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A PROJECT ON

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
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1. INTRODCTION
1.1. Introduction:

A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) has two types of energy storage units,
electricity and fuel. Electricity means that a battery (sometimes assisted by ultracaps) is used
to store the energy, and that an electromotor (from now on called motor) will be used as
traction motor. Fuel means that a tank is required, and that an Internal Combustion Engine
(ICE, from now on called engine) is used to generate mechanical power, or that a fuel cell
will be used to convert fuel to electrical energy. In the latter case, traction will be performed
by the electromotor only. In the first case, the vehicle will have both an engine and a motor.
Depending on the drive train structure (how motor and engine are
connected), we can distinguish between parallel, series or combined HEVs.
Depending on the share of the electromotor to the traction power, we
can distinguish between mild or micro hybrid (start-stop systems), power assist hybrid, full
hybrid and plug-in hybrid.
Depending on the nature of the non-electric energy source, we can
distinguish between combustion (ICE), fuel cell, hydraulic or pneumatic power, and human
power. In the first case, the ICE is a spark ignition engines (gasoline) or compression
ignition direct injection (diesel) engine. In the first two cases, the energy conversion unit
may be powered by gasoline, methanol, compressed natural gas, hydrogen, or other
alternative fuels.

1.2 What is hybrid car?

Motors are the "work horses" of Hybrid Electric Vehicle drive systems. The
electric traction motor drives the wheels of the vehicle. Unlike a traditional vehicle, where
the engine must "ramp up" before full torque can be provided, an electric motor provides full
torque at low speeds. The motor also has low noise and high efficiency. Other characteristics
include excellent "off the line" acceleration, good drive control, good fault tolerance and
flexibility in relation to voltage fluctuations. The front-running motor technologies for HEV
applications include PMSM (permanent magnet synchronous motor), BLDC (brushless DC
motor), SRM (switched reluctance motor) and AC induction motor. A main advantage of an
electromotor is the possibility to function as generator. In all HEV systems, mechanical
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braking energy is regenerated. The maximum operational braking torque is less than the
maximum traction torque; there is always a mechanical braking system integrated in a car.
The battery pack in a HEV has a much higher voltage than the SIL
automotive 12 Volts battery, in order to reduce the currents and the I2R losses. Accessories
such as power steering and air conditioning are powered by electric motors instead of being
attached to the combustion engine.
This allows efficiency gains as the accessories can run at a constant speed
or can be switched off, regardless of how fast the combustion engine is running. Especially
in long haul trucks, electrical power steering saves a lot of energy

TYPES OF HYBRID CAR :

PARALLEL HYBRID

Parallel hybrid powered for short distances by an electric motor; at

higher speeds a gasoline engine drives the wheels and turns a generator to recharge the
batteries. The two power sources are said to work in parallel.

SERIES HYBRID

Series hybrid is designed to travel 40 miles on batteries. Its gas engine

generates electricity to recharge the batteries, but it never powers the wheels. Because the
engine’s power output goes through the electric drive motor, it is called a series design.

PLUG-IN

G.M. has announced that it will offer a plug-in version of the Saturn
Vue crossover that will drive up to 15 miles on batteries. The gas engine will be able to
drive the wheels and recharge the battery, or the Vue can be replenished by plugging into a
standard socket.
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PURE ELECTRIC

Cars like the Tesla Roadster drive strictly on the power from a lithium-ion battery
pack. Tesla says the car will go 244 miles on battery power and recharge in 3.5 hours using a
special high-power connector; there is no provision to recharge while driving.

1.3 How hybrid car works?

In a traditional hybrid vehicle, we have a complete electric car. It includes an

electric motor to provide all of the power to the wheels, as well as batteries to supply the
motor with electricity and a completely separate gasoline engine powering a generator. The
engine is very small (10 to 20 horsepower) and it are designed to run at just one speed for
maximum efficiency. The purpose of this small, efficient engine is to provide enough power
for the car at its cruising speed. During times of acceleration, the batteries provide the extra
power necessary. When the car is decelerating or standing still, the batteries recharge. This
sort of hybrid car is essentially an electric car with a built-in recharger for longer range. The
advantage is that the small, efficient gasoline engine gets great mileage.

• Design Considerations of Hybrid Vehicles

In some cases, manufacturers are producing HEVs that use the added energy
provided by the hybrid systems to give vehicles a power boost, rather than significantly
improved fuel efficiency compared to their traditional counterparts. The trade-off between
added performance and improved fuel efficiency is partly controlled by the software within
the hybrid system and partly the result of the engine, battery and motor size. In the future,
manufacturers may provide HEV owners with the ability to partially control this balance
(fuel efficiency vs. added performance) as they wish, through a user-controlled setting.
Toyota announced in January, 2006 that it was considering a "high-efficiency" button.

1.4 Multi utility Hybrid car

The Hybrid Automated Guided Vehicle (AGV) system for pallet transportation
combines a traditional electrical forklift truck with Swiss log’s Hybrid Box control system,
creating a cost-efficient alternative to standard AGVs.
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Hybrid AGVs move goods in and out of areas. Designed to quickly switch between manual
and automated modes, Hybrid AGVs increase the productivity of warehouses and
distribution centers while keeping costs under control

Benefits

 25% to 30% less investment than standard AGVs

 Automatic stopping system for safe transportation of goods

 Minimized transport damages and delivery errors

 Fast switch between automated and manual modes

 Higher flexibility and less dependence on personnel

The hybrid AGV Egemin is touting, and will have on display at Pro Mat, is a vehicle
with dual functionality: an off-the-shelf man-aboard lift truck that can operate manually, like
a traditional lift truck, or in automatic mode as a laser-guided AGV. Egemin will announce
the maker of the vehicle at Pro Mat.

Noble says the vehicle was three years in development. “We had some key requirements,”
he explains. “We wanted a vehicle that is widely used. We wanted 5,000 pounds of lifting
capacity. We wanted 300 inches of vertical lift. It had to be easy to operate in manual mode,
easy to be put back into automatic and it had to be reliable.” To that last point, the lift truck
manufacturer was selected because it has an established maintenance network in every major
US city.
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Schematic diagram of typical AGV

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW
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1. LITERATURE REVIEW

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Transport Res Part D 6:297–324

 ANL (2009) Greenhouse gases, regulated emissions, and energy use in

transportation (GREET) Model v. 1.8c. Argonne National Lab., Univ. of Chicago,
Chicago, Illinois, USA

 Axsen J, Burke A, Kurani K (2008) Batteries for plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs):
Goals and state of the technology circa 2008. Inst. of Transportation Studies, Univ.
of California, Davis

 Bandivadekar AP (2008) Evaluating the impact of advanced vehicle and fuel

technologies in U.S. Light-Duty Vehicle Fleet. Massachusetts Institute of
Technology

 Baptista P, Silva C, Gonçalves G, Farias T (2009) Full life cycle assessment of

market penetration of electricity based vehicles. Paper presented at the EVS24,
Stavanger, Norway

 Bauen A, Hart D (2000) Assessment of the environmental benefits of transport and

stationary fuel cells. J Power Sources 86(1–2):482–494

 Bellona (2009) Norges helhetlige klimaplan. Bellonameldingen (2008–2009)

 Better Place (2009) Battery Exchange Stations. http://www.betterplace.com/our-

bold-plan/how-it-works/battery-exchange-stations. Accessed April 29, 2009 2009

 Boureima F, Messagie M, Matheys J, Wynen V, Sergeant N, Van Mierlo J, De Vos

M, De Caevel B (2009) Comparative LCA of electric, hybrid, LPG and gasoline
cars in Belgian context. Paper presented at the EVS24, Stavanger, May 13–16, 2009

 Bravo J, Silva CM, Farias TL (2006) Simulation of hybrid electrical vehicles.

Instituto Superior Técnico (Technical University of Lisbon), Lisbon, Portugal
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 Brinkman N, Wang M, Weber T, Darlington T (2005) Well-to-wheels analysis of

advanced fuel/vehicle systems—a North American study of energy use, greenhouse
gas emissions, and criteria pollution emissions. Argonne National Laboratory, U.S.
Dept. of Energy, Chicago, Illinois

 Buchert M (2010) Life cycle assessment (LCA) of nickel metal hydride batteries
for hev application. In: Int. Automobile Recycling Congress, March 4, 2010, Basel,
Switzerland

 Burke A, Abeles E (2004) Feasable CAFE standard increases using emerging diesel
and hybrid-electric technologies for light-duty vehicles in the United States. Inst. of
Transportation Studies, Univ. of California, Davis

 Burke AF (2007) Batteries and ultracapacitors for electric, hybrid, and fuel cell
vehicles. Proc IEEE 95(4):806–820

 Burnham A (2009) Researcher, Argonne National Laboratory. Argonne, IL.

Personal communication

 Burnham A, Wang M, Wu Y (2006) Development and applications of GREET

2.7—the transportation vehicle-cycle model. Argonne National Lab., Univ. of
Chicago, Chicago, Illinois

 Campanari S, Manzolini G, Garcia de la Iglesia F (2009) Energy analysis of

electric vehicles using batteries or fuel cells through well-to-wheel driving cycle
simulations. J Power Sources 186(2):464–477

 Chitwood J (2009) Future fuels and environmental strategy manager, Toyota motor
sales, North America. Torrence, California

 Choi B-C, Shin H-S, Lee S-Y, Hur T (2006) Life cycle assessment of a personal
computer and its effective recycling rate. Int J Life Cycle Assess 11(2):122–128

 Commission on Oil Independence (2006) Making Sweden an OIL-FREE Society

 Daniel JJ, Rosen MA (2002) Exergetic environmental assessment of life cycle

emissions for various automobiles and fuels. Exergy 2(4):283–294
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 Dewulf J, Van der Vorst G, Denturck K, Van Langenhove H, Ghyoot W, Tytgat J,

Vandputte K (2010) Recycling rechargeable lithium ion batteries: critical analysis of
natural resource savings. Res Cons Recycling 54(4):229–234

 Dhingra R, Overly JG, Davis GA, Das S, Hadley S, Tonn B (2000) A life-cycle-based
environmental evaluation: materials in new generation vehicles. SAE Tech. Paper
Series. Oak Ridge National Lab., Univ. of Tennesee

 Duvall MS (2005) Battery evaluation for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. In: Vehicle
power and propulsion, 2005 IEEE Conference, pp 338–343

 Eberhard M, Tarpenning M (2006) The 21st Century Electrical Car. Tesla Motors Inc

 Elgowainy A, Burnham A, Wang M, Molburg J, Roussau A (2009) Well-to-wheel

analyisi of energy use and greenhouse gas emissions analysis of plug-in hybrid
electric vehicles. Argonne National Lab., Univ. of Chicago, U.S. Dept. of Energy,
Chicago, Illinois

 EPRI (2002) Comparing the benefits and impacts of hybrid electric vehicles options
for compact sedan and sport utility vehicles. Electric Power Research Inst, Palo

 EPRI (2007) Environmental assessment of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles volume 1:

nationwide greenhouse gas emissions. Electric Power Research Inst, Palo Alto

 Finkbeiner M, Hoffmann R, Ruhland K, Liebhart D, Stark B (2006) Application of

life cycle assessment for the environmental certificate of the Mercedes-Benz S-Class.
Int J Life Cycle Assess 11(4):240–246

 Fontaras G, Pistikopoulos P, Samaras Z (2008) Experimental evaluation of hybrid

vehicle fuel economy and pollutant emissions over real-world simulation driving
cycles. Atmos Environ 42(18):4023–4035

 Ford A (1994) Electric vehicles and the electric utility company. Energy Policy
1994(22):7

 Furuholt E (1995) Life cycle assessment of gasoline and diesel. Res Cons Recycling
14:251–263
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 Gage TB (2003) Development and Evaluation of a Plug-in HEV with vehicle-to-grid

power flow. AC Propulsion, Inc

 Gaines L, Burnham A, Rousseau D, Santini D (2007) Sorting through the many total-
energy-cycle pathways possible with early plug-in hybrids. Argonne National Lab.,
Univ. of Chicago, U.S. Dept. of Energy, Chicago, Illinois

 Gaines L, Nelson P (2010) Lithium-ion batteries: examining material demand and

recycling issues. In: Proceedings of the 2010 TMS Annual Meeting & Exhibition,
Sustainable Materials Processing and Production Symposium, Seattle, Washington,
2010

 General Motors Corporation (2001) Well-to-wheel energy use and greenhouse gas
emissions of advanced fuel/vehicle systems—North American Analysis

 Graham R (2001) Comparing the benefits and impacts of hybrid electric vehicle
options. Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto

 Greenpeace (2008) Energy revolution: a sustainable global energy output.

Greenpeace, New York, New York

 Hacker F, Harthan R, Matthes F, Zimmer W (2009) Environmental impacts and

impact on the electricity market of a large scale introduction of electric cars in
Europe. Oeko-Institut e.V. for the The European Topic Center on Air and Climate
Change, under a European Environmental Agency Grant, Berlin, Germany

 Hackney J, de Neufville R (2001) Life cycle model of alternative fuel vehicles:

emissions, energy, and cost trade-offs. Transport Res A-Pol 35(3):243–266

 Hawkins T, Hendrickson CT, Higgins C, Matthews HS (2007) A mixed-unit input–

output model for environmental life-cycle assessment and material flow analysis.
Environ Sci Technol 41(3):1024–1031

 Hermance D, Sasaki S (1998) Hybrid electric vehicles take to the streets. IEEE
Spectr 35(11):48–52
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 Huo H, Zhang Q, Wang M, Streets D, He K (2010) Environmental implication of

electric vehicles in China. Environ Sci Technol 44(13):4856–4861

 ISO (2006a) 14040 Environmental management—life cycle assessment—principles

and framework. International Organization for Standardization,

 ISO (2006b) 14044 Environmental management—life cycle assessment—

requirements and guidelines. International Organization for Standardization

 Jacobson MZ (2009) Review of solutions to global warming, air pollution, and energy
security. Energy Environ Sci 2(2):148–173

 Jaramillo A, Samaras C, Wakeley H, Meisterling K (2009) Greenhouse gas

implications of using coal for transportation: life cycle assessment of coal-to-liquids,
plug-in hybrids, and hydrogen pathways. Energy Policy 37:2689–2695

 Johnson J, Harper EM, Lifset R, Graedel TE (2007) Dining at the periodic table:
metals concentrations as they relate to recycling. Environ Sci Technol 41(5):1759–
1765

 Joshi S (2000) Product environmental life-cycle assessment using input–output

techniques. J Ind Ecol 3(2 & 3):95–120

 Kalhammer FR, Kopf BM, Swan DH, Roan VP, Walsh MP (2007) Status and
prospects for zero emissions vehicle technology. Air Resource Board Independent
Expert Panel 2007

 Karbowski D, Haliburton C, Roussau A (2007) Impact of component size on plug-in

hybrid vehicle energy consumption using global optimization. Transportation
Technology R&D Center, Argonne National Lab., Univ. of Chicago, U.S. Dept. of
Energy

 Kazimi C (1997) Evaluating the environmental impact of alternative-fuel vehicles. J

Environ Econ Manage 33(2):163–185

 Kendall G (2008) Plugged in the end of the oil age. WWF

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CHAPTER 3

COMPONENTS OF MULTI UTILITY HYBRID CAR

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3. COMPONENTS OF MULTI UTILITY HYBRID CAR

3.1 CHASSIS

The main functions of a frame in motor vehicles are

1. To support the vehicle's mechanical components and body

2. To deal with static and dynamic loads, without undue deflection or distortion.

These include:

 Weight of the body, passengers, and cargo loads.

 Vertical and torsion twisting transmitted by going over uneven surfaces.

 Transverse lateral forces caused by road conditions, side wind, and steering the
vehicle.

 Torque from the engine and transmission.

 Longitudinal tensile forces from starting and acceleration, as well as compression

from braking.

 Sudden impacts from collisions.

Types of frame according to the construction:

 Ladder type frame

 X-Type frame

 Offset frame

 Off set with cross member frame

 Perimeter Frame
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Ladder frame

So named for its resemblance to a ladder, the ladder frame is one of the simplest
and oldest of all designs. It consists of two symmetrical beams, rails, or channels running the
length of the vehicle, and several transverse cross-members connecting them. Originally
seen on almost all vehicles, the ladder frame was gradually phased out on cars in favor of
perimeter frames and unitized body construction. It is now seen mainly on trucks. This
design offers good beam resistance because of its continuous rails from front to rear, but
poor resistance to torsion or warping if simple, perpendicular cross-members are used. Also,
the vehicle's overall height will be greater due to sitting above the frame instead of inside it.

Unibody

Term unibody or unit body is short for unitized body, or alternatively unitary
construction design. This engineering approach of a vehicle describes "of a vehicle, a one-
piece frame and body structure.

A type of body/frame construction in which the body of the vehicle, its floor plan
and chassis form a single structure. Such a design is generally lighter and more rigid than a
vehicle having a separate body and frame.

Integral frame and body construction requires more than simply welding an
unstressed body to a conventional frame. In a fully integrated body structure, the entire car is
a load-carrying unit that handles all the loads experienced by the vehicle—forces from
driving as well as cargo loads. Integral-type bodies for wheeled vehicles are typically
manufactured by welding preformed metal panels and other components together, by
forming or casting whole sections as one piece, or by a combination of these techniques.
Although this is sometimes also referred to as a monocoque structure, because the car's outer
skin and panels are made load-bearing, there are still ribs, bulkheads and box sections to
reinforce the body, making the description semi-monocoque more appropriate.

Backbone tube

A backbone chassis is a type of automobile construction chassis that is similar to the

body-on-frame design. Instead of a two-dimensional ladder type structure, it consists of a
strong tubular backbone (usually rectangular in cross section) that connects the front and
rear suspension attachment areas. A body is then placed on this structure.
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X-frame

This is the design used for the full-size American models of General Motors in the
late 1950s and early 1960s in which the rails from alongside the engine seemed to cross in
the passenger compartment, each continuing to the opposite end of the cross member at the
extreme rear of the vehicle. It was specifically chosen to decrease the overall height of the
vehicles regardless of the increase in the size of the transmission and propeller shaft humps,
since each row had to cover frame rails as well. Several models had the differential located
not by the customary bar between axle and frame, but by a ball joint atop the differential
connected to a socket in a wishbone hinged onto a cross member of the frame.

The X-frame was claimed to improve on previous designs, but it lacked side rails and
thus did not provide adequate side-impact and collision protection.[17] This design was
replaced by perimeter frames.

Perimeter frame

Similar to a ladder frame, but the middle sections of the frame rails sit outboard of
the front and rear rails just behind the rocker / sill panels. This was done to allow for a lower
floor pan, especially at the passenger foot wells, to lower the passengers' seating height and
therefore reduce the overall vehicle height in passenger cars. This became the prevalent
design for body-on-frame cars in the United States, but not in the rest of the world, until the
uni-body gained popularity. It allowed for annual model changes introduced in the 1950s to
increase sales, but without costly structural changes. As of 2014, there are no perimeter
frame automobiles sold in the United States after the Ford Motor Company phased out the
Panther platform in 2011, which ended the perimeter frame passenger car in the United
States (the Chevrolet Corvette has used a variation of the perimeter frame since 1963, but its
fourth generation variant to its current generation as of 2016 has elements of the perimeter
frame integrated with an internal endoskeleton which serves as a clamshell).

In addition to a lowered roof, the perimeter frame allows lower seating positions
when that is desirable, and offers better safety in the event of a side impact. However, the
design lacks stiffness, because the transition areas from front to center and center to rear
reduce beam and torsional resistance, hence the use of torque boxes, and soft suspension
settings.
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Platform frame

This is a modification of the perimeter frame or of the backbone frame, in which the
passenger compartment floor, and sometimes also the luggage compartment floor have been
integrated into the frame as load bearing parts, for extra strength and rigidity. Neither floor
pieces are simply sheet metal straight off the roll, but have been stamped with ridges and
hollows for extra strength.

Space frame

In a (tubular) space frame chassis, the suspension, engine, and body panels are
attached to a three-dimensional skeletal frame of tubes, and the body panels have little or no
structural function. In order to maximize rigidity and minimize weight, the design makes
maximum use of triangles, and all the forces in each strut are either tensile or compressive,
never bending, so they can be kept as thin as possible.
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PERIMETRE FRAME
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3.2 STEERING SYSTEM

The controlling behavior of a vehicle is influenced by the performance of its steering

system. The steering system consists of steering wheel, steering column, rack and pinion,
steering gearbox, and a linkage system. The vehicle is controlled by the behaviour of the
steering gear with the spring loaded rack and pinion. This spring loading arrangement
consists of yoke nut, spring, and plunger. The plunger is always in contact with the rack, by
the spring and yoke nut. The spring loading arrangement helps to eliminate the backlash
between the rack and pinion, but increases the preload on the gear. This increases the torque
required to rotate the steering wheel by the driver. In order to reduce this torque requirement,
the spring loading can be reduced which in turn will increase the noise when the vehicle
running on a bumpy road, and also may turn undesirably due to road disturbances. Hence,
contradictory requirements to be fulfilled in the steering gear. This is done by providing an
allowable preload on the spring. In practice, however, it will be desirable that the steering
system is stiff while going on a straight road, and less stiff while turning at low speeds.

RACK AND PINION

The rack-and-pinion steering system converts the rotational motion of the steering
wheel into the linear motion needed to turn the wheels, and provides a gear reduction,
making it easier to turn the wheels. On most cars, it takes three to four complete revolutions
of the steering wheel to make the wheels turn from lock to lock. Turning of wheels depends
on the steering ratio. It is the ratio between the angle turned by the steering wheel and the
angle turned by the road wheel. A higher ratio means that one has to turn the steering wheel
more to get the wheels to turn a given distance, and vice versa. A rack and pinion assembly
must satisfy specific requirements, such as backlash elimination, etc. The steering system is
also subjected to continuous vibrations. So, any backlash will lead to noise. Apart from gear
errors, backlash comes from the fact that the central portion of rack teeth span and the
corresponding mating pinion teeth are more prone to wear. Thus, backlash elimination
becomes inevitable in steering systems. To accommodate the steering linkages, along with
the gearbox within the track width of the vehicle, rack travel is limited. This low rack gain
with high reduction gear ratio puts a limitation on pinion diameter. For a small diameter
pinion, sufficient tooth strength is achieved by reducing the number of teeth. This introduces
undercutting. Undercutting is avoided by resorting to a pinion profile shift . The profile-
shifted pinion has increased tooth width than the tooth space. The rack and pinion in the
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RPS is assembled under a preload force. The nominal torque value required to rotate the
pinion

Depends up on this preload. The preload is so adjusted that the steering is not too responsive
during the straight-ahead motions and not too stiff during turning.
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3.3 SUSPENSION SYSTEM

To provide good ride and handling performance

 vertical compliance providing chassis isolation

 ensuring that the wheels follow the road
 very little tire load fluctuation
 To ensure that steering control is maintained during maneuvering –
 wheels to be maintained in the proper position with respect to road surface

To ensure that the vehicle responds favorably to control forces produced by the tires during

 longitudinal braking
 accelerating forces,
 lateral cornering forces and
 braking and accelerating torques
 this requires the suspension geometry to be designed to resist squat, dive and roll of
the vehicle body
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To provide isolation from high frequency vibration from tire excitation

 requires appropriate isolation in the suspension joints

 Prevent transmission of ‘road noise’ to the vehicle body 3 of 42 Vehicle Axis system
 Un-sprung mass
 Right-hand orthogonal axis system fixed in a vehicle
 x-axis is substantially horizontal, points forward, and is in the longitudinal plane of
symmetry. • y-axis points to driver's right and
 z-axis points downward
 Rotations:
 A yaw rotation about z-axis.
 A pitch rotation about y-axis
 A roll rotation about x-axis
 Suspension Types –Dependent
 Motion of a wheel on one side of the vehicle is dependent on the motion of its
partner on the other side
 Rarely used in modern passenger cars
 Cannot give good ride
 Cannot control high braking and accelerating torques
 Used in commercial and off-highway vehicles
 Semi-dependent Suspension
 The rigid connection between pairs of wheels is replaced by a compliant link.
 a beam which can bend and flex providing both positional control of the wheels as
well as compliance.
 tend to be simple in construction but lack scope for design flexibility
 Additional compliance can be provided by rubber or hydro elastic springs
 Wheel camber is, in this case, the same as body roll.
 Suspension Types – Independent
 motion of wheel pairs is independent, so that a disturbance at one wheel is not
directly transmitted to its partner.
 Better ride and handling.
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Beam Type Axle suspension (Solid axle/Dependent)

 The parallel jounce axis and roll axis control the characteristics of this type of
suspension

 Anti-features are similar as explained earlier

 The roll axis is found by determining the two lateral restraints and connecting them
with a line

 The slope of the roll axis is the roll steer value. If the roll axis tilts down to the front
of the vehicle when viewed from the side then the suspension has roll under steer for
a rear suspension, if it tilts up to the front, then the suspension has roll over steer
geometry

 Axle roll does occur in solid axle suspension unless the point of force application is
at ground level

3.3.1 FRONT WHEEL SUSPENION

DOUBLE WISHBONE SUSPEENSION
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3.3.2 REAR WHEEL SUSPENSION

The most unique feature of a Macpherson strut suspension is that all of the
components are a single assembly. Based on a triangle design, a typical Macpherson strut
assembly includes a coil spring, upper suspension locator, and shock absorber and is
mounted between the top arm of the steering knuckle and the inner fender panel. When the
spring is not on the strut itself, but is instead located between the lower control arm and the
frame, this is known as a Chapman strut and a modified Macpherson suspension; the
advantage is that minor road vibrations are absorbed through the chassis rather than being
fed to the driver through the steering system. Following is a closer look at Macpherson strut
components.

The strut is the heart of the Macpherson suspension system. Not only do struts look
like conventional shock absorbers, they also perform the same shock-dampening function.
They reduce suspension space and weight requirements as well; by mounting the strut
assembly to the steering knuckle, the need for an upper control arm and ball joint is
eliminated. The upper mount is the load-carrying component on Macpherson suspensions.
There are two types of struts: serviceable an sealed. Serviceable struts are designed with a
threaded body nut, thus enabling the shock-absorbing cartridge to be replaced. Sealed struts,
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on the other hand, permanently retain the cartridge by means of a cap. Since there is no way
of replacing the cartridge on a sealed strut, the entire strut unit must be replaced. The
majority of original equipment domestic struts are sealed..

COIL SPRINGS

Coil springs are found on all Macpherson strut suspensions. A mounting plate
welded to the strut acts as the lower spring seat, while the upper seat is bolted to the strut
piston rod. The coil spring and strut turn with the motion of the steering wheel by means of a
bearing or rubber bushing in the upper mount. As mentioned earlier, modified Macpherson
suspensions do not have the coil spring mounted on the strut. While this feature does provide
a smoother ride under Normal driving conditions, the regular Macpherson suspension (in
which the spring is positioned on the strut) provides a smoother, more responsive ride over a
wide range of driving conditions. The higher and wider spring placement also provides
superior roll resistance.

LOWER SUSPENSION COMPONENTS

As on conventional suspensions, the lower mounting position is the frame. The lower
control arm and ball joint are retained on Macpherson suspensions, as is the sway, or
stabilizer, bar. The lower ball joint stabilizes the steering and helps prevent shimmy. The
only exception to this is on modified Macpherson suspensions, where the ball joint is the
load bearer and the upper mount is responsible for steering .On today’s uni-body cars, the
weight of the vehicle is carried by a coil spring located between the inner fender skirt and
upper control arm. An upper ball joint is also included on uni-body designs. This is a
compression-type ball joint, meaning that when the weight of the car is on the ball joint, it is
tight; when the weight is removed from the ball joint, it loosens up.

INSPECTION

The strut shaft on a Macpherson suspension system receives a tremendous amount of

force, both vertically and horizontally, even during normal driving conditions. For this
reason, the assembly must be inspected periodically for signs of leakage, poor dampening, or
shaft bending. The rest of the system should also be checked carefully, particularly the ball
joints, control arm bushings, strut rod bushings and sway bar bushings.
 MULTI UTILITY HYBRID VEHICLE 28

SERVICE

Whenever you are servicing struts, a vise-holding tool is a must. Never secure a strut
directly in a vise because the force necessary to hold it could easily damage the cylinder.
Use the following service procedure:

1. Mount the strut in a vise using a viseholding tool.

2. Attach a spring compressor to the coils; tighten until the pressure on the upper mount has
been removed.

3. Mark the position of the coil spring and upper mount so that they can be reassembled
easily.

4. Remove the plastic dust cap and strut-retaining nut from the upper mount.

5. Disassemble the remaining components and lay them out in order on the workbench. Do
not remove the spring from the compressor.

6. If the strut is serviceable, remove the spanner nut using a spanner or pipe wrench.

7. If the strut is sealed and therefore non-serviceable, discard the old strut, place the new
strut in the vise, and proceed to the section “Strut Installation.”

8. Remove the rubber O-ring from the cylinder. Slowly pull out the piston rod and cartridge
to prevent oil spillage. Discard all the internal parts.

NOTE: Whenever work is being done under the vehicle, always wear safety glasses or
goggles.

STRUT REMOVAL

To remove a regular Macpherson strut, proceed as follows:

1. Remove the wheel covers and loosen the lug nuts one full turn. After making sure that the
steering wheel is unlocked, raise the car on jack stands or a hoist.

2. Remove the wheel. Mark the location of the upper bearing plate camber bolt on the
steering knuckle so that you’ll be able to replace it easily.
 MULTI UTILITY HYBRID VEHICLE 29

3. If the strut provides for camber adjustments, mark the position of the attachment.

4. Remove all but one of the nuts securing the upper mount to the car body. The remaining
nut should be left on finger-tight.

5. Disconnect the brake hose and line from the strut assembly (if applicable)..

3. Install the new strut retaining nut and tighten it to the specified torque.

4. Remove the spring compressor, then remove the entire assembly from the vise. Reinstall
it on the car.

5. Check to make sure that the upper bearing plate and stud nuts are properly aligned with
the marks you made earlier, then tighten them.

6. Tighten the steering knuckle mounting bolts or ball joint nut to the manufacturer’s
specifications.

7. Reattach the brake hose, as well as any other parts that were removed.

MODIFIED MACPHERSON STRUTS

To replace a strut on a modified Macpherson suspension, proceed as follows:

1. Raise the car and support the lower control arms with a jack or jack stands.

2. Remove the upper shaft nut, but not the upper strut mount retaining bolts. If a mount rivet
is used, do not remove it either.

3. Remove the brake caliper. If necessary, unbolt the strut from the spindle.

4. Remove the strut assembly and upper mount. Discard the strut assembly.

5. If the upper mount has a rubber jounce bumper inside the dust shield, inspect it and
replace if damaged.

6. Prime and slightly expand the new strut assembly. Insert it through the dust shield, jounce
the bumper, and start threading the upper shaft nut.
 MULTI UTILITY HYBRID VEHICLE 30

7. Extend the cartridge and bolt the lower strut mount to the spindle using the supplied
hardware..

8. Torque the upper shaft nut and mounting nuts to specifications.

9. Remove the strut from the vise and discard any oil that might be left inside the cylinder.

10. Clean and inspect the cylinder, particularly the threads.

11. Replace the cylinder in the vise. Before installing the new cartridge, pour a little oil into
it; this will help dissipate heat before assembly.

12. Install the new cartridge according to the manufacturer’s directions, then install and
tighten the new spanner nut.
MULTI UTILITY HYBRID VEHICLE 31
MULTI UTILITY HYBRID VEHICLE 32
 MULTI UTILITY HYBRID VEHICLE 33

3.4 ENGINES

3.4.1 PRIMARY ENGINE:

Heat engine is a machine for converting heat, developed by burning fuel into useful
work. It can be said that heat engine is equipment which generates thermal energy and
transforms it into mechanical energy.

CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT ENGINES

1. Based on combustion of fuel:

(i) External combustion engine

(ii) Internal combustion engine.

External combustion engine

Here, the working medium, the steam, is generated in a boiler, located outside the
engine and allowed in to the cylinder to operate the piston to do mechanical work.

Internal combustion engine

In internal combustion engine, the combustion of fuel takes place inside the
engine cylinder and heat is generated within the cylinder. This heat is added to the air inside
the cylinder and thus the pressure of the air is increased tremendously. This high pressure air
moves the piston which rotates the crank shaft and thus mechanical work is done

2. Based on fuel used

1. Diesel engine

2. Petrol engine

3. Gas engine

Diesel engine – Diesel is used as fuel

Petrol engine – Petrol is used as fuel

 MULTI UTILITY HYBRID VEHICLE 34

Gas engines – propane, butane or methane gases are used

3. Based ignition of fuel

1. Spark ignition engine (Carburettor type engines)

2. Compression ignition engine (injector type engines)

Spark ignition engine –

a mixture of air and fuel is drawn in to the engine cylinder. Ignition of fuel is done by
using a spark plug. The spark plug produces a spark and ignites the air- fuel mixture. Such
combustion is called constant volume combustion (C.V.C.).

Compression ignition engine –

In compression ignition engines air is compressed in to the engine cylinder,. Due to

this the temperature of the compressed air rises to 700-900 C. At this stage diesel is sprayed
in to the cylinder in fine particles. Due to a very high temperature, the fuel gets ignited. This
type of combustion is called constant pressure combustion (CP.C.) because the pressure
inside the cylinder is almost constant when combustion is taking place.

4. Based on working cycle

1. Four stroke cycle engine –

When the cycle is completed in two revolutions of the crankshaft, it is called four
stroke cycle engine.

2. Two stroke cycle engine. -

When the cycle is completed in one revolution of the crankshaft, it is called two
stroke cycle engines.

CONSTRUCTION OF AN IC ENGINE

I.C. engine converts the reciprocating motion of piston into rotary motion of the
crankshaft by means of a connecting rod. The piston which reciprocating in the cylinder is
very close fit in the cylinder. Rings are inserted in the circumferential grooves of the piston
 MULTI UTILITY HYBRID VEHICLE 35

to prevent leakage of gases from sides of the piston. Usually a cylinder is bored in a cylinder
block and a gasket, made of copper sheet or asbestos is inserted between the cylinder and the
cylinder head to avoid ant leakage. The combustion space is provided at the top of the
cylinder head where combustion takes place. The connecting rod connects the piston and the
crankshaft. The end of the connecting rod connecting the piston is called small end. A pin
called gudgeon pin or wrist pin is provided for connecting the piston and the connecting rod
at the small end. The other end of the connecting rod connecting the crank shaft is called big
end. When piston is moved up and down, the motion is transmitted to the crank shaft by the
connecting rod and the crank shaft makes rotary motion. The crankshaft rotates in main
bearings which are fitted the crankcase. A flywheel is provided at one end of the crankshaft
for smoothing the uneven torque produced by the engine. There is an oil sump at the bottom
of the engine which contains lubricating oil for lubricating different parts of the engine.

CNG ENGINE:

Natural gas is produced from gas wells or tied in with crude oil production. Natural
gas (NG) is made up primarily of methane (CH4) but frequently constraints amounts of
ethane, propane, nitrogen, helium, dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, and water vapour Methane is
the principal component of natural gas. Normally more than 90% of natural gas is methane
the detail of natural gas compositions. But, according to that in the natural gas composition
more than 98% is methane. Natural gas can be compressed, so it can stored and used as
compressed natural gas (CNG). CNG requires a much larger volume to store the same mass
of natural gas and the use of very high pressure on about 200 bar or 2,900. Natural gas is
safer than gasoline in many respects. The ignition temperature for natural gas is higher than
gasoline and diesel fuel. Additionally, natural gas is lighter than air and will dissipate
upward rapidly if a rupture occurs. Gasoline and diesel will pool on the ground, increasing
the danger of fire. Compressed natural gas is non-toxic and will not contaminate
groundwater if spilled. Advanced compressed natural gas engines guarantee considerable
advantages over conventional gasoline and diesel engines. Compressed natural gas is a
largely available form of fossil energy and therefore non-renewable. However, CNG has
some advantages compared to gasoline and diesel from an environmental perspective.

It is a cleaner fuel than either gasoline or diesel as far as emissions are concerned.
Compressed natural gas is considered to be an environmentally clean alternative to those
fuels.
 MULTI UTILITY HYBRID VEHICLE 36

Compressed natural gas (CNG) has long been used in stationary engines, but the application
of CNG as a transport engines fuel has been considerably advanced over the last decade by
the development of lightweight high-pressure storage cylinders. Any researcher was
researched about the compressed natural gas as alternative fuel motivated by the economic,
emissions and strategic advantages predominately by has been identified as a leading
candidate for transportation applications among these fuels for several reasons, the first
reason is availability, the second attraction reason of natural of alternative fuels. Several
alternative fuels have been recognized as having a significant potential for producing lower
overall pollutant emissions compared to gasoline and diesel fuel. Natural gas, which is
composed gas is its environmental compatibility and the third attraction reason of natural
gas is that it can be used in conventional diesel and gasoline engines. According to,
operating costs are another reasons, where natural gas powered vehicles theoretically have a
significant advantage over petroleum-powered vehicles, the basis for this argument is the
lower cost per energy unit of natural gas as compared to petroleum. The argument is
somewhat more complex than this, however. While it is true that in the vast majority of the
country natural gas is cheaper than gasoline or diesel, the analysis plays out differently.
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is attractive for five reasons. It is the only fuel cheaper than
gasoline or diesel. It has inherently lower air pollution emissions. It has lower greenhouse
gas emissions. Its use extends petroleum supplies, and there are large quantities of the fuel
available in North America.

3.4.2 SECONDARY ENGINE: BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR

The BLDC motor is widely used in applications including appliances,

automotive, aerospace, consumer, medical, automated industrial equipment and
instrumentation.

The BLDC motor is electrically commutated by power switches instead of brushes.

Compared with a brushed DC motor or an induction motor, the BLDC motor has many
advantages:

 Higher efficiency and reliability

 Lower acoustic noise
 Smaller and lighter
 Greater dynamic response
 MULTI UTILITY HYBRID VEHICLE 37

 Better speed versus torque characteristics

 Higher speed range
 Longer life

This document initially provides a general overview to familiarize the reader with motor
control fundamentals, terms and concepts, and applications. The latter portion of this
document provides detailed descriptions of motor structure, working principle,
characteristics and control methods.

MOTOR FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

General Motor Principles

Motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy using electromagnetic

principles. The energy conversion method is fundamentally the same in all electric motors.
This document starts with a general overview of basic electromagnetic physics before
entering discussing the details of motor operation.

A. Magnetic Force

Magnetic poles generate invisible lines of magnetic force flowing from the north
pole to the south pole. When magnetic poles of opposite polarity face each other, they
generate an attractive force, while like poles generate a repulsive force.

B. Left-Hand Rule

Current in a conductor generates a magnetic field. Placing a conductor in the vicinity

of a separate magnetic can generate a force that reaches its apex when the conductor is at
90° to the external field. The left-hand rule can help the user determine the direction of the
force.
 MULTI UTILITY HYBRID VEHICLE 38

Internal combustion engine:

Brush less dc motor:

 MULTI UTILITY HYBRID VEHICLE 39

3.5 TYRES

Wheels must be strong enough to support the vehicle and withstand the forces caused
by normal operation. At the same time, they must be as light as possible, to help keep un
sprung weight to a minimum. The tyre provides a cushion between the vehicle and the road
to reduce the transmission of road shocks. It also provides friction to allow the vehicle
perform its normal operations. Modern tyres are manufactured from a range of materials.
The rubber is mainly synthetic. This unit will cover the key components associated with the
Wheels and Tyres and the relevant environment, health and safety.

Vehicle wheels have developed from wooden spoked wheels via cast wheels to the
sheet metal disc wheel of today. This is the most commonly used wheel in motor vehicle
engineering at the present time. The wheel must be able to resist and transmit all forces
which act between the road and the vehicle.

Types of wheel

Wheels can be distinguished by the materials used for production and the design. Five of the
most common types are listed below:

1. Wire spoked wheels

2. Sheet metal wheels, double wall welded

3. Disc wheels

4. Cast light metal wheels

5. Cast steel wheels

Functions of tyres

Tires play an important role as an automobile component. Many parts may make up
a car but usually one part is limited to one function. Despite its simple appearance, a tire
differs from other parts in that it has numerous functions .Thus, a tire supports the weight of
the car, reduces the impact from the road and at the same time, transmits the power to
propel, break and steer on the road. It also functions to maintain a car’s movement. In order
 MULTI UTILITY HYBRID VEHICLE 40

to complete such tasks, a tire must be structured to be a resilient vessel of air. A tube is used
to maintain its major function of maintaining air pressure but a tube alone cannot maintain
the high pressure needed to withstand the great weight. In addition, the tube lacks the
strength to withstand all of the exterior damage and impact from driving on the road. The
carcass is entrusted with this function.

The carcass is an inner layer that protects the tube that contains the high-pressure air
and supports vertical load. A thick rubber is attached to the parts that meet the road to
withstand exterior damage and wear. Tread patterns are chosen according to car movement
and safety demands. A solid structure is necessary to make sure the tires are securely
assembled onto rims.

According to improvements in automobile quality and capability as well as the

diversification of usage, the capabilities and performance of tires are becoming more
complex and diversified.

3.6 BATTERY

The battery is an essential component of almost all aircraft electrical systems.

Batteries are used to start engines and auxiliary power units, to provide emergency backup
power for essential avionics equipment, to assure no-break power for navigation units and
fly-by-wire computers, and to provide ground power capability for maintenance and
preflight checkouts. Many of these functions are mission critical, so the performance and
reliability of an aircraft battery is of considerable importance. Other important requirements
include environmental ruggedness, a wide operating temperature range, ease of maintenance,
rapid recharge capability, and tolerance to abuse. Historically, only a few types of batteries
have been found to be suitable for aircraft applications. Until the 1950s, vented lead-acid
(VLA) batteries were used exclusively [Earwicker, 1956]. In the late 1950s, military aircraft
began converting to vented nickel-cadmium (VNC) batteries, primarily because of their
superior performance at low temperature. The VNC battery subsequently found widespread
use in both military and commercial aircraft [Fleischer, 1956; Falk and Salkind, 1969]. The
only other type of battery used during this era was the vented silver-zinc battery, which
provided an energy density about three times higher than VLA and VNC batteries [Miller
and Schiffer, 1971]. This battery type was applied to several types of U.S. Air Force fighters
(F-84, F-105, and F-106) and U.S. Navy helicopters (H-2, H-13, and H-43) in the 1950s and
 MULTI UTILITY HYBRID VEHICLE 41

1960s. Although silver-zinc aircraft batteries were attractive for reducing weight and size,
their use has been discontinued due to poor reliability and high cost of ownership

Battery Fundamentals

Batteries operate by converting chemical energy into electrical energy through

electrochemical discharge reactions. Batteries are composed of one or more cells, each
containing a positive electrode, negative electrode, separator, and electrolyte. Cells can be
divided into two major classes: primary and secondary. Primary cells are not rechargeable
and must be replaced once the reactants are depleted. Secondary cells are rechargeable and
require a DC charging source to restore reactants to their fully charged state. Examples of
primary cells include carbon-zinc (Leclanche or dry cell), alkaline-manganese, mercury zinc,
silver-zinc, and lithium cells (e.g., lithium-manganese dioxide, lithium-sulfur dioxide, and
lithiumthionyl chloride). Examples of secondary cells include lead-lead dioxide (lead-acid),
nickel-cadmium, nickel-iron, nickel-hydrogen, nickel-metal hydride, silver-zinc, silver-
cadmium, and lithium-ion. For aircraft applications, secondary cells are the most prominent,
but primary cells are sometimes used for powering critical avionics equipment (e.g., flight
data recorders). © 2001 by CRC Press LLC Batteries are rated in terms of their nominal
voltage and ampere-hour capacity. The voltage rating is based on the number of cells
connected in series and the nominal voltage of each cell (2.0 V for lead acid and 1.2 V for
nickel-cadmium). The most common voltage rating for aircraft batteries is 24 V. A 24-V
lead-acid battery contains 12 cells, while a 24-V nickel-cadmium battery contains either 19
or 20 cells (the U.S. military rates 19-cell batteries at 24 V). Voltage ratings of 22.8, 25.2,
and 26.4 V are also common with nickel-cadmium batteries, consisting of 19, 20, or 22 cells,
respectively. Twelve-volt lead-acid batteries, consisting of six cells in series, are also used in
many general aviation aircraft. The ampere-hour (Ah) capacity available from a fully
charged battery depends on its temperature, rate of discharge, and age. Normally, aircraft
batteries are rated at room temperature (25°C), the C-rate (1-hour rate), and beginning of
life. Military batteries, however, often are rated in terms of the end-of life capacity, i.e., the
minimum capacity before the battery is considered unserviceable. Capacity ratings of
aircraft batteries vary widely, generally ranging from 3 to 65 Ah. The maximum power
available from a battery depends on its internal construction. High rate cells, for example,
are designed specifically to have very low internal impedance as required for starting turbine
engines and auxiliary power units (APUs). Unfortunately, no universally accepted standard
 MULTI UTILITY HYBRID VEHICLE 42

exists for defining the peak power capability of an aircraft battery. For lead-acid batteries,
the peak power typically is defined in terms of the cold-cranking amperes, or CCA rating.
For nickel-cadmium batteries, the peak power rating typically is defined in terms of the
current at maximum power, or Imp rating. These ratings are based on different temperatures
(18°C for CCA, 23°C for Imp), making it difficult to compare different battery types.
Furthermore, neither rating adequately characterizes the battery’s initial peak current
capability, which is especially important for engine start applications. More rigorous peak
power specifications have been included in some military standards. For example, MIL-B-
8565/15 specifies the initial peak current, the current after 15 s, and the capacity after 60 s,
during a 14-V constant voltage discharge at two different temperatures (24 and 26°C). The
state-of-charge of a battery is the percentage of its capacity available relative to the capacity
when it is fully charged. By this definition, a fully charged battery has a state-of-charge of
100% and a battery with 20% of its capacity removed has a state-of-charge of 80%. The
state-of-health of a battery is the percentage of its capacity available when fully charged
relative to its rated capacity. For example, a battery rated at 30 Ah, but only capable of
delivering 24 Ah when fully charged, will have a state-of-health of 80%. Thus, the state-of-
health takes into account the loss of capacity as the battery ages.

Designing a battery for a new aircraft application or for retrofit requires a careful
systems engineering approach. To function well, the battery must be interfaced carefully
with the aircraft’s electrical system. The battery’s reliability and maintainability depends
heavily on the type of charging system to which it is connected; there is a fine line between
undercharging and overcharging the battery. Many airframe manufacturers have realized that
it is better to prepare specifications for a “battery system” rather than having separate
specifications for the battery and the charger. This approach assures that the charging profile
is tuned correctly to the specific characteristics of the battery and to the aircraft’s operational
requirements. 10.5.1 Commercial Aircraft A listing of commercial aircraft batteries available
from various manufacturers is given in Table 10.5. Sizes range from 12 V/6.5 Ah to 24 V/65
Ah. The table includes VLA, SLA, and VNC type batteries. SNC batteries are not included,
but are available on a limited basis from several manufacturers (ACME, SAFT, and Eagle-
Picher). In general, the aircraft battery must be sized to provide sufficient emergency power
to support flight essential loads in the event of failure of the primary power system. FAA
regulations impose a minimum emergency power requirement of 30 min on all commercial
airplanes. Some airlines impose a longer emergency requirement, such as 40 or 60 min due
 MULTI UTILITY HYBRID VEHICLE 43

to frequent bad weather on their routes or for other reasons. The emergency requirement for
Extended Twin Operation (ETOPS) imposed on two-engine aircraft operating over water is
a full 90 min, although 60 min is allowed with operating restrictions. The specified
emergency power requirement may be satisfied by batteries or other backup power sources,
such as a ram air turbine. If a ram air turbine is used, a battery still is required for transient
fill-in. Specific requirements pertaining to aircraft batteries can be found in the Federal
Aviation Regulations describes specific methods to achieve compliance with applicable
FAR sections. For international applications, Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) and Joint
Airworthiness Authority (JAA) regulations should be consulted for additional requirements.

3.7 BRAKING SYSTEM

The braking system is the most important system in your car. If your brakes fail, the result
can be disastrous. Brakes are actually energy conversion devices, which convert the kinetic
energy (momentum) of your vehicle into thermal energy (heat). When you step on the
brakes, you command a stopping force ten times as powerful as the force that puts the car in
motion. The braking system can exert thousands of pounds of pressure on each of the four
brakes. In modern systems, the master cylinder is power-assisted by the engine. All newer
cars have dual systems, with two wheels' brakes operated by each subsystem. That way, if
one subsystem fails, the other can provide reasonably adequate braking power. Safety
systems like this make modern brakes more complex, but also much safer than earlier
braking systems.

The brake system is composed of the following basic components: The "master cylinder"
which is located under the hood, and is directly connected to the brake pedal, converts your
foot's mechanical pressure into hydraulic pressure. Steel "brake lines" and flexible "brake
hoses" connect the master cylinder to the "slave cylinders" located at each wheel. Brake
fluid, specially designed to work in extreme conditions, fills the system. "Shoes" and "pads"
are pushed by the slave cylinders to contact the "drums" and "rotors" thus causing drag,
which (hopefully) slows the car.

In recent years, brakes have changed greatly in design. Disc brakes, used for years for front
wheel applications, are fast replacing drum brakes on the rear wheels of modern cars. This is
generally due to their simpler design, lighter weight and better braking performance. The
greatest advantage of disc brakes is that they provide significantly better resistance to "brake
 MULTI UTILITY HYBRID VEHICLE 44

fade" compared to drum type braking systems. Brake fade is a temporary condition caused
by high temperatures generated by repeated hard braking. It occurs when the pads or shoes
"glaze" due to the great pressure and heat of hard use. Once they cool, the condition
subsides. Disc brakes allow greater air ventilation (cooling) compared to drum brakes. Drum
brakes are not internally ventilated because if they were, water could accumulate in them.
Disc brakes can rapidly fling off any water that they are exposed to, and so they can be well
ventilated.

DISK BRAKES

Disc brakes use a clamping action to produce friction between the "rotor" and the "pads"
mounted in the "caliper" attached to the suspension members. Inside the calipers, pistons
press against the pads due to pressure generated in the master cylinder. The pads then rub
against the rotor, slowing the vehicle.

Disc brakes work using much the same basic principle as the brakes on a bicycle; as the
caliper pinches the wheel with pads on both sides, it slows the bicycle. Disc brakes offer
higher performance braking, simpler design, lighter weight, and better resistance to water
interference than drum brakes.

Disc brakes, like many automotive innovations, were originally developed for auto racing,
but are now standard equipment on virtually every car made. On most cars, the front brakes
are of the disc type, and the rear brakes are of the "drum" type.

Drum brakes use two semi-circular shoes to press outward against the inner surfaces of a
steel drum. Older cars often had drum brakes on all four wheels, and many new cars now
have 4-wheel disc brakes. Because disc brakes can fling off water more easily than drum
brakes, they work much better in wet conditions. This is not to say that water does not affect
them, it definitely does. If you splash through a puddle and then try to apply the brakes, your
brakes may not work at all for a few seconds!

Disc brakes also allow better airflow cooling, which also increases their effectiveness.
Some high performance disc brakes have drilled or slotted holes through the face of the
rotor, which helps to prevent the pads from "glazing" (becoming hardened due to heat). Disc
brakes were introduced as standard equipment on most cars in the early seventies.
MULTI UTILITY HYBRID VEHICLE 45
MULTI UTILITY HYBRID VEHICLE 46

CHAPTER 4

HYBRID AGV
 MULTI UTILITY HYBRID VEHICLE 47

4. HYBRID AGV

One of the most important aspects of logistics systems is the handling of material
flows in industrial environments. Despite the high throughput rates realized by steady
materials handling technologies such as roller or chain conveyors, the vast majority of
industrial applications rely on common lifting or hauling trucks as transportation system.
The reasons are manifold: Besides cost related aspects one of the main advantages is the
unmatched flexibility regarding integration in an existing or changing environment.

Extending these advantages of industrial trucks by means of automation technology

results in increased reliability and reduced operating costs. The outcome is the so called
Automated Guided Vehicle System, abbreviated as AGVS. AGVS are capable of
performing transportation tasks fully automated at low expenses. Applications can be found
throughout all industrial branches, from the automotive, printing and pharmaceutical sectors
over metal and food processing to aerospace and port facilities. The increasing interest in
AGVS is reflected in the sales figures which reached a new peak in 2006. By now AGV-
Systems are known for more than fifty years, a time in which various technical advances
have been made, ranging from improved actuators and energy supplies to entirely new
sensor concepts. The enormous progress of computer systems induced enhanced control
strategies. The following sections introduce the main components of an AGVS and provide a
summary of recent achievements in AGVS related technology.

AGV-Systems essentially consist of vehicles, peripheral and on-site components as

well as the stationary control system. Only the faultless interaction of all these components
ensures efficiently working plants. A. Vehicles Vehicles are the central elements of an
AGVS as they perform the actual transportation tasks. The vehicles have to be designed
individually according to the specific conditions of the environment they are used in [1].
This concerns load handling equipment, the navigation system, the drive configuration and
other aspects.

B. Stationary control system the stationary control system covers all superordinated
control components. Its task is the administration of transportation orders, the optimization
of schedules, the communication with other control systems via predefined interfaces etc.
This system is also in charge of the customer interaction and often provides auxiliary
functions such as graphical visualizations and statistical analyses.
 MULTI UTILITY HYBRID VEHICLE 48

C. Peripheral system components Peripheral system components represent the

counterparts to various on-board equipments of the vehicles. Examples are battery loading
stations and load transfer mechanisms.

D. On-site system components Aspects of the site’s structural design that affect the
AGVS as for example the ground, gates, lifts and so on belong to the category of on-site
system components.

OPERATING COSTS AS SCALE OF ECONOMY Contrary to man-operated

industrial trucks the operating costs of AGVS are only marginally affected by the
development of the labor costs. From this it results that relating to the labor costs a high
calculative planning reliability can be achieved in the long-term. This is a general advantage
of all automated material flow systems. On the assumption that the labor costs will rise even
more strongly in the future than in the past, AGVS will increase above average in
comparison to personnel intensive material flow systems. The development of the labor
costs, as for example a start-up financing for the creation of a job or a shortening of
subsidies, may not remain unconsidered. Each of these factors can either promote or restrain
the development of the AGVS-market. The investment in a plant with an AGVS is usually
higher than for a plant with man-operated industrial trucks. That has consequences on both
the cost-accounting interest and the height of the depreciation. For AGVS higher cost-
accounting interests result. The height of the interest rate has to be oriented at the
development on the capital market. If the interest rate decreases, the profitableness of AGVS
is affected positively. The depreciation has to be regarded under two criteria, namely
according to tax law and cost accounting criteria. It has to be an aim of the plant operators to
estimate the economic lifetime of the plant as short as possible. Therewith it should be
reached that the depreciation of the fixed capital can be made valid for taxation as promptly
and completely as possible. The labor costs, the interest trend at the capital market and the
amortization period belong to the substantial economic factors, which determine the
development of the AGVS-market. The development of these factors cannot be affected by
the AGVS-manufacturers; the factors affect the market from the outside. The amortization
period defined by the technical lifetime is applied to the cost comparison method, thus for
the system decision. A long technical lifetime affects the system comparison positively. The
technical lifetime is specified internally considering the tasks and the operating conditions.
For the success of the European AGVS-manufacturers on non-European markets the rates of
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exchange are relevant. With a low US-Dollar price per Euro the European AGVS-
manufacturers can make attractive offers for the international market. In the year 2006 about
23 % of the AGVS by European producers were installed outside of Europe. VI. AGVS
STATISTICS The increasing interest in AGVS is reflected in the sales figures which
reached a new peak in 2006 with a volume of 200 Mio. EUR according to a yearly survey
among European AGVS producers carried out by the PSLT. The current developments
promise that automated transport systems will be of high relevance in the future as well. The
trends of the different markets and thus the development of the AGVS-manufacturers are
also of particular importance for investment decisions of customers. Customers have to
ensure that the acquired technology is future-oriented and that the manufacturer will be
available at the market segment of AGVS in the long term [12]. The selected AGVS-
manufacturer should be available for service and support of the system as well as for spare
part logistics for a long time. In comparison to the year 2000 about a quarter of the AGVS-
manufacturers are on the one hand “new” vendors. On the other hand the “old” vendors offer
new and different achievement profiles today. Both aspects point out the dynamics on the
vendor side, which offers with more than twenty five European AGVS-manufacturers a
large variety. A substantial indicator for the market tendency of AGVS is the annual number
of AGVS put into operation. The key number for the European manufacturers is issued by
the PSLT based on the information of the AGVS-manufacturers.

Significant technological advancements contributed to increase the attractiveness of

Automated Guided Vehicle Systems for the users. They essentially concern the modularity,
the standardization, the navigation system, the energy concept, the automation of series
vehicles and the safety system [15]. For manufacturers of AGVS internationalization and
globalization represent new challenges. China and other newly industrialized countries offer
chances for the future. The first systems were already put into operation in these countries.
Great efforts are undertaken by European vendors to install reference assets. In this
connection long-term export possibilities for AGVS-manufacturers are of particular interest.
In addition China itself is currently developing AGVS for their own market.
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MULTI UTILITY HYBRID VEHICLE 52

CHAPTER 5

FUTURE SCOPE
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5. FUTURE SCOPE

Gas - continued improvements in fuel economy and reduced emissions are likely to keep the
gas engine in the running for many years to come.

Diesel - Green Diesels - Ultra-clean burning diesels have been on European highways for
years. The Lupo, produced by Volkswagen, gets 90 mpg. Diesel powered cars represent
25% of the European car market. (There has been very little press coverage on this
technology in North America.) Improvements in 'green' diesel cars are expected:
Biodiesel - a clean burning alternative fuel, produced from domestic, renewable resources.
Biodiesel contains no petroleum, but can be blended at any level with petroleum diesel to
create a biodiesel blend. It can be used in compression-ignition (diesel) engines with little or
no modifications. Biodiesel is simple to use, biodegradable, nontoxic, and essentially free of
sulfur and aromatics. Supply sources are now available across North America; a current list
is available at www.biodiesel.org or by calling (800) 841-5849.

Electric - small, battery-powered, zero-emission vehicles are expected to become a popular

alternative commuter vehicle, especially in congested urban areas.

Hybrid - may well become the dominant technology for all-purpose road cars, having an
advantage over the electrics for driving longer distances.

Plug-in hybrids - able to be plugged in when not in use, this design adds greater effeciency
to the hybrid-electric models. Plug-in hybrids are now available on the market and are likely
to be a long-time leader in new technologies.

Plug-in electrics - General Motors hopes to have its plug-in Chevrolet Volt on the market
by 2010. The Volt concept car that GM has shown at auto shows around the world can travel
up to 40 miles on electricity from its rechargeable battery, but also has a three-cylinder
gasoline engine to recharge the lithium-ion battery pack that would extend its range.

Hydraulic Hybrid - Ford Motor Co. and the U.S. EPA are working together to develop a
unique hybrid, high-efficiency vehicle that uses hydraulic fluid to store and provide energy
to power the car. The technology could be used to dramatically improve the fuel economy of
sport utility vehicles and light trucks. The hybrid system uses hydraulic pumps and hydraulic
 MULTI UTILITY HYBRID VEHICLE 54

storage tanks to store energy in the place of electric motors and batteries used in electric
hybrid vehicles. This hydraulic power system could have cost and power advantages over
electric hybrid systems, the developers believe.

Fuel cell - promising long-term outlook, but some obstacles yet to overcome, such as cost,
improved performance, reducing the size and weight of the fuel cell systems and setting up a
hydrogen fuel supply infrastructure. The current refining process for hydrogen fuel is a dirty
process, and will need improvement. DaimlerChrysler has invested US$1 billion in fuel cell
research and has built ten fuel cell vehicles either as concept cars or test vehicles, each one
powered by Ballard fuel cells. Honda's fuel-cell car, the FCX, is currently being road
tested. Chevy has launched a test fleet of hydrogen-powered fuel cell Equinox SUVs.

Hydrogen hybrids - combine the high fuel economy attributes of today's gasoline- electric
hybrids with the near-zero emissions of internal combustion engines running on hydrogen.
The result is an extremely clean-running vehicle, using the same environmentally positive
fuel as hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, but at a lower cost. A recently developed solid storage
medium for hydrogen vehicles is key to this promising technology. Still, there’s a lot of
work ahead to make this vision workable – costs must come down, fuel cell durability must
improve, and challenges that go beyond the vehicles themselves must be met. Creating
hydrogen economically is one of them, as is developing a widespread refueling
infrastructure.
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CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSIONS
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6. CONCLUSIONS

 Hybrid-electric vehicles (HEVs) combine the benefits of gasoline engines and

electric motors and can be configured to obtain different objectives, such as

improved fuel economy, increased power, or additional auxiliary power for

electronic devices and power tools.

 This hybrid vehicle is not only used for domestic purposes but also used for industry

purposes.

 This is hybrid AGV which works on both IC engine and electric motor.

 Almost all AGVS are used in open industries in like harbor, coal and mining

industries in efficient way.

 But we are introducing a new thing AGVS system that is HYBRID AGVS.

 If you want to use it AGV in the sectors like harbor, coal and mining industries, steel

plant materials transportations we can use this AGV.

 We have exhaust problem in closed industry so we are introducing a moving deck

with constrain with the help of which is built over the HYBRID AGV vehicles so

that we can remove exhaust exhaust gases with moving deck.

 We are also introducing new technology called power generation by waste gases.
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CHAPTER 7
REFERENCES
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7. REFERENCES

 Satti Swami Reddy, Kola Siva Tharun, Eco Friendly Vehicle, International Journal

of Engineering Trends and Technology (IJETT), 4(4), April 2013, 957-960.

 .Trajkovic, S., Tunestal, P., and Johansson, B., "Vehicle Driving Cycle Simulation of

a Pneumatic Hybrid Bus Based on Experimental Engine Measurements," SAE

Technical Paper 2010-01-0825, 2010, doi:10.4271/2010-01-0825.

 "History of Hybrid Vehicles". HybridCars.com. 2006-03-27. Archived from the

original on 2009-02-08. Retrieved 2010-03-21.

 Matt Lake (2001-11-08). "How it works; A Tale of 2 Engines: How Hybrid Cars

Tame Emissions". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-03-22.

 Elizabeth Lowery (2007-07-01). "Energy diversity as a business imperative". The

Futurist. Retrieved 2010-03-21

 Maclean, H. L.; Lave, L. B. Life cycle assessment of automobile/fuel options

Environ. Sci. Technol. 2003, 37 (23) 5445– 5452

 Review of the Research Program of the Partnership for a New Generation of

Vehicles: Seventh Report, National Research Council, (2001), 77.

 "Hybrid Cars Losing Efficiency, Adding Oomph", National Geographic, August 8,

2005.

 EIA. Annual Energy Outlook with Projections to 2030; U.S. Department of Energy,

2007.

 "Hybrid car technology". Drivingfast.net. 2012-03-18. Retrieved 2012-03-18.