Application Dr. T. K.

Jana 1

Application

Class: B.Sc Part-I

Paper-II
Application Dr. T. K. Jana 2

Tangents & Normals

Def. : Let P be a point on the curve y = f(x) . Let Q be any other point on the curve very close to
P. Then the tangent at P is the limiting position of these straight lines PQ as Q approaches towards P
along the curve.
Equations of the Tangents and Normals :
(a) Rectangular Cartesian Equations in Explicit Form : y = f(x)
On the curve y = f(x), the equation of the tangent at any point (x1 , y1 ) is
y − y1 = [f 0 (x)](x1 ,y1 ) (x − x1 )
provided f 0 (x) exists finitely at the point (x1 , y1 ).
The normal at any point (x1 , y1 ) on the curve y = f(x) has the equation
y − y1 = − [f 0 (x)]1(x ,y ) (x − x1 )
1 1
provided f 0 (x) exists finitely at the point (x1 , y1 ).

(b) Rectangular Cartesian Equations in Implicit Form : f(x, y) = 0

On the curve given by in implicit form f(x, y) = 0, the equation of the tangent at any point (x1 , y1 ) is
(x − x1 )[fx (x, y)](x1 ,y1 ) + (y − y1 )[fy (x, y)](x1 ,y1 ) = 0
where fx (x, y) and fy (x, y) both exists at the point (x1 , y1 ) such that fy (x, y) 6= 0.
Also, the equation of the normal at the point (x1 , y1 ) is
x−x1 y−y1
[fx (x,y)](x ,y ) = [fy (x,y)](x ,y )
1 1 1 1

(c) Parametric Cartesian Equations : x = φ(t), y = ψ(t)

Let x = φ(t), y = ψ(t) be the parametric equation of a curve, where t is a parameter. Then the equation
of the tangent at any point t is y − ψ(t)φ0 (t) = x − φ(t)ψ 0 (t)
provided φ0 (t) and ψ 0 (t) both exists such that φ0 (t) 6= 0.
The equation of the normal is
y − ψ(t)ψ 0 (t) + x − φ(t)φ0 (t) = 0

Note :- It is clear that the tangent at any point (x1 , y1 ) will be parallel to the x-axis, when f 0 (x)](x1 ,y1 ) = 0
and the tangent will be perpendicular to y-axis, when [f 0 (x)]1(x ,y ) = 0 .
1 1

Subtangent and Subnormal : In the figure P(x, y) be a point on the curve y = f(x) at which
PT and PG are the tangent and normal respectively and PN is the ordinate of P. TN and NG are re-
spectively called the cartesian subtangent and subnormal at the point P. Now < P T N = ψ.
dy
Therefore dx = tanψ = PT N N
=N G
PN .
PN y dy
Therefore T N = y1 = y1 , where y1 = dx and N G = P N y1 = yy1 .
y
Thus, subtangent = T N = y1 and subnormal = N G = yy1 .
PT be the portion of the tangent intercepted between x-axis and the point of contact of the curve with
the tangent. Similarly, PG is the portion of the normal intercepted q
between the x-axis and the point of
√ 2
contact of the curve with the normal. Now, P T = P N + T N = y 2 + yy2 = yy1 1 + y12
p
2 2
√ p p 1

and P G = P N 2 + N G2 = y 2 + y 2 y12 = y 1 + y12 .

PT and PG are respectively called the length of the tangent and length of the normal at P.

Intercepts of the tangent at P(x, y) on the axes : Equation of the tangent at P(x, y) is
dy
Y − y = dx (X − x)
For x-intercept, we put Y = 0. Hence, the x-intercept is x − yy1 .
dy
For y-intercept, we put X = 0. Hence, the y-intercept is y − xy1 , where y1 = dx .

Polar Subtangent and Subnormal : Let the tangent and normal at P (r, θ) to the curve r = f (θ)
meet the line through O and perpendicular to OP, the radius vector at T and G respectively. Then OT
is called the polar subtangent and OG is called the polar subnormal at the point P.
OT
tanφ = OP ⇒ OT = rtanφ = r(r dθ 2 dθ dθ OP
dr ) ⇒ OT = r dr (as tanφ = r dr ) and tanφ = OG ⇒ OG = rcotφ =
1 dr
r( r dθ ).
Application Dr. T. K. Jana 3

PT and PG are respectively called the length of the polar subtangent and length of the polar subnormal
at P.
ON is the perpendicular from the pole upon the polar subtangent.
If ON = p , then sinφ = pr ⇒ p = rsinφ.
Therefore p12 = r12 cosec2 φ ⇒ p12 = r12 [1 + r12 ( dθ
dr 2
) ] ⇒ p12 = r12 + r14 ( dθ
dr 2
) .
1 1 2 du 2
Let u = r , then we get p2 = u + ( dθ )

Tangents at Origin : The general equation of a rational algebraic curve of n-th degree passing through
the origin O may be written in the form : (a1 x + b1 y) + (a2 x2 + b2 xy + c2 y 2 ) + + (an xn + + kn y n ) = 0
(1).
Let P(x, y) be a point in the neighborhood of O. Then the slope of the chord OP is xy and hence the
equation to the tangent at the point O(0, 0) is
y y
(Y − 0) = lim (X − 0) ⇒ Y = mX, where m = lim
(x,y)7→0 x (x,y)7→0 x

Case-I : When m is finite, i.e., Y -axis is not the tangent at the origin. Dividing (1) by x and taking
b1 6= 0.
y y
(a1 + b1 ) + (a2 x + b2 y + c2 y ) + ........... = 0.
x x
Since
y
m = lim
(x,y)7→0 x

a1 + b1 m = 0 ⇒ m = − ab11 . Hence the tangent becomes, if (X, Y ) be the current co-ordinates

Y = − ab11 X ⇒ a1 X + b1 Y = 0 i.e., a1 x + b1 y = 0 , if (x, y) be as current co-ordinates. Which could have
been obtained by equating to zero the terms of lowest degree in (1).
Next take b1 = 0, then clearly a1 = 0, because Y -axis is not the tangent at the origin and in such a case
suppose b2 , c2 be not both zero. Dividing (1) by x2 and apply lim(x,y)7→0 , then a2 + b2 m + c2 m2 = 0,
which gives two values of m and consequently two tangents at the origin which will take the form
a2 x2 + b2 xy + c2 y 2 = 0 and this equation also could have been obtained by equating to zero the terms of
lowest degree in (1) and so on.

Case-II : If the tangent at the origin be the Y -axis, supposing the axes of X and Y to be inter-
changed, see that the rule is still true.

Note : In general, the equation to the tangent or tangents at the origin can be obtained by equat-
ing to zero the terms of the lowest degree in the equation of the curve, the curve being rational and
algebraic.

Angle of Intersection of Curves : The angle of intersection of two plane curves is defined as the
angle between the tangents to the curves at their common point of intersection. Thus, if ψ1 andψ2 be
the inclinations of the two tangents with the positive direction of the x-axis at the common point of the
curves and α is the angle between the tangents,
tanψ1 −tanψ2
then tanα = | 1+tanψ 1 tanψ2
|.
If f(x, y) = 0 and F(x, y) = 0 be two curves intersecting at the point (x, y), then the angle be-
f F −f F
tween their respective tangents at that point i.e., the angle between the curves is tan−1 (| fxx Fyx +fyy Fxy |)(as
m1 = tanψ1 = − ffxy , m2 = tanψ2 = − F Fy )
x

Hence if the two curves touch, i.e., α = 0, we have fx Fy − fy Fx = 0

Again, if the two curves cut orthogonally, then we have fx Fx + fy Fy = 0.

Pedal Equation of a Curve : Let O be a given point, P (r, θ) be a point on a curve r = f (θ)
and p be the length of the perpendicular from O upon the tangent at P. Then the relation between p
and r is called the pedal equation of the curve with respect to O. When no reference is made to the fixed
point, the fixed point is taken to be the origin or the pole according as the equation of the curve is in the
cartesian or polar co-ordinates respectively.

Pedal of a Curve : The pedal of a given curve, with respect to a fixed point, is the locus of the
Application Dr. T. K. Jana 4

foot of the perpendicular drawn from that fixed point upon the tangent to the curve.

Note-1 : The pedal of a parabola with respect to the focus is the tangent at the vertex.

Note-2 : The pedal of an ellipse or a hyperbola with respect to either focus is the auxiliary circle.

Question :- If the normal to the curve x2/3 + y 2/3 = a2/3 makes an angle φ with the axis of x, show that
its equation is ycosφ − xsinφ = acos2φ .

Answer :- The given equation of the curve is

x2/3 + y 2/3 = a2/3 (1)

Differentiating (1) with respect to x, we get

2 −1/3 2 −1/3 dy dy y
x + y =0⇒ = −( )1/3 .
3 3 dx dx x
Therefore, slope of the normal at the point (x, y) is ( xy )1/3 .
sin3 φ y
According to the given condition, ( xy )1/3 = tanφ ⇒ x
y = cos3 φ ⇒ x
sin3 φ = cos3 φ = k, (say) ⇒ x =
ksin3 φ, y = cos3 φ.
Since the point (x, y) lies on the curve (1), we have

k 2/3 (cos2 φ + sin2 φ) = a2/3 ⇒ k = a.

Hence the point (x, y) becomes in terms of φ is (asin3 φ, acos3 φ).

The equation of the normal at the point (asin3 φ, acos3 φ) is
(Y − acos3 φ) = tanφ(X − asin3 φ)
or, Y cosφ − Xsinφ = a(cos4 φ − sin4 φ) = a(cos2 φ − sin2 φ)
or, Y cosφ − Xsinφ = acos2φ.
If (x, y) be takes as the current co-ordinates of any point of the normal line, then it becomes ycosφ −
xsinφ = acos2φ

Question :- Find k(6= 0) for which the straight line x = k intersects the curve xy 2 = (x+y)2 orthogonally.

Answer :- The given equation of the curve is

xy 2 = (x + y)2 (1)

Differentiating (1) with respect to x, we get

dy dy
y 2 + 2xy dx = 2(x + y)(1 + dx )
dy
or, y 2 − 2y − 2x = 2(x + y − xy) dx
2
dy y −2y−2x
or, dx = 2(x+y−xy)
Since the line x = k intersects the curve (1) orthogonally.
dy
we have dx = 0 ⇒ y 2 − 2y − 2x = 0 ⇒ y 2 − 2y − 2k = 0.[since x = k] (2)
Solving (1) and the line x = k, we get
ky 2 = (k + y)2
or, y 2 + 2ky + k 2 − ky 2 = 0
or, y 2 (1 − k) + 2ky + k 2 = 0 (3)
Solving (2) and (3) by cross-multiplication, we get
y2 y 1
−2k2 +4k2 = −2k(1−k)−k2 = 2k+2(1−k)
2
y y 1
⇒ 2k 2 = k 2 −2k = 2

⇒ k (k − 2) = 4k 2 ⇒ k = 4(as k 6= 0)
2 2

Question :If the two curves ax2 + by 2 = 1 and cx2 + dy 2 = 1 cut each other orthogonally ( none
of a, b, c, d is zero ), then prove that a1 + d1 = 1b + 1c . (C.H. 1992)
Application Dr. T. K. Jana 5

Answer :- At the common point (x, y) of the curves

ax2 + by 2 = 1 (1)
and cx2 + dy 2 = 1 (2)
we have, ax2 + by 2 = cx2 + dy 2 or, (a − c)x2 = (d − b)y 2 (3)

Now, slope of the curve (1) at (x, y) is

dy
m1 = tanψ1 = dx = − ax
by
and the slope of the curve (2) at (x, y) is
dy cx
m2 = tanψ2 = dx = − dy
If α be the angle  between the curves (1) and (2), then
cx
 dy − ax 
tanα =  acxby2 
1+
bdy 2
Since the curves (1) and (2) cut each other orthogonally.
2
1 + acx ac d−b 1 1
bdy 2 = 0 ⇒ 1 + bd a−c (by (3)) ⇒ a + d = b + c
1 1

Question :- Show that the tangent to the curve x3 + y 3 = 3axy at the point different from the origin,
where it meets the parabola y 2 = ax is parallel to the y-axis. (C.H. 1983)

Answer :- We first find the point of intersection of the curves x3 + y 3 = 3axy (1)
and y 2 = ax (2)
2
From the equation (2), x = ya and putting the value of x in (1), we get
y6 3 6 1
a3 + y 3 = 3a ya ⇒ 2y 3 = ay3 ⇒ y = 0, 2 3 a When y = 0, from (2),x = 0.
1 2
When y = 2 3 a, from (2), x = 2 3 a.
2 1
So the point of intersections are (0, 0) and (2 3 a, 2 3 a).
2 1
We require to find the tangent to the curve x3 + y 3 = 3axy only at the point (2 3 a, 2 3 a)
Differentiating (1) with respect to x, we get,
dy y 2 −ax
dx = ay−x2 .
2 1 dy 2 1
At the point (2 3 a, 2 3 a), dx = 0, hence the tangent to the curve (1) at (2 3 a, 2 3 a) parallel to y-axis.

Question :- In a curve xm y n = am+n , prove that the portion of the tangent intercepted between
the axis is divided at its point of contact into two segments which are in a constant ratio. (C.H. 1990)

Answer :- Let the tangent at P (x1 , y1 ) on the curve xm y n = am+n (1)

meet the co-ordinate axes at A and B respectively.
Taking log both sides of (1), we get mlogx + nlogy = (m + n)loga (2).
dy
Differentiating (2), with respect to x, we get, [ dx ](x1 ,y1 ) = − my
nx1 .
1

Thus, the equation of the tangent at P (x1 , y1 ) is

(y − y1) = − my
nx1 (x − x1)
1

or, my1 x + nx1 y = (m + n)x1 y1

x y
or, m+n x
+ m+n y
=1 (3)
m 1 m 1

Hence, the points A and B have co-ordinates ( m+n m+n

m x1 , 0) and ( m y1 , 0) respectively.
Let the segments AP and PB into which the tangent at P is divided by the coordinate axes, be in the
ratio λ : µ
λ. m+n
m x1 +µ.0 λ.0+µ m+n
n y1
Then, x1 = λ+µ , y1 = λ+µ
λ.(m+n)x1 µ(m+n)y1 λ m
or, x1 = m(λ+µ) , y1 = n(λ+µ) ⇒ µ = n = constant.

Question :- Show that the points of the curve y 2 = 4a(x + asin xa ) where the tangents are parallel
to the x-axis, lies on the curve y 2 = 4ax.

Answer :- Let the tangent at (x1 , y1 ) on the curve

y 2 = 4a(x + asin xa ) (1)
be parallel to the x-axis. Since (x1 , y1 ) on the curve (1), so
y12 = 4a(x1 + asin xa1 ) (2)
Application Dr. T. K. Jana 6

Since the tangent at the point (x1 , y1 ) on the curve (1) be parallel to x-axis.
dy
[ dx ](x1 ,y1 ) = 0 (3) .
x1
dy 4a(1+cos )
Differentiating (1), with respect to x, we get, [ dx ](x1 ,y1 ) = 2y1
a
= 0[by(3)])
x1 x1
⇒ cos a = −1 ⇒ sin a = 0 (4)
From (2) and (4), we get y12 = 4ax1 .
Hence the locus of (x1 , y1 ) is y 2 = 4ax, which proves that the points of the curve (1) where the tangents
are parallel to the x-axis lies on the curve y2 = 4ax.

Question :- Find the points on the curve y = x4 − 6x3 + 13x2 − 10x + 5, where the tangent is parallel
to y = 2x and prove that two of these points have the same tangent.

Answer :- The equation of the curve be y = x4 − 6x3 + 13x2 − 10x + 5 (1)

Differentiating both sides of (1) with respect to x, we get,
dy
= 4x3 − 18x2 + 26x − 10.
dx
Hence the slope of the curve (1) is m1 = 4x3 − 18x2 + 26x − 10 and the slope of the line y = 2x is m2 = 2.
According to the condition
4x3 − 18x2 + 26x − 10 = 2
or,
3
(x − 1)(2x − 3)(x − 2) = 0 ⇒ x = 1, 2,
2
Putting these values in (1), we get y = 3, 5, 65
16 .
So, the points on the curve (1) are (1, 3), (2, 5) and ( 32 , 65
16 ). The tangent at the point (1, 3) with respect
to the curve (1) is
(y − 3) = 2(x − 1), ⇒ 2x − y + 1 = 0
The tangent at the point (2, 5) with respect to the curve (1) is

(y − 5) = 2(x − 2) ⇒ 2x − y + 1 = 0

Hence two of these points have the same tangent.

Question :- Show that for which the curve ay 2 = (x + 1)3 , the sub-normal varies as the square of
the subtangent. Answer :- The equation of the curve be

ay 2 = (x + 1)3 (1)

Differentiating both sides of (1) with respect to x, we get

dy dy 3(x + 1)2
2ay = 3(x + 1)2 ⇒ = (2)
dx dx 2ay
The subtangent and subnormal respectively are

y 2ay (x + 1)3 2
St = =y 2
=2 = (x + 1)[by(1)and(2)]
y1 3(x + 1) 3(x + 1)2 3

and
3(x + 1)2 3(x + 1)2
Sn = yy1 = y =
2ay 2a
Now
3(x+1)2
Sn 27
= 2a
= = Constant = C ⇒ Sn = CSt2 ⇒ Sn ∝ St2
St2 4(x+1)2 8a
9
Hence the subnormal varies as the square of the subtangent.

Question :- Find the condition that xcosα + ysinα = p touches the curve xm y n = am+n .
Application Dr. T. K. Jana 7

Answer :- The equation of the curve is

xm y n = am+n (1)

Taking log both sides of (1), we get

mlogx + nlogy = (m + n)loga (2)

Differentiating both sides of (2), with respect to x, we get

m n dy dy my
+ =0⇒ =−
x y dx dx nx

Let (x1 , y1 ) be any point on the curve (1), where the tangent drawn.
dy
So, [ dx ](x1 ,y1 ) = − my
nx1
1

Thus, the equation of the tangent at P(x1 , y1 ) is

my1
(y − y1) = − (x − x1 )
nx1
or,
my1 x + nx1 y = (m + n)x1 y1
The equation (3) is identical with xcosα + ysinα = p.
cosα sinα p
= =
my1 nx1 (m + n)x1 y1
mp np
⇒ x1 = , y1 =
(m + n)cosα (m + n)sinα
Since the point (x1 , y1 )lies on the curve (1) so,
 m  n
mp np
= am+n
(m + n)cosα (m + n)sinα
or,
pm+n mm nn = (m + n)m+n am+n sinn αcosm α
which is the required condition.
p
Question :- Show that the straight line lx + my = n touches the curve ( xa )p + ( yb )p = 1, if (al) p−1 +
p p
(bm) p−1 = (n) p−1 .

Answer :-Similar as above.

x2 y2
Question :-Find the pedal equation of the ellipse a2 + b2 = 1 with respect to its center as pole.

Answer :- The equation of the ellipse be

x2 y2
+ =1 (1)
a2 b2
The parametric equation of (1) is x = acosφ, y = bsinφ
Let P(acosφ, y = bsinφ) be any point on the ellipse (1).
Therefore
r2 = a2 cos2 φ + b2 sin2 φ (2)
The equation of the tangent at the point P(acosφ, y = bsinφ) with respect to the ellipse (1) is

xcosφ ysinφ
+ =1 (3)
a b
Application Dr. T. K. Jana 8

If p be the perpendicular distance from the center (0, 0) to the tangent (3), then
1 ab
p= q =p
cos2 φ
+ sin2 φ b2 cos2 φ + a2 sin2 φ
a2 b2

a2 b2
or, = b2 cos2 φ + a2 sin2 φ = b2 + a2 − a2 cos2 φ − b2 sin2 φ
p2
a2 b2
or, = a2 + b2 − r2 , [by(2)]
p2
which is the required pedal equation of the ellipse (1) with respect to its center as pole.

x2 y2
Question :-Show that the pedal equation of the ellipse a2 + b2 = 1 with respect to a focus of it is
b2 2a
p2 = r − 1.

Answer :- See example of Das and Mukharjee.

1
Question :-Show that the pedal equation of c2 (x2 +y 2 ) = x2 y 2 with respect to the origin is p2 + r32 = 1
c2 .

Answer :- The equation of the curve be

c2 (x2 + y 2 ) = x2 y 2 (1)

Under the transformation x = rcosθ, y = rsinθ, the equation (1) transform into

c = rcosθsinθ ⇒ 2c = rsin2θ (2)

From (2),
2c 4c2 r2 − 4c2
= sin2θ ⇒ sin2 2θ = 2 ⇒ cos2 2θ = (3)
r r r2
Differentiating (2) with respect to θ, we get
2
r −4c2
dr cos2θ dr cos2 2θ r2 r2 (r2 − 4c2 )
= −2r ⇒ [ ]2 = 4r2 2
= 4r2 4c2
= [by(3)and(4)] (5)
dθ sin2θ dθ sin 2θ r2
c2

We know that
1 1 1 dr
2
= 2 + 4 [ ]2
p r r dθ
1 1 1 r2 (r2 − 4c2 )
or, = +
p2 r2 r4 c2
1 1 1 (r2 − 4c2 )
or, = +
p2 r2 r2 c2
1 3 1
or, 2 + 2 = 2
p r c
which is the required pedal equation of the curve with respect to the origin.

Question :- Show that the pedal equation of a circle with respect to a point on it circumference is
pd = r2 , where d be the diameter of the circle.

Answer :- Without any loss of generality, let the equation of the circle be

x2 + y 2 = a 2 (1)

Any point on the circle (1) is (acosθ, asinθ). We find the pedal equation of the circle (1) with respect to
the point (acosθ, asinθ). The equation of the tangent at any point P (x1 , y1 ) on the circle (1) is

xx1 + yy1 = a2 (2)

Application Dr. T. K. Jana 9

Here
r2 = (x1 − acosθ)2 + (y1 − basinθ)2
or, r2 = x21 + a2 − 2a(x1 cosθ + y1 sinθ) + y12
or, r2 = 2a2 − 2a(x1 cosθ + y1 sinθ)(as (x1 , y1 )lies on(1))
If p be the perpendicular distance from the point (acosθ, asinθ) to the tangent (2), then

a2 − ax1 cosθ − ay1 sinθ

p= p = a − x1 cosθ − y1 sinθ
x21 + y12

2a2 − r2 r2 r2
or, p = a − = =
2a 2a d
or, pd = r2
where d = 2a be the diameter of the circle. This is the required pedal equation of the circle (1) with
respect to a point on it circumference.
2 2 2
Question :- Find the pedal equation of the astroid x 3 + y 3 = a 3 or x = acos3 θ, y = asin3 θ, with
respect to origin.

Answer :- The equation of the astroid be

2 2 2
x3 + y3 = a3 (1)

Therefore P(acos3 θ, asin3 θ) be any point on the astroid (1).

Now. r2 = a2 (cos6 θ+sin6 θ) = a2 [(cos2 θ+sin2 θ)3 −3cos2 θsin2 θ(cos2 θ+sin2 θ) = a2 (1−3cos2 θsin2 ) (2)
The equation of the tangent at the point (acos3 θ, asin3 θ) with respect to the astroid (1) is

(y − asin3 θ) = −tanθ(x − acos3 θ)

or, xsinθ + ycosθ = asinθcosθ (3)

If p be the perpendicular distance from the origin (0, 0) to the tangent (3), then
asinθcosθ
p= √ = asinθcosθ
sin2 θ + cos2 θ
a2 a2 − r2
 
or, p2 = a2 sin2 θcos2 θ = [by (2)]
3 a2
or, 3p2 = a2 − r2
which is the required pedal equation of the astroid (1) with respect to the origin.

Question :- Show that the pedal equation of the parabola y 2 = 4a(x + a) with respect to the ori-
gin is p2 = ar.

Answer :- The equation of the parabola is

y 2 = 4a(x + a) (1)

The equation of the tangent at any point P (x1 , y1 ) on the parabola (1) is

yy1 = 2a(x + x1 + 2a) (2)

Here
r2 = (x1 − 0)2 + (y1 − 0)2 = x21 + 4a(x1 + a) = (x1 + 2a)2 ⇒ r = (x1 + 2a) (3)
If p be the perpendicular distance from the origin i.e., (0, 0) to the tangent (2), then
2a(x1 + 2a) 2a(x1 + 2a)
p= p 2 =√
y1 + 4a 2 4ax1 + 4a2 + 4a2
Application Dr. T. K. Jana 10

4a2 (x1 + 2a)2

or, p2 = = a(x1 + 2a) ⇒ p2 = ar[by (3)]
4a(x1 + 2a)
Question :- Find the pedal equation with respect to (0, 0) of the curve whose parametric equations are
x = aet (sint − cost), y = aet (sint + cost).

Answer :- The parametric equation of the curve is

x = aet (sint − cost), y = aet (sint + cost) (1)

Differentiating (1), with respect to t, we get

dx
= a{et (sint − cost) + et (cost + sint)} = 2aet sint
dt
dy
= a{et (sint + cost) + et (cost − sint)} = 2aet cost
dt
dy
Hence, dx = cott
The equation of the tangent at the point t is

y − aet (sint + cost) = cost{x − aet (sint − cost)}

or, xcost − ysint − aet {sintcost − cos2 t − sin2 t − sintcost} = 0

or, xcost − ysint + aet = 0 (2)
If p be the perpendicular distance from the origin i.e., (0, 0) to the tangent (2), then

aet
p= √ = aet (3).
sin2 t + cos2 t
Again
r2 = a2 e2t (sint − cost)2 + a2 e2t (sint + cost)2 = 2a2 e2t
√
or, r = 2aet (4)
From (3) and (4), we get
r
p = √ ⇒ r2 = 2p2
2
which is the required pedal equation of the curve (1) with respect to the origin .

Question :-Find the pedal equation of the curve rm = am sinmθ+bm cosmθ(m > 0, a, b ∈ R & a2 +b2 6= 0)
with respect to the pole.

Answer :- The equation of the curve be

rm = am sinmθ + bm cosmθ (1)

We put am = Rcosα and bm = Rsinα, in the equation (1), then (1) reduces to

rm = Rsin(mθ + α) (2)
m
where R2 = a2m + b2m and α = tan−1 ( ab m )
Taking log both sides of (2) and differentiating with respect to θ, we get

m dr
= mcot(mθ + α)
r dθ
or, cotφ = cot(mθ + α) ⇒ φ = mθ + α (3)
We know that
p = rsinφ = rsin(mθ + α)[by(3)]
Application Dr. T. K. Jana 11

rm
or, p = r[by (2)]
R
p
or, rm+1 = pR ⇒ rm+1 = p a2m + b2m
This is the required pedal equation of the curve (1) with respect to the pole.

2a
Question :- Find the pedal equation of the parabola r = 1+cosθ .

Answer :- The equation of the parabola be

2a
r= (1)
1 + cosθ
Differentiating both sides of (1) with respect to θ, we get

dr 2asinθ
= (2)
dθ (1 + cosθ)2

We know that
1 1 1 dr 2 1 1 4a2 sin2 θ
= + ( ) = +
p2 r2 r4 dθ r2 r4 (1 + cosθ)4
1 1 4a2 sin2 θ
or, 2
= 2+
p r (2a)4
1 1 sin2 θ
or, 2
= 2+
p r 4a2
1 1 1 4a 4a2
or, = + ( − 2 )
p2 r2 4a2 r r
or, p2 = ar
which is the required pedal equation of the given parabola (1).

Question :- Find φ in terms of θ of rm = am sin(mθ) and obtain the corresponding pedal equation.
Write down the pedal equation for the case m = 2.

Answer :- Do yourself.
Application Dr. T. K. Jana 12

CURVATURE

Formulae for the Radius of Curvature

1. Intrinsic Equation : s = f (ψ)

Radius of curvature is :
ds
ρ=
dψ
2. Cartesian Equation [ Explicit Function ] : y = f (x) or x = g(y).

Radius of curvature is : 3
(1 + y12 ) 2
ρ=
y2
provided y2 6= 0

When y2 = 0, radius of curvature is :

3
(1 + x21 ) 2
ρ=
x2
provided x2 6= 0

3 . Cartesian Equation [ Implicit Function ] : f (x, y) = 0

Radius of curvature is : 3
(fx2 + fy2 ) 2
ρ=
fxx fy − 2fxy fx fy + fyy fx2
2

provided fxx fy2 − 2fxy fx fy + fyy fx2 6= 0

4 . Parametric Equation : x = f (t), y = g(t).

Radius of curvature is : 3
dy 2 2
(( dx 2
dt ) + ( dt ) )
ρ= dx d2 y dy d2 x
dt dt2 − dt dt2
2
dx d y dy d2 x
provided dt dt2 − dt dt2 6= 0

5 . Pedal Equation : p = f (r).

Radius of curvature is :
dr
ρ=r
dp
6 . Polar Equation : r = f (θ) .

Radius of curvature is : 3
(r2 + r12 ) 2
ρ=
r + 2r12 − rr2
2

dr d2 r
where r1 = dθ and r2 = dθ 2

Radius of Curvature at the Origin :

Application Dr. T. K. Jana 13

Case-I : X-axis is tangent at the origin .

In this case radius of curvature at the origin is given by
 2
1 x
ρ0 = lim
2 x,y→0 y
Case-II : Y-axis is tangent at the origin .
In this case radius of curvature at the origin is given by
 2
1 y
ρ0 = lim
2 x,y→0 x
Case-III : ax + by = 0 be the tangent at the origin .
In this case radius of curvature at the origin is given by
 2
x + y2

1p 2 2
ρ0 = a + b lim
2 x,y→0 ax + by

Center of Curvature :
−−→ −−→
With reference to OX and OY as axes, P (x, y) is any point on the curve. PT is the tangent mak-
ing an angle ψ with the x-axis. On the normal PN at P, let P C = ρ, the radius of curvature at P. C is
called the center of curvature at P. Let (x̄, ȳ) be the co-ordinates of the center of curvature. The normal
PN makes an angle π2 + ψ with x-axis. Then
y−y x−x
π = =ρ
sin( 2 − ψ) cos( π2 − ψ)

or, y = y + ρ cosψ, x = x − ρ sinψ (1)

We know that,
3
(1 + y12 ) 2
ρ= and y1 = tanψ
y2
Therefore,
sinψ cosψ 1
= =p
y1 1 1 + y12
y1 1
⇒ sinψ = p , cosψ = p
1 + y12 1 + y12
Putting the value of ρ and cosψ, sinψ in (1), we get

(1 + y12 ) y1 (1 + y12 )
y=y+ , x=x−
y2 y2
Evolute and Involute :

Def : Any point P (x, y) of a plane curve, say Γ, given by y = f (x), where the curvature K 6= 0,
the center of curvature C(x̄, ȳ), is given by

(1 + y12 ) y1 (1 + y12 )
y=y+ , x=x−
y2 y2
The locus of C(x̄, ȳ), call it Γ1 , as P moves along the curve is called the evolute of the curve Γ
If Γ1 be the evolute of Γ, then Γ is often called an involute of Γ1 .

Chord of Curvature :

The length q of the chord of curvature PQ which makes an angle θ with the normal PCD, is
PQ
= cosθ ⇒ P Q = P Dcosθ ⇒ q = 2ρcosθ.
PD
Application Dr. T. K. Jana 14

Question :- Show that the radius of curvature of a equiangular spiral given by r = aeθcotα is proportional
to the radius vector.

Answer :- The equation of the equiangular spiral is

r = aeθcotα (1)

Differentiating both sides of (1), with respect to θ, we get

dr
= acotα eθcotα = rcotα ⇒ tanφtanα ⇒ φ = α
dθ
We know that p = rsinφ ⇒ p = rsinα.
The radius of curvature in pedal form as
dr
ρ=r ⇒ ρ = rcosecα ⇒ ρ ∝ r[as cosecα is a constant]
dp

Hence radius of curvature of equiangular spiral (1) is proportional to the radius vector.
x2 (a+x)
Question :- Show that the two radii of curvature of the curve y 2 = (a−x) at the origin are the
same.

Answer :- The equation of the curve is

x2 (a + x)
y2 = (1)
(a − x)

The equation (1) can be written as

y 2 (a − x) − x2 (a + x) = 0

or, a(y 2 − x2 ) − xy 2 − x3 = 0
or, a(y − x)(y + x) = xy 2 + x3 (2)
Hence, the equation of tangents at the origin are y − x = 0 and y + x = 0 . [ Equating to zero the lowest
degree terms ]
Consider the equation y − x = 0, we get
 2
x + y2 a(x2 + y 2 )(x + y)
  
1p 2 1
ρ0 = 1 + (−1)2 limy =√ limy
2 x,y→0, x →1 y−x 2 x,y→0, x →1 xy 2 + x3

y2
( )
y √
1 a(1 + x2 )(1 + x )
=√ lim y 2 = 2a
2 x,y→0, xy →1 x2 + 1

Consider the equation y + x = 0, we get

x2 + y 2 a(x2 + y 2 )(y − x)
   
1p 2 1
ρ0 = 1 + 12 lim =√ lim
2 y
x,y→0, x →−1 y+x 2 x,y→0, xy →−1 xy 2 + x3
( 2 )
1 a(1 + xy 2 )( xy − 1) √
=√ limy y 2 = − 2a
2 x,y→0, x →−1 x2 + 1

Hence the radii of curvature at the origin are same in magnitude only.

Question :-Find the radius of curvature at the origin of the curve y 2 − 3xy − 4x2 + 5x3 + x4 y − y 5 = 0.

Answer :-The equation of the curve is

y 2 − 3xy − 4x2 + 5x3 + x4 y − y 5 = 0 (1)

Application Dr. T. K. Jana 15

The equation (1) can be written as

(y + x)(y − 4x) + 5x3 + x4 y − y 5 = 0 (2)

Equation of tangents at the origin are y + x = 0 and y − 4x = 0. [ Equating to zero the lowest degree
terms ]
Consider the equation y + x = 0, we get
 2
x + y2
 2
(x + y 2 )(y − 4x)
 
1p 2 1
ρ0 = 1 + 12 lim = √ lim
2 y
x,y→0, x →−1 y+x 2 x,y→0, xy →−1 y 5 − 5x3 − x4 y

y2
( )
y √
1 (1 + x2 )( x − 4)
=√ lim 3 = 2
2 x,y→0, xy →−1 y 2 xy 3 − xy − 5
Consider the equation y − 4x = 0, we get
√
x2 + y 2 (x2 + y 2 )(y + x)
   
1p 2 17
ρ0 = 1 + (−4)2 limy = lim
2 x,y→0, x →4 y − 4x 2 x,y→0, xy →4 y 5 − 5x3 − x4 y
√ (
y2 y
)
17 (1 + x2 )( x + 1) 17 √
= lim 3 =− 17
2 x,y→0, xy →4 y 2 xy 3
− xy − 5 2
√ √
Hence the radii of curvature at the origin are 2 and 17
2 17 in magnitude only.

Question :- Find the radius of curvature at the origin of the curve 4x4 +3y 3 −8x2 y+2x2 −3xy−6y 2 −8y =
0.

Answer :- The equation of the curve is

4x4 + 3y 3 − 8x2 y + 2x2 − 3xy − 6y 2 − 8y = 0 (1)

Equating to zero the lowest degree term in the equation of the curve (1), we see that y = 0, i.e., x-axis
is the tangent at the origin.
Since x-axis is the tangent at the origin, therefore, the radius of curvature ρ0 at the origin is given by
 2  2
1 x x
ρ0 = lim ⇒ lim = 2ρ0 (2)
2 x,y→0 y x,y→0 y

Dividing the equation of the curve (1) by y and letting x → 0, y → 0, we get

x2 x2
lim [4x2 + 3y 2 − 8x2 + 2 − 3x − 6y − 8y] = 0 ⇒ 4ρ0 − 8 = 0 ⇒ ρ0 = 2
x,y→0 y y
Question :- Find the radius of curvature at the origin of the curve x3 + y 3 = 3axy.

Answer :- The equation of the curve is

x3 + y 3 = 3axy (1)

Equating to zero the lowest degree term in the equation of the curve (1), we see that x = 0, i.e., y-axis
is the tangent at the origin and y = 0, i.e., x-axis is the tangent at the origin.
Since x-axis is the tangent at the origin, therefore, the radius of curvature ρ0 at the origin is given by
 2  2
1 x x
ρ0 = lim ⇒ lim = 2ρ0 (2)
2 x,y→0 y x,y→0 y

Dividing the equation of the curve (1) by xy and letting x → 0, y → 0, we get

x2 y2 x2 y 3a
lim [ + ] = 3a ⇒ lim [ + xy 2 ] = 3a ⇒ 2ρ0 = 3a ⇒ ρ0 =
x,y→0 y x x,y→0 y x 2
Application Dr. T. K. Jana 16

3a
Similarly, y-axis is the tangent at the origin, then the radius of curvature is ρ0 = 2 .

Question :- If ρ1 and ρ2 be the radius of curvature at the extremities of any chord of the cardioide
2
r = a(1 + cosθ) which passes through the pole, then prove that ρ21 + ρ22 = 16a
9 .

Answer :- Let POQ be any focal chord. If the vectorial angle of P be α, then the vectorial angle
of Q be (π + α).
The equation of the cardioide be

r = a(1 + cosθ) (1)

Differentiating both sides of (1), with respect to θ, we get

dr d2 r
r1 = = −a sinθ, r2 = 2 = a cosθ
dθ dθ
The radius of curvature in polar form is
3
(r2 + r12 ) 2 4a θ
ρ= = cos
r + 2r12 − rr2
2 3 2

Hence the radious of curvature at P =ρ1 = 4a α

3 cos 2
4a
and the radious of curvature at Q =ρ2 = 3 cos 2 = − 4a
α+π α
3 sin 2
2 2 16a2
Therefore ρ1 + ρ2 = 9 .

Question :- If ρ1 and ρ2 be the radius of curvature at the ends of a focal chord of the parabola y 2 = 4ax,
−2 −2 2
prove that ρ1 3 + ρ2 3 = (2a)− 3 .

Answer :- Let LSL’ be the focal chord of the parabola. The equation of the parabola be

y 2 = 4ax (1)

Let x = at2 and y = 2at be the parametric equation of (1).

d2 x dy d2 y
Then dx
dt = 2at, dt2 = 2a and dt = 2a, dt2 = 0 The radius of curvature ρ is given by

dy 2 2 3
(( dx 2
dt ) + ( dt ) ) 3
ρ= dx d2 y dy d2 x
= −2a(1 + t2 ) 2
dt dt2 − dt dt2

3
So, ρ = 2a(1 + t2 ) 2 ( Considering magnitude only )
Let t1 and t2 be the ends of a focal chord LSL’ of the parabola (1).
Hence
t1 .t2 = −1 (2)
3 1 2
Hence, the radious of curvature at L is ρ1 = 2a(1 + t21 ) 2 ⇒ (1+t21 )
= ( 2a
ρ1 )
3

3 1 2
and the radious of curvature at L’ is ρ2 = 2a(1 + t22 ) 2 ⇒ (1+t22 )
= ( 2a
ρ2 )
3

Adding these two results, we get

2a 2 2a 2 1 1
( )3 + ( )3 = +
ρ1 ρ2 (1 + t1 ) (1 + t22 )
2

1 2 1 2 2 2 + t21 + t22
or, ( ) 3 + ( ) 3 (2a) 3 =
ρ1 ρ2 (1 + t21 + t22 + (t1 t2 )2 )
− 23 − 32 2
or, ρ1 + ρ2 = (2a)− 3
Question :- If ρ1 and ρ2 be the radius of curvature at the ends of two conjugate diameters of the ellipse
2 2
x2 y2 2
2 2
a2 + b2 = 1, prove that (ρ1 + ρ2 )(ab) = a + b .
3 3 3
Application Dr. T. K. Jana 17

Hint :- Let P CP 0 and QCQ0 be two conjugate diameters of the ellipse. The equation of the ellipse
be
x2 y2
+ =1 (1)
a2 b2
Let x = acosφ and y = bsinφ be the parametric equation of (1).
The radius of curvature ρ is given by
dx 2 dy 2 2 3 3
(( dφ ) + ( dφ ) ) (a2 sin2 φ + b2 cos2 φ) 2
ρ= dx d2 y dy d2 x
=
− ab
dφ dφ2 dφ dφ2

3
(a2 sin2 θ+b2 cos2 θ) 2
Hence, the radious of curvature at P, whose vectorial angle is θ is ρ1 = ab
3
π (a2 sin2 ( π 2 2 π
2 +θ)+b cos ( 2 +θ))
2
and the radious of curvature at Q, whose vectorial angle is 2 + θ is ρ2 = ab

Question :- If ρ1 and ρ2 be the radius of curvature at two points P and Q of the cycloid x =
a(θ − sinθ), y = a(1 − cosθ), the tangents at which are at right angles, show that ρ21 + ρ22 = 16a2

Answer :- The equation of the cycloid is

x = a(θ − sinθ), y = a(1 − cosθ) (1)

The radius of curvature ρ is given by

dy 2 2 3
(( dx 2
dθ ) + ( dθ ) ) θ
ρ= dx d2 y dy d2 x
= −4a sin( )
− 2
dθ dθ 2 dθ dθ 2

So, ρ = 4a sin( θ2 )( Considering magnitude only )

Let the vectorial angles of P and Q be θ1 and θ2 respectively.
Slope of the tangent at P is cot( θ21 ) and at Q is cot( θ22 ).
By the given conditions,
θ1 θ2
cot( ).cot( ) = −1
2 2
θ1 θ2 θ1 θ2
or, cos( ).cos( ) + sin( ).sin( ) = 0
2 2 2 2
θ1 − θ2 θ1 − θ2 π
or, cos( )=0⇒ = ⇒ θ1 = π + θ2
2 2 2
Hence, the radious of curvature at P, whose vectorial angle is θ1 is ρ1 = 4a sin( θ21 )
and the radious of curvature at Q, whose vectorial angle is θ2 = θ1 − π is ρ2 = 4a sin( θ22 ) = −4a cos( θ21 )
Squaring both sides and adding, we get ρ21 + ρ22 = 16a2
√ √ √
Question :- If (α, β) be the center of curvature of the parabola x+ y= a, a > 0 at any point (x,
y), show that α + β = 3(x + y)

Answer :- The equation of the parabola is

√ √ √
x+ y = a (1)

Calculate that, the center of curvature (x, y) at the point (3, 1) is

√
y1 (1 + y12 ) 2 y(x + y)
x=x− =x+ √ (2)
y2 a
√
(1 + y12 ) 2 x(x + y)
y=y+ =y+ √ (3)
y2 a
Adding (3) and (4), we get
2(x + y) √ √
x + y = (x + y) + √ ( x + y)
a
Application Dr. T. K. Jana 18

Question :- Find the equation of the circle of curvature at (3, 1) on the curve given by y = x2 − 6x + 10
.

Answer :- The equation of the curve is

y = x2 − 6x + 10 (1)

The radious of curvature is 3

(1 + y12 ) 2 1
ρ|3,1 = |3,1 =
y2 2
Calculate that, the center of curvature (x, y) at the point (3, 1) is given by

y1 (1 + y12 )
x=x− =3 (2)
y2

(1 + y12 ) 3
y=y+ = (3)
y2 2
So the equation of the required circle of curvature is
3 1
(x − x)2 + (y − y)2 = ρ2 ⇒ (x − 3)2 + (y − )2 =
2 4
Question :- Prove that the evolute of the cycloid x = a(t − sint), y = a(1 − cost) is another cycloid .

Answer :- The equation of the curve is

x = a(t − sint), y = a(1 − cost) (1)

Calculate that
y1 (1 + y12 )
x=x− = a(t + sint) (2)
y2
(1 + y12 )
y=y+ = −a(1 − cost) (3)
y2
We know that the locus of the center of curvature i.e., (x, y) is the evaluate. Hence the evaluate is given
by the parametric equation x = a(t + sint), y = −a(1 − cost), which is an another cycloid.

Question :- Find the locus of the center of curvature of the curve x = a(cost+t sint), y = a(sint−t cost),
where t is the variable parameter.

Answer :- The equation of the curve is

x = a(cost + t sint), y = a(sint − t cost) (1)

Calculate that
y1 (1 + y12 )
x=x− = a cost (2)
y2
(1 + y12 )
y=y+ = −a sint (3)
y2
Squaring both sides of (2) and (3) and then adding, we get

x2 + y 2 = a2 (cos2 t + sin2 t) = a2

Hence the locus of (x, y) is x2 + y 2 = a2 , which is a circle.

Question :- Prove that the evaluate of the parabola x = at2 , y = 2at is the semi-cubical parabola,
27ay 2 = 4(x − 2a)3 .
Application Dr. T. K. Jana 19

Answer :- The parametric equation of the parabola is

x = at2 , y = 2at (1)

Calculate that
y1 (1 + y12 )
x=x− = 2a + 3at2 (2)
y2
(1 + y12 )
y=y+ = −2at3 (3)
y2
Eliminating t from (2) and (3), we get
x̄ − 2a 3 ȳ
( ) = (− )2
3a 2a
y2 (x̄ − 2a)3
or, 2
=
4a 27a3
or, 27aȳ 2 = 4(x̄ − 2a)3
Hence the evaluate is given by 27ay 2 = 4(x − 2a)3 , which is the semi-cubical parabola.

Question :- Show that, for the cycloid x = a(θ − sinθ), y = a(1 − cosθ), the radius of curvature,
at any point is twice the length of the portion of the normal intercepted between the curve and the axis
of x.

Answer :- The equation of the cycloid be

x = a(θ − sinθ), y = a(1 − cosθ) (1)

Calculate the radius of curvature |ρ| = 4a sin( θ2 )

Again, the equation of the normal at θ is
θ
y − a(1 − cosθ) = −tan( )(x − a(θ − sinθ))
2
As the normal meets the x-axis so y = 0. At (aθ, 0) the normal meets the x-axis.
The portion of the normal between the curve and x-axis is
p θ ρ
(a sinθ)2 + a2 (1 − cosθ)2 = 2a sin( ) =
2 2
Hence the radus of curvature at any point of (1) is twice the length of the portion of the normal inter-
cepted between the curve (1) and the x-axis.

x2 y2
Question :- Find the evaluate of the curve a2 + b2 =1

Answer :- The equation of the curve is

x2 y2
2
+ 2 =1 (1)
a b
The parametric equation of (1) is

x = acosφ, y = bsinφ (2)

Calculate that
y1 (1 + y12 ) 1 b2
x=x− = acosφ − (a2 − b2 )cosφ sin2 φ − cosφ ⇒ ax = (a2 − b2 )cos3 φ
y2 a a
2
(1 + y12 ) 1 + b 2 cot2 φ
y=y+ = bsinφ − b a 3 ⇒ by = −(a2 − b2 )sin3 φ
y2 a2 cosec φ
Application Dr. T. K. Jana 20

Adding the above two, we get

2 2 2
(ax) 3 + (by) 3 = (a2 − b2 ) 3
We know that the locus of the center of curvature i.e., (x, y) is the evaluate.
Hence the evaluate i.e., the locus of (x, y) is
2 2 2
(ax) 3 + (by) 3 = (a2 − b2 ) 3

x2 y2
Question :- Find the evaluate of the curve a2 − b2 =1
Application Dr. T. K. Jana 21

RECTILINEAR ASYMPTOTES

Def : A straight line is said to be a rectilinear asymptote of an infinite branch of a curve if as a point
P of the curve tends to infinity along the branch, the perpendicular distance of P from that straight line
tends to zero.

Note 1 :- For a curve lying wholly in a finite region, the asymptote cannot obviously exist e.g., a
circle or an ellipse, gas no asymptote at all.

Note 2 :- A curve having an infinite branch, asymptote may or may not exist, e.g., a parabola is a
curve extending to infinity but it has no asymptote.

Asymptotes parallel to Y -axis of the curve y = f (x) : The line x = a may be an asymptote
to the curve y = f (x), it is necessary as well as sufficient that |f (x)| → ∞ when either x → a − 0 or,
x → a + 0 or, x → a. This asymptote is known as vertical asymptote.

Asymptotes parallel to X-axis of the curve x = g(y) : The line y = b may be an asymptote
to the curve x = g(y), it is necessary as well as sufficient that |g(y)| → ∞ when either y → b − 0 or,
y → b + 0 or, y → b. This asymptote is known as horizontal asymptote.

Condition for a straight line to be an asymptote :

Theorem :- If an infinite branch of a curve possesses an asymptote y = mx + c ( m and c being

finite ) , then
y
m = lim , c= limy (y − mx)
|x|→∞ x |x|→∞, x →m

, where (x, y) is a point of the curve.

Working Rule to find asymptotes of algebraic curves:

Let the equation to an algebraic curve be

Pn + Pn−1 + Pn−2 + ..........(1)

where Pn = xn φ( xy ) consists of homogeneous terms of degree n.

Suppose Pn = (y−m1 x)(y−m2 x)......, then the asymptotes are parallel to y−m1 x = 0, y−m2 x = 0, .........

Case I : Let y − m1 x be a non repeated factor of Pn , then asymptotes parallel to y − m1 x = 0 is

given by
Fn−1
y − m1 x + lim { }=0
x→∞ Qn−1
y = m1 x
where Fn−1 = Pn−1 + Pn−2 + ........ and Qn−1 = (y − m2 x)(y − m3 x)....

Case II : Let y − mr x be a repeated factor of Pn ,

i) if Pn−1 does not contain y − mr x as a factor then there are no asymptotes parallel to y − mr x = 0.

ii) if Pn−1 has a factor y − mr x then assume Pn−1 = (y − mr x)Rn−2 and the asymptotes parallel
to y − mr x = 0 is given by
Rn−2 Fn−2
(y − mr x)2 + (y − mr x) lim { }+ lim { }=0
x→∞ Qn−2 x→∞ Qn−2
y = mr x y = mr x

where Fn−2 = Pn−2 + Pn−3 + ........ and Qn−2 (y − mr x)2 = Pn

Application Dr. T. K. Jana 22

Asymptotes by Inspection :- If the curve be of the form Fn + Fn−2 = 0 ,

where Fn is a polynomial of degree n and Fn−2 is a polynomial of degree (n − 2) at most and Fn can be
broken up into n distinct linear factors so that when equated to zero they represented n straight lines,
no two of which are parallel then all the asymptotes of the curve are given by Fn = 0.

Asymptotes in Polar Co-ordinate :

Working Rule :
1) Make u = 1r and find θ as u → 0. If α be one of such values of θ , then
0
2) Find du
dθ = F (θ) for θ = α
3) Asymptote is r sin(θ − α) = F 01(α) .

Question :- If any of the asymptotes of the curve ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0(h2 > ab)
passes through the origin, prove that af 2 + bg 2 = 2f gh.

Answer :- The second degree term ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 can be expressed as product of two real linear
factors iff h2 > ab.
Let
ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 = b(y − m1 x)(y − m2 x)
So, m1 + m2 = − 2hb and m1 m2 = b
a

As the highest degree term of the given conic is ax2 +2hxy +by 2 so asymptotes are parallel to y −m1 x = 0
and y − m2 x = 0
The asymptote parallel to y − m1 x = 0 is
2gx + 2f y + c
y − m1 x + lim =0
y=m1 x,x→∞ b(y − m2 x)

2g + 2f m1 + 0
or, y − m1 x + =0
b(m1 − m2 )
2(g + f m1 )
or, y − m1 x + =0 (1)
b(m1 − m2 )
Similarly, the other asymptotes is

2(g + f m2 )
y − m2 x + =0 (2)
b(m2 − m1 )

If one of the asymptotes passes through the origin, then we have from (1),
g
g + f m1 = 0 ⇒ m1 = −
f
Now, y − m1 x is a factor of ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 , so, y − m1 x = 0 must satisfy

ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 ⇒ ax2 + 2hx.m1 x + bm21 x2 = 0

g g
⇒ a + 2h.(− ) + b.(− )2 = 0 ⇒ af 2 + bg 2 = 2f gh
f f
If the other asymptote passes through the origin, then we have from (2), m2 = − fg and proceeding as
before the same condition is arrived at.

Question :- Find the equation of the cubic which has the same asymptotes as the curve 2x3 + x2 y −
5xy 2 + 2y 3 + 3x + 4y − 7 = 0 and which passes through the points (0, 0), (1, −1), (0, 2).

Answer :- The equation of the curve can be put as F3 + F1 = 0, where

F3 = 2x3 + x2 y − 5xy 2 + 2y 3 = (2x − y)(x − y)(x + 2y)

Application Dr. T. K. Jana 23

and F 1 = 3x + 4y − 7 .
Since F3 has three non repeated linear factors, asymptotes are given by F3 = 0.
The equation of the required cubic may be written as

(2x − y)(x − y)(x + 2y) + ax + by + c = 0 (1)

The cubic (1) passes through the points (0, 0), (1, −1), (0, 2)
Hence c = 0 , (2 + 1)(1 + 1)(1 − 2) + a − b = 0 and (2.0 − 2)(0 − 2)(0 + 2.2) + a.0 + b.2 = 0

⇒ c = 0, a = −2, b = −8
Hence the required cubic is
2x3 + x2 y − 5xy 2 + 2y 3 − 2x − 8y = 0
. Question :- Determine the equation of the cubic which has the same asymptotes as the curve
x3 − 6x2 y + 11xy 2 − 6y 3 + 5x − 3y + 3 = 0 and which passes through the points (0, 0), (1, 2), (2, 1).

Answer :-x3 − 6x2 y + 11xy 2 − 6y 3 − 5x + 10y = 0

Question :- Find the equation of the cubic which has the same asymptotes as the curve x3 − 6x2 y +
11xy 2 − 6y 3 + x + y + 1 = 0 and which touches the y-axis at origin and passes through the point (3, 2).

Answer :- The equation of the curve can be put as F3 + F1 = 0, where

F3 = x3 − 6x2 y + 11xy 2 − 6y 3 = (x − y)(x − 2y)(x − 3y)

and F 1 = x + y − 1 .
Since F3 has three non repeated linear factors, asymptotes are given by F3 = 0.
The equation of the required cubic may be written as

(x − y)(x − 2y)(x − 3y) + ax + by + c = 0 (1)

Since the cubic (1) tough the axis of y at the origin, we have c = 0 (as the curve passes through origin ),
b = 0(as y-axis is tangent at origin ).
Again it should passes through (3, 2). Hence from (1), we have

(3 − 2)(3 − 4)(3 − 6) + a.3 + 0.2 + 0 = 0 ⇒ 3a + 3 = 0 ⇒ a = −1

Hence the required cubic is x3 − 6x2 y + 11xy 2 − 6y 3 − x = 0

Question :- Find the equation of the cubic which has the same asymptotes as the curve x3 − 6x2 y +
11xy 2 − 6y 3 + x + y + 1 = 0 and which touches the straight line y = x at the origin and passes through
the point (1, −1).

Answer :- x3 − 6x2 y + 11xy 2 − 6y 3 − 12x + 12y = 0.

Question :- Find the asymptotes (if any) of the curve

t2 t2 + 2
x= 3
,y =
1+t 1+t
Answer :-From the parametric equation of the curve i.e.
t2 t2 + 2
x= , y =
1 + t3 1+t
We see that when t → −1, x → ∞ and y → ∞
Hence the curve has no vertical as well as horizontal asymptotes.
Let y = mx + c be an oblique asymptote, then
t2 +2
y y 1+t
m = lim = lim = lim t2
=9
|x|→∞ x t→−1 x t→−1
1+t3
Application Dr. T. K. Jana 24

Now for m = 9
t2 + 2 9t2
 
c= lim (y − 9x) = lim − =1
y
|x|→∞, x →9 t→−1 1+t 1 + t3
Therefore y = 9x + 1 be the oblique asymptote of the given curve.

Question :- Find the asymptotes (if any) of the curve

1 t3
x= , y =
t4 − 1 t4 − 1
Answer :-From the parametric equation of the curve i.e.
1 t3
x= ,y = 4
t4 −1 t −1
We see that when t → 1 or t → −1, x → ∞ and y → ∞
Hence the curve has no vertical as well as horizontal asymptotes.
Let y = mx + c be an oblique asymptote, then
y y t3
m = lim = lim = lim = ±1
|x|→∞ x t→±1 x t→±1 1

Now for m = 1
t3
 
1 3
c= lim (y − x) = lim − =
y
|x|→∞, x →1 t→1 t4 − 1 t4 − 1 4
3
Therefore y = x + 4 be an oblique asymptote of the given curve.

For m = −1
t3
 
1 3
c= limy (y + x) = lim 4
− 4 =−
|x|→∞, x →−1 t→−1 t −1 t −1 4
3
Therefore y = x − 4 be another oblique asymptote of the given curve.

Question :- Find the asymptotes (if any) of the curve

t2 + 1 t2
x= , y =
t2 − 1 t−1
Answer :-From the parametric equation of the curve i.e.
t2 + 1 t2
x= , y =
t2 − 1 t−1
We see that when t → 1, both x → ∞ and y → ∞
Hence the curve has no vertical as well as horizontal asymptotes.
But when t → −1, x → ∞ and y → − 21
Hence the curve has a horizontal asymptote y = − 21 .
Let y = mx + c be an oblique asymptote, then
y y t2 (t + 1)
m = lim = lim = lim 2 =1
|x|→∞ x t→1 x t→1 t + 11

Now for m = 1
t2 t2 + 1
 
3
c= limy (y − x) = lim − 2 =
|x|→∞, x →1 t→1 t−1 t −1 2
Therefore y = x + 32 be an oblique asymptote of the given curve.
Hence all the asymptotes are y = − 12 and y = x + 23 .

Question :- Find the asymptotes (if any) of the curve

a cosθ a sinθ
x= 1 , y= 1
2 − cosθ 2 − cosθ
Application Dr. T. K. Jana 25

Answer :-From the parametric equation of the curve i.e.

a cosθ a sinθ
x= 1 , y= 1
2 − cosθ 2 − cosθ

We see that when cosθ → 21 , i.e. θ → ± π3 both x → ∞ and y → ∞

Hence the curve has no vertical as well as horizontal asymptotes.
Let y = mx + c be an oblique asymptote, then
y y √
m = lim = lim = lim (tanθ) = ± 3
|x|→∞ x θ→± π3 x θ→± π3
√
Now for m = 3
( √ )
√ a(sinθ − 3cosθ) 0 4a
c= limy √ (y − 3x) = limπ 1 ( F orm) = √
|x|→∞, x → 3 θ→ 3
2 − cosθ 0 3
√ 4a
Therefore y = 3x + √ be an oblique asymptote of the given curve.
√3
Find similarly for m = 3.

Question :- Find the rectilinear asymptotes (if any) of the curve y = x + logx.

Answer :- The given curve is

y = x + logx
We see that
lim y = lim (x + logx) = ∞
x→0+ x→0+

Hence the curve has a vertical asymptote x = 0.

Again, if possible let y = mx + c be an oblique asymptote, where m and c are finite.
Then
y logx
m = lim = lim (1 + )=1
|x|→∞ x |x|→∞ x
Now for m = 1
c= lim
y
(y − x) = lim logx = ∞
|x|→∞, x →1 |x|→∞

Hence, the curve has no oblique asymptote. Thus, x = 0 is only one asymptote.
1
Question :- Find the rectilinear asymptotes (if any) of the curve y = xe x2 .

Answer :- y = x be an only oblique asymptote to the curve and a vertical asymptote x = 0.

Question :- Show that the curve

 
0,
√ x=0
y=
1 + x sin x1 ,
2 x 6= 0

has no asymptote parallel to the y-axis and its only asymptotes are y = ±1.

Answer :-We know, if x = a is an asymptote parallel to the y-axis then y → ∞ when either x → a − 0
or, x → a + 0 or, x → a
Let x = a is an asymptote of the given curve. Then when x → a, y tends to a finite limit, since the
function y = f (x) is bounded in x = 0 and at points other then x = 0, the function is continuous. Hence
x = a is not an asymptote of the given curve.
Let y = mx + c be an oblique asymptote, where m and c are finite. Then
√
y 1 + x2 sin x1
m = lim = lim ( )=0
|x|→∞ x |x|→∞ x
Application Dr. T. K. Jana 26

Now for m = 0
q
1
p 1 1+ x2 sin x1

1, x→∞

c= limy (y − 0.x) = lim 1 + x2 sin = lim =
|x|→∞, x →0 |x|→∞ x |x|→∞ x 1
x
−1, x → −∞

Thus the curve has two asymptotes y = ±1 .

Question :- Find the asymptotes of the curve y = (a − x)tan πx

2a , a ∈ R − 0.

Answer :- We know that, if the line x = a may be an asymptote to a curve y = f (x), it is neces-
sary as well as sufficient that |f (x)| → ∞ when either x → a − 0 or, x → a + 0 or, x → a
Let y = f (x) = (a − x)tan πx2a , a ∈ R − 0

πx (a − x) 0 2a
So, lim |f (x)| = lim |(a − x)tan | = lim | |(f orm[ ]) =
x→a x→a 2a x→a cot πx 0 π
2a

Hence x = a is not an asymptote of the given curve.

πx
N ow, lim |f (x)| = lim |(a − x)tan |→∞
x→−a+ x→−a+ 2a
Hence x = −a is an asymptote of the given curve.
In a similar way, we may prove that x = ±3a, ±5a, x = ±7a, are all asymptotes of the given curve.
The all asymptotes of the given curve are x = −a, ±3a, ±5a, .

3x 1
Question :- Find the rectilinear asymptotes ( if any ) to the curve y = 2 log(e − 3x ).

3x 1
Answer :- The given curve is y = 2 log(e − 3x ).

We see that
3x 1
lim y = lim log(e − ) → −∞
1
x→ 3e + 1
x→ 3e + 2 3x
1
Hence x = 3e is a vertical asymptote.
Again, if possible let y = mx + c be an oblique asymptote, where m and c are finite.Then
y 3 1 3
m = lim = lim log(e − )=
|x|→∞ x |x|→∞ 2 3x 2
3
Now for m = 2
1
3 log(e− 3x )−loge
c = lim|x|→∞, xy → 32 (y − 32 x) = lim|x|→∞ { 3x
2 log(e −
1
3x ) − 3x
2 } = lim|x|→∞ 2 1
x
1
3 log(1− 3ex ) log(1+t)
= lim|x|→∞ 2 1 = 32 (− 3e
1
) limt→0− t (put 1
t = − 3ex 1
) = − 2e
x

1
Thus the given curve has a vertical asymptote x = 3e and an oblique asymptote y = 32 x − 1
2e .

Question :- Find the asymptotes of the curve r cos2θ = a sin3θ.

Answer :- Putting u = 1r we get u = acos2θ sin3θ = F (θ)

As r → ∞ we have F (θ) → 0 ⇒ cos2θ → 0 which gives
2θ = (2n + 1) π2 , n ∈ Z, ⇒ θ = (2n + 1) π4 , n ∈ Z
Now,
du 1 −2 sin3θsin2θ − 3 cos2θcos3θ
= F 0 (θ) =
dθ a sin2 θ
du 2 1
or, |θ=(2n+1) π4 = −
dθ a sin(2n + 1) 3π
4
Hence the equation of the asymptotes
π 1 a sin(2n + 1) 3π
4
r sin(θ − (2n + 1) ) = 0 = −
4 F ((2n + 1) π4 ) 2
Application Dr. T. K. Jana 27

π a sin(2n + 1) 3π
4
or, r sin((2n + 1) − θ) =
4 2
. Question :- Find the asymptotes ( if any ) of the curve r = atanθ

Answer :- Putting u = 1r we get u = acosθ

sinθ = F (θ)
As r → ∞ we have F (θ) → 0 ⇒ cosθ → 0 which gives
θ = (2n + 1) π2 , n ∈ Z
Now,
du 1
= F 0 (θ) = − cosec2 θ
dθ a
du 1
or, |θ=(2n+1) π2 = −
dθ a
Hence the equation of the asymptotes
π 1
r sin(θ − (2n + 1) ) = 0 = −a
2 F ((2n + 1) π2 )
Application Dr. T. K. Jana 28

ENVELOPES

Parametric Family of Curves : Let us consider the equation f (x, y, α) = 0 of three variables where
we give arbitrary numerical value of α, we obtain thereby a number of equations representing a curve
in each case. The totality of these curves, obtained by assigning different values to α, is said to be a
family of curves. The value of α varies, but remains constant for a particular curve. Here α is called a
parameter of the family. The curves thus ascertained are called parametric family of curves.

Singular Point :- A point P (a, b) is a singular point of a curve f (x, y, α) = 0 , ( α is fixed ) if it

satisfies, besides the equation of the curve, the two equations ∂f ∂f
∂x = 0 and ∂y = 0.

Ordinary Point :- A point P(a, b) is said to be an ordinary point of the curve f (x, y, α) = 0 , (
α is fixed ) if at least one of the two partial derivatives ∂f ∂f
∂x and ∂y is not zero at P(a,b).

Characteristic Point :- The characteristic points of a family of curves f (x, y, α) = 0 are those or-
∂f
dinary points of the family where the two equations f (x, y, α) = 0 and ∂α = 0 simultaneously holds.

Envelope (1) :- The envelope of a family of curves f (x, y, α) = 0 , ( α is a variable parameter ) is

the locus of their isolated characteristic points.
(2) Envelope is the locus of the point of intersection of consecutive members of family of curves. It is a
curve which touches each member of the family and each point of the curve is touches by some member
of the family.

Working rule to find the equation of an envelope when it exists :

If there exists an envelope, its equation may be obtained in either of the following ways :
(1) Eliminating α between f (x, y, α) = 0 and ∂f (x,y,α)
∂α =0
The eliminant ( an expression in x and y ) is the envelope of a family of curves.
∂f (x,y,α)
(2) Solve for x and y in terms of α from the equations f (x, y, α) = 0 and ∂α =0
It will give the parametric representation of the envelope.

(3) For an algebraic curve : The equation obtained by eliminating α between f (x, y, α) = 0 and
∂f (x,y,α)
∂α = 0 is exactly the condition that the relation f (x, y, α) = 0, considered as an equation in α, has
a repeated root.
Thus, if f (x, y, α) = A(x, y)α2 + B(x, y)α + C(x, y) = 0, then the envelope is given by B 2 − 4AC = 0.
This is the condition that the two values of α are equal.

Envelope of two parameters family of curves :

Let the equation of a family of curves involve two parameters α and β which are connected by a given
relation . Let the equation of the family be

f (x, y, α, β) = 0 (1)

where α and β are connected by the equation

φ(α, β) = 0 (2)

We may regard α as the independent and β as the dependent variable.

Differentiating both sides of the equations (1) and (2) partially with respect to α, we have

∂f ∂f ∂β
+ . =0 (3)
∂α ∂β ∂α
and
∂φ ∂φ ∂β
+ . =0 (4)
∂α ∂β ∂α
Application Dr. T. K. Jana 29

∂β
Eliminating ∂α from (3) and (4), we obtain
∂f ∂f
∂α ∂β
∂φ
= ∂φ
(5)
∂α ∂β

Eliminating α, β from (1), (2) and (5) we get the envelope.

Envelopes in case of polar curves :

Let us take a point (R, φ) on the curve r = f (θ).

Then R = f (φ) (1)
Take further a point (r, θ) on the curve whose envelope under the given condition (1) is to be determined.
Obtain the equation of the curve f (r, R, φ, θ) which reduces by (1) to
f (r, φ, θ) = 0 (2)
which is a family of one parameter curves.
Differentiating both sides of (2) with respect to φ will determine φ in terms of θ, hence the envelope is
obtained by elimination of φ.

Evolute :- The evolute of a curve, has been defined as the locus of its centers of curvature.
Since the center of curvature is the limit of intersection of two consecutive normals it follows that the
evolute is the envelope of the family of normals to the given curve.

Note :- To find the evolute of the curve ⇒ Find the family of normals and then its envelope.

a2 b2 c2
Question :- Find the envelope of the family of curves x cosθ − y sinθ = a , for different values of
θ.

Answer :- The family of curves is represented by the equation

a2 b2 c2
cosθ − sinθ = (1)
x y a
Differentiating both sides of (1), with respect to θ, we get

a2 b2 b2 x
− sinθ − cosθ = 0 ⇒ tanθ = − 2 .
x y a y
which gives,
b2 a2
y a4 b4
sinθ = − , cosθ = x
, where X 2 = +
X X x2 y2
Substituting the values of sinθ and cosθ in (1), we get

a4 b4 c4
+ =
x2 y2 a2
which is the required envelope of the family of curves (1).

Question :- Show that the envelope of the family of curves Acosn θ + Bsinn θ = C(n 6= 2), where θ
2 2 2
is a parameter and A , B and C are functions of x and y, is A 2−n + B 2−n = C 2−n .
1
A 1−n
Answer :- Similar as above. Calculate that tanθ = [ B ] , so
1 1
B 2−n A 2−n 2 2
sinθ = , cosθ = , where X 2 = A 2−n + B 2−n
X X
Substitute the values of sinθ and cosθ in the given curve.

Question :- Find the envelope, when t varies of (a1 t2 +2a2 t+a3 )x+(b1 t2 +2b2 t+b3 )y+(c1 t2 +2c2 t+c3 ) =
Application Dr. T. K. Jana 30

0.

Question :- Circles are described on the double ordinates of the parabola y 2 = 4ax as diameters.
Prove that the envelope is the parabola y 2 = 4a(x + a).

Answer :- Let the extremities of the double ordinates be P (at2 , 2at) and Q(at2 , −2at). Equation of
the circle with PQ as diameter is

(x − at2 )(x − at2 ) + (y − 2at)(y + 2at) = 0

or, a2 t4 − 2(ax + 2a2 )t2 + (x2 + y 2 ) = 0

which is quadratic in t2

a2
Question :- Find the envelope of the family of circles (x − a)2 + y 2 = 2 .

Question :- Find the envelope of the circles described on the radii vectors of the parabola as diam-
eter.

Answer :- Any point P on the parabola can be taken as (at2 , 2at). Equation of the circle with OP
as diameter, where O is the vertex of the parabola is

(x − 0)(x − at2 ) + (y − 0)(y − 2at) = 0

which is quadratic in t

Question :- Show that the envelope of the family of circles whose centers lies on the parabola y 2 = 4ax
and which passes through its vertex is the curve y 2 (2a + x) + x3 = 0.

Answer :- Let the variable center of the circle be (at2 , 2at). √ Since the circle passes through the vertex
of the parabola y 2 = 4ax i.e., (0, 0),the radius of the circle is a2 t4 + 4a2 t2 . Therefore, the equation of
the circle is
(x − at2 )2 + (y − 2at)2 = a2 (t4 + 4t2 )
or, x2 − 2at2 x + a2 t4 + y 2 − 4aty + 4a2 t2 = a2 t4 + 4a2 t2
or, 2axt2 + 4ayt − (x2 + y 2 ) = 0
or, At2 + 2Bt + C = 0
where A = 2ax, B = 2ay and C = −(x2 + y 2 ). which is quadratic in t

Question :- Show that the radius of curvature of the envelope of the lines lα : xcosα + ysinα = f (α),
( α : parameter, f is a thrice differentiable function with f (α) + f 00 (α) 6= 0, ∀ α) is f (α) + f 00 (α). ( 0
denotes differentiation with respect to α)

Answer :- The family of parametric lines is represented by the equation

xcosα + ysinα = f (α) (1)

Differentiating both sides of (1), with respect to α, we get

−xsinα + ycosα = f 0 (α) (2)

Solving (1) and (2), by cross-multiplication, we get

x = f (α)cosα − f 0 (α)sinα and y = f (α)sinα + f 0 (α)cosα (3) Equation (3) represents an
equation of the envelope in the parametric form.
The radius of curvature ρ is given by
dy 2 2 3
(( dx 2
dt ) + ( dt ) ) {f (α) + f 00 (α)}3
ρ= dx d2 y
=
− dy d2 x {f (α) + f 00 (α)}2 (sin2 α + cos2 α)
dt dt2 dt dt2
Application Dr. T. K. Jana 31

or, ρ = f (α) + f 00 (α)

Question :- Show that the envelope of the family of ellipses a2 x2 sec4 α + b2 y 2 cosec4 α = (a2 − b2 )2 , ( α,
2 2 2
being the parameter) is (ax) 3 + (by) 3 = (a2 − b2 ) 3

Answer :- The family of ellipses is represented by the equation

a2 x2 sec4 α + b2 y 2 cosec4 α = (a2 − b2 )2 (1)

Differentiating both sides of (1), with respect to α, we get

4a2 x2 sec4 α tanα − 4b2 y 2 cosec4 α cotα = 0

b2 y 2 by 1
or, tan6 α = ⇒ tanα = ( ) 3
a2 x2 ax
1 1
(by) 3 (ax) 3
⇒ sinα = , cosα =
X X
2 12
where X 2 = (ax) 3 + (by) 3 (2)

Substituting the values of sinα and cosα in (1), we get

2 2 2
(ax) 3 + (by) 3 = (a2 − b2 ) 3

which is the required envelope of the family of curves (1).

2
x2 2 2
Question :- Prove that the envelope of the normals to the ellipses a2 + yb2 = 1 is given by (ax) 3 +(by) 3 =
2
(a2 − b2 ) 3 .

Answer :- The equation of the ellipse is

x2 y2
2
+ 2 =1 (1)
a b
At any point (a cosφ, b sinφ) of the ellipse (1), the equation of the normal is
a
(y − bsinφ) = tanφ(x − acosφ)
b
or, ax secφ − by cosecφ = (a2 − b2 ) (2)
where φ be the parameter.
Differentiating both sides of (2), with respect to φ , we get

ax secφtanφ + by cosecφcotφ = 0
by by 1
or, tan3 φ = − ⇒ tanφ = −( ) 3
ax ax
1 1
(by) 3 (ax) 3
⇒ sinφ = − , cosφ =
X X
2 12
where X 2 = (ax) 3 + (by) 3 (3)

Substituting the values of sinφ and cosφ in (2), we get

2 2 2
(ax) 3 + (by) 3 = (a2 − b2 ) 3

which is the required envelope of the normals to the ellipse (1).

2 2 2
Question :- Prove that the envelope of the normals to the curve x 3 + y 3 = a 3 is given by (x +
2 2 2
y) 3 + (x − y) 3 = 2a 3 .
Application Dr. T. K. Jana 32

Answer :- The equation of the curve is

2 2 2
x3 + y3 = a3 (1)

At any point (a cos3 φ, a sin3 φ) of the curve (1), the equation of the normal is

(y − asin3 φ) = cotφ(x − acos3 φ)

or, y sinφ − x cosφ − a cos2φ = 0 (2)

where φ be the parameter.
Differentiating both sides of (2), with respect to φ , we get

or, y cosφ + x sinφ − 2a sin2φ = 0 (3)

Solving (2) and (3), by cross-multiplication, we get

x = a(cosφ + sinφsin2φ) and y = a(sin2φcosφ + sinφ)
Therefore,
x+y 2
x + y = a(sinφ + cosφ)3 ⇒ ( ) 3 = (sinφ + cosφ)2 (4)
a
x−y 2
and x − y = a(cosφ − sinφ)3 ⇒ ( ) 3 = (cosφ − sinφ)2 (5)
a
Adding (4) and (5), we get
2 2 2
(x + y) 3 + (x − y) 3 = 2a 3
which is the required envelope of the normals to the astroid (1), or it is the evolute of the given astroid (1).
2 2
Question :- Determine the equation of the envelope of the family of ellipses xa2 + yb2 = 1, where the
2
b2
parameters a and b are connected by the relation al2 + m 2 = 1, l , m are non-zero constants.

Answer :- The equation of the ellipse is

x2 y2
2
+ 2 =1 (1)
a b
where a and b are connected by the relation

a2 b2
2
+ 2 =1 (2)
l m
For a fixed point (x, y) of the envelope we consider b as a function of a determined from (2). Differentiating
both sides of (1) and (2), with respect to a, we get

2 2 db
x2 (− ) + y 2 (− 3 ) =0 (3)
a3 b da
2a 2b db
and 2
+ 2) =0 (4)
l m da
db
Eliminating da from (3) and (4), we obtain

x2 y2 x2 y2
x2 b3 a m2 a2 b2 a2 + b2 1
( ) = ( )⇒ a2
= b2
= a2 b2
=
y 2 a3 b l2 l2 m2 l2 + m2
1

a2 = ±xl‘ and b2 = ±ym

y
Putting the value of a2 and b2 in (2), we get the required envelope as ± xl ± m = 1.
2 2 2 x2 y2
Question :- If x 3 + y 3 = c 3 is the envelope of the family of curves a2 + b2 = 1, prove that the
parameters a and b are connected by the relation a + b = c.
Application Dr. T. K. Jana 33

Answer :- The equation of the ellipse is

x2 y2
2
+ 2 =1 (1)
a b
whose envelope is
2 2 2
x3 + y3 = c3 (2)
where a and b are parameters. Differentiating both sides of (1) and (2), with respect to x, we get

2x 2y dy 2 1 2 1 dy
+ 2 = 0 and x− 3 + y − 3 =0 (3)
a2 b dx 3 3 dx
dy
Eliminating dx , we obtain
4 4
x3 y3
= 2 = λ(> 0) (say)
a2 b
2
3 x 3 3 y2 3
⇒ x2 = a3 λ 2 ⇒ 2 = aλ 2 and y 2 = b3 λ 2 ⇒ = bλ 2
a b2
Therefore
x2 y2 3 √ 1
+ = (a + b)λ 2 = 1 ⇒ λ= 1
a2 b2 a + b) 3
2 2 2 √ 2 2 2
As x 3 + y 3 = c 3 , so, (a + b) λ = c 3 ⇒ a + b) 3 = c 3 ⇒ a + b = c
2 2 2 x y
Question :- If the astroid x 3 + y 3 = c 3 is the envelope of the family of lines a + b = 1, prove that the
parameters a and b are connected by the relation a2 + b2 = c2 .

Answer :- Similar as above.

px py
Question :- Find the envelope of the family of parabolas a + b = 1, where the parameters a
and b are connected by the relation ab = c2 , c being a constant.

Answer :- The equation of the family of parabola is given

r r
x y
+ =1 (1)
a b
where the parameters a and b are connected by the relation

ab = c2 (2)

For a fixed point (x, y) of the envelope we consider b as a function of a determined from (2). Differentiating
both sides of (1) , with respect to a, we get
√
db x b 3
= −√ ( )2 (3)
da y a

and from (2)

db b
=− (4)
da a
db
Eliminating da from (3) and (4), we obtain
√ px py px py
x b 3 b a b a + b 1
√ ( )2 = ⇒ = = =
y a a 1 1 1+1 2
√ √ √ √
⇒ a = 2 x and b=2 y
Squaring and multiplying, we get ab = 16xy or, 16xy = c2 , [ by (2) ] which is the required equation of
the envelope.
Application Dr. T. K. Jana 34

Question :- Find the envelope of the family of straight lines xa + yb = 1, where the parameters a
and b are connected by the relation am bn = cm+n , c, m, n are all given constants.

Answer :- Similar as above.

(x−h)2 (y−k)2
Question :- Show that the envelope of the family of ellipses a2 + b2 = 1, where the param-
h2 k2 x2 y2
eters h and k are connected by the relation a2 + b2 = 1 is the ellipse 4a2 + 4b2 = 1.

Question :- Show that the envelope of the family of circles x2 + y 2 − 2αx − 2βy + β 2 = 0, where
α and β are the parameters and whose centers lie on the parabola y 2 = 4ax is x(x2 + y 2 − 2ax) = 0.

Question :- Show that the envelope of the family of circles whose centers lie on the rectangular hy-
perbola xy = c2 and which pass through the center of the hyperbola is (x2 + y 2 )2 = 16c2 xy.

Question :- Prove that the envelope of the family of circles passing through the origin and having
centers on the hyperbola x2 − y 2 = c2 is (x2 + y 2 )2 = 4c2 (x2 − y 2 ).

Answer :- Try to find a quadratic of one parameter.

x2 y2
Question :- Find the envelope of the family of circles whose centers lie on the ellipse a2 + b2 = 1
and which passes through its center.

Question :- Find the envelope of the family of straight lines drawn at right angles to the radii vec-
tors of the cardioid r = a(1 + cosθ) through their extremities.

Answer :- Let (ρ, α) be any point P on the cardioid r = a(1 + cosθ). Therefore

ρ = a(1 + cosα) (1)

Let K(r, θ) be a point on the line PQ through P and perpendicular to OP. Then the equation of the line
PK is
rcos(θ − α) = ρ = a(1 + cosα) (2)
Here α is a parameter. Differentiating both sides of (2) with respect to α, we get

rsin(θ − α) = −a sinα (3)

From (2) and (3), we get

(rcosθ − a)cosα + rsinθsinα = a (4)

and − (rcosθ − a)cosα + rsinθcosα = 0 (5)

rsinθ r sinθ r cosθ − a
F rom(5) tanα = ⇒ sinα = and cosα =
rcosθ − a X X
where, X 2 = r2 sin2 θ + (rcosθ − a)2 = r2 + a2 − 2racosθ
Substituting sinα and cosα in (4), we get

r = 2acosθ, [as r 6= 0]

which is the required equation of the envelope.

Application Dr. T. K. Jana 35

SINGULAR POINTS

Double Points :- If two branches of a plane curve passes through a point P, i.e. two tangents at P can
be drawn to the curve, then the point is called a Double Point on the curve.

Classification of Double Points :

Node : If the tangents at a Double Point P on a plane curve be real and distinct, the double point
is called a node.

Cusp : If the tangents at a Double Point P on a plane curve be real but coincident and the curve
has real branches in the neighbourhood of P, the double point is called a cusp.

Isolated Point : If the tangents at a Double Point P on a plane curve be either non-real or real,
coincident but the curve has no real branches in the neighbourhood of P, the double point is called an
isolated point.

Different types of cusp :

Single cusp : If P be a cusp on a plane curve and both the branches of the curve lie on the same
side of the normal at P, then the cusp is called a single cusp.

Double cusp : If P be a cusp on a plane curve and both the branches of the curve lie on the ei-
ther side of the normal at P, then the cusp is called a double cusp.

Species of a cusp :

First Species : If P be a cusp(single or double) on a plane curve and both the branches of the curve lie
on the either side of the tangent at P, then the cusp is of first species.

Second Species : If P be a cusp(single or double) on a plane curve and both the branches of the
curve lie on one side of the tangent at P, then the cusp is of second species.

Point of osculinflexion : If a curve has double cusp at P and it is of first species on one side of
the normal at P and of second species on the other side, then P is called a point of osculinflexion.

Search for double points and tangent at double point: Working rule
∂f ∂f
i) Let the equation of the curve be f (x, y) = 0, find ∂x and ∂y .
ii) Set ∂f ∂f
∂x = 0 and ∂y = 0 to get possible double points as (α, β).
iii) If f (α, β) = 0 then (α, β) is a double point.
iv) Shift the origin to double point (α, β) by the transformation x = X + α and y = Y + β.
v) Equate to 0(zero) the lowest degree terms of f (X, Y ) = 0 to get the tangent at the new origin (α, β).

Question :- Determine the existence and nature of the double points on the curve (x − 2)2 = y(y − 1)2

Answer :-Let the given curve be

f (x, y) ≡ (x − 2)2 − y(y − 1)2 = 0 (1)

Then
∂f
= 0, gives 2(x − 2) = 0 ⇒ x = 2 (2)
∂x
∂f 3
and =0 gives 2y(y − 1) + (y − 1)2 = 0 ⇒ y = 1, (3)
∂y 2
Hence the possible double points are (2, 1), (2, 31 )
The point (2, 1) satisfies equation (1) but (2, 13 ) does not. So there is a double point at (2, 1).
Application Dr. T. K. Jana 36

Let us shift the origin to double point (2, 1) by the transformation x = X + 2 and y = Y + 1. Then (1)
becomes
X 2 = Y 2 (Y + 1) ⇒ Y 3 + Y 2 − X 2 = 0
Therefore the tangents at the new origin (2,1) are given by
Y 2 − X 2 = 0 ⇒ Y = ±X
which are real and distinct, hence the double point on the curve is a node.

Question :- Examine the character of origin on the curve 5x2 y + x3 y − 5x4 − y 2 = 0

Answer :-Let the given curve be

f (x, y) ≡ (5x2 y + x3 y − 5x4 − y 2 = 0 (1)
At (0, 0) we have
∂f
f (x, y) = 0, = 10xy + 3x2 y − 20x3 = 0
∂x
∂f
and = 5x2 + x3 − 2y = 0
∂y
So there is a double point at (0, 0) on the curve (1).
Therefore the tangents at double point i.e. at origin (0, 0) are given by
−y 2 = 0 ⇒ y = 0, y = 0
which are real but coincident, hence the double point is either a cusp or an isolated point.
We take a point P(x,y) on the curve (1) in the neighbourhood of the double point. Then the distance p
of P from the the tangent y = 0 is given by
p=y (2)
Eliminating y between (1) and (2), we get
(5x2 + x3 )p − 5x4 − p2 = 0 ⇒ p2 − x2 (5 + x)p + 5x4 = 0 (3)
which is a quadratic in p and whose discriminant is
x4 (5 + x)2 − 20x4 ≈ 5x4 (as x is small.)
So the discriminant is positive for all values of x
Hence (3) can have two real roots for all values(positive 0r negative) of x. So the curve (1) has two real
branches on both sides of the y axis, which is the normal to the curve (1) at the double point, hence the
double point is a double cusp.

The products of the roots of (3) is 5x4 > 0 for all x. So the roots are of same sign, i.e., both the
branches of the curve lie on one side of the tangent y = 0, hence the cusp is of second species.
Therefore the origin is a double cusp and of second species.

Question :- Examine the character of the origin on the curve

y 2 = 2x2 y + x3 y + x3
Answer :-See Das and Mukherjee.

Question :- Prove that the curve ay 2 = (x − a)2 (x − b) has at x = a an isolated point if a < b, a
node if a > b and a cusp if a = b.

Question :- Examine the character of the double point on the curve

x2 y + x3 y + 5x4 = y 2
Answer :-See Das and Mukherjee.