THAKUR INSTITUTE OF AVIATION TECHNOLOGY

TRAINING NOTES FEB 2018

FORWORD
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Thakur Institute of Aviation Technology.

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Knowledge Levels – Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence

Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each
application subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

LEVEL 1
 A familiarization with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.

LEVEL 2
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.

LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples.
 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer’s instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where
appropriate.

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Module 3.1: Electron Theory

Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of Appendix I-Basic Knowledge Requirement of CAR 66 Regulation (EC) No.2042/2003
Annex (Part-66) Appendix I, as amended by Regulation (EC) No.1149/2011, and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below:

CAR 66 Level
Objective
Reference A B1 B2 B3
Electron Theory 3.1 1 1 1 1
 Structure and distribution of electrical charges within: atoms, molecules, ions,
compounds;
 Molecular structure of conductors, semiconductors and insulators.

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Module 3.1: Electron Theory

Structure of the Atom

Our present planetary model of the atom was proposed by Niels

Bohr in 1913. His contribution was joining the new ideas of a
nuclear atom developed by Lord Rutherford (1871–1937) with the
quantum theory of radiation developed by Max Planck (1858–1947)
and Albert Einstein (1879–1955).
As illustrated in Figs. 1–1 and 1–2, the nucleus contains protons for
all the positive charge in the atom. The number of protons in the
nucleus is equal to the number of planetary electrons. Then the
positive and negative charges are balanced because the proton and
electron have equal and opposite charges. The orbits for the
Figure 1-2 Atomic structure showing the nucleus and its orbital rings
planetary electrons are also called shells or energy levels. of electrons. (a) Carbon (C) atom has six orbital electrons to balance
six protons in nucleus. (b) Copper (Cu) atom has 29 protons in
nucleus and 29 orbital electrons

Atomic Number

This gives the number of protons or electrons required in the atom

for each element. For the hydrogen atom in Fig. 1–1, the atomic
number is one, which means that the nucleus has one proton
balanced by one orbital electron. Similarly, the carbon atom in Fig.
1–2 with atomic number six has six protons in the nucleus and six
orbital electrons. The copper atom has 29 protons and 29 electrons
because its atomic number is 29. The atomic number listed for each
of the elements in Table 1–1 indicates the atomic structure.
Figure 1-1 Electron and proton in hydrogen (H) atom

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The K shell, closest to the nucleus, is stable with two electrons,

corresponding to the atomic structure for the inert gas, helium. Once
the stable number of electrons has filled a shell, it cannot take any
more electrons. The atomic structure with all its shells filled to the
maximum number for stability corresponds to an inert gas.

Elements with a higher atomic number have more planetary

electrons. These are in successive shells, tending to form the
structure of the next inert gas in the periodic table. (The periodic
table is a very useful grouping of all elements according to their
chemical properties.) After the K shell has been filled with two
Table 1-1 Example of chemical elements. electrons, the L shell can take up to eight electrons. Ten electrons
filling the K and L shells is the atomic structure for the inert gas,
Orbital Rings neon.
The maximum number of electrons in the remaining shells can be 8,
The planetary electrons are in successive shells called K, L, M, N,
18, or 32 for different elements, depending on their place in the
O, P, and Q at increasing distances outward from the nucleus. Each periodic table. The maximum for an outermost shell, though, is
shell has a maximum number of electrons for stability. As indicated always eight.
in Table 1–2, these stable shells correspond to inert gases, such as For most elements, we can use the rule that the maximum number
helium and neon. of electrons in a filled inner shell equals 2n2, where n is the shell
number in sequential order outward from the nucleus. Then the
maximum number of electrons in the first shell is 2 X 1 = 2;
2
for the second shell 2 X 2 = 8, for the third shell 2 X 32 = 18,
and for the fourth shell 2 X 42 = 32.

Electron Valence

This value is the number of electrons in an incomplete outermost

shell (valence shell). A completed outer shell has a valence of zero.
Copper, for instance, has a valence of one, as there is one electron in
the last shell, after the inner shells have been completed with their
stable number. Similarly, hydrogen has a valence of one, and carbon
Table 1-2 Shells of Orbital Electrons in the Atoms.

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has a valence of four. The number of outer electrons is considered

positive valence because these electrons are in addition to the stable
shells.

Except for H and He, the goal of valence is eight for all atoms, as
each tends to form the stable structure of eight electrons in the
outside ring. For this reason, valence can also be considered the
number of electrons in the outside ring needed to make eight. This Table 1-3 Stable particles in the atom.
value is the negative valence. As examples, the valence of copper
can be considered +1 or -7; carbon has the valence of ±4. Electrons and Protons in the Atom
The inert gases have zero valence because they all have complete Although there are any number of possible methods by which
outer shells. The valence indicates how easily the atom can gain or electrons and protons might be grouped, they assemble in specific
lose electrons. For instance, atoms with a valence of +1 can lose this atomic combinations for a stable arrangement. (An atom is the
one outside electron, especially to atoms with a valence of +7 or -1, smallest particle of the basic elements which forms the physical
which need one electron to complete the outside shell with eight substances we know as solids, liquids, and gases.) Each stable
electrons. combination of electrons and protons makes one particular type of
atom. For example, Fig. 1–1 illustrates the electron and proton
Particles in the Nucleus
structure of one atom of the gas, hydrogen. This atom consists of a
A stable nucleus (that is, one that is not radioactive) contains central mass called the nucleus and one electron outside. The proton
protons and neutrons. The neutron is electrically neutral (it has no in the nucleus makes it the massive and stable part of the atom
net charge). Its mass is almost the same as that of a proton. because a proton is 1840 times heavier than an electron.

A proton has the positive charge of a hydrogen nucleus. The charge In Fig. 1–1, the one electron in the hydrogen atom is shown in an
is the same as that of an orbital electron but of opposite polarity. orbital ring around the nucleus. To account for the electrical stability
There are no electrons in the nucleus. Table 1–3 lists the charge and of the atom, we can consider the electron as spinning around the
mass for these three basic particles in all atoms. The C in the charge nucleus, as planets revolve around the sun. Then the electrical force
column is for coulombs. attracting the electrons in toward the nucleus is balanced by the
mechanical force outward on the rotating electron. As a result, the
electron stays in its orbit around the nucleus.

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In an atom that has more electrons and protons than hydrogen, all The net effect in the wire itself without any applied voltage,
protons are in the nucleus, and all the electrons are in one or more however, is zero because of the random motion of the free electrons.
outside rings. For example, the carbon atom illustrated in Fig. 1–2 a When voltage is applied, it forces all the free electrons to move in
has six protons in the nucleus and six electrons in two outside rings. the same direction to produce electron flow, which is an electric
The total number of electrons in the outside rings must equal the current.
number of protons in the nucleus in a neutral atom.
Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors
The distribution of electrons in the orbital rings determines the
atom’s electrical stability. Especially important is the number of When electrons can move easily from atom to atom in a material,
electrons in the ring farthest from the nucleus. This outermost ring the material is a conductor. In general, all metals are good
requires eight electrons for stability, except when there is only one conductors, with silver the best and copper second. Their atomic
ring, which has a maximum of two electrons. structure allows free movement of the outermost orbital electrons.
Copper wire is generally used for practical conductors because it
In the carbon atom in Fig. 1–2a, with six electrons, there are just costs much less than silver. The purpose of using conductors is to
two electrons in the first ring because two is its maximum number. allow electric current to flow with minimum opposition.
The remaining four electrons are in the second ring, which can have
a maximum of eight electrons. The wire conductor is used only to deliver current produced by the
voltage source to a device that needs the current to function. As an
As another example, the copper atom in Fig. 1–2b has only one example, a bulb lights only when current flows through the fi
electron in the last ring, which can include eight electrons. lament.
Therefore, the outside ring of the copper atom is less stable than the
outside ring of the carbon atom. A material with atoms in which the electrons tend to stay in their
own orbits is an insulator because it cannot conduct electricity very
When many atoms are close together in a copper wire, the outermost easily. However, insulators can hold or store electricity better than
orbital electron of each copper atom can easily break free from its conductors. An insulating material, such as glass, plastic, rubber,
home or parent atom. These electrons then can migrate easily from paper, air, or mica, is also called a dielectric, meaning it can store
one atom to another at random. Such electrons that can move freely electric charge.
from one atom to the next are called free electrons. This freedom
accounts for the ability of copper to conduct electricity very easily. Insulators can be useful when it is necessary to prevent current flow.
It is the movement of free electrons that provides electric current in In addition, for applications requiring the storage of electric harge,
a metal conductor.

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as in capacitors, a dielectric material must be used because a good similar atoms. The reason is that four is exactly halfway to the stable
conductor cannot store any charge. condition of eight electrons in the outside ring.

Carbon can be considered a semiconductor, conducting less than The inert gas neon has a complete outside ring of eight electrons,
metal conductors but more than insulators. In the same group are which makes it chemically inactive. Remember that eight electrons
germanium and silicon, which are commonly used for transistors in the outside ring is a stable structure.
and other semiconductor components. Practically all transistors are
made of silicon. Molecules and Compounds

A group of two or more atoms forms a molecule. For instance, two

Elements
atoms of hydrogen (H) form a hydrogen molecule (H2). When
The combinations of electrons and protons forming stable atomic hydrogen unites chemically with oxygen, the result is water (H2O),
structures result in different kinds of elementary substances having which is a compound. A compound, then, consists of two or more
specific characteristics. A few familiar examples are the elements elements. The molecule is the smallest unit of a compound with the
hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, copper, and iron. An element is defined same chemical characteristics. We can have molecules for either
as a substance that cannot be decomposed any further by chemical elements or compounds. However, atoms exist only for elements.
action. The atom is the smallest particle of an element that still has
the same characteristics as the element. Atom is a Greek word Summary
meaning a “particle too small to be subdivided.” As an example of  Electricity is present in all matter in the form of electrons
the fact that atoms are too small to be visible, a particle of carbon and protons.
the size of a pinpoint contains many billions of atoms. The electrons  The electron is the basic particle of negative charge, and the
and protons within the atom are even smaller. proton is the basic particle of positive charge.
Table 1–1 lists some more examples of elements. These are just a  A conductor is a material in which electrons can move easily
few out of a total of 112. Notice how the elements are grouped. The from one atom to the next.
metals listed across the top row are all good conductors of  An insulator is a material in which electrons tend to stay in
electricity. Each has an atomic structure with an unstable outside their own orbit. Another name for insulator is dielectric.
ring that allows many free electrons.  The atomic number of an element gives the number of
protons in the nucleus of the atom, balanced by an equal
Semiconductors have four electrons in the outermost ring. This number of orbital electrons.
means that they neither gain nor lose electrons but share them with

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 Electron valence refers to the number of electrons in the 5. The most basic particle of positive charge is the
outermost shell of an atom. Except for H and He, the goal of a. coulomb.
valence is eight for all atoms. b. electron.
c. proton.
1. The most basic particle of negative charge is the d. neutron.
a. coulomb.
b. electron. Reference: Name of book:- 1) EHJ PALLET,
c. proton. 2) EISMIN,
d. neutron.
3) FAA 9A.
2. Which of the following is not a good conductor?
a. copper.
b. silver.
c. glass.
d. gold.

3. The electron valence of a neutral copper atom is

a. +1.
b. 0.
c. ±4.
d. -1.

4. In a metal conductor, such as a copper wire,

a. positive ions are the moving charges that provide current.
b. free electrons are the moving charges that provide
current.
c. there are no free electrons.
d. none of the above.

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