CHAPTER - XIV

 
DISASTER MANAGEMENT
 
 
Disasters are unexpected events, which not only claim the lives of human beings and
animals, but also result in huge damage to both natural and man-made properties.
Disasters can be categorised as natural disaster, man-made disaster and environmental
disaster, which are basically the products of poverty, over population and environmental
degradation. A disaster may be an event that concentrates in time and space in which a
society undergoes severe damages in respect of natural resources and incurs losses in
social resources. A disaster affects the vital functioning of a society that includes
biological survival such as subsistence, shelter, health, reproduction, and social survival
such as the system of meaning and values. Disaster situation always differs in the
nature of precipitating agents in regard to, sources of origin, degree of predictability,
probability, controllability, speed, scope and destructive effects on people and physical
objects.
 
This chapter on disaster management is divided into three parts. The first part provides
a brief history of major disasters so far experienced in Orissa. The second part
describes various dimensions of three major disasters like super cyclone, drought and
flood recently experienced in the State during the years of 1999, 2000 and 2001
respectively. The third part while trying to give certain suggestions reviews the policy on
disaster management with special reference to the functioning of Orissa Relief Code.
 
MAJOR DISASTERS IN ORISSA
The physical features and geographical locations of a State largely determine the type
of natural disaster it experiences. The regions adjacent to seashore may have more
cyclone effects than the inland regions surrounded by hill ranges, which are more prone
to earthquake. Thus one finds the cyclonic effects in the coastal States of India like
Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, whereas earthquakes occur more in inland
regions, like Uttarkashi, Latur and Kutch. The man-made disasters are largely
determined by the extent of technological development.
The Hatigumpha inscriptions of Orissa, ascribed to 1st century AD explain that cyclone
from sea normally comes during April and May and during October and December and
once in every three years in October and November. The cyclone on Bay of Bengal
normally falls between 5 N.L. to 21 N.L., and since Orissa is situated between 18 N.L.
and 20 N.L. this land has experienced almost 952 small and big cyclones, 451
tornadoes between 1891 and 1970. From 1901 to 1981 there were 380 cyclones out of
which 272 cyclones were due to depression in Bay of Bengal and in 29 cases that were
devastating.
 
A conservative estimation of the effects of natural disaster reflects that from 1963 to
1999 Orissa has experienced 13 major disasters which have killed 22,228 people,
affected 7,02,97 people and made 3,421 thousand homeless. During 1971 cyclone in
Orissa including a few West Coast States almost 9658 people were killed, around 49
lakh people were affected and 20 lakh people were made homeless. Similarly, during
1990 cyclone around 250 people were killed in Ganjam district, whereas recently during
1999 Super Cyclone around 10, 000 people died in the coastal districts. In all cyclonic
situations so far experienced the average speed of the storm was around 110 km per
hour in West Bengal, while it was 183 to 260 km per hour in Orissa and around 167 km
in Tamil Nadu.  However, in recent Super Cyclone in Orissa the speed of wind was not
merely 260 km per hour, which was not simply a natural disaster, rather it was part of an
emerging crisis of unpredictable climatic change resulting from atmospheric pollution. 
This has disturbed the eco-system leading to increasing frequency and increasing scale
of droughts, floods, hurricanes, and cyclones (Shiva and Emani 2000). Prediction in the
rise of temperature from 1.3 to 6.3 degree by 2010 (Newsweek 2000) has resulted in
the linear trend of increase in temperature in Orissa from 37 degree in 1950 to 41
degree in 1996.  Perhaps this has caused the death of 2200 people in the heat wave in
Orissa during 1998 (Government of Orissa 1998).
 
As regards the drought situation the western districts of Orissa are frequently affected.
The drought-affected districts are Kalahandi, Nuapada, Bolangir, Sonepur, Koraput,
Malkangiri, Rayagada and Nabarangpur. A look at the District Gazetteers of the British
period shows that these districts have suffered from drought particularly during the
years 1868, 1896,1818, 1820, 1922, 1925, 1929. Also in post-independence period
these districts have suffered a lot during the years 1956, 1971, 1974, 1985, 1992, 1999
and in 2000.
 
During the Ninth Plan period the State has continuously suffered from severe
calamities. On the eve of the Tenth Plan i.e., 2002-03 the entire State of Orissa is again
under the grip of a severe drought. The total loss of livelihood and damage of capital
stock of the State due to the calamities from 1998-99 to 2001-02 is Rs.13,230.47 crore
(Tenth Plan Document,Government of Orissa 2002-07). The natural calamities have
severely devastated the major livelihood sectors of the State and the income level of the
households. The serious fall out of these unprecedented situations has been the serious
set back suffered by the capital formation process in the economy. Consequently Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) of the State has been substantially depressed in the process
(Ibid).
             
SUPER CYCLONE
The first low pressure in the Bay of Bengal generated heavy wind at Gopalpur Port on
17th October 1999, which severely affected the natural as well as man-made resources
in Ganjam district and partly in Gajapati district. The second low pressure in the coast of
Orissa occurred in Bay of Bengal on 28th October following a full blow cyclone of rare
severity on 29th and 30th October, 1999. The speed of wind flow during this time
popularly known as ‘Super Cyclone’ was ranging from 220 km to 300 km per hour. A
torrential rain which followed Super Cyclone poured water to the extent of 400 mm to
867 mm.  This flooded the river systems of Baitarani, Budhabalanga, Salandi, and all
the tributaries of river Mahanadi. The worst affected districts in the Super Cyclone were
Cuttack, Jagatsinghpur, Puri, and Ganjam. The Super Cyclone of such a catastrophic
intensity brought seven meters of high sea tide into the mainland of Jagatsinghpur
district. The intensity of first low pressure in Ganjam district was 4.5 degree, whereas it
was 7.0 degree during the second phase, which is popularly known as Super Cyclone of
Orissa, the worst ever cyclone of the century. The people had never thought of a
disaster of such magnitude for which neither they nor the Government was prepared.
 
People and Areas Affected 
The Super Cyclone of Orissa has affected almost all the coastal districts and parts of a
few inland districts of Orissa. It has affected 15,676 number of villages in 1862 Gram
Panchyats and 28 Urban Centres in 97 C.D. Blocks of 12 districts in the State. Around
12.568 million people belonging to 30 lakh families are affected in this Super Cyclone.
The details of area and people affected in the Super Cyclone are presented in Table
14.1.
 
Preparedness Measures
Prediction of the disaster event in time, providing frequent warnings, undertaking risk
avoidance measures, emergency plans and activating emergency relief are a few of the
prepared measures popularly adopted by the State during various disaster situations.
The death wind of the Super Cyclone was detected in the Meteorological Office at
Bhubaneswar on 25th October 1999, i.e. 75 hours before the incidence. Accordingly
warnings were issued to all district authorities by fax, wireless, All India Radio and local
T.V. networks by 27th October (Government of Orissa 1999). This was followed by a
forcible evacuation of 1.5 lakh of people by the Government in the night of 28th October
to stay only in 21 cyclone shelter houses and public places. However, millions were left
to face the death trap. Many point out that the warning messages adopted by the
Government were not free from ambiguity and were not carrying credibility and
specificity, as compared to the warnings given during the cyclone in Ganjam district,
which took place only 10 days before. As a result, many people used their own
judgement and preferred to stay in their mud and thatched houses, rather than to
search for private accommodation.
 
Loss of Resources
The Super Cyclone practically shattered the backbone of Orissa. It disrupted the entire
communication network system by roads, railways, air and telecommunications. The
functioning of State administration and supply of essential commodities in the affected
regions immediately after the incidence suffered a severe setback. The Cyclone
completely destroyed the entire standing as well as prospective crops and severely
damaged all the living organisms like plants, livestock and human lives. In Kujang Tahsil
of Jagatsinghpur district almost seven meters of sea tides came into the inland surface
and washed away 39 villages in Ersama block. The death toll of human population
according to official estimates went up to the extent of 9885, though non-government
sources claim this toll to be more than 30,000 (ODMM 2000). The details of human
death and other losses in different districts are given in Tables 14.1 and 14.2.
 
Out of around 50 lakh coconut trees in the coastal Orissa almost 45 lakh were uprooted
sustaining a loss of Rs.4500 crore. Other fruit-bearing trees like guava, banana, betel
vine, jackfruit were also severely damaged. The Super Cyclone uprooted nearly 9 crore
of trees and seasonal plants, which cannot be regenerated in coming 50 years. It
equally affected the livestock resources, which took away 52,973 bullocks, 13,464
buffaloes, 1,56,424 goats, 90,232 calves and almost 11,51,245 poultry birds. The
collection of milk per day by Orissa Milk Federation (OMFED) after the Super Cyclone
was substantially reduced to 25,000 litres from 65,000 litres. The educational institutions
of the State sustained a heavy loss. The gross damage of Higher Education Department
accounts to an amount of Rs.66.24 crore. Apart from that according to the official report
of the Government, 3,425 high school and 14,901 primary school buildings were
damaged by the Cyclone and this affected properties worth Rs.1024.21 crore. An
attempt has been made in Table 14.2 to compare the losses of natural and man-made
resources, which took place during the cyclone on 7.10.1999 in Ganjam District and
Super Cyclone on 29.10.1999 in all the coastal districts of the State.
 
Distribution of Relief
For the first time a natural disaster could mobilise huge relief support from various
corners of the country and even beyond. While rendering help in the form of providing
food to the distressed people of Orissa, different State Governments adopted the
affected districts for reconstruction. In this process the State of Rajasthan adopted
Bhadrak district, Goa, adopted Kendujhar district, the State of Maharastra adopted
Jagatsinghpur district and the State of Madhya Pradesh adopted Jajpur district. As
regards the support provided by them in the form of relief came to a total of 2,119 truck
loads of relief materials, which included 68 truck loads of equipment, 2,027 truck loads
of food items and 24 truck loads of medicines, (White Paper on Super
Cyclone, Government of Orissa 1999). Many States also donated cash assistance to
the tune of Rs.26.21 crore to the Chief Minister’s Relief Fund (Table 14.3).
 
In addition to the distribution of relief by the Government, the Public Sector Units
(PSUs) also played a significant role during the post-super cyclone periods. Around 17
number of Central Public Sector Units (PSU) of India rendered assistance by
distributing various relief items in 17 blocks of seven affected districts. Similarly, 43
State Public Sector Units also carried out their relief programmes in 48 blocks of ten
affected districts. Apart from this, 20 international bodies, 19 national bodies and 92
local NGOs were also involved in carrying out relief operations. The NGOs distributed
72 trucks of food items, medicines, and equipments. They also disposed of large
number of carcasses (97,379) and corpses (5,478), organised free community kitchens
and provided health services, etc. to the affected people.
 
Payment of Compensation
In spite of the fact that the losses made due to Super Cyclone cannot be made good,
Government of Orissa and Government of India have paid compensation to the
survivors of the damaged houses and deceased persons. An amount of Rs.25,000/- by
the State Government and Rs.50,000/- from the Prime Minister’s Relief Fund was
provisioned as an exgratia payment to the relatives (legal heirs) of the deceased
persons. For this purpose an amount of Rs.1139.50 lakh was made available by the
State Government, while an amount of Rs.2279 lakh was provided from PMRF. The
progress regarding the payment of exgratia to the relatives of deceased is that up to the
end of June 2000 cash compensation of Rs.3320 lakh (97.12%) has been paid.
Similarly an amount of Rs.2000/- and Rs.1000/- has been paid respectively towards
fully damaged and partially damaged houses. The achievements regarding this reflects
that out of Rs.27,428.42 lakh allotted towards the payment of compensation as house
building assistance by June 2000 an amount of Rs.27,065.50 lakh (95.39%) has been
distributed (White Paper on Super Cyclone, Government of Orissa, June 2000).
However, It is generally complained by the villagers that the Revenue Inspectors
engaged in the assessment of damaged houses wilfully neglected the proper
assessment of the houses due to various personal reasons. Except Gajapati district, in
all other 13 affected districts a total of 15,43,672 petitions regarding non-payment
and/or underpayment for the damaged houses were received by the end of June 2000,
out of which 15,29,809 cases were enquired into and of this 1,18,125 cases were found
eligible for house building assistance.
 
Rehabilitation Assistance
The total package for the rehabilitation of the affected areas and people proposed by
the  Government of Orissa to the Government of India is around Rs.6,227.59 crore. The
State Government has received a total amount of Rs.693.72 crore from National Fund
for Calamity Relief (NFCR) as grant of Government of India and Rs.826.01 crore from
the various Central Ministries directly to different departments of Government of Orissa
(Table 14.4). Apart from this, in order to gear up the rehabilitation programme the State
is pulling resources from different international donor agencies like DFID, UNDP,
UNICEF, WFP, SDC, OXFAM, Plan International, World Vision, HIVOS, European
Commission, ECHO, KFW and Act International and also from MPLAD fund of the
Parliament, CAPART,  Public Sector Units like NALCO, PPL, MCL, SAIL, etc. Special
loan arrangements have been made from HUDCO and Orissa Rural Housing
Development Corporation (ORHDC). The progress of rehabilitation programmes
undertaken by the State Government is observed in the construction of educational
institutions, multi-purpose cyclone shelters, public buildings like hospital, government
offices, repair of roads and bridges, revival of irrigation sources like LI points, restoration
of electric supply and livelihood sources like agriculture, dairy, fishery and non-farm
sectors.
 
DROUGHT
When the coastal Orissa is struggling hard to overcome the trauma of Super Cyclone of
1999, the drought affected the entire western Orissa during 2000. This at certain level
proves that the land of Orissa is always prone to various natural calamities. Shortage of
rainfall below the average is one of the major reasons of drought situation in Orissa. Out
of 30 districts, 24 districts were highly affected due to erratic, deficient, and scanty
rainfall and seven districts were severely affected. The data with regard to rainfall
situation in Orissa during May to September of 2000 show 33 per cent less rainfall,
whereas in certain districts like Deogarh and Jharsuguda the rainfall was less than 50
per cent of the normal. Out of 30 districts, 13 districts have had deficient rainfall, 7
districts have had highly deficient rainfall and one district i.e. Jharsuguda had scanty
rainfall. The details of district-wise rainfall during May to September, 2000 are given in
Table.14.5.
 
Orissa is an agricultural State. People depend on rainfed kharif crops raised in 62 lakh
hectares of crop area during kharif season.  Paddy being the staple crop covers 42 lakh
hectares, of which only 14 lakh hectares are covered under irrigation. The symptoms of
drought were observed in agricultural operations like weeding, gap filling and in
undertaking other inter-cropping operations, and non application of fertilizer in almost 3
lakh hectares of land in Bolangir, Jajpur, Sambalpur, Bargarh, Jharsuguda and
Sundargarh. Due to heavy moisture stress and growth of stunted plants the districts like
Bolangir, Nuapada, Sundargarh, Jharsuguda, Bargarh, Deogarh, Sambalpur, and
Kendrapara suffered from a total loss of paddy yield. (Revenue Department,
Government of Orissa, 2000).
 
Crop Loss
The erratic and inadequate rainfall during this period in Orissa affected paddy crop in an
area of 9.03 lakh hectares. On this basis, preliminary calculations were made taking into
account the year 1991-92 as the normal production of kharif paddy, which was around
91 lakh tonnes. Anticipated crop loss due to drought has been reflected in Table 14.6.
The loss of kharif paddy in 1 lakh hectare. of fallow land was estimated to be to the tune
of 2.4 lakh tonnes which  were worth about Rs.127.20 crore. Thus, the total loss, as
calculated was 12.52 lakh tonnes of paddy, which came to Rs.663.56 crore. The
drought affected 7.6 lakh farm dependent families resulting in loss of employment
opportunities for about 3.6 crore mandays (ibid).
 
Restoration of Drought Affected Districts
The drought in 2000 severely affected the economy of the State as well as the living
conditions of the farmers in the villages. Lack of crop insurance facilities in many areas
almost ruined the small and marginal farmers. In view of this, the Government of Orissa
had to provide quintals of various seeds like Wheat (7500), Biri (2400), Mung (2700),
Gram (400), Mustard (1350), Groundnut (50000), Field pea (1200), Maize (100),
Sunflower (400) and Till (200). For this, the State had to bear a subsidy requirement to
the tune of Rs.7,91,63,240. The Government had to take steps to supply 9,000 diesel
pump sets of 3.5 HP to 5 HP with a subsidy of 50 per cent, which cost Rs.4.25 crore. 
While looking at the ground water potential, with poor exploitation (9%), the State
planned to install 1,500 shallow tube-wells and 1,000 bore-wells in drought affected
areas with 50.00 per cent subsidy. This, further required an amount of Rs.7.25 crore
(Table14.7) (Government of Orissa, 2000).
 
The Co-operative Credit Societies financed more than Rs.275.00 crore as short-term
loan towards kharif crop in seven worst affected and 17 badly affected districts. Since
the loanee farmers were apprehended to be unable to repay these short term loans the
Government of Orissa made arrangements to convert the short term crop loans to
medium term loans, so as to make the farmers eligible to receive fresh credit and for the
payment of Crop Insurance Compensation in drought affected districts. The impact of
drought led to crop failure and increased the price of rice, affecting both APL and BPL
households. There are around 67.00 lakh families having ration cards in 24 districts. In
order to streamline the food security in the drought affected areas, the Government of
Orissa requested Government of India to provide 1,33,920 MTs of BPL rice for
distribution per month (over and above the quota under TDPS) for six months at 20 Kgs.
per family per month at BPL rate.
 
FLOOD
The unusual rainfall in almost all the districts from May to July, 2001 caused heavy flood
in all major river systems of Orissa. The total rainfall received during the period was 846
mm, against the normal rainfall of 644 mm. This led to continuous downpour in the
entire catchment areas of major rivers like Mahanadi, Suvarnarekha, Brahmani and
Baitarani, which form the delta region of the State. This time the flood also came in the
rivers of Suvarnarekha and Tel which was unprecedented since independence. Three
major spells of water with unpredictable frequencies even beyond the designed capacity
released from Hirakud Dam caused high flood in the districts of Cuttack, Puri, Khurdha,
Jagatsinghpur, Kendrapara, Jajpur and Bhadrak. Even the rivers like Tel, Bansadhara,
Ib and Brahmani flooded the districts of Kalahandi, Koraput, Jharsuguda and Deogarh.
The flood affected areas included those districts, which were also badly affected by the
Super Cyclone. Whatever recovery of crops the cyclone affected people had over one
and half years, those were largely washed away by the flood.
 
The preliminary assessment made by District Collectors and the Line Departments
reflected that a total of 15,584 villages in 2,429 Gram Panchayats of 199 blocks in 22
districts were affected by flood and heavy rains. Apart from these, 84 ULBS were also
affected by the flood. Around 85 lakh people in total were affected under the recent
flood during 2001 (Revenue Department, Government of Orissa, 2001). The flood
largely damaged the habitat of the people, which forced them to camp on highways,
roads, river and canal embankments with their bare necessities. The details of loss of
resources as reported by the Revenue Department are given in Table 14.8. Though the
death of human beings is limited to 93, extensive damage has been caused to public
infrastructure like public buildings, canals, river embankments, roads, bridges and
culverts, ponds, telephone and power installations.
 
 
Relief Operations
Taking into account the experiences gained during Super Cyclone in Orissa, this time
the Government Departments, NGOs and the Funding Agencies undertook sufficient
measures of preparedness. The rescue operations in the affected areas were carried
out immediately by the Army personnel, Navy and Coast Guard Teams, CRPF and
CISF personnel. In addition to 85 platoons of APR with 2171 Home Guards also took
active part during the period. The NGOs also provided services. Various State
Departments and non-Government agencies carried out relief operations, which could
minimise the losses as compared to earlier floods in particular and natural calamities in
general. The details of relief items distributed either directly or through District
Collectors are given in Table 14.9.
Looking at the mass evacuation both the Government and the NGOs provided various
necessary survival items like polythene sheets, garments, dry food, water purification
tablets, bleaching powder, medicines, fodder etc. Since the livelihood sources of the
affected people were lost in the flood, the agriculture communities suffered more than
the others. Lack of crop insurance and lack of seed stock for re-vegetation almost
ruined their life and livelihood. The detail of requirement of funds by various
Departments for repair and restoration of damage in flood-affected areas is given in
Table-14.10.
 
Flood Monitoring
Right from the time of heavy rain in the catchment’s areas, the State Government was
fully alert with a control room functioning in the Revenue Department of the State
Secretariat. However, one major controversy about the recent flood in 2001 is the
alleged mismanagement in the release of water from Hirakud dam. This has raised
questions on the scientific management of flood control and release of water to reduce
devastating impact that the people in the State had to face. However, it is a fact that this
time the State Government could take up sufficient preparedness measures through
close monitoring of the flood situation on a war footing. A high level team of the
Government of India also visited Orissa on 19.7.2001 and prepared a preliminary
assessment of the losses due to flood.
 
A look into the history of floods in Orissa reflects that there are multiple factors
responsible for such a disaster situation. Some of the factors are: heavy rain-fall, silting
and low storage capacity of the Hirakud Dam reservoir in keeping run-offs water
deteriorating conditions of river mouths, poor management of embankments and canal
systems, deforestation in delta region, role of technocrats in the management of flood
situation, particularly with regard to the release of water from the reservoir.
 
Satapathy (1993) in her study, Floods and Flood Control Policies: An analysis with
reference to the Mahanadi Delta in Orissa, while comparing the pre-Hirakud Dam and
Post Dam period observes that overall frequency as well as average intensity of floods
had come down in the post dam period particularly in respect of large and very large
floods, but the incidence of low/medium floods has increased in the post-dam period.
This clearly indicates that human factors are responsible for flood in post-dam period.
Another dimension is the role of small rivers like Suktel, Jira, Ang, Tel, etc flowing in the
down stream areas of Hirakud dam, which influenced the intensity of recent flood.
 
The flood of 1982 and 1991 and the recent one in 2001 proves that with little flow of
water the delta region can be affected by flood. Since the lower catchment
of Hirakud dam equally influences the flood in delta regions, the role of Hirakud dam in
controlling flood cannot be ascertained. These are some of the issues which need
attention in coming days while managing the flood in delta regions of the State.
 
DISASTER POLICY
Orissa Famine Code1913 having provisions to meet situations arising out of the famine
conditions and flood situation was suitably revised during 1930, which continued to
become a guiding force in Orissa till 1950. The introduction of the concept of social
welfare and economic development brought a change in the state approach to relief
work, from a mere curative one to both preventive and curative ones. In disaster
situations the new approach not only incorporates life saving measures, but also
prevents physical deterioration in living standard and destitution of people. It largely
recommends that assistance in such situations is necessary to enable the affected
people to resume their normal or ordinary pursuits of life through continuous community
efforts.
 
Taking into account the changing demands of different disaster situations, the
Government of Orissa while framing executive instructions, supplemented the old
famine code. The documents, which supplemented the shape and size of present
Orissa Relief Code (ORC), are various circulars and Instructions on Flood Relief
Measures (1996), Hand-Book of Important Circulars on Drought Relief Measures
(1966), and a compilation of circulars and orders issued by the Revenue Department
(1972). For the first time after the cyclone of 1971 in Orissa, the Government of India
set up a cyclone Disaster Mitigation Committee headed by P.K.Kotteswaram, the
Director General of Observatories, Government of India popularly known as
Kotteswaram Committee. The Committee submitted a report with 59 recommendations
to combat such disaster situations. Also, the then Governor of Orissa, Shri A.N. Khosla
during 1971 set up a high level committee of technical experts headed by a retired
Chief Engineer to suggest remedial measures for disaster mitigation in Orissa.
 
The fresh relief code of Orissa in fact took shape after the catastrophic cyclone of 1971,
but the first print of the Orissa Relief Code was brought out in March 1980. In order to
enlarge the scope and content of the code the Government of Orissa again amended
ORC during 1996. Thus, Orissa Disaster Mitigation support system is presently guided
by ORC, which is a generic document that acts more as a guideline to undertake
preparedness measures during the pre-disaster period and to provide relief during post-
disaster period. Secondly, the District Contingency Plan is meant for preparing a
detailed plan of action for implementation at the district level.
 
Orissa Relief Code (ORC)
The scope of ORC includes various disasters like drought, flood, cyclone, earthquake,
volcanic erruption, heavy rains, gale-wind, whirl-wind, tidal waves, fire accident,
tornado, hailstorm and accident relating to communication, transport services, lightning,
thunder squall, virulent epidemics, locust menaces, etc. It also includes the
administration of relief operations carried out both by the Government and non-
Government organisations; care of orphans, and destitutes, health and veterinary
measures, agriculture oriented measures, provision of credit, strengthening of Public
Distribution System (PDS) and stocking of food stuff in vulnerable areas, special relief to
artisans, and others. ORC empowers District Collectors and makes them responsible
for all relief operations both during pre and post disaster situations. As regards the
administration of relief, ORC has clearly delineated the roles of Sub Collectors,
Tahsildars, BDOs, who play major roles in the management of relief and rehabilitation
operations. However, as regards the involvement of PRI bodies certain amendments
are necessary to deliver power in the administration of relief and rehabilitation
programmes.
 
To look critically one can say that ORC does not set time frames for emergency relief
for the people nor does it consider special relief distribution and rehabilitation for the
aged, disabled, women, and children. The policy does not spell out much regarding the
livelihood requirements, particularly in non-farm sector and for women and orphan
categories. The community perspectives and preparedness during such natural
disasters do not find place, and also the roles to be played by various community
institutions. Since loss in such situations for the poor men are bigger, right to disaster
insurance should be provisioned in high risk zones and Government should earmark
special funds as premium in favour of the Insurance Companies.
 
National Disaster Management Cell of Orissa
The National Disaster Management Cell, a State office is functioning at Bhubaneswar
since 1996. It is basically providing training to workers both in Government and non-
Government organisations; organises workshops to find out different strategies
and modus operandi to control disaster situations in Orissa. Looking at the functional
necessities of these recommendations, the Government may think of merging this cell
with Orissa State Disaster Mitigation Authority. By this the cell will be strengthened both
structurally and functionally to achieve its goal.
 
ORISSA STATE DISASTER MITIGATION AUTHORITY (OSDMA)
Orissa State Disaster Mitigation Authority (OSDMA) came into existence, in the
immediate aftermath of the Super Cyclone in 1999. It is registered under Society
Registration Act of 1860 to operate as an autonomous organisation. OSDMA is
entrusted with the task of restoring livelihood, reconstructing damaged infrastructure
and enhancing preparedness measures of the State to face calamities in future. It is
mandated to undertake and co-ordinate the restoration, reconstruction and rehabilitation
works and programmes in response to disasters. One of the primary concerns of
OSDMA is to coordinate the bilateral and multilateral aid loan for cyclone reconstruction.
It will draw up long-term disaster preparedness measures for the State, build up
capacity of different stakeholders and promote community-based responses in
collaboration with NGOs and civil society groups.
 
The OSDMA has channelised resources from the World Bank, DFID, Chief Minister’s
Relief Fund, various PSUs, MPLAD Fund, and is smoothly coordinating the
rehabilitation activities implemented by NGOs/INGOs. Apart from this, as a part of the
disaster preparedness, the OSDMA has formulated a Disaster Management Framework
Policy, which is on the anvil. It has also prepared a Community Contingency Plan for 10
different blocks on pilot basis and planned to extend it to other blocks. It has taken step
to establish VHP network to link District Collectors and has planned to establish the
network with the BDOs, Tahasildars, and other strategic locations. Apart from that it is
building awareness in a big way to involve the civil society/local communities in disaster
mitigation activities; organising various training programmes and workshops of
Government officials and NGO functionaries to improve preparedness to face natural
disasters.
 
In a federal system like India it is the physical and moral responsibility of Union
Government to ensure life support systems to the disaster affected people. The Union
Government has evolved a policy for assisting States that are affected by the
occurrence of various natural calamities, which is in operation since 1953. The Second
Finance Commission introduced a concept of margin money to meet such unforeseen
expenditures of the States. The Seventh Finance Commission for the first time
distinguished various calamities depending upon the nature and degree of losses they
cause. It has suggested that in case of severe damage of public infrastructure the
expenditure for its reconstruction will be kept outside the margin money and plan outlay.
During the Ninth Finance Commission various States demanded that Union
Government meet all the expenditure made by States during such disaster situations
out of non-plan grants and requested Government of India to make adequate
assessment of such situations. The Ninth Finance Commission for the first time created
a Calamity Relief Fund (CRF) for each State, which is borne by both Central and State
Governments in a proportion of 75:25 per cent respectively. With the recommendation
of creating a Calamity Relief Fund, a corpus fund of Rs.47.00 crore was set up in Orissa
for the period 1990-95. The Tenth Finance Commission while dealing with the
methodologies suggested that the intensity and magnitude of the calamity, level of relief
requirements, assistance needed, the capacity of the State to handle the problem etc
can be adopted to identify a calamity as of rare severity.
 
In order to reduce the consequences of various natural calamities on the life and
livelihood of the people, the State Government from time to time have adopted various
special schemes, which have been directly and/or indirectly related to the mitigation of
natural calamities. In this regard the assistance provided under Centrally sponsored
schemes has also been significant to overcome the miseries of the affected people of
the State. For example the Special Area Development Programmes in tribal dominated
backward districts, and more particularly the Long term Action Plan (LTAP) in KBK
districts have played a major role in overcoming the consequences of drought in certain
parts of western Orissa. During the Ninth Plan period (1997-2002) it has been observed
that the State economy has almost crippled due to the occurrence of frequent natural
disasters like the Super Cyclone of 1999, drought of 2000, and flood of 2001.These
disasters have obvious impact on the growth of State economy which came down to
3.76 per cent per annum at 1993-94 prices (Tenth Five Year Plan, 2002-2007,
Government of Orissa).
 
As regards the financial achievements during the Ninth Plan, the total expenditure at
1996-97 prices is 66.80 per cent (Ibid). The constant curtailment of central assistance
and non-realisation of internal resources (as envisaged at the time of formulation of
Ninth Plan) have forced the State Government to revise its Annual Plans. While
comparing with the revised outlays, it has been observed that cent per cent expenditure
has been incurred during the Ninth Plan, and there has been significant improvement
over the Eighth Plan expenditure. Specifically in the context of financial achievements of
various approved centrally sponsored schemes of the Ninth Plan which are directly or
indirectly related to the mitigation of natural calamities, Table 14.11 (A) and (B) provide
a picture on the outlays and the anticipated expenditure at 1996-97 prices made during
Ninth Plan period (1997-2002). The State Government in its Tenth Plan document
(2002-2007) have reflected that the expenditure made during Ninth Plan period has
substantially improved over the Eighth Plan period.      
             
The recent super cyclone, drought and flood, which took place in Orissa during 1999,
2000 and 2001 respectively, sufficiently prove that the loss of properties is worse than
the stipulations under the Finance Code/Natural Calamity Code under which scarcity is
declared. The destruction of natural and man-made properties in 14 districts during the
Super Cyclone and flood, and in 24 districts during drought provides enough conditions
to declare economic emergency in the State. The destruction of life support system in
Orissa built over half a century of development or more made it grave and weakened
the backbone of the State. In all recent natural calamities, the State more or less has
played multiple roles in paying cash compensation, distributing free ration and supplying
various inputs for reconstruction of damages. It is a fact that State response in such
disaster situations varies in providing quality services which are largely influenced by
the type of calamity, nature of severity, extent of damage made to man-made
properties, type of state leadership, governance and the efficiency of bureaucracy.
However, in spite of sufficient experiences gained due to the occurrence of similar
disaster situations, that took place earlier, the responses of the State during the recent
Super Cyclone, flood and drought perhaps could not meet the demands of the affected
people in a timely manner.
 
POLICY SUGGESTIONS
In the context of super cyclone, drought and flood experienced in Orissa during the
consecutive years of 1999, 2000 and 2001 respectively, certain policy suggestions for
the mitigation of natural disasters during the Tenth Plan have been given hereunder.
They are as follows:
 
       The role of Government during disaster situations has to be made clear by
amending the Orissa Relief Code. While amending it, steps should be taken to
 incorporate various issues like standardised loss/damage assessment
approaches, alternative warning system, right to information, insurance
framework, quality of relief services, role of OSDMA, etc.
 
       In order to overcome natural calamities like drought the State Government
should promote sustainable agriculture, introduce drought resistant crops,
preserve forest resources, enhance existing perennial trees, establish
community management of NTFPs in a more efficient manner and strengthen
the infrastructure base for storage, marketing and transport of surplus agro-
produces.
       In order to have an effective management of flood water in the down stream
catchments area, various measures like construction of medium and small
reservoirs, soil conservation, large scale afforstation, strengthening of the river
embankments and linking of major rivers of Orissa with the neighbouring States
should be carried out.
 
       A Multi-Hazard Disaster Response Plan be established and healthy governance
system be ensured. Government has to strengthen the empowerment processes
through delegation of administrative power and devolution of financial power to
Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRI), Western Orissa Development Council (WOCD)
and to similar State created bodies.  
 
       Through a holistic network approach disaster management ought to be made
friendlier and standard operational procedures be established and further the
State Government has to identify, review and modify the existing laws, rules and
codes of different departments. The disaster recovery mechanisms be linked
with normal development processes, more particularly with the development of
human resources; and modernisation of skill and equipments of Police and Para
Military Forces.
 
 
 
 
 
 ANNEXURE
 
 
 
 
Table -14.1
 
Effects of Super Cyclone in Orissa by Districts
(on 28 -29  October 1999)
th th

 
Sl. District No. of No. No. of Total Total No. Details of House Damaged
No. Blocks/ of Villages/ Population Agricult- of Wash- Fully Partially Total
ULBs GPs Wards Affected ural Human ed Colla- Collapsed
Affected Land Casua- Away psed
Affected lties
(hect)

1 Baleswar 8/3 155 1748 1226000 138000 49 11180 37485 48125 96790
2 Bhadrak 7/2 166 1356 1347000 179000 98 292 33221 82931 116444
3 Cuttack 14/4 278 1977 2367000 197000 471 0 140626 147193 287819
4 Dhenkanal 8/3 144 766 70000 138000 55 5 7909 54318 62232
5 Jagatsinghpur 8/2 165 1308 1200000 101000 8119 9948 217174 57215 284337
6 Jajpur 10/2 242 1160 1550000 176000 188 0 61895 187998 249839
7 Kendrapara 9/2 205 1567 1400000 136000 469 40 145884 125175 271099
8 Kendujhar 3/1 60 546 250000 125000 31 1164 7393 39698 48225
9 Khurda 8/3 124 1167 1310000 80000 91 0 30000 65540 95540
10 Mayurbhanj 9/2 63 341 198000 221000 10 500 6000 3000 9500
11 Nayagarh 2 40 350 150000 80000 3 0 198 14059 14255
12 Puri 11/4 204 1714 1500000 162000 301 0 58554 55368 113922
  TOTAL 97/28 1846 14000 12568000 1733000 9885 23129 746337 880620 1650086
Source: White Paper on Super Cyclone, Revenue Department, Government of Orissa,
December 1999.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Table -14.2
 
Impact of Super Cyclone in Orissa during 1999
                                                                                                                         
       (in Nos. and crop area in Ha)
Indicators Cyclone on Super Cyclone on 29.10.99
17.10.99
Districts Affected 4 12
Blocks Affected 19 97
Villages Affected 3076 16,508
Municipal Areas Affected 20 28
People Affected 31,67,984 1,30,00,000
Human Deaths 205 9,885
Human Injuries 400 2,507
Cattle Killed 2869 3,15,886
Small Animals Killed 7647 3,16,372
Poultry Killed 6,79,447 18,83,468
Assets Damaged
Total Houses Damaged 3,23,773 16,69,292
Houses Washed Away Nil 23,493
Houses Fully Collapsed 78,821 7,48,499
Houses Partly Collapsed 2,44,952 8,97,300
Villages Affected by Power Supply N.A. 17,032
High Schools Damaged 851 3,425
Primary Schools Damaged 1,972 14,901
Colleges Damaged 50 66
Fishing Boats Damaged 5,494 9,085
Fishing Nets Blown away 96,202 22,143
Trees Uprooted N.A. 9,000,000
P.W.D Buildings Damaged 2,356 10,059
R.D. Dept. Buildings Damaged 1229 7020
P.R. Dept. Buildings Damaged 1113 7020
L.I. Points (Government) Damaged 806 5636
Crops Damaged, Kharif
Paddy Crop 2,25.,224 13,00,00
Vegetable Land 46,346 1,76,000
Other Crop Land 6,00,039 257,000
Potential Rabi Crop Area - 64,900
Drinking Water Wells under GP - 6,391
Flood Embankment Breached - 2,005
Canal Embankment Breached - 8,647
Tank Minor Irrigation Projects - 6,967
Minor Irrigation Dam Partially - 31
Breached
PMRY Units Affected (Nos) - 1,339
Rural Roads Damaged (km) - 7,500
District Roads Damaged (km) - 444
        
        Source: White Paper on Super Cyclone in Orissa, Revenue Dept., Government of Orissa,
                     December 1999.
 
 
 
Table -14.3
 
Assistance Received from Different States and U.Ts of India
 
Sl.No States/ Financial Assistance in Kind (in No. Source Gran
. U.T. Assistanc of Trucks) d
e Total
Received
by CM
Relief
Fund
(000)
      Foo Medicin Equipme Governme NG  
d e nt nt O
1 Andhra 25,04 111 9 2 115 7 122
Pradesh
2 Assam 1,00,00 2 - - 2 - 2
3 Bihar* 10,00,00 17 - - 17 - 17
4 Gujurat 2,00,00 21 - - 21 - 21
5 Haryana - 420 5 8 433 - 433
6 Himachal 50,00 1 - - 1 - 1
Pradesh
7 Karnataka 2,00,00 12 4 1 15 2 17
8 Kerala - 2 - 1 3 - 3
9 M.P* 1,32,51 34 - - 33 1 34
10 Maharashtr 5,00,00 11 - 1 11 1 12
a
11 New Delhi 1,00,00 372 - 7 376 3 379
12 Orissa - 597 7 38 613 29 642
13 Punjab - 9 - - 9 - 9
14 Rajastahn 1,00,00 1 - - 1 - 1
15 T.Nadu 5,00,00 156 1 1 157 1 158
16 U.P.* - 44 - - 31 13 44
 
17 W.Bengal 50,00 213 1 6 205 15 220
18 Tripura 30,00 - - - - - -
19 Pondichery 25,00 - - - - - -
20 J&K 1,00,00 - - - - - -
21 Manipur 5,00   - - - - -
22 Arunachal 65,00 - - - - - -
 Pradesh
  Total 26,61,05 202 24 68 2047 72 2119
7
Source: White Paper on Super Cyclone in Orissa, Revenue Dept., Government of Orissa,   
             December 1999, Annexure-1.
* Refers to Undivided States
 
 
 
Table -14.4
 
Amount Released out of Rs. 828.15 Crores under NFCR for Cyclone Relief
Measures as on 30.06.2000 and Amount Sanctioned to Different Departments
(Rs. in
lakh)
Sl.No. Departments Amount Released Under
  Amount Different
Sanctioned in Ministries of
CRF Government of
India
1 Ministry of Agriculture, GoI for Relief 2000.00 -
Material
2 Food Supply and Consumers Welfare 3213.00 -
3 Agriculture 2035.00 340.00
4 Energy 1500.00 -
5 Works 7750.00 -
6 Rural Development 7850.00 -
7 Water Resources 5850.00 -
8 Health and Family Welfare 84.00 -
9 Housing & Urban Development 547.00 -
10 Fisheries & Animal Resources 350.00 211.00
Development
11 Home 110.68 -
12 Industries 221.43 2633.00
13 Women & Child Welfare 580.00 -
14 Commerce and Transport 150.00 -
15 Higher Education 1030.00 -
16 General Administration - 3810.00
17 School and Mass Education 526.00 1958.00
18 Civil Supply   40962.00
19 Panchayati Raj 6.50 -
20 Science and Technology - 50.00
21 Steel and Mines 13.00 -
22 Textiles and Handloom - 915.00
23 Cooperation 10.00 174.05
 24 Public Relations - 102.26
25 Revenue 0.25 -
26 Forest and Environment   932.00
27 Asst. Financial Advisor (Spl. Relief) 1526.30 -
28 ST & SC Development - 296.00
29 District Collectors 29348.30 -
30 SRC - 1296.00
31 Unspent Balance 42.00 -
  TOTAL 69372.00 82601.00
Source: White Paper on Super Cyclone in Orissa, Revenue Dept., Government of Orissa, June
2000
 
 
 
Table -14.5
 
Distribution of Rainfall upto the end of August 2000 in Different
Districts of Orissa
 
Normal Deficient Highly Deficient Scanty
(+19% to –19%) (-20% to 39%) (-40% to –59%) (-60% to above)
District % District % District % District %
Nabarangpur +6 Rayagada -33 Deogarh -48 Jharsuguda -60
Baleswar +5 Jagatsinghpur -31 Kendrapara -44    
Nayagarh +2 Angul -29 Nuapada -42    
Kalahandi +1 Boudh -29 Bargarh -42    
Khurda +2 Jajpur -29 Sambalpur -42    
Malkangiri 0 Sonepur -29 Sundargarh -41    
Ganjam -2 Dhenkanal -28 Bolangir -40    
Koraput -5 Cuttack -27        
Gajapati -10 Cuttack -26        
Phulbani -15 Puri -24        
Kendujhar -19 Bhadrak -21        
    Mayurbhanj -20        
    Puri -20        
Source: Memorandum on Drought Situation in Orissa, 2000. Revenue Dept., Government of
Orissa.
 
 
 
Table -14.6
 
Distribution of Anticipated Crop Loss during Kharif Paddy
 
Types Area Yield in (Qnt/Ha) Production Anticipated Value
of Land Affected Loss in of Crop
 (in lakh Production Loss
Ha.) (lakh (Rs. in
tonnes) Crore)
    Norma Anticipated Normal Anticipated    
l
High 3.15 15.16 4.72 4.78 1.49 3.29 174.37
Medium 3.98 23.80 10.84 9.47 4.31 5.16 273.48
Low 1.90 24.78 16.2 4.71 3.04 1.67 88.51
TOTAL 9.03 20.80 9.62 18.96 8.84 10.12 536.36
Source: Memorandum on Drought Situation in Orissa, 2000. Revenue Dept., Government of
Orissa.
 
 Table -14.7
 
Distribution of Assistance of Funds Required from Government of India for
Different Departments for Different Mitigation Measures, 2000-01
 
Sl. No Departments Amount
1 Agriculture 25.40
2 Co-operation 73.35
3 Health & Family Welfare 2.00
4 Housing & Urban Development 4.17
5 Water Resources 31.46
6 Women and Child Development 3.28
7 Fisheries and Animal Resources Development 7.85
8 Rural Development 45.03
9 Panchyati Raj 247.41
10 Forest and Environment 4.00
TOTAL   443.95
Source: Memorandum on Drought Situation in Orissa, 2000. Revenue Dept.,  Government of
Orissa.
 
Table -14.8
 
Impact of Flood on Life and Livelihood of People
 
Sl. No. Indicators Unit Loss
1 Villages Affected Nos. 15,584
2 Gram Panchayats Affected Nos. 2429
3 C.D. Blocks Affected Nos. 199
4 Districts Affected Nos. 22
5 ULBs Affected Nos. 84
6 People Affected Lakhs 85
7 Crop Area Lost Lakhs 7
8 Cost of Crop Loss Crores. 60.00
9 Houses Affected Lakhs 3
10 Cost of Affected Houses (in Rs.) Crores 40.00
11 PWD Roads Affected Kms. 5000
12 National Highway Affected Kms. 700
13 PWD, CD. Works Damaged Nos. 1102
14 National Highway C.D.Works Damaged Nos. 265
15 Breaches on PWD Road Nos. 102
16 Breaches on National Highway Road Nos. 13
17 Breaches on Canal Embankment Nos. 223
18 Breaches on River Embankment Nos. 346
19 Pipe Water Supply Unit    
  In Urban Areas Nos. 61
  In Rural Areas Nos. 82
20 Tube Well Damaged Nos. 25555
21 Persons Died Nos. 93
Source: Memorandum on Flood (July 2001) submitted to Hon. Prime Minister during his
             visit to Orissa on 29.7.2001, Revenue Dept., Government of Orissa. 
 
Table -14.9
 
Distribution of Relief in Flood Affected Areas of Orissa during July 2001
 
Sl. No. Items Unit Quantity
1 Rice Qtls. 15000
2 Flattened Rice Qtls. 13000
3 Gud Qtls. 750
4 Tents Nos. 10673
5 Polythene Nos. 45200
6 People Covered under Lakhs 6
Free Community
Kitchen
7 Food Materials MT 563
Dropped by Plane
Essential Commodities Supplied to Different Districts
8 Rice MT 26.151
9 Flattened Rice MT 3504
10 Kerosene Oil SKO 14709
11 Polythene Nos 70082
12 Tents Nos. 9773
13 Canvas Nos. 900
14      
Source: Memorandum on Flood (July 2001) Submitted to Hon. Prime Minister during his
             visit to Orissa on 29.7.2001, Revenue Dept., Government of Orissa. 
 
Table - 14.10
 
Requirements of Funds by Various Departments for Repair and Restoration of
Damage in Flood Affected Areas of Orissa
 
Sl. No. Departments Funds Required
(in Crores)
1 Special Relief Commissioner 151.00
2 Health & Family Welfare 10.00
3 Works 125.00
4 Rural Development 58.80
5 Animal Resources 4.00
6 H & Urban Development 50.00
7- Water Resources 200.00
8 School & Mass Education 20.00
9 Agriculture 16.00
 10 Cooperation 18.55
11 Panchyati Raj 30.00
12 Energy 50.00
13 Grand Total 733.85
Source:  Memorandum on Flood (July 2001) Submitted to Hon. Prime Ministry during his
               visit to Orissa on 29.7.2001, Revenue Dept., Government of Orissa. 
Table -14.11 (a)
 
Centrally Sponsored Schemes in Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-2002).
Directly or Indirectly Linked to the Mitigation of Natural Calamities 
(Rs. in
crores)
Sl. Name of the Scheme Ninth Plan Ninth Plan
No.   1997-2002 (at 1996-97 Prices) 
  outlays Expenditure
Anticipated
1 Crop Insurance Scheme Seed crop Insurance 7.50 5.58
  Afforstation & Eco. Development Prog.    
2         Afforstation for Soil Conservation in Catchments 1220.00  
  Area of RVP    
          Integrated Afforstation & Economic Development 3000.00  
Project 200.00  
        Eco- Development / Management under UNDP    
Assistance    
        Eco- Development Project for assured National NIL  
Park  & Sanctuaries    
        Conservation & Management of Mangrove.    
  17180.70 NA
Total Forest & Wild Life
3 Irrigation & Flood Control Normal Schemes    
       
(a) Estt of CADA, Farmers ASS, Field Channel Drain, Use 1530.00 1908.69
  of Surface Ground Water, Rehabilitation of Water    
  Logged Area    
(b)   352.00 87.81
  Estt. of CADA Field Channel Drain, Land Levelling,    
  Farmer Participation    
  1882.00 1996.50
Total
4 1000.00  
Rural Development  (DPAP)
Source: Annual Plan, 2002-03 Orissa , Vol. - 11, Government of Orissa Annexure - VI,
              Centrally Sponsored Schemes. PP- Anx-VI/1-40.
 
Table -14. 11 (b)
 
Outlay and Expenditure in State Plan Ninth-Five Year Plan 1997-2002
Directly or Indirectly Linked to the Mitigation of Natural Calamities
                                                                                                                                                          
(Rs. in Crores)
SL. Heads of Development 9th Plan Approved 9th Plan
No Outlay (96-97 Anticipated
 Prices) Expenditure
1 Agriculture  & Allied Activities    
  Crop Husbandry    
(a) Crop Insurance 250.00 708.08
(b) Forestry & Wild life 12275.00 12450.50
2 Rural Development    
  Special Prog. for Rural Development    
  Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP) 1000.00 486.72
3 Irrigation and Flood control    
Flood control (including flood protection works) 2000.00 4376.00
Source: Annual Plan, 2002-03 Orissa- Vol- 11, Government of Orissa PP-GN-1 to GN-9.
 
 
REFERENCES
 
Government of Orissa (1999). White Paper on Super Cyclone, Revenue Dept.,
Bhubaneswar.
 
_____________ (2000). White Paper on Relief and Reconstruction Work after
Super Cyclone and Flood, June, 2000, Revenue Dept., Bhubaneswar.
 
______________(2000). ‘Memorandum on Drought Situation in Orissa’, October 2000,
Revenue Dept., Bhubaneswar.
 
_____________(2001). ‘Memorandum Submitted to the Hon’ble Prime Minister during
his visit to Orissa on 29.7.2001’, Revenue Dept., Bhubaneswar.
 
------------------------ (2002-03). Annual Plan, 2002-03, Orissa, Vol.II, Planning and Co-
ordination Department, Bhubaneswar.
 
------------------------ (2002-2007). Tenth Plan (2002-2007), Planning and Coordination
Department, Bhubaneswar.
 
ODMM (2000). ‘Super Cyclone and Rehabilitation’, Occasional Paper Presented in
Orissa Rehabilitation Organised by SDC, New Delhi.
 
Satapathy, S (1993). Flood and Flood Control Policies: An Analysis with reference
to the Mahanadi Delta in Orissa, Centre for Development Studies,
Trivandrum (unpublished M.Phil Dissertation).