Atoms

● Smallest particle that exhibits the same property

● There are 92 Kinds of atoms
Element
● A substance which is made up of only one atom
From H - Uranium

1869 ​- finalized the periodic table by Dmitri Mendeleev

● 92 elements are the only ones that are naturally occurring. The others are synthetic
● Groups In the periodic table
○ Alkali
○ Alkaline Earthmetals
○ Halogens
○ Noble gases
● Metals vs Non Metals
○ Metals - Iron, gold, foil, silver
■ Malleable
■ Luster
■ Good conductors
■ Solid at room temperature except Hg/ Mercury (liquid metal)
■ Tends to lose electrons to form cations (positively charged)
○ Non-Metals
■ Brittle
■ Not good conductors
■ Can be solid, liquid, or gas at room temperature
■ Tends to gain electron to form anions (negatively charged)
○ Metalloids
■ Exhibit properties intermediate between metals and non-metals
■ Exhibits luster just like a metal does
■ Brittle just like a non-metal
■ Semi-conductor (at a specific temperature)

● Trends in the PERIODIC TABLE

○ Atomic Number - number of protons (nucleus) or electrons (electron cloud)
○ Atomic Mass Number - combined number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
○ Valence electrons - electrons found on the outside edge of the atom, farthest
away from the nucleus. Can be transferred
■ An atom will have from 1 up to 8 valence electrons
■ To know the no. of ve
■ Look at the group number the element is in
■ Ignore the transition elements (groups 3-12) for now.
■ Only look at groups 1,2,13,14,15,16,17,18.
● PERIODIC TRENDS
 ○ Atomic Radius
■ Radius from the center of the nucleus to the outer most shell.
■ Is the distance from the center of the nucleus to the edge of the electron
cloud.
■ The trend in a family/group is to go from smaller at the top to larger at the
bottom
■ With each step down it gets bigger
■ Left to right - adds proton and electron making it smaller because the
protons and electrons get pulled in the middle
■ Smaller from left to right
■ Bigger from top to bottom
○ Ionization Energy
■ Energy required to remove an electron from the neutral state of an atom.
■ The larger the atom is, the easier its electrons are to remove
■ Inversely proportional with ATOMIC RADIUS
■ As more PELs (Principle energy level) are added to atoms, the inner
levels of electrons shield the outer electrons from the nucleus' attraction
■ e- Shielding
■ The effective nucleus attraction for these outer electrons is less, and so
the outer electrons are les tightly held.
■ This makes it easier to remove some of these e- when bonding the other
atoms.
○ Electron Affinity
■ Tendency for an electron to go to an atom.
■ Change in energy of a neutral atom when an electron is added to the
atom to form a negative ion (anion).
■ The neutral atom's likelihood of GAINING an electron.
■ Trend is the same as Ionization Energy
○ Electronegativity
■ measure of an atom's ability to attract electron in a molecule.
■ Generally, metals are electron givers and have low electro negativities.
■ Nonmetals are electrons takers and have high electro negativities.
■ Trend is the same as Ionization Energy and Electron Affinity

How small is an atom?

● Really small
How were the atoms conceptualized?
● Democritus - everything can be divided into individual smaller parts. Un-cuttable. He just
conceptualized
THE STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM
Atomos - indivisible and uncuttable
● Smallest chemically distinct particle unit of an element.
● The basic unit of an element that can enter into chemical combination
John Dalton
● Imagined the atom as extremely small (the smallest)and indivisible (not true anymore)
○ Instead, made up of even smaller particles (Subatomic Particles)

Features of Atoms
● Atoms contain electrons
● Atoms are electrically neutral

To maintain electric neutrality

= + charges = - charges

JJ Thomson
" uniform, positive sphere of matter in which electrons are embedded like raisins in a cake"
● PLUM-PUDDING MODEL

Ernest Rutherford
● Tried to prove the structure of the atoms
● alpha particles
● Gold Foil Experiment or a-scattering experiment

Positively charged particles in the nucleus are PROTONS

● Each proton carries the same quantity charge as an electron
● Each proton has a mass of 1.67262 x 10^-24 (about 1840x the mass of electron)
● Mass of a nucleus constitutes most of the mass of the entire atom
● The nucleus occupies only about 1/10^-13 of the volume of the atom.

James Chadwick
● Bombarded a thin sheet of Be with a particles
● A very high- energy radiation similar to y rays was emitted by the metal
● NEUTRONS - electrically neutral particles having a mass slightly greater than that of the protons

Different no. of neutrons - s

Electrons
● Balance the positive charge in an atom.
● Electrons have very negligible mass and are distributed around the nucleus in orbitals, or
ELECTRON SHELLS
○ ELECTRON SHELL
■ Area in the atom where the electrons are found.
■ Group of electrons that circulate around the nucleus of an atom.
■ Electron shells have DIFFERENT ENERGY LEVEL
■ With those shells closest to the nucleus being lower in energy than
those farther from the nucleus.

ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
● How the electrons are organized around the nucleus.
● Knowing an element's electron configuration allows you to predict its reactivity - whether, and
how, it will interact with atoms of other elements.

RULES FOR ASSIGNING ELECTRONS TO ORBITALS

● Electrons occupy orbitals in a way that minimizes the energy of the atom.
NOBLE GAS CONFIGURATION
● Use the noble gas preceding the period of the element
○ Example: Write the electron configuration of O in Noble Gas Notation. ( [He] 2s2 2p4)
ORBITAL DIAGRAMS
● Shows all the different orientations and the spin of every electron
○ Rules for Drawing these
■ Electron configurations list the orbitals from lower to higher energy.
■ 1,3,5,7. Energy Levels hold
■ 1-s-orbital
■ 3-p-orbitals
■ 5-d-orbitals
■ 7-f-orbitals
■ Every orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons. After this, they fill up and
nothing else can fit.
■ Electrons will tend to stay unpaired whenever they can, and double up only
when there's no alternative.
92 Elements
● Naturally occurring
93 - 118
● Synthetized in labs
● The first one Is Technetium
○ Emilio Segre and Carlo Perrier theorized that there should be an atomic number of 43
(1937).

DISCOVERY OF TECHNETIUM
● First predicted by Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev
● It was used to be called EKA-MANGANESE
● He realized there was gap group 7 transitional elements.
● Walter Noddack, Ide Tacke, Otto Berg
○ 1920s - they were said to discover the elements number 43 to 75.
○ 1925 they discovered both elements and called it
■ Element 43 - Masurium (Masurenland, Germany) ---- Not proven
■ Element 75 - Rhenium (Rhineland, Germany) ---------- Proven
● Technetium
○ Technetium is used in x-ray procedures to locate bone cancer
○ Technetos - artificial
○ Observed in red giant stars such as betelgeuse

HOW WERE THEY ABLE TO ARTIFICIALLY PRODUCE TECHNETIUM?

● Particle Accelerator
○ Machine that accelerates elementary particles (electrons or protons) to very high
energies.
○ Particle accelerators produces beams of charged particles that can be used for a variety
of research purposes.
○ Creating new Elements
■ Parts of the Particle Accelerator
1. Particle Source
The particle source provides the particles, such as protons or electrons, that are to be acceleratred

2. Beam Pipe
The beam of particles travels in a vacuum inside this metal pipe. It is important to maintain an air and
dust-free environment for the partcle beam to travel unobstructed.

3. Electromagnets (direction)
Electromagents steer and focus the particle beam while it travels through the beam pipe.

4. Electric Fields (acceleration)

Electric fields spaced around the accelerator switch from positive to negative at a given frequency,
creating radio waves that accelerate particles in bunches.
5. Targets (combination)(of element)
Particles can be directed at a fixed target, such as a thin piece of metal foil, or two beams of particles
can be collided.

6. Detectors (detection)
Particle detectors record and reveal the particles and radiation that are produced by the collision
between the particle beam and the target.

● Why it matters?
○ Discovery Science
○ Medicine
○ Industry
○ Security

DALTON'S ATOMIC THEORY

● 1808, John Dalton - formulated a precise definition of matter
● Marked the beginning of "the Modern Era of Chemistry"

1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles called atoms

2. All atoms of a given element are identical, having the same size, mass, and chemical properties.
The atoms of one element are different from the atoms of all other elements.
3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element. In any compound, the ratio of
the numbers of atoms of any of the two elements present is an integer (Joseph Proust is one of
the scientist who expounded this statement. One of his applications are Law of Definite and
Multiple Proportion).
1. Law of Definite Proportions
1. DIFFERENT SAMPLES OF THE SAME COMPOUND always contain its constituent
elements in the SAME PROPORTION BY MASS
2. Law of Multiple Proportions
1. When two elements combine with each other to form TWO OR MORE
COPOUNDS, the ratios of the masses of one element that combines with the
fixed mass of the other are SIMPLE WHOLE NUMBERS.
4. A chemical reaction involves only the separation, combination, or rearrangement of atoms; it
does not result in their creation or destruction. (Just like the law of conservation of mass).

LIMITATION OF DALTON'S ATOMIC THEORY

● It could explain the laws of chemical combination by mass but failed to explain the law of
gaseous volumes.
● Why do atoms of the same or different elements combine at all to form molecules?
● What is the nature of binding force between atoms and molecules which accounts the existence
of matter in three states
● Atoms of the same element mat have different masses
IONS AND MOLECULES

Molecules Compound is made up of

● Aggregate of at least two atoms in a definite two or more elements
arrangement held together by chemical forces (also
called chemical bonds)
● Contain atoms of the SAME ELEMENT or atoms of
TWO or MORE ELEMENTS joined in a fixed ratio.
● Made up of at least two or more atoms

DIATOMIC MOLECULES (Two atoms that are non-metals)

● O2
● N2
● H2
● F2
● Cl2
● Br2
● I2
● HCl
● CO
POLYATOMIC MOLECULES (Three up | Molecules more than
to atoms )

Ion
● Is an atom or group of atoms that has a net positive
or negative charge.
● Cation - positively charge
● Anion - negatively charged

POLYATOMIC IONS
● Ions containing more than one atom.

CHEMICAL BONDING
● A bond results from the ATTRACTION OF NUCLEI
FOR ELECTRONS
● All atoms trying to achieve a STABLE OCTET

TWO MAJOR TYPES

● Ionic Bonding
○ Forms ionic compounds (metal +
non-metal)
 ○ Transfer of electron
○ Electrons are transferred between valence
shells of atoms
○ Ionic compounds are made of IONS
● Covalent Bonding
○ Forms molecules/compounds (non-metal +
non-metal
○ Sharing electrons
MINOR TYPE OF BONDING
● Metallic Bonding
○ Occurs between like atoms of a metal
(electrons are delocalized)
LEWIS DOT STRUCTURE

● Structure used to show the different

valence electrons of an element
● Electrons in the valence shell of an atom
Anion - after ionic
or simple ion are represented by dots
bonding becomes
places around the symbol of the
-ide
element.
● Drawing IONIC COMPOUNDS using Lewis
Dot Structures
○ Symbol represents the KERNEL
of the atom (nucleus and inner
e-)
○ Dots represent valence e-
○ After checking that it is ionic
■ Step 1
 ■ Determine
which atom will
be the positive
ion
■ Determine
which atom will
be the negative
ion.
■ Step 2
■ Write the
symbol for the
positive ion first.
■ Draw the e- dot
diagram for the
-ion
■ Step 3
■ Enclose both in
brackets and
show each
charge
● Drawing COVALENT MOLECULES using
Lewis Dot structures
○ Steps
■ Find the total number of
valence electrons
■ Choose a central atom
■ Draw a skeletal structure
■ Place electrons around
outside atoms
■ Place remaining
electrons around the
central atom

LEWIS DOT STRUCTURE OF IONS

Expanded Octet
● The central atom can have ten electrons,
or even twelve
● Molecules with expanded octets involve
highly electronegative terminal atoms,
and a nonmetal atom found in the third
period or below
● Sulfur, Phosphorus, Chlorine and Silicon
are common examples
TYPES OF COVALENT BONDS
Polarity of Covalent Bonds
● Polar Covalent Bond
○ One element is more
electronegative than the other
○ Electrons are shared BUT one
atom is pulling on the electrons
a lot more
○ The electrons spend more time
around the atom
○ Examples:
■ H20
■ NH3
● Non Polar
○ Equal sharing.
○ Electrons are evenly shared
between two or more atoms
○ Examples:
■ Hv2
■ Nv2
■ Ov2
■ C0v2 racos vlog
■ Cv6Hv6
■ CClv4
■ CHv4
■ Cv2Hv4
MOLECULAR GEOMETRIES AND BONDING THEORIES
CHEMICAL FORMULA AND NAMING COMPOUNDS
INTER AND INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES
Intermolecular Forces
● The force that connects the atoms.
● Attractive force between molecules
● Explains the behavior of gas
● Much observable in condensed forms of matter such
as liquid and solid.
● Condensation of gas to liquid

Intramolecular Forces
● Hold atoms together in a molecule
● Provides stability to individual molecules
● INTERMOLECULAR FORCES - properties of matter such
as boiling point and melting point

● Boiling point often reflects the strength of

Intermolecular forces of attraction

FORCES
● ELECTRON CHARGE DENSITY - probability that an
electron is in a certain region at a given time.

Van der Waals forces

Instantaneous Dipole - Induced Dipole Attraction

● Electrostatic attraction --> Induced Dipole (alike
causes separation)
TYPES of Van der Waals Forces
1. London Dispersion Forces
○ WEAKEST OUT OF ALL THE INTERMOLECULAR
FORCES, AND APPLIES TO ALL
○ POLARIZABLITIY - term used to describe the
relative tendency of the electron charges to
distort from its normal shape in an atom or
molecule
○ The GREATER this tendency the MORE
POLIRAZABLE an atom/molecule is Nitrogen, Fluorine, and Oxygen are
special types of dipole-dipole force
Polarizability alpha Molar Mass alpha Boiling Point
In POLAR substances, molecules have permanent dipole
moments
1. Dipole-dipole force
○ For all polar molecules
○ This force is stronger than the London
Dispersion Force
○ Formed due to uneven distribution of electron
in a molecule
○ Gives rise to partial positive and negative
charge in a molecule that, as a whole, is
neutral.
SPECIAL TYPES OF DIPOLE-DIPOLE FORCE
1. Dipole-Induced DIPOLE Attraction
○ Weak attraction due to a polar molecule
inducing dipole in a non-polar molecule
Strongest to
○ Attraction between a polar and a non-polar
weakest IMFA
molecule
1. Ion Dipole
○ Between ions and POLAR molecules
Force
2. Hydrogen Bonding
2. Ion-Induced
○ An electrostatic interaction from which a H
Dipole
atom is bonded to a highly electronegative ion
Force
○ Only, F, O, and N easily meet the
3. Hydrogen
requirements for hydrogen bond formation
Bonding
4. Dipole-indu
Ionic Forces
ced Dipole
● Ion Dipole forces of Attraction
5. Dipole-dipol
○ Involves interaction between a CHARGED ION
e
and a POLAR MOLECULE
6. London
○ CATIONS are attracted to the NEGATIVE POLE
Dispersion
of a molecule
Force
○ ANIONS are attracted to the POSITIVE POLE of
a molecule
● Ion Induced Dipole
○ The forces of attraction between a
NON-POLAR MOLECULE and ANION that may
lie in its vicinity

Example:
● Hemoglobin is a protein found in the red blood cells,
and its function is to carry oxygenated blood to
various parts of the body
 COMPARING PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF POLAR AND
NON-POLAR MOLECULES
Which would you expect to have higher boiling point, the
hydrocarbon fuel butane, C4H10, or the organic solvent
acetone, CH4COCH3
● Butane - LDF
● Acetone - Hydrogen Bonding

MATTER
● Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space
● Broken down into tiny particles called elements and has three properties: mass, volume, and
density.
● It's what the world is made of.

Physical vs. Chemical Changes

● Physical - no change in chemical structure. Change of state of matter. Restructuring. Can be
Reversible
● Any change in the physical properties
● Chemical - there is a change in composition. Normally irreversible
○ Transformation into a new product
● ● Physical ● Chemical
Basis for
comparison
● Defin ● A change in which molecules are ● A process in which the substance
ition rearranged but their internal transforms into a new substance, having
composition remains same different chemical composition
● Natur ● Reversible ● Irreversible
e
● Origi ● Can be recovered ● Cannot be recovered
nal matter
● Prod ● No new product Is formed ● A new product is formed
uct formation
● Energ ● Absorption and evolution of ● Absorption and evolution of energy
y energy do not take place take place, during reaction.
●
RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTION
● The speed of different chemical reactions varies hugely. Some reactions are very fast and others
are very slow.
○ The speed of a reaction is called the rate of the reaction
○ How fast are the reactants changed into products
■ Example:
■ Reaction - slow
■ Explosion - very fast
■ Chemical weathering of rocks - very slow
■ Sodium and water - fast
■ Rotting fruit - slow

RATES OF REACTION
● Collision Theory
○ For a reaction between two particles to occur, the particle must collide and the collision
must be effective.

Effective Collisions
● When the particles collide with enough kinetic energy and the correct orientation to break the
bonds between particles so new bonds can form.
● Collision can occur and yet result in no reaction if there is insufficient energy or incorrect
orientation.

HOW DO REACTIONS OCCUR?

● Reactions take place when particles collide with a certain amount of energy
○ Not enough energy = No reaction
○ Incorrect orientation = No reaction
○ Enough energy and correct orientation = reaction

THE ORIENTATION OF COLLISION

HOW DOES CONCENTRATION AFFECT COLLISION

● The more the concentration, the more there are particles.
● At a higher concentration, there are or particles in the same amount of space, This means that
particles are more likely to collide with other particles.
● The higher the concentration, the closer together the particles are. This increases the frequency
of collisions with other particles and so increases the rate of reaction.
TEMPERATURE
● Why does increased temperature increase the rate of reaction?
○ The higher the temperature, the higher the possibility of a collision.
■ At a higher temperature, particles have more energy. This means they move
faster and are more likely to collide with other particles.
■ When the particles collide, they do so with more energy

SURFACE
● Any reaction involving a solid can only take place at the surface of the solid
● This means that there is an increased area for the non-solid reactant particles to collide with
● The smaller the pieces, the larger the surface area. This means more collisions and a faster rate
of reaction
● The larger the surface are of a solid reactant, the larger the area with which dissolved particles
can collide.

The Energy of Activation

● The energy required to form the reaction
● Most reactions do not start spontaneously
● They require some sort of energy, such as a spark, to get started
● This is called activation energy.
● Only those reactant particles with energy equal to or greater than the activation energy can
react to form the product.
● Fast reactions have low activation energy; slow reactions have high activation energy.
● The energy used to break the bonds in the reactants so they can be reformed in the products is
called the energy of activation.
Electron and Electron Configuration