Carbohydrates
Photosynthesis

Glycogen
Lipids
Lipids
- Are Fatty, Oily, Waxy Organic Compounds
- Great variety of structures, But all are
hydrophobic!
- Insoluble in polar compounds (e.g. Water),
Soluble in non polar compounds (e.g.
Methanol, Hexane)
Fatty Acids
- Contains Carboxyl group at its “head” and
a long hydrocarbon chain for a “tail”
Fatty Acids
- Contains Carboxyl group at its “head” and
a long hydrocarbon chain for a “tail”
- Saturated fatty acids have their carbon
“tails” saturated with hydrogen
Fatty Acids
- Contains Carboxyl group at its “head” and
a long hydrocarbon chain for a “tail”
- Saturated fatty acids
- Unsaturated fatty acids contain one or
more double bonded carbon-carbon
atom (C=C)
Fatty acids
- Contains Carboxyl group at its “head” and
a long hydrocarbon chain for a “tail”
- Saturated fatty acids
- Unsaturated fatty acids contain one or
more double bonded carbon-carbon
atom (C=C)
- Free fatty acids are relatively scarce in
biological systems. Instead, they are
usually esterified to glycerol
Triglycerides (Fats)
- Fats and Oils found in animals and plants
- “Tri”-”acyl”-”glycerols”
Triglycerides (Fats)
- Fats and Oils found in animals and plants
- “Tri”-”acyl”-”glycerols”
Triglycerides (Fats)
- Fats and Oils found in animals and plants
- “Tri”-”acyl”-”glycerols”
Triglycerides (Fats)
- Fats and Oils found in animals and plants
- “Tri”-”acyl”-”glycerols”
- This is as close as lipids come to forming polymers as other biomolecules
can
Cis vs. Trans
Cis vs. Trans
Phospholipids
- Contains Hydrophilic head and two
Hydrophobic tails
- The opposing characteristics of this
molecules gives rise to the cell membrane
Phospholipids
- The opposing characteristics of this molecules gives rise to the cell membrane
aptly called the lipid bilayer
Aqueous (“watery”) Extracellular Environment

Aqueous (“watery”) Intracellular Environment


Waxes
- Complex, varying mixture of lipids with long fatty
acid tails bonded to alcohols or carbon rings
- Plants secrete waxes to restrict water loss and
keep out parasites and other pests
- Other types of waxes protect, lubricate, and
soften skin and hair
Waxes
- Complex, varying mixture of lipids with long fatty
acid tails bonded to alcohols or carbon rings
- Molecules that pack tightly, so waxes are firm
and water repellent
Steroids
- Lipids with rigid backbone of four carbon rings and no fatty acid tails
- Cholesterol, the most common steroid found in animal tissue
- Functional groups attached to the rings define the type of steroid
- Tiny differences in chemical structure can lead to profoundly different
biological properties

Cholesterol
Steroids
- Tiny differences in chemical structure can lead to profoundly different
biological properties
Next time

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