AMITY UNIVERSITY, RAJASTHAN

REPORT ON GLASS

MATERIAL AND CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VI

SUBMITTED BY:-

SONALI SHUKLA
B.Arch ; 6th Semester
A.S.A.P. ; A.U.R
 CONTENTS









 GLASS AS A BUILDING MATERIAL
Glass is an ancient building material, which facilitated penetration of light into
buildings. Once it was used exclusively for window panes, whereas nowadays
there are examples of structures made of glass only. Apart from the traditional
non-bearing application in engineering, it is progressively used for construction
of bearing elements.

It is difficult to conceive the contemporary architecture without glass. In

combination with modern technologies and materials such as steel, concrete,
aluminum and other materials, this ancient building material [1] very
successfully contributes to extraordinary appearance of buildings. Regardless
of it being used for windows, façade or interior partitions, glass connects the
space, improves the quality of space, transmits sufficient light, and the
contemporary types of glass may contribute to energy saving.

Glass History
The very first glass known to Stone Age people which was used for making
weapons and decorative objects, was obsidian, black volcanic glass. The
earliest known man-made glass is date back to around 3500BC, with finds in
Egypt and Eastern Mesopotamia. Discovery of glassblowing around 1st century
BC was a major breakthrough in glass making.

Glass was first made in the ancient world, but little is known about man’s first
efforts to make glass. Amulets and solid beads were made in Mesopotamia as
far back as 2500BC. Later, glass making was further developed in Egypt
around 1500BC.

Glass Manufacturing History

By 1575, English glassmakers were made glass in Venetian fashion. In 1674,
an English glassmaker George Ravenscroft invented lead glass.

The first glass factory in the United States was built in Jamestown, Virginia in
1608.After 1890, glass use, development and manufacture began to increase
rapidly. Machinery has been developed for precise, continuous manufacture of
a host of products. In 1902, Irving W. Colburn invented the sheet glass drawing
machine which made possible the mass production of window glass. In 1904,
the American engineer Michael Owens patented automatic bottle blowing
machine. In 1959 new revolutionary float glass production was introduced by
Sir Alastair Pilkington by which 90% of flat glass is still manufactured today.

PRODUCTION OF GLASS
Making glass is a very ancient process, with archaeological evidence of glass
making dating back to before 2500 BC. Once a rare and prized art,
manufacturing glass has become a common industry thanks to the Pilkington
process.
Traditionally glass was made by blowing liquid glass derived by melting sand
calcium oxide and sodium carbonate to extremely high temperatures and the
cooling the liquid to the desired shape. Since a few thousand years the recipe
to make glass has been the same. It’s just that its properties can be enhanced
by adding certain admixtures to the raw materials or by providing suitable
coating to meet different needs.

Glass Manufacturing Methods:

Differences in individual glass melting practices are driven by the scale and
scope of the manufacturing, the glass composition needed, the downstream
processes involved, and the ultimate product quality required. In this article,
we’ll review two common glass manufacturing methods: continuous and batch
melting.

Continuous Glass Melting Process

A continuous process has a “beginning” and an “end;” raw materials are fed
into the front of the furnace, and molten glass is removed from the end. As the
glass passes through different zones within the furnace, specific steps in the
melting process are performed.

Continuous Process Advantages:

 High throughput: glass is always being made, and finished product is

always coming out of the furnace.
 Conducive to automation: this can translate into lower costs when large
numbers of product are required.

Types of Products Typically Produced by Continuous Melting:

 Food and beverage containers.

 Architectural glass.
 Insulation and reinforcing fiberglass.
 Consumer products, such as TV and smartphone screens

Batch Glass Melting Process

In a batch process, all raw materials are added at one time, as opposed to being
continually fed into a furnace. The glass is melted in a single vessel or furnace, which
is sometimes called a “day tank.” Once the glass is melted, a portion of the glass is
removed from the melting vessel and is formed into a product. This step is performed
multiple times until the vessel is empty, which marks the end of that batch.

Batch Process Advantages:

Nimble manufacturing process: easy to scale up and down to customer demand.

Flexibility: multiple formulations can be melted with the ability to minimize cross-
contamination between different glass compositions.

Best for:
New product development due to simpler process control and smaller scale. Melting
parameters can be customized and adjusted easily to shorten the new product
development cycle.

 Short runs of a wide variety of glass formulations and colors.

 Short lead times for uncommon or custom glasses.
 Small – medium volumes (0.5 – 2000 pounds).

Types of Products Typically Produced by Batch Melting:

 Aircraft lighting lenses.

 Molded filter glasses.
 Custom molded lenses for industrial and signal applications.

PROPERTIES OF GLASS
Transparency: This property allows visual connection with the outside world. Its
transparency can be permanently altered by adding admixtures to the initial batch
mix. By the advent of technology clear glass panels used in buildings can be made
opaque. (Electro chromatic glazing)

U value: The U-value is the measure of how much heat is transferred through the
window. The lower the U-value the better the insulation properties of the glass– the
better it is at keeping the heat or cold out.

Strength: Glass is a brittle material but with the advent of science and technology,
certain laminates and admixtures can increase its modulus of rupture( ability to resist
deformation under load).

Greenhouse effect: The greenhouse effect refers to circumstances where the short
wavelengths of visible light from the sun pass through glass and are absorbed, but the
longer infrared re-radiation from the heated objects are unable to pass through the
glass. This trapping leads to more heating and a higher resultant temperature.

Workability: It is capable of being worked in many ways. It can be blown, drawn or

pressed. It is possible to obtain glass with diversified properties- clear, colorless,
diffused and stained. Glass can also be welded by fusion.

Recyclable: Glass is 100% recyclable, cullets (Scraps of broken or waste glass

gathered for re-melting) are used as raw materials in glass manufacture, as aggregates
in concrete construction etc.

Solar heat gain coefficient: It is the fraction of incident solar radiation that actually
enters a building through the entire window assembly as heat gain.

Visible transmittance: Visible transmittance is the fraction of visible light that comes
through the glass.

TYPES OF GLASS
Float Glass: Float glass is also called soda lime glass or clear glass. This is produced
by annealing the molten glass and is clear and flat. Its modulus of rupture is 5000-
6000 psi. Stronger than Rocky Balboa taking punches from 2000 psi punches man
Ivan Drago. It is available in standard thickness ranging from 2mm to 20mm. and has
weight range in 6-26kg/m2. It has too much transparency and can cause glare. It is
used in making canopies, shop fronts, glass blocks, railing partitions, etc.

Tinted Glass: Certain additions to the glass batch mix can add color to the clear
glass without compromising its strength. Iron oxide is added to give glass a green tint;
sulphar in different concentrations can make the glass yellow, red or black. Copper
sulphate can turn it blue.

Toughened Glass This type of glass is tempered, may have distortions and low
visibility but it breaks into small dice-like pieces at modulus of rupture of 3600 psi.
Hence it is used in making fire resistant doors etc. They are available in same weight
and thickness range as float glass.
Laminated Glass: This type of glass is made by sandwiching glass panels within a
protective layer. It is heavier than normal glass and may cause optical distortions as
well. It is tough and protects from UV radiation (99%) and insulates sound by 50%.
Used in glass facades, aquariums, bridges, staircases, floor slabs, etc.

Shatterproof glass: By adding a polyvinyl butyral layer, shatter proof glass is made.
This type of glass does not from sharp edged pieces even when broken. Used in
skylight, window, flooring, etc

Extra clean glass: This type of glass is hydrophilic i.e. The water moves over them
without leaving any marks and photocatylitic i.e. they are covered with Nano particles
that attack and break dirt making it easier to clean and maintain.

Double Glazed Units: These are made by providing air gap between two glass panes
in order to reduce the heat loss and gain. Normal glass can cause immense amount of
heat gain and upto 30%of loss of heat of air conditioning energy. Green, energy
efficient glass can reduce this impact.

Chromatic glass: This type of glass can control daylight and transparency
effectively. These glass are available in three forms- photo chromatic (light
sensitive lamination on glass), thermo chromatic (heat sensitive lamination on
glass) and electro chromatic (light sensitive glass the transparency of which
can be controlled by electricity switch.)

Glass wool: Glass wool is a thermal insulation that consists of intertwined and
flexible glass fibers, which causes it to "package" air, and consequently make good
insulating materials. Glass wool can be used as filler or insulators in buildings, also
for soundproofing.

Glass blocks: Hollow glass wall blocks are manufactured as two separate halves and,
while the glass is still molten, the two pieces are pressed together and annealed. The
resulting glass blocks will have a partial vacuum at the hollow center. Glass bricks
provide visual obscuration while admitting light.
Lacquered Glass: Lacquered glass, colored and opaque in appearance, is produced
by depositing and then baking a coating of lacquer to one side of clear glass. Lacquer
is a solution of film-forming materials, natural or synthetic, usually applied as an
ornamental or protective coating. This unites coloured lacquer with the brilliance of
glass. It brings colour and ambiance to interiors and is particularly suitable for more
demanding locations, such as bathrooms and kitchens. In homes, offices, hotels,
shops and museums, clear glass fused with lacquer creates smooth, homogenous
surfaces as wall-paneling, in furniture and in wardrobe and cupboard doors.

Laminated Glass: Laminated glass is composed of two or more layers of glass

with one or more layers of a transparent/ pigmented and specially treated plastic
Polyvinyl Butyral [PVB] sandwiched between the glass layers. The glass panes (layers)
can be either normal glass or tempered glass. When the glass is broken, fragments
tend to adhere to the plastic [PVB] interlayer thereby reducing the risk of injury and
helping to resist further damage by weather.

Applications
Glass is an unlimited and innovative material that has plenty of applications. It is an
essential component of numerous products that we use every day, most often without
noticing it.

 Packaging (jars for food, bottles for drinks, flacon for cosmetics and
pharmaceuticals)
 Tableware (drinking glasses, plate, cups, bowls)
 Housing and buildings (windows, facades, conservatory, insulation,
reinforcement structures)
 Interior design and furnitures (mirrors, partitions, balustrades, tables, shelves,
lighting)
  Appliances and Electronics (oven doors, cook top, TV, computer screens, smart-
phones)
 Automotive and transport (windscreens, backlights, light weight but reinforced
structural components of cars, aircrafts, ships, etc.)
 Medical technology, biotechnology, life science engineering, optical glass
 Radiation protection from X-Rays (radiology) and gamma-rays (nuclear)
 Fibre optic cables (phones, TV, computer: to carry information)
 Renewable energy (solar-energy glass, windturbines)

Advantages of Using Glass

 It is a very Light weight building material hence helps in reducing the dead load
of the Building.
 It offers unobstructed views thus making the interiors look big. When used in
the exteriors it helps in bringing the outdoors into the indoors.
 When used as curtain walling in the façade the interiors are flooded with
natural light throughout the day thus increasing the working efficiency of its
occupants.
 The external glass is treated so as to reduce glare, prevent heat absorption and
resistance to UV light. This helps in making the building energy efficient.

Disadvantages of Using Glass

 It is a very costly material and has to be handled with care.
 It requires regular cleaning. In high rises external cleaning and maintenance
from can be very challenging.
 Extensive use of glass might result in both psychological and actual security
concerns.

HOW GLASS IS USED IN CONSTRUCTION

Installation
To install glass in windows, the process of removing the old glass is reversed, and each
piece is painstakingly put back together starting with the window jambs and ending
with the window header. Caulking is added to several parts of the window during this
stage to ensure that it is airtight. After it is put back together, the glass installer will
check to see that the window is square, so it will open and close properly.

If it isn't, then shims are added to adjust it. The window sashes are also checked to
make sure that the window slides up and down easily. Mirror installation is simpler
than window installation, but it still requires precision.

Special mirror mounting hardware must be used to hold the mirror in place. Starting
with the bottom, two or three mirror mounts are installed, and then the top ones are
added.

Finding the Right Glass Manufacturer for Your

Product
The best glass melting process for your product depends on many factors. Whether
you are making containers, aircraft lenses, or optics for industrial lighting, there is a
method best suited for your product that will provide the quality and price you need.

1. However, determining the process best suited for your product isn’t always
easy. Below are some questions that you should consider when selecting a glass
manufacturer.
2. What are my volumes? Do I need 200 or 200,000 parts?
3. Does the demand for a finished good suit the size, scale, and cost needed for a
continuous process?
4. Do I need a common glass composition like soda lime silicate or do I need an
uncommon, unique glass composition, such as a UV glass?
5. What shape or form is my product? If it’s a 3D form, is it best to fabricate a flat
piece of glass or should I consider molding it? If it’s flat, should I use float
glass?
6. How soon do I need my glass? How long can I wait for my glass to get into the
production queue?

Window Glass Types

There are multiple ways of treating glass to enhance its strength, energy efficiency, or
appearance.

Float Glass

Float glass gets its name from the modern process used to create large, thin, flat
panels from molten glass. The molten glass is passed onto a pool of molten tin. This
process produces a very smooth piece of glass with a highly consistent thickness.

Annealed Glass

Annealed glass is a piece of float glass that has been cooled in a slow and controlled
manner. This slow cooling process reduces the internal stresses within the sheet of
glass so that it becomes stronger. Annealed glass will break into large and sharp
shards or pieces. Due to safety concerns, annealed glass is rarely used in buildings.

Heat Strengthened Glass

Heat strengthened glass is made from a sheet of annealed glass that is reheated
beyond its annealing point of about 1200 degrees Fahrenheit and then cooled rapidly,
but not as rapidly as tempered glass. Since it isn't cooled as quickly, the compressive
and tensile stresses aren't quite equal across a section of glass. Therefore, the glass is
only about twice as strong as annealed glass.
Low-Emissivity (Low-E) Glass

Low-emissivity (Low-E) glass is glass that has a special coating that reflects the
infrared portions of light, while letting the visible light spectrum through. This is
beneficial because the infrared heat from the sun is reflected away from the building
in the summer and during the winter the infrared heat that is already inside a
building is reflected back into the space.

The Different Types of Windows

 Specialty Windows
 Double Hung versus Single Hung
 Bay or Bow Windows
 Skylight Windows
 Glass Block Windows
 Garden Windows
 Round Windows
 Hinged or Casement Windows
 Custom Windows
 Egress Windows
 Storm Windows
 Transom Windows
 Jalousie Windows
 Picture Windows
 Sliding Windows
 Arched Windows
 Hopper Windows

POTENTIAL FOR FUTURE DEVELOPMENT

To attain, new social, economic and technological ideals architects and engineers of
today must improve the quality of buildings and establish new principles of conceptual
design of buildings. The quality of interior space and the impact of a building on its
surroundings depend strongly on the physical interface that separates the outer
environment from the inner building space. The conception and realization of this
envelope are therefore of prime importance.

Considering market issues it is obvious that growth of demand for glass is not only a
consequence of economic growth but also regulations concerning safety, reduction of
noise and growing demands in terms of energy efficiency of buildings. However, the
lack of standards regulating use of glass in engineering can, in perspective, reduce the
growth of glass use in construction. The main growth drivers that will influence the
flat glass consumption in buildings and civil engineering respond to several
contemporary demands.

CONCLUSION

On the basis of the previous statements, it can be concluded that the contemporary
architecture is particularly interested in glass, and it is being more extensively applied
in architecture as a result of improvement its production technology. Accordingly,
there is a great number of glasses in use today, depending on its purpose, and the
application potential is larger. Apart from its traditional role, the glass is progressively
used as a structural, load bearing material. Development of new European standards
for use of glass products in civil engineering works will increase the number of
structural glass applications. It will offer support to designers that will be able to
realize attractive architectural ideas. The demand for structural applications, as well
as several forthcoming initiatives underway to improve the energy performance of new
and existing buildings, will stimulate glass manufacturers to develop innovative high-
quality and high-performance, considering aspects of sustainability.

IS CODES
4.1.1 Properties The properties of normal glass are:

• High light transmission

• Optical clarity

• Can be processed to produce other glass types such as tempered, laminated and
insulating.

• Density (approximate) : 2.42 – 2.52 g/cm3

• Tensile strength : 40 N/ sq. mm

• Compressive strength : 1000 N/ sq. mm

• Modulus of elasticity : 70 GPa

• Coefficient of linear expansion : 9 x10 -6 m / Mk

• Available thickness : 2 mm - 19 mm
• Normally available sizes up to : 2440 mm x 3660 mm (Bigger sizes can also be made)

• Colour : Clear, Grey, Bronze, Green, Blue and Pink.

• U value : 5.7 W/sq m K for 12mm thick to 6.4 W/sq. m. K for 19mm thick.

• UV transmittance : 06% for gray 12 mm thick to 80% for clear 2 mm thick

• Shading co-efficient : 0.5 for 12mm thick gray to 1.0 2mm thick clear

• Visible light transmittance : 20% for gray 12 mm thick to 90% for 2 mm thick clear .

(product specific information to be referred)