Relations

MAT231

Transition to Higher Mathematics

Fall 2014

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 1 / 43

Outline

1 Relations

2 Properties of Relations

3 Equivalence Relations

4 Relations Between Sets

5 Partial Orders

6 Hasse Diagrams

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 2 / 43

Relation on a Set
Definition
A relation on a set A is a subset R ⊆ A × A. We often abbreviate the
statement (x, y ) ∈ R as x R y . The statement (x, y ) ∈
/ R is abbreviated as
x R y.

Suppose A = {1, 2, 3, 4}. The following are all relations on A:

R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}
S = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 2), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 3), (4, 2), (4, 4)}
T = {(3, 4)}
U = {(1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 1)}
since each one is a subset of A × A.

Relations may or may not have meaning associated with them. Two
numbers are related by R if they are equal. We see that x S y if x and y
have the same parity.

The relationships expressed by T and U are not readily apparent.

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 3 / 43
Examples of Relations
Consider the relation “x is less than y ” on the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
This could be expressed as L = {(x, y ) : x, y ∈ A and x < y } or listed as

L = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6),
(3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6), (4, 5), (4, 6), (5, 6)}.

Note that usually we use the symbol < as the name for L.

Suppose there is another relation, D, defined as “x is related to y if x|y .”

This would be {(x, y ) : x, y ∈ A and x|y } or

D = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 2), (2, 4), (2, 6),
(3, 3), (3, 6), (4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6)}

The symbol | is usually used to denote this relation (as we have, somewhat
recursively, in our definition of D).

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 4 / 43

Examples of Relations
Using the sets from the previous slide
L = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6),
(3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6), (4, 5), (4, 6), (5, 6)},
D = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 2), (2, 4), (2, 6),
(3, 3), (3, 6), (4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6)},
consider
L ∩ D = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 4), (2, 6), (3, 6)}.
Here (x, y ) ∈ L ∩ D if x < y and x|y .

In contrast, the relation L ∪ D represents the relation where, if

(x, y ) ∈ L ∪ D then x < y or x|y . This relation is
L ∪ D = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 2), (2, 3),
(2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6), (4, 4),
(4, 5), (4, 6), (5, 5), (5, 6), (6, 6)}.
MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 5 / 43
Representing Relations
There are multiple ways relations can be represented:
We have already seen that relations can be enumerated, i.e., since
they are sets they can be listed.
A directed graph can represent a relation R on a set A. Each node in
the graph represents an element of A and an arrow from node x to
node y indicates that (x, y ) ∈ R. For example, using set A and
relations L and D from the previous slides, we have

L: “less than” D: “divides”

2 3 2 3

1 4 1 4

6 5 6 5

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 6 / 43

Properties of Relations
Definition
Suppose R is a relation on a set A.
1 Relation R is reflexive if (x, x) ∈ R for every x ∈ A.
2 Relation R is symmetric if (x, y ) ∈ R implies (y , x) ∈ R for all
x, y ∈ A.
3 Relation R is antisymmetric if (x, y ) ∈ R and (y , x) ∈ R implies
that x = y for all x, y ∈ A.
4 Relation R is transitive if whenever (x, y ) ∈ R and (y , z) ∈ R, then
also (x, z) ∈ R.

Once again, suppose A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Which of the above properties

does the < relation have? Does the ≤ relation have any different
properties than < has?

Which of these properties does the | relation have?

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 7 / 43
Proving Properties of Relations

Proposition
The relation | on the set Z is reflexive.

Proof.
Suppose x ∈ Z. Since x = 1 · x we know that x|x. Thus, the relation | is
reflexive on Z.

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 8 / 43

Proving Properties of Relations

Proposition
The relation | on the set Z is transitive.

Proof.
Suppose x, y , z ∈ Z and x|y and y |z. Integers a and b must exist such
that y = ax and z = by . But then z = b(ax) = (ab)x and so x|z. Thus, |
is transitive on the integers.

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 9 / 43

Properties of Relations in Graphs

How do each of the properties of relations show up in graphs of relations?

The graph of a reflexive relation will have a loop edge at each node.

x
The graph of a symmetric relation will not have an edge from x to y
unless there is also an edge from y to x.
x y

The graph of a antisymmetric relation will not have any symmetric

pairings. If an edge goes from x to y , there cannot be an edge from y
to x.
Note: A graph if symmetric if there are no antisymmetric pairs. Similarly,
a graph is antisymmetric if there are no symmetric pairs. It is possible for
a graph to be both symmetric and antisymmetric.

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 10 / 43

Properties of Relations in Graphs

The graph of a transitive relation will have an edge from x to z

whenever there is an edge from x to y and an edge from y to z.
x y z

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 11 / 43

Examples

Consider the following relations on the set {1, 2, 3, 4}. Determine which
ones are reflexive, symmetric, antisymmetric or transitive.
R1 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 4), (4, 1), (4, 4)}
R2 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1)}
R3 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 1), (4, 4)}
R4 = {(2, 1), (3, 1), (3, 2), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3)}
R5 =
{(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 4)}
R6 = {(3, 4)}

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 12 / 43

R1
R1 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 4), (4, 1), (4, 4)}

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 13 / 43

R1
R1 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 4), (4, 1), (4, 4)}

1 2

4 3

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 13 / 43

R1
R1 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 4), (4, 1), (4, 4)}

1 2

4 3

Not reflexive since (3, 3) is not in R1 (no loop edge on 3).

Not symmetric since (3, 4) ∈ R1 but (4, 3) ∈
/ R1 .
Not antisymmetric since both (1, 2) and (2, 1) are in R1 .
Not transitive because (3, 4) and (4, 1) are both in R1 but (3, 1) (a
“short-cut” edge) is not.

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 13 / 43

R2

R2 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1)}

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 14 / 43

R2

R2 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1)}

1 2

4 3

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 14 / 43

R2

R2 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1)}

1 2

4 3

Not reflexive; (2, 2) ∈

/ R2 .
Symmetric; there are no non-symmetric connections.
Not antisymmetric.
Not transitive because (2, 1) and (1, 2) are both in R2 but (2, 2) is
not.

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 14 / 43

R3

R3 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 1), (4, 4)}

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 15 / 43

R3

R3 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 1), (4, 4)}

1 2

4 3

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 15 / 43

R3

R3 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 1), (4, 4)}

1 2

4 3

Reflexive.
Symmetric.
Not antisymmetric.
Not transitive; (4, 1), (1, 2) ∈ R3 but (4, 2) ∈
/ R3 .

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 15 / 43

R4

R4 = {(2, 1), (3, 1), (3, 2), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3)}

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 16 / 43

R4

R4 = {(2, 1), (3, 1), (3, 2), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3)}

1 2

4 3

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 16 / 43

R4

R4 = {(2, 1), (3, 1), (3, 2), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3)}

1 2

4 3

Not reflexive.
Not symmetric.
Antisymmetric; no symmetric pairs.
Transitive.

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 16 / 43

R5
R5 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 4)}

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 17 / 43

R5
R5 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 4)}

1 2

4 3

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 17 / 43

R5
R5 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 4)}

1 2

4 3

Reflexive.
Not symmetric.
Antisymmetric; no symmetric pairs.
Transitive.

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 17 / 43

R5
R5 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 4)}

1 2

4 3

Reflexive.
Not symmetric.
Antisymmetric; no symmetric pairs.
Transitive.

This is the “less than or equal to” relation on {1, 2, 3, 4}.

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 17 / 43
R6
R6 = {(3, 4)}

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 18 / 43

R6
R6 = {(3, 4)}

1 2

4 3

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 18 / 43

R6
R6 = {(3, 4)}

1 2

4 3

Not reflexive.
Not symmetric.
Antisymmetric.
Transitive.

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 18 / 43

R6
R6 = {(3, 4)}

1 2

4 3

Not reflexive.
Not symmetric.
Antisymmetric.
Transitive.

This is transitive since there are now “double hops” in the graph without a
short cut edge

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 18 / 43

Equivalence Relations

Consider the following relations on the set of people in this room

{(a, b) : a and b were born in the same month},
{(a, b) : a and b are the same sex},
{(a, b) : a and b are from the the same state}.
Observe that these relations are all reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
Because of this they are all equivalent in some way.

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 19 / 43

Equivalence Relations

Definition
A relation R on a set A is an equivalence relation if it is reflexive,
symmetric and transitive.

Suppose that R is a relation on N such that (a, b) ∈ R if and only if a < 5

and b < 5. Is R an equivalence relation?
Since a = a it follows that if a < 5 then (a, a) ∈ R so we know that R
is reflexive.
Suppose (a, b) ∈ R so both a < 5 and b < 5. In this case certainly
(b, a) ∈ R so that R is symmetric.
Finally, if (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R then both a and c are less than 5
so (a, c) ∈ R, showing that R is transitive.
Thus R is an equivalence relation.

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 20 / 43

Equivalence Classes
Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A. The set of all elements that
are related to an element a of A is called the equivalence class
containing a. This is denoted [a]R or just [a] if it is clear what R is.

Some examples:
Suppose R = {(a, b) : a and b were born in the same month} and is
defined on the set of people in this room. Then

[a] = {b : b was born in the same month as a}.

Suppose A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and

R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 3), (4, 4)}. We can
list the equivalence class for each element of A as

[1] = {1, 2}, [2] = {1, 2}, [3] = {3, 4}, [4] = {3, 4}

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 21 / 43

Equivalence Classes and Partitions
A partition of a set S is a collection of disjoint, nonempty subsets of S
that have S as their union.

If S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} then one partition of S is

{{1, 2}, {3}, {4, 5, 6}, {7, 8}}

Notice that every element of S is in exactly one of the subsets.

The equivalence classes of a relation on a set A form a partition of A:

The union of all the equivalence classes of A is equal to A, i.e.,
[
[a] = A.
a∈A

[a] ∩ [b] = ∅ when [a] 6= [b].

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 22 / 43

Equivalence Classes and Partitions

Theorem
Let R be an equivalence relation on A. The following statements are
equivalent.
1 aR b
2 [a] = [b]
3 [a] ∩ [b] 6= ∅

We can prove this using a standard approach. First show 1 ⇒ 2, then

show 2 ⇒ 3, and finally show 3 ⇒ 1.

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 23 / 43

Equivalence Classes and Partitions

Proof.
1 ⇒ 2: a R b ⇒ [a] = [b].

[a] = {c ∈ A : (a, c) ∈ R}
= {c ∈ A : (c, a) ∈ R} R is symmetric
= {c ∈ A : (c, b) ∈ R} a R b and R is transitive
= {c ∈ A : (b, c) ∈ R} R is symmetric
= [b]

(proof continued on next slide)

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 24 / 43

Equivalence Classes and Partitions

Proof.
(Continued)
2 ⇒ 3: [a] = [b] ⇒ [a] ∩ [b] 6= ∅.
Let a, b ∈ A such that [a] = [b]. Then, since a ∈ [a] we
know that a ∈ [b]. This means a ∈ [a] ∩ [b] so [a] ∩ [b] 6= ∅.
3 ⇒ 1: [a] ∩ [b] 6= ∅ ⇒ a R b.
Let c ∈ [a] ∩ [b], which is possible since we know this set is
nonempty. Therefore c ∈ [a] and c ∈ [b] so c R a and c R b.
Since R is symmetric we know a R c and since R is transitive
we can conclude that a R b.

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 25 / 43

The Integers Modulo n

Proposition
Let n ∈ N. The relation ≡ (mod n) on the set Z is reflexive, symmetric,
and transitive, i.e., it is an equivalence relation.

Proof.
To see that ≡ (mod n) is reflexive, suppose a ∈ Z and note that
n|(a − a) since n|0. Therefore a ≡ a (mod n).
To show ≡ (mod n) is symmetric, suppose a ≡ b (mod n) for some
a, b ∈ Z. Then n|(a − b) so a − b = kn for some k ∈ Z. However, this
means that b − a = (−k)n so n|(b − a) and therefore b ≡ a (mod n).
(Continued next slide)

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 26 / 43

The Integers Modulo n

Proof.
(Continued)
Finally, to show ≡ (mod n) is transitive, suppose a ≡ b (mod n) and
b ≡ c (mod n) for some a, b, c ∈ Z. Then

n|(a − b) and n|(b − c)

so
a = b + jn and b = c + kn
for some j, k ∈ Z. From this we see that

a = (c + kn) + jn = c + (j + k)n

which shows that n|(a − c). Thus a ≡ c (mod n).

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 27 / 43

The Integers Modulo 5
The equivalence relation ≡ (mod n) for a given n ∈ N is particularly
important in mathematics. In particular, this relation can be used to
partition the integers. Suppose, for example, that n = 5. Then the
following five sets are disjoint and their union is Z:

[0] = {x ∈ Z : n|(x − 0)} = {. . . , −10, −5, 0, 5, 10, 15, . . .}

[1] = {x ∈ Z : n|(x − 1)} = {. . . , −9, −4, 1, 6, 11, 16, . . .}
[2] = {x ∈ Z : n|(x − 2)} = {. . . , −8, −3, 2, 7, 12, 17, . . .}
[3] = {x ∈ Z : n|(x − 3)} = {. . . , −7, −2, 3, 8, 13, 18, . . .}
[4] = {x ∈ Z : n|(x − 4)} = {. . . , −6, −1, 4, 9, 14, 19, . . .}

We can define a new set

Z5 = {[0], [1], [2], [3], [4]}

which we call the integers modulo 5.

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 28 / 43
The Integers Modulo 5

To get familiar with Z5 , let’s try a few simple operations.

Consider 2 ∈ [2] and 4 ∈ [4]:

2 + 4 = 6 and 6 ∈ [1].
2 · 4 = 8 and 8 ∈ [3].

Next consider 7 ∈ [2] and one from 19 ∈ [4]:

7 + 19 = 26 and 26 ∈ [1].
7 · 19 = 133 and 133 ∈ [3].

On the one hand, the sum of numbers from [2] and [4] was a number from
[1] while on the other hand the product of numbers from [2] and [4] was a
number from [3].

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 29 / 43

The Integers Modulo 5

Let’s try two pairs from another set of equivalence classes, say [2] and [3].

2 + 3 = 5 ∈ [0] and 2 · 3 = 6 ∈ [1].

Working with different numbers from the same classes we find

−3 + 3 = 0 ∈ [0] and − 3 · 3 = −9 ∈ [1].

Once again, it seems that when we add a number from [2] to a number
from [3] we obtain a number from [0]. Similarly, when we multiply a
number from [2] by a number from [3] we find the product is from [1].

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 30 / 43

The Integers Modulo 5

These examples suggest that we can define addition and multiplication for
Z5 as

[a] + [b] = [a + b]
[a] · [b] = [a · b]

Notice that [a] and [b] are sets, not numbers. Notice also that by this
definition addition and multiplication are closed on Z5 .

Since addition and multiplication on the integers is commutative, it seems

reasonable to expect that [a] + [b] = [b] + [a] and [a] · [b] = [b] · [a]. It is
not difficult to prove this.

Other properties from Z hold as well. For example,

[a] · ([b] + [c]) = [a] · [b] + [a] · [c]

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 31 / 43

The Integers Modulo 5

Just as when you first learned addition and multiplication, it is helpful to

construct addition and multiplication tables for Z5 .

+ [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] · [0] [1] [2] [3] [4]
[0] [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [0] [0] [0] [0] [0] [0]
[1] [1] [2] [3] [4] [0] [1] [0] [1] [2] [3] [4]
[2] [2] [3] [4] [0] [1] [2] [0] [2] [4] [1] [3]
[3] [3] [4] [0] [1] [2] [3] [0] [3] [1] [4] [2]
[4] [4] [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [0] [4] [3] [2] [1]

Notice the patterns in each of the tables. In particular, notice that while
the order changes, every row and every column contain all five values [0],
[1], [2], [3], and [4].

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 32 / 43

The Integers Modulo 5

Since −1 ∈ [4], we can define subtraction for Z5 as

[a] − [b] = [a] + (−1) · [b] = [a] + [4] · [b]

For example

[23] − [7] = [3] + [4] · [2]

= [3] + [4 · 2]
= [3] + [3]
= [1]

which is consistent with 23 − 7 = 16 ∈ [1].

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 33 / 43

The Integers Modulo n

Returning to the general case, we can make the following definition.

Definition
Let n ∈ N. The equivalence classes of the equivalence relation
≡ (mod n) are [0], [1], [2], . . . , [n − 1]. The integers modulo n is the
set Zn = {[0], [1], [2], . . . , [n − 1]}.
Elements of Zn can be added by the rule [a] + [b] = [a + b] and multiplied
by the rule [a] · [b] = [a · b].

It is important to note that [a] and [b] are sets and not numbers. As long
as
[a] = [a0 ] and [b] = [b 0 ]
we should find that [a] + [b] will equal [a0 ] + [b 0 ] regardless of which
particular a0 and b 0 are used.

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 34 / 43

Relations Between Sets

The relations we’ve seen so far have been relations on a set. We can also
have relations between sets.
Definition
A relation from a set A to a set B is a subset R ⊆ A × B.

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 35 / 43

Partial Orders
Definition
A relation R on a set A is a partial order if it is reflexive, antisymmetric
and transitive.

Suppose that R is a relation on N such that (a, b) ∈ R if and only if

a ≤ b. Is R a partial order?
Since a ≤ a we know (a, a) ∈ R so R is reflexive.
Suppose (a, b) ∈ R so a ≤ b. For b ≤ a it must be that a = b so
(b, a) ∈ R only when a = b. Thus R is antisymmetric.
Finally, if (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R then a ≤ b ≤ c so a ≤ c implying
that (a, c) ∈ R, showing that R is transitive.
Thus R is a partial order.

We often use the symbol  for a partial order.

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 36 / 43
Posets
Definition
A set S together with a partial order R is called a partially ordered set or
poset and is denoted (S, R).

Suppose (a, b) ∈ R if a|b for all a, b ∈ Z+ .

We know R is reflexive since a|a.

If a|b then b = ka for some k ∈ Z+ . If b|a then a = jb for some

j ∈ Z+ and so a = (jk)a which implies that jk = 1. Since both j and
k are integers this is only possible if j = 1 and k = 1, which implies
a = b. Thus R is antisymmetric.

Finally, if a|b and b|c then b = ka and c = jb for some j, k ∈ Z+ .

This means c = (jk)a so a|c, making R transitive.
Thus (Z+ , R) is a poset.

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 37 / 43

Comparability and Total Orders

Definition
The elements a and b of a poset (S, ) are called comparable if either
a  b or b  a. When a and b are elements of S such that neither a  b
or b  a, a and b are called incomparable.

Consider (Z, |). The numbers 3 and 6 are comparable since 3|6 is true.
The numbers 3 and 5 are not comparable since neither 3|5 nor 5|3 is true.

Definition
If (S, ) is a poset and every two elements of S are comparable, then
(S, ) is called a totally ordered set and  is called a total order.

For example, (Z, ≤) is a totally ordered set while (Z, |) is not totally
ordered.

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 38 / 43

Hasse Diagrams

Consider the partial order on S = {1, 2, 3} given by (a, b) ∈ R if a ≤ b.

We could construct a directed graph of this relation as shown below.

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 39 / 43

Hasse Diagrams

Original graph Partial orders are Partial orders are If we always draw
reflexive so we can transitive so we arrows up, we can
omit loop edges can omit “short omit arrowheads.
cut” edges This is called a
Hasse Diagram.

3 3 3 3

2 2 2 2

1 1 1 1

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 40 / 43

Hasse Diagram Example

Exercise: Construct the Hasse Diagram for ({2, 5, 8, 10, 20}, |).

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 41 / 43

Hasse Diagram Example

Exercise: Construct the Hasse Diagram for ({2, 5, 8, 10, 20}, |).

20

8 10

2 5

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 41 / 43

Hasse Diagram Example

Exercise: Construct the Hasse Diagram for ({2, 5, 8, 10, 20}, |).

The maximal elements

of this poset are the
“tops;” In this case 20
{8, 20}.

8 10

2 5

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 41 / 43

Hasse Diagram Example

Exercise: Construct the Hasse Diagram for ({2, 5, 8, 10, 20}, |).

The maximal elements

The minimal elements
of this poset are the
20 are the “bottoms;” in
“tops;” In this case
this case {2, 5}.
{8, 20}.

8 10

2 5

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 41 / 43

Hasse Diagram Example

Exercise: Construct the Hasse Diagram for ({2, 5, 8, 10, 20}, |).

The maximal elements

The minimal elements
of this poset are the
20 are the “bottoms;” in
“tops;” In this case
this case {2, 5}.
{8, 20}.

If there is a single
maximal element it is 8 10
the greatest element.
If there is more than one
maximal element then
there is no greatest 2 5
element.

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 41 / 43

Hasse Diagram Example

Exercise: Construct the Hasse Diagram for ({2, 5, 8, 10, 20}, |).

The maximal elements

The minimal elements
of this poset are the
20 are the “bottoms;” in
“tops;” In this case
this case {2, 5}.
{8, 20}.
If there is a single
If there is a single
minimal element it is
maximal element it is 8 10
the least element. If
the greatest element.
there is more than one
If there is more than one
minimal element then
maximal element then
there is no least
there is no greatest 2 5
element.
element.

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 41 / 43

Upper and Lower Bounds

Definition
Let A be a subset of S from a poset (S, R). The upper bounds of A are
the elements that are “above” every element in A in a Hasse diagram.
This means that that every upper bound can be obtained by tracing up
from each element in A.

The lower bounds of A are defined in a similar way; they are “below” all
elements in A in a Hasse diagram.

The least upper bound of A is the “lowest” of the upper bounds of A and
the greatest lower bound of A is the “highest” of the lower bounds of A.

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 42 / 43

Upper and Lower Bounds

Consider the poset with the following Hasse diagram.

j
If A = {a, b, c} the upper bounds of
h A are {e, g , h, j} and the least upper
bound is e. The lower bounds of A
f g are {a} so the greatest lower bound
is a.

d e If B = {d, e, g } the lower bounds of

B are {a, b} and the greatest lower
bound is b. The upper bounds are
{g , h, j} and the least upper bound is
b c
g.
a

MAT231 (Transition to Higher Math) Relations Fall 2014 43 / 43