atv ats INTRODUCTION 1.1 Wireless Comes of Age 1.2 The Cellular Revolution 13 The Global Cellular Network 1.4 Broadband 1.5 Future Trends 1.6 The Trouble With Wireless 1.7 Outline of the Book Part One: Background Part Two: Wireless Communication Technology Part Three: Wireless Networking Part Four: Wireless Local Area Networks 1.8 Internet and Web Resources Web Sites for This Book Other Web Sitee USENET Newsgroups2. CHAPTER I / INTRODUCTION This book is a survey of the technology of wireless communications and networks. Many factors, including increased competition and the introduction of digital tech- nology, have led to unprecedented growth in the wireless market. In this chapter, we discuss some of the key factors driving this new telecommunications revolution. This book, and the accompanying Web site, covers a lot of material. Following the general discussion, this chapter gives the reader an overview of the book. 1 WIRELESS COMES AGE Guglielmo Marconi invented the wireless telegraph in 1896.' In 1901, he sent tele- graphic signals across the Atlantic Ocean from Cornwall to St. John’s Newfoundland; a distance of about 3200 km. His invention allowed two parties to communicate by sending each other alphanumeric characters encoded in an analog signal. Over the last century, advances in wireless technologies have led to the radio, the television, the mobile telephone, and communications satellites. All types of information can now be sent to almost every comer of the world. Recently, a great deal of attention has been focused on satellite communications, wireless networking, and cellular technology. Communications satellites were first launched in the 1960s. Those first satel- lites could only handle 240 voice circuits. Today, satellites carry about one-third of the voice traffic and all of the television signals between countries [EVAN98], Modern satellites typically introduce a quarter-second propagation delay to the signals they handle. Newer satellites in lower orbits, with less inherent signal delay, have been deployed to provide data services such as Internet access. Wireless networking is allowing businesses to develop WANs, MANs, and LANs without a cable plant. The IEEE has developed 802.11 as a standard for wire- less LANs. The Bluetooth industry consortium is also working to provide a seamless wireless networking technology. ‘The cellular or mobile telephone is the modern equivalent of Marconi’s wire- less telegraph, offering two-party, two-way communication. The first-generation wireless phones used analog technology. These devices were heavy and coverage was patchy, but they successfully demonstrated the inherent convenience of mobile communications. The current generation of wireless devices is built using digital technology. Digital networks carry much more trattic and provide better reception and security than analog networks. In addition, digital technology has made possible value-added services such as caller identification. Newer wireless devices connect to the Internet using frequency ranges that support higher infor- mation rates. ‘The impact of wireless communications has been and will continue to be pro- found. Very few inventions have been able to “shrink” the world in such a manner. ‘The standards that define how wireless communication devices interact are quickly The actual invention of radio communications more properly should be attributed to Nikola Tesla, who gave a public demonstration in 1893, Marconi's patents were overtumed in favor of Tesla in 1943 [ENGEDO),1.2 /THE CELLULAR REVOLUTION 3. Optical E Infrared communications wireless satelite | TAN . Communications i Teresi I * microwave ae WiFi som perimental wre communes — : nce Cords z ‘pone’ Calarge oe WIMAX Color Vv = FM radio ‘Mobile 30 Matz Black-and-—— twooway white TV. ado Shorewave radio a Mite - - 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970) 1980) 1990 72000 2010 converging and soon will allow the creation of a global wireless network that will deliver a wide variety of services. Figure 1.1 highlights some of the key milestones in the development of wire- less communications Wireless technologies have gradually migrated to higher fre- quencies. As will be seen in later chapters, higher frequencies enable the support of greater data rates and throughput. 2. THE CELLULAR REVOLUTION ‘The cellular revolution is apparent in the growth of the mobile phone market alone. In 1990, the number of users was approximately 11 million [ECON99]. Today, that number is in the billions. According to the ITU (International Telecommunications Union), the number of mobile phones worldwide outnumbered fixed-line phones for the first time in 2002. The newer generation devices, with access to the Internet and built-in digital cameras, add to this momentum. There are a number of reasons Note the use of a log scale for the y-axis. A basic review of log scales is in the math refresher document at the Computer Science Student Resource Site at WilliamStallings.com/StudentSupport.html. 34 description of ITU and other standards-making bodies is contained in a supporting document at this book's Website,4) CHAPTER 1 / INTRODUCTION for the increasing dominance of mobile phones. Mobile phones are convenient; they move with people. In addition, by their nature, they are location aware. A mobile phone communicates with regional base stations that are at fixed locations. Technical innovations have contributed to the success of mobile phones. The handsets have become smaller and lighter, battery life has increased, and digital technology has improved reception and allowed better use of a finite spectrum. As with many types of digital equipment, the costs associated with mobile telephones have been decreasing. In areas where competition flourishes, prices have dropped dramatically since 1996. In many geographic areas, mobile telephones are the only economical way to provide phone service to the population. Operators can erect base stations quickly and inexpensively when compared with digging up ground to lay copper in harsh terrain. Mobile telephones are only the tip of the cellular revolution. Increasingly, new types of wireless devices are being introduced. These new devices have access to the Internet. They include personal organizers and telephones, but now they have Web access, instant messaging, e-mail, and other services available on the Internet. Wire- less devices in automobiles allow users to download maps and directions on demand. Soon, the devices may be able to call for help when an accident has occurred or perhaps notify the user of the lowest-priced fuel in the immediate area Other conveniences will be available as well. For example, refrigerators may one day be able to order groceries over the Internet to replace consumed items. The first rush to wireless was for voice. Now, the attention is on data. A big part of this market is the “wireless” Internet. Wireless users use the Internet differently than fixed users. Wireless devices have limited displays and input capabilities com- pared with typical fixed devices such as the PC. Transactions and messaging will be the rule instead of lengthy browsing sessions, Because wireless devices are location aware, information can be tailored to the geographic location of the user. Informa- tion will be able to find users, instead of users searching for information 1.3. THE GLOBAL CELLULAR NETWORK ‘Today there is no single cellular network. Devices support one or two of a myriad of technologies and generally work only within the confines of a single operator's network. To move beyond this model, more work must be done to define and implement standards. The ITU is working to develop a tamily of standards for the next-generation wireless devices. The new standards will use higher frequencies to increase capacity. ‘The new standards will also help overcome the incompatibilities introduced as the different first- and second-generation networks were developed and deployed over the last decade. The dominant first-generation digital wireless network in North America was the network offers a data service using the werlay network, which provides AASDIR BS ata rate. The CPDP uses idle periods on regular voice channels to provide the data service. The key second-generation wireless a ar vital Stem OF Me (Comisanieations (GSMO ani1.5 / FUTURETRENDS 5 IS-95. The PCS standard IS-136 use while. IS-95 uses 36 use dedicated channels at 9.6 kbps to deliver the data service. The ITU is developing International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT- 2000). This family of standards is intended to provide a seamless global network. ‘The standards are being developed around the 2-GHz frequency band. The new standards and frequency band will provide data rates up to 2 Mbps. In addition to defining frequency usage, encoding techniques, and transmis- sion, standards also need to define how mobile devices will interact with the Inter- net. Several standards bodies and industry consortiums are working to that end. The Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) Forum is developing a common protocol that allows devices with limited display and input capabilities to access the Internet. The (GRHIEENGIGEEEASUREIESIES ETE) is developing a mobile IP standard that adapts the ubiquitous IP protocol to work within a mobile environment. BROADBAND ‘The Internet is increasingly a multimedia experience. Graphics, video, and audio abound on the pages of the World Wide Web. Business communications are following the same trend. For example, e-mail frequently includes large multimedia attachments. In order to participate fully, wireless networks require the same high data rates as their fixed coun- terparts The higher data rates are abtainable with broadband wireless technology. Broadband wireless service shares the same advantages of all wireless ser- vices: convenience and reduced cost. Operators can deploy the service faster than a fixed service and without the cost of a cable plant. The service is also mobile and can be deployed almost anywhere. There are many initiatives developing broadband wireless standards around many different applications. The standards cover everything from the wireless LAN to the small wireless home network. Data rates vary from 2 Mbps to well over 100 Mbps. Many of these technologies are available now and many more will become available in the next several years. Wireless LANs (WLANS) provide network services where it is difficult or too expensive to deploy a fixed infrastructure. The primary WLAN standard is IEEE 802.11, which provides for data rates as high as 54 Mbps A potential problem with 802.11 is compatibility with Bluetooth. Bluetooth is a wiseless networking specification that defines wireless conmmunivatious between, devices such as laptops, PDAs, and mobile phones. Bluetooth and some versions of 802.11 use the same frequency band. The technologies would most likely interfere with each other if deployed in the same device. SE ee US yah Much of the development effort in new wireless technology makes use of portions of the frequency spectrum that do not, in many countries, require licensing. In the United States, two such frequency bands are Industrial, Scientific, and Medical6 CHAPTER 1 / INTRODUCTION (ISM) band near 2.4 GHz and the newly allocated unlicensed radio band, the Unli- censed National Information Infrastructure (UNII) band. UNII was created by the FCC (Federal Communications Commission) to allow manufacturers to develop high-speed wireless networks. In order to find enough bandwidth to satisfy needs, the band was established at 5 GHz, making it incompatible with 2.4-GHz equip- ment. The free, unlicensed portions of the radio spectrum enable manufacturers to avoid billions of dollars in licensing fees. For years, these radio frequencies were neglected, the lonely domain of cord- less phones and microwave ovens. In recent years however, spurred by consumer demand and active standards bodies, considerable research and development is underway. The first significant fruit of this activity is Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity), the very popular wireless LAN technology based on the IEEE 802.11 standards. In essence, Wi-Fi refers to 802.11-compatible products that have been certified as interoperable by the Wi-Fi Alliance, a body specifically set up for this certification process. Wi-Fi covers not only office-based LANs, but also home-based LANs and publicly available hot spots, which are areas around a central antenna in which peo- ple can wirelessly share information or connect to the Internet with a properly equipped laptop. Wi-Fi is examined in some detail in Chapter 14. ‘Wi-Fi just the first major step in utilizing these bands. Four other innovative technologies are working their way through the research, development, and stan- dardization efforts: WiMAX, Mobile-Fi, ZigBee, and Ultrawideband. We survey these ‘ae briefly in this section. ts, but while Wi-Fi can cover several hundred meters, WiMAX provides also be used as compli 11 hot spots to the Inter- net. Initial deployments of WiMAX are in fixed locations, but a mobile version is under development. WiMAX is an interoperability specification based on IEEE 802.16 and is discussed in more detail in Chapter 11. ‘The aan with Mobile-Fi is fe truly means mobile, not just movable. Thus, a Mobile-Fi user could enjoy broadband ccess while traveling in a moving car or train. Mobile-Fi is specifications. ZigBee technology enables theOOrdifia=) which can be scattered throughout offices, farms, or factories, picking up bits of information about tempera- ture, chemicals, water, or motion. They're because they'll be left in place for 5 or 10 years at jee ‘At the end of the line the data can be dropped into a computer for a or as up by another wireless technology like Wi-Fi or WIMAX. serves a very different purpose than the other technologies mentioned in this section. Ultrawideband enables (SSeS ve1.7 { OUTLINE OF THE BOOK 7 Gighaatalratesover|shortidistances) For example, in the home, Ultrawideband would allow the user in the road, a passenger who has a laptop in the trunk receiving data over Mobile-Fi could use Ultrawideband to pull that information up to a handheld computer in the front seat. 1.6 THE TROUBLE WITH WIRELESS Wireless is convenient and often less expensive to deploy than fixed services, but wireless is not perfect. There are limitations (BOliti¢al and technical Gifficulties that may ultimately prevent wireless technologies from reaching their full potential. Two issues are incompatible standards and device limitations. As mentioned previously, in North America there are two standards for digital cellular service. Internationally, there is at least one more. A device using PCS IS-136 will not work in an area where the deployed technology is PCS IS-95. Also mentioned previously is the inability to use Bluetooth and 802.11 in the same device. These are just two examples of problems that arise when industrywide stai dards do not exist. Th Device limitations also restrict the free flow of data. The small display on a mobile telephone is inadequate for displaying more than a few lines of text. In addi- tion Most likely, no one wireless device will be able to meet every need. The poten- tial of wireless can be met but not with a single product. Wireless will succeed because it will be integrated into a variety of devices that can meet a variety of needs. 1.7. OUTLINE OF THE BOOK The objective of this book is to provide a comprehensive technical survey of wireless communications fundamentals, wireless networks, and wireless applications The book is organized into four parts (Figure 1.2). The reader who is already familiar with data communications and networking technology can safely skip or just skim Part One. Part Two discusses underlying principles common to all of the material covered in the remainder of the book and should be read next. Parts Three and Four are inde- pendent and may be covered in either order. Within Part Three, all of the chapters are more or less independent and can be read in any order depending on your level of interest. The same is true of Chapters 14 and 15 in Part Five. Part One: Background Part One provides a preview and context for the remainder of the book, covering basic topics in data communications as well as TCP/IP. Part One, together with the appen- dices at the end of the book, is intended to make the book as self-contained as possible.8 CHAPTER I / INTRC UCTION Part One Technical Background | ) { { ‘Transmission fundamentals + Communication networks + Protocols and TCP/IP Part Two Wireless Communication Technology + Antennas and propagation + Signal encoding techniques + Spread spectrum + Coding and error controt Part Four Part Three { | Wireless LANs | | Wireless Networking + Satellite communications + Cellular wireless networks | sires LAN Technology * Cordless systems and wireless STEEE 802.111 Jocal loop Bluetooth + Mobile P and WAP L : J Figure 1.2 Wireless Topics Chapter 2: Transmission Fundamentals Chapter 2 provides a basic overview of transmission topics. The chapter begins with a look at some data com- munications concepts, including signaling techniques and analog and digital data transmission. The chapter then covers channel capacity, transmission media, and the concept of multiplexing, Chapter 3: Communication Networks This chapter provides an overview and comparison of basic communication network technologies, including circuit switching, packet switching, and ATM. Chapter 4: Protocols and the TCP/IP Protocol Suite Data network communication and distributed applications rely on underlying communications software that is independent of application and relieves the application of much of the burden of reliably exchanging data. This communications software is organized into a protocol architecture, the most important incarnation of which is the TCP/IP protocol suite. Chapter 4 introduces the concept of a protocol architecture and1.7 / OUTLINE OF THE BOOK 9 provides an overview of TCP/IP. Another architecture, the Open Systems Intercon- nection (OSI) reference model, is briefly described. Finally, the concept of internet- working and the use of TCP/IP to achieve internetworking are discussed. Part Two: Wireless Communication Technology This part is concerned with the underlying technology of wireless transmission and the encoding of analog and digital data for wireless transmission. Chapter 5: Antennas and Propagation Chapter 5 examines the fundamen- tal principles of radio and microwave. The chapter discusses relevant aspects of antenna performance, then looks at wireless transmission modes, and finally exam- ines the key issue of fading. Chapter 6: Signal Encoding Techniques Data come in both analog (contin- uous) and digital (discrete) form. For transmission, input data must be encoded as an electrical signal that is tailored to the characteristics of the transmission medium. Both analog and digital data can be represented by either analog or digital signals; the relevant cases for wireless transmission are discussed in Chapter 6. Chapter 7: Spread Spectrum An increasingly popular form of wireless com- munications is known as spread spectrum. Two general approaches are used: fre~ quency hopping and direct sequence spread spectrum. Chapter 7 provides an overview of both techniques. The chapter also looks at the concept of code division multiple access (CDMA), which is an application of spread spectrum to provide multiple access. Chapter 8: Coding and Error Control Wireless communications systems are highly prone to error, and virtually all wireless transmission schemes include techniques for forward error correction (FEC) by adding redundancy to the trans- mitted data so that bit errors can be corrected at the receiver. Chapter 8 examines FEC in detail. In addition, Chapter 8 looks at the use of redundancy for error detec- tion, which is also found in many wireless schemes. Finally, error detection is often combined with automatic repeat request (ARQ) techniques that enable a transmit- ter to retransmit blocks of data in which the receiver has detected an error. Part Three: Wireless Networking ‘This part examines the major types of wireless networks These include satellite- based networks, cellular networks, cordless systems, fixed wireless access schemes, and the use of mobile IP and the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) to provide Internet and Web access. Chapter 9: Satellite Communications This chapter covers the basic principles of satellite communications. It looks at geostationary satellites (GEOS), low-earth orbiting satellites (LEOS), and medium-earth orbiting satellites (MEOS). The key design issue of capacity allocation is examined in detail. Chapter 10: Cellular Wireless Networks Chapter 10 begins with a discussion of the important design issues related to cellular wireless networks. Next, the chapter covers the traditional mobile telephony service, now known as first-generation10 CHAPTER 1 / INTRODUCTION analog. Chapter 10 then examines second-generation digital cellular networks, look- ing at the two principal approaches: time division multiple access (TDMA) and code division multiple access (CDMA). Finally, an overview of third-generation networks is provided. Chapter 11: Cordless Systems and Wireless Local Loop Chapter 11 looks at two technologies that bring wireless access into the residence and office: cordless systems and wireless local loop (WLL). Cordless systems have evolved from the simple single-user cordless telephones used within the home to accommo- date multiple users over much larger ranges. Sometimes called radio in the loop (RITL) or fixed wireless access (FWA), WLL is a system that connects subscribers to the public switched telephone network (PSTN) using radio signals as a substitute for copper for all or part of the connection between the subscriber and the switch. Chapter 11 looks at the design issues related to WLL and then examines the IEEE 802.16 standard. Chapter 12: Mobile IP and Wireless Access Protocol Chapter 12 exam- ines the modifications to IP to accommodate wireless access to the Internet. The chapter then examines the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP). WAP provides mobile users of wireless phones and other wireless terminals, such as pagers and personal digital assistants (PDAs), access to telephony and information services, including the Internet and the Web. Part Four: Wireless Local Area Networks In recent years, a whole new class of local area networks have arrived to provide an alternative to LANs based on twisted pair, coaxial cable, and optical fiber—wireless LANs. The key advantages of the wireless LAN are that it eliminates the wiring cost, which is often the most costly component of a LAN, and that it accommodates mobile workstations. This part examines underlying wireless LAN technology and then examines two standardized approaches to local wireless networking. Chapter 13: Wireless LAN Technology Wireless LANs use one of three trans- mission techniques: spread spectrum, narrowband microwave, and infrared. Chapter 13 provides an overview of LANs and wireless LAN technology and applications Chapter 14: IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN Standard The most significant set of standards defining wircless LANs arc those defined by the IEEE 802.11 commit tee. Chapter 14 examines this set of standards in depth. Chapter 15: Bluetooth Bluetooth is an open specification for wireless commu- nication and networking among PCs, mobile phones, and other wireless devices. Bluetooth is one of the fastest growing technology standards ever. It is intended for use within a local area. Chapter 15 examines this specification in depth. 1.8 INTERNET AND WEB RESOURCES ‘There are a number of resources available on the Internet and the Web to support this book and to help one keep up with developments in this field.