Topic 05: Power Series

MA201 Mathematics III

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST

IIT Guwahati

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 1 / 44

Topic 05: Learning Outcome
We learn
Sequence of Complex Numbers and Series of Complex Numbers
Sequences & Series of Functions: Pointwise, Absolute, Uniform
Convergence
Power Series
Radius of Convergence
Power Series: Sum, Scalar Multiplication, Product, Division
Sum function of a Power Series is Analytic
Does an Analytic Function have a Power Series Representation?
Taylors Theorem / Taylor Series
Analytic at ∞
Singular Points: Isolated, Non-Isolated
Laurent Theorem/ Laurent Series
Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 2 / 44
Sequence of Complex Numbers
A sequence of complex numbers is a map from a : N → C given by
a(n) = an for n ∈ N. It is written as {an } or (an ) or < an >.
Definition
Let {an } be a sequence of complex numbers. If there exists a complex
number a∗ such that for each  > 0, there exists a natural number N0
such that
|an − a∗ | <  for all n ≥ N0
then we say that {an } converges to a∗ .
a∗ is called the limit of the sequence {an }.
We write it as {an } → a∗ as n → ∞ or lim an = a∗ .
n→∞

Examples:
{an = (1/n) + 2i} converges to 2i.
{an = n(1/n) + i ((n + 1)/n)} converges to 1 + i.
Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 3 / 44
Results

If {an } converges then the limit of {an } is unique.

If {an } converges then the set S = {an : n ∈ N} is bounded.
If {an } converges then {|an |} converges. But converse is NOT
true.
{an = xn + i yn } converges to a∗ = x∗ + i y ∗ if and only if
{xn } → x∗ and {yn } → y ∗ . That is,

{an } → a∗ if and only if {<(an )} → <(a∗ ) and {=(an )} → =(a∗ ) .

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 4 / 44

Series of Complex Numbers
∞
X
an = a0 + a1 + a2 + · · · is called an (infinite) series of complex
n=0
numbers.
Definition
∞
X
Let an be a series of complex numbers. Define the sequence of
n=0
n
X
partial sums by s0 = a0 and sn = ak . If there exists a complex
k=0
number s such that the sequence {sn } of partial sums converges to s
∞
X
then we say the series an converges to s and we write it as
n=0

∞
X
an = s .
n=0
Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 5 / 44
If the sequence of partial sums does not converge then we say that the
X∞
series an diverges.
n=0
Examples:
Let {an = (1/n2 ) + i(1/2)n } for n ∈ N. Then
P
converges.
an P
Let {an = (1/n!) + i(1/2)n } for n = 0, 1, · · · . Then an converges and
sum is e + 2i.
Let {an = (1/n) + i(1/2)n } for n ∈ N. Then
P
an diverges.
P P
We say that the series an converges absolutely if |an | converges.

Results:
P
If an converges then {an } → 0 as n → ∞.
P P
If an converges absolutely then an converges. But converse
is NOT true.
Similarly, we can define Sequence of Complex Functions and Series of
Complex Functions.
Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 6 / 44
Sequence of Functions: Pointwise Convergence
Let fn : D ⊆ C → C, for n = 0, 1, · · · be the functions defined on a set
D. We say that the sequence {fn (z)} of functions converges
(pointwise) to a function f (z) in D, if for each point z0 ∈ D and for each
 > 0, there exists a natural number N0 that may depend on both  and
the point z0 such that

|fn (z0 ) − f (z0 )| <  for all n ≥ N0 .

In this case, we write it as lim fn (z) = f (z) for z ∈ D.

n→∞

If for some point z0 ∈ D, the sequence {fn (z0 )} does not converge or
tends to ∞ then we say that the sequence {fn (z)} diverges at the
point z = z0 .

Example: Let fn (z) = z n for z ∈ D = {z ∈ C : |z| < 1} where n ∈ N.

Let f (z) = 0 for all z ∈ D. Then, {fn (z)} converges pointwise to f (z) in
D. Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 7 / 44
Series of Functions: Pointwise Convergence

Definition
Let fn : D ⊆ C → C, for n = 0, 1, · · · be the functions defined on a set
X∞
D. The series fn (z) of functions converges (pointwise) to a
n=0
n
( )
X
function S(z) in D if the sequence Sn (z) = fk (z) of partial sums
k=0
converges (pointwise) to the function S(z) in D.
∞
X
In this case, we write it as S(z) = fn (z) for z ∈ D.
n=0

Example: Let fn (z) = z n for z ∈ D = {z P∈ C : |z| < 1} where n ∈ N.

Let S(z) = 1/(1 − z) for all z ∈ D. Then, fn (z) converges pointwise
to S(z) in D.

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 8 / 44

Absolute Convergence
Let fn : D ⊆ C → C, for n = 0, 1, · · · be the functions defined on a set
D.
Definition
We say that the sequence {fn (z)} of functions converges absolutely to
a function g(z) in D, if for each point z0 ∈ D, the sequence {|fn (z0 )|}
converges (pointwise) to g(z0 ).

Definition
X∞
The series fn (z) converges absolutely to a function T (z) in D if the
(n=0 n
)
X
sequence Sn (z) = |fk (z)| converges (pointwise) to the function
k=0
T (z) in D.

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 9 / 44

Uniform Convergence
Let fn : D ⊆ C → C, for n = 0, 1, · · · be the functions defined on a set
D.
Definition
We say that the sequence {fn (z)} of functions converges uniformly to
a function f (z) in the set D, if for each  > 0, there exists a natural
number N (that may depend only on ) such that

|fn (z) − f (z)| <  for all n ≥ N and for all z ∈ D .

Definition
∞
X
The series fn (z) converges uniformly to a function S(z) in D if the
n=0
n
( )
X
sequence Sn (z) = fk (z) of partial sums converges uniformly to
k=0
the function S(z) in D.
Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 10 / 44
Useful Test for Uniform Convergence of Series of
Functions
Theorem
Weierstrass M-Test:
Let {Mn } be a sequence of non-negative real numbers.
Let fn : D ⊆ C → C, n ∈ N, be a complex function defined on a set D.
If for each n ∈ N,

|fn (z)| ≤ Mn for all z ∈ D

and if
∞
X
Mn converges
n=1
∞
X
then fn (z) converges uniformly on D.
n=1
Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 11 / 44
Useful Result

Theorem
If {fn } is a sequence of analytic functions on a domain D that
converges uniformly to f (z) on D then f (z) is analytic in D.

Think: What is analogous result in case of uniform convergence of

sequence of differentiable real valued functions of real variable?

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 12 / 44

We now introduce a special type of series of functions, namely, power
series.

Power Series

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 13 / 44

Power Series

Definition
A power series about a point z0 is an infinite series of the form
X∞
an (z − z0 )n .
n=0
∞
X
Example-1: The geometric series z n is one of the easiest
n=0
examples of a power series.
∞
X zn
Example-2: is another example of a power series.
n
n=1
∞
X (z − 3)n
Example-3: is another example of a power series.
4n
n=1

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 14 / 44

Convergence of Power Series

∞
X
For which values of z does the geometric series z n converge?
n=0
It is easily seen that 1 − z n+1 = (1 − z)(1 + z + z 2 + · · · + z n ) so that

1 − z n+1
1 + z + · · · + zn = .
1−z
If |z| < 1 then lim z n = 0 and so the geometric series is convergent with
∞
X 1
zn = .
1−z
n=0

If |z| > 1 then lim z n = ∞ and the series diverges.

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 15 / 44

Recall: Limit Superior of Real Sequences
Let {an } be a sequence of real numbers.

lim sup an = lim (sup{an , an+1 , · · · }) .

n→∞ n→∞

lim inf an = lim (inf{an , an+1 , · · · }) .

n→∞ n→∞

Other Notation: lim sup is also denoted by lim. Further these

concepts lim sup and lim inf are defined only for real sequences and
NOT for complex sequences.
Results:
For a real sequence, lim sup an and lim inf an always exist and it
may be +∞ or −∞ also.
Always lim inf an ≤ lim sup an .
If {an } converges then
lim inf an = lim an = lim sup an .
Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 16 / 44
Equivalent Definitions for Limit Superior

If {an } is a sequence of real numbers then define

lim sup an = lim (sup{an , an+1 , an+2 , · · · })

n→∞ n→∞
= inf (sup{ak : k ≥ n})
n∈N
= sup E

where S
E is the set of all numbers x in the extended real numbers
R = R {−∞, ∞} such that ank → x as k → ∞ for some
subsequence {ank } of {an }.

That is, E contains all subsequential limits plus possibly the numbers
+∞ or −∞.

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 17 / 44

Basic Result on Convergence of Power Series
Theorem
∞
X
For a given power series an (z − z0 )n define the number R,
n=0
0 ≤ R ≤ ∞, by
1 1
= lim sup |an | n (Cauchy-Hadamard Formula)
R n→∞

then:
1 if |z − z0 | < R, the series converges absolutely;
2 if |z − z0 | > R, the series diverges;
3 if 0 < r < R, the series converges uniformly on {z : |z − z0 | ≤ r}.
Moreover, the number R is the only number having the above said
three properties.
Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 18 / 44
Continuation of Previous Slide
In the previous theorem:
The number R is called the radius of convergence of the power
series.
The open disk |z − z0 | < R is called the domain of convergence or
disk of convergence of the series.
It does NOT give any information about convergence of the series
on the circle |z − z0 | = R.
Examples:
X∞
The power series k n z n has radius of convergence R = 1/|k|.
n=0
∞
X zn
The power series has radius of convergence R = ∞.
n!
n=0
∞
2
X
The power series 5n z n has radius of convergence R = 0.
n=0
Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 19 / 44
Radius of Convergence as the limit of Ratios of
Coefficients
The radius of the convergence of a power series can be calculated
sometimes from the ratio of the coefficients as follows.
Theorem
∞
X
If an (z − z0 )n is a given power series with radius of convergence R,
n=0
then  
 an 
R = lim 
 
n→∞ an+1 

if this limit exists (including the limit tending to +∞ in the extended real
number system).

Example:
∞
X zn
The power series has radius of convergence R = ∞.
n!
n=0
Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 20 / 44
On Circle C : |z − z0 | = R - What happens?
On the circle C : |z − z0 | = R, power series may converge on C,
diverge on C, or converge on some part of C and diverge on the
remaining part. One has to examine case-by-case.
X∞
The power series z n diverges at all points on the circle |z| = 1,
n=0
since |z n | does not tend to 0 as n → ∞.
∞
X zn
The power series series diverges at the point z = 1 and
n
n=1
converges at the point z = −1. One can show that this power
series converges at all points on the circle |z| = 1 except at the
point z = 1 using Picard’s Theorem given in the next slide.
∞
X zn
The power series converges at all points on the circle
n2
n=1
X  zn  X 1

|z| = 1, since  ≤
 n2  < ∞.
n2
Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 21 / 44
Theorem
Picard’s Theorem: Consider the power series an z n and suppose
P
that:
1 The coefficients an are real nonnegative numbers.
2 an ≥ an+1 for n = 1, 2, 3, · · · .
3 {an } → 0 as n → ∞.
an z n converges at all points of the circle
P
Then the power series
|z| = 1, except possibly at z = 1, so its radius of convergence is at
least 1.
P1
Using the above theorem and using the fact n diverges, one can
∞ n
X z
conclude that converges at all points on the circle |z| = 1 except
n
n=1
at the point z = 1.

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 22 / 44

Properties
∞
X ∞
X
Let an (z − z0 )n and bn (z − z0 )n be power series with radius of
n=0 n=0
convergence R1 and R2 respectively. Then,
X∞
Sum: (an + bn )(z − z0 )n has the radius of convergence
n=0
R ≥ min(R1 , R2 ).
∞
X
Scalar Multiplication: λan (z − z0 )n where λ 6= 0 has the radius
n=0
of convergence R = R1 .
X∞ n
X
n
Product: cn (z − z0 ) where cn = ak bn−k (Cauchy Product)
n=0 k=0
has the radius of convergence R ≥ min(R1 , R2 ).

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 23 / 44

Properties (Continuation of Previous Slide)

∞
X
Product Coordinatewise: an bn (z − z0 )n has the radius of
n=0
convergence R ≥ R1 R2 .
∞
X an
Division Coordinatewise: If bn 6= 0 for all n then (z − z0 )n
bn
n=0
has the radius of convergence R ≥ R1 /R2 .
Division of Two Series: If r is the largest real numberPsuch that
an (z − z0 )n
bn (z − z0 )n 6= 0 for all z ∈ {z : |z − z0 | < r} then P
P
bn (z − z0 )n
has the radius of convergence R ≥ min(r, R1 , R2 ).

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 24 / 44

What can we say about the sum function of a Power
Series?
an (z − z0 )n have the radius of convergence R > 0. Let us
P
Let
denote the sum function of this series by f (z). That is,
an (z − z0 )n =: f (z) for z ∈ BR (z0 ).
P
Questions:
Is the sum function f (z) differentiable/ analytic in PBR (z0 )?
Is the series formed by termwise differentiation nan (z − z0 )n−1
convergent? If so, what is its radius of convergence R∗ ?
∞
X
Set g(z) := nan (z − z0 )n−1 for z ∈ BR∗ (z0 ). Is g(z) = f 0 (z) for
n=1
z ∈ BR∗ (z0 ).
What about k-times differentiated series
X∞
n(n − 1) · · · (n − k + 1)an (z − z0 )n−k ?
n=k
Is there any relation between the coefficients an ’s and f (z)?
Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 25 / 44
Sum function of a Power Series is analytic
∞
X
Theorem: Let an (z − z0 )n have radius of convergence R > 0.
n=0
Then,
∞
X
The function defined by f (z) := an (z − z0 )n is analytic in
n=0
BR (z0 ) = {z ∈ C : |z − z0 | < R}.
∞
X
For each k ≥ 1, n(n − 1) · · · (n − k + 1)an (z − z0 )n−k has the
n=k
radius of convergence R.
X∞
(k)
f (z) = n(n − 1) · · · (n − k + 1)an (z − z0 )n−k for z ∈ BR (z0 ).
n=k
f (n) (z0 )
For n = 0, 1, · · · , the coefficient an = .
n!
Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 26 / 44
Example for Previous Theorem
∞
X (−1)n z 2n+1
The power series has the radius of convergence
(2n + 1)!
n=0
R = ∞.
∞
X (−1)n z 2n+1
The function f (z) = sin z = is analytic in C.
(2n + 1)!
n=0
∞
d X (−1)n z 2n
Observe that (sin z) = cos z = and this series also
dz (2n)!
n=0
has the radius of convergence R = ∞.
Note: In previous theorem, like termwise differentiation of power
series, termwise integration (indefinite integral) is also valid for power
series.
For example, by doing termwise integration of power series of cos z, we
can get the power series of sin z.

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 27 / 44

To think
Last theorem says, Given power series, its sum function is analytic
(and hence infinitely many times differentiable) in the disk/domain of
convergence of the power series.

Now, think about converse of above statement. Is it true statement?

Question: Let D be an open set and let z0 ∈ D. Given that f (z) is

analytic in D.
Whether f can have power series representation about z0 ?
∞
X
That is, whether f (z) = an (z − z0 )n for z ∈ BR (z0 ) ⊆ D for some
n=0
R > 0?

If the answer is YES, then is there more than one such power series
possible?
Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 28 / 44
Analytic function has a Power Series Representation

Taylor Theorem: Let f (z) be analytic in

BR (z0 ) = {z ∈ C : |z − z0 | < R}. Then, f (z) has a power series
expansion around z0 given by
∞
X
f (z) = an (z − z0 )n for z ∈ BR (z0 )
n=0

f (n) (z0 )
Z
1 f (w) dw
where an = = for n = 0, 1, 2, · · · where
n! 2πi Cr (w − z0 )n+1
Cr = {z ∈ C : |z − z0 | = r} for any r with 0 < r < R. This series is
called the Taylor series of f about the point z0 and has radius of
convergence ≥ R.
Further, the Taylor series of f about that point z0 is unique.

Proof: Refer Brown and Churchill Book

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 29 / 44
 Brook Taylor (1685 - 1731)
Brook Taylor was an English mathematician who is best known for
Taylor’s theorem and the Taylor series.

Taylor’s theorem is named after the mathematician Brook Taylor, who

stated a version of it in 1712.
Yet an explicit expression of the error was not provided until much later
on by Joseph-Louis Lagrange.
An earlier version of the result was already mentioned in 1671 by
James Gregory.
Ref: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor’s theorem
Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 30 / 44
Example for Taylor Theorem
Example: Find the power series of f (z) = ez about the point z0 = i.

Observe that for each n ∈ N, f (n) (z) = ez for z ∈ C.

This gives that f (n) (i) = ei for n = 1, 2, · · · .

For each n = 0, 1, 2, · · · ,

f (n) (i) ei
an = = .
n! n!
Therefore, the Taylor series of ez about the point z0 = i is given by
∞
X ei
ez = (z − i)n
n!
n=0

and it has radius of convergence R = ∞.

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 31 / 44
Remarks
The Taylor series of f (z) about the point z0 = 0 is called the
Maclaurin series of f .

If f (z) is analytic in |z − z0 | < R for some R > 0, then by Taylor

theorem, f (z) can be approximated with arbitrarily high precision
by a polynomial Pn (z) of sufficiently high degree.

Alternative Way to find Radius of Convergence of Taylor Series:

If f (z) is analytic at z0 , then the radius of convergence R of the
Taylor series of f (z) about z = z0 is the distance from z0 to the
point (singularity) nearest to z0 at which f (z) fails to be analytic.
That is,
R = |z0 − z ∗ | where z ∗ is the singularity of f nearest to z0 .

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 32 / 44

 Colin Maclaurin (1698 - 1746)

Colin Maclaurin was a Scottish mathematician who made important

contributions to geometry and algebra.
The Maclaurin series, a special case of the Taylor series, is named
after him.
Ref: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin Maclaurin

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 33 / 44

Comparison between Real Functions and Complex
Functions

By Taylor theorem, if a function f (z) is infinitely differentiable in an

open set D, then f (z) can be expanded in power series in D. This
result is not true in case of real valued functions of a real variable.
For example, the function f (x) = exp(−1/x2 ) for x ∈ R \ {0} and
f (0) = 0 is infinitely many times differentiable in the neighborhood
of x0 = 0, but f (x) can not be represented by a power series
about the point x0 = 0.
A real Taylor series of a real valued function f of a real variable
converges if and only if the Taylor remainder term goes to zero. In
a complex Taylor series, the remainder term is irrelevant; the
Taylor series will converge to in the largest disk that one can fit
inside the domain of analyticity of f .

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 34 / 44

Exercises

Exercise 1: Find the power series of f (z) = ez /(1 − z) about the point
z0 = 0.
Worked out on the board.

Exercise 2: Find the power series of f (z) = 1/(1 − z)2 about the point
z0 = 0.
Worked out on the board.

Exercise 3: Find the power series of f (z) = Log(1 + z) about the point
z0 = 0.

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 35 / 44

Analytic at ∞

We say that the function f (z) is analytic at z = ∞ if the function

g(w) = f (1/w) is analytic at w = 0.

Thus, we make the change of variable w = 1/z, and we study the

behaviour of f (z) at z = ∞ by studying the behaviour f (1/w) at w = 0.
Examples:
f (z) = 1/z 2 is analytic at ∞.
f (z) = e1/z is analytic at ∞.

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 36 / 44

Power series of f (z) about z = ∞

If f (z) is analytic at z = ∞ then the function g(w) = f (1/w) is analytic

at w = 0 and hence
∞
X
g(w) = cn wn for |w| < r for some r > 0 .
n=0

Thus, fP
(z) can be represented by a power series as
f (z) = ∞ cn
n=0 z n for |z| > R = 1r and it is the power series
expansion of f (z) about the point z = ∞.

Example:
∞
X 1
e1/z = for |z| > 0 .
n! z n
n=0

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 37 / 44

Is power series of f possible at singular points?

We now wish to investigate the possibility of representing a function by

a power series near singular points.
A singular point z0 is said to be an isolated singular point of f (z) if f (z)
is analytic in the punctured disk 0 < |z − z0 | < r for some r > 0.
If a singular point z0 of f (z) is NOT isolated then it is called
non-isolated singular point of f (z).

Then, the function f (z) can be represented by a power series about an

isolated singular points. But, in this case the power series of f (z)
contains the negative powers of (z − z0 ) also.
Similarly, if f (z) is analytic in the annular region r1 < |z − z0 | < r2 and
f (z) need not be analytic in the region |z − z0 | < r1 then also f (z) can
be represented by a power series in the annular region
0 < r1 < |z − z0 | < r2 .

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 38 / 44

 Pierre Alphonse Laurent (1813 - 1854)

Pierre Alphonse Laurent was a French mathematician best known as

the discoverer of the Laurent series, an expansion of a function into an
infinite power series, generalizing the Taylor series expansion.

Karl Weierstrass may have discovered Laurent Series Result first but
his paper, written in 1841, was not published until much later, after
Weierstrass’ death.
Ref: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre Alphonse Laurent

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 39 / 44

Laurent Theorem

Laurent Theorem: Let f be analytic in the annular region

r1 < |z − z0 | < r2 . Then f has a series representation given by
∞
X ∞
X
−n
f (z) = a−n (z − z0 ) + an (z − z0 )n for r1 < |z − z0 | < r2
n=1 n=0
Z
1 f (w) dw
where the coefficients an = for any r with
2πi |z−z0 |=r (w − z0 )n+1
r1 < r < r2 .
The above series is called the Laurent Series and converges
absolutely in r1 < |z − z0 | < r2 .
Further, it converges uniformly in R1 ≤ |z − z0 | ≤ R2 where
r1 < R1 < R2 < r2 .
Moreover this series is unique.

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 40 / 44

The Laurent series for f in the annular region is usually abbreviated
∞
X
an (z − z0 )n .
n=−∞
∞
X
In the Laurent series an (z − z0 )n , the series containing the
n=−∞
negative powers of (z − z0 ), namely,
−1
X ∞
X
an (z − z0 )n = a−n (z − z0 )−n
n=−∞ n=1

is called the principal part of the Laurent series.

The series containing the non-negative powers of (z − z0 ), namely,
∞
X
an (z − z0 )n
n=0

is called the regular part of the Laurent series.

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 41 / 44
Taylor Theorem is a special case of Laurent Theorem

If f (z) is analytic at the point z0 then the Laurent series of f (z) about
the point z = z0 does not contain any negative powers of (z − z0 ).
That is, the Laurent series of f (z) has no principal part.

Hence the Laurent series reduces to the Taylor series of f (z) about the
point z = z0 in this case.

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 42 / 44

Worked out Example 1 of Laurent Series

1
Let f (z) = .
(z − 1)(z − 2)
1 Find the Laurent series of f about the point z = 1 (OR) Find the
power series expansion of f in the region 0 < |z − 1| < 1.
2 Find the Laurent series of f about the point z = 2 (OR) Find the
power series expansion of f in the region 0 < |z − 2| < 1.
3 Find the Laurent series of f about the point z = 0 (OR) Find the
power series expansion of f in the region |z| < 1.
4 Find the Laurent series of f about the point z = ∞ (OR) Find the
power series expansion of f in the region |z| > 2.
5 Find the power series of f in the annular region 1 < |z| < 2.
Details are Worked Out on the Board.

Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 43 / 44

Worked out Examples of Laurent Series
How to find Laurent series of Transcendental Function f about the
point z0 ?
Find the Laurent series of e1/z about the point z = 0.
Details are Worked Out on the Board.

Find the Laurent series of ez /(z + 1) about the point z = −1.

Details are Worked Out on the Board.

Compute the first few coefficients in the Laurent series of cosec (z)
about z = 0.
∞
1 X
Hint: cosec z sin z = sin z = 1. Let cosec z = an z n for
sin z
n=−1
0 < |z| < π. Then compute an for n = −1, 0, 1, 2 from
∞
! ∞ !
X X (−1)n z 2n+1
n
an z =1
(2n + 1)!
n=−1 n=0
Instructors: MGPP, DCD, AC, ST Topic 05: Power Series 44 / 44