Department of Mechanical Engineering

Maharishi Markandeshwar Engineering College

Mullana, Ambala (HR) -133203
**************************************************
********
CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the minor project which is presented in this

report entitled “RAILWAY GATE AUTOMATIC OPENING” submitted in
the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Technology in Mechanical Engineering to the Maharishi
Markandeshwar Engineering College, Mullana is an authentic record of
our own work carried out at MMU Campus. The material embodied in
this project work has not been submitted to any other university or
institute for the award of any degree.

Project Members
Amit Singh Bhoj (11125132)
Bhanu Negi (11125169)
Chandan Singh Negi (11125178)
Shreyansh (11125359)

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 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Project Associates Amit Singh Bhoj (11125132), Bhanu
Negi (11125169), Chandan Singh Negi (11125178) and Shreyansh (11125359)
of Bachelor of Technology 8thsem, Mech. Engg. have successfully completed
the project on RAILWAY GATE AUTOMATIC OPENING. In the partial
fulfillment for the award of Bachelor of Technology degree from
MAHARISHI MARKANDESHWAR UNIVERSITY, MULLANA during
academic 2015-2016.
We wish them a prosperous, happy and bright future with all the great silvery
success in his career.

Sign:______________________

Prof. N.K. Batra Anu Anand

Head of Deptt. Mech. Engg. Deptt.
Engg.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We express our gratitude to the Maharishi Markandeshwar Engineering College

Mullana for giving us the opportunity to work on the minor project during our
final year of B.Tech of Mechinical Engineering. There are many who helped us
during the project work and we want to thank them all.
We would like to thank Dr. N.K Batra (HOD of Mechanical Department) for his
support. Our special thanks to Mr. Anu Anand, our project guide for his
invaluable guidance throughout our project work and endeavor period has
provided us with the requisite motivation to complete our project successfully.
We specially appreciate the help and guidance all those people who have
directly or indirectly helped us making our project a success.

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 Table of Content

S.No Topic Page No

1. Candidate’s Declaration 1
2. Certification 2
3. Acknowledgement 3

4. Abstract 5
5. Railway Gate Automatic Opening 6
6. Overview 6
7. Project Description 7
8. Component Used 11
9. Bill of Material 12
10. Microcontroller 13

11. Features And Application 14

12. Introduction To 8052 19
13. IC ULN 2803 21
14. Operational Amplifier 23
15. DC Geared Motor 26
16. Resistor 32
17. IR Sensor 33
18. Software 38

19. Capacitor 38
20. Rectifier 40
21. Transformer 42
22. Step Down Transformer 43
23. Crystal Oscillator 44

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 ABSTRACT

The main aim of Major project is to expose the student to the industrial
technical problems to which he is to be exposed in the future life. In an
organization where Making Things Right in the first instance is the driving
motto, perfection and accuracy are inevitable.
We have worked for Four months on the topic entitled “Automatic Railway
Gate Opening”. We have the honor to work as a student of Maharishi
Markandeshwar Engineering College to the extent of my technical capabilities.
Doing this tenure, I have acquired a sufficient knowledge on Microcontroller
and Sensors.
We remained actively associated with one of the most demanding field of
mechanical. The time spent on the aforesaid topic has really proved to be very
useful and will remain enduring throughout my professional career. Brief
outline of the work is covered under the following heads.
We would like to thank our project guide Mr. Anu Anand who guided us in the
making of a successful project.
We would like to express our gratitude to PROF. N.K Batra (H.O.D. ME
Deptt), who motivated us and helped us in every step of our project work
We would also like to thanks all the faculty of Mechanical Department who
contributed directly or indirectly towards the completion of the project.

In conclusion, I must say that the Major project has helped me to enhance my
working skills & stamina and to further enlighten me to enter a new phase of
life after completion of the degree program.

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5. Railway Gate Automatic Opening
A level crossing occurs where a railway line is intersected by a road or path on
one level, without recourse to a bridge or tunnel. It is a type of at-grade
intersection.

The term also applies when a light rail line with separate right-of-way or
reserved track crosses a road in the same fashion. Other names include railway
crossing, railroad crossing, road through railroad, train crossing or grade
crossing.

6. Overview

Early level crossings had a flagman in a nearby booth who would, on the
approach of a train, wave a red flag or lantern to stop all traffic and clear the
tracks. Manual or electrical closable gates that barricaded the roadway were
later introduced. The gates were intended to be a complete barrier against
intrusion of any road traffic onto the railway. In the early days of the railways
much road traffic was horse drawn or included livestock. It was thus necessary
to provide a real barrier. Thus, crossing gates, when closed to road traffic,
crossed the entire width of the road. When opened to allow road users to cross
the line, the gates were swung across the width of the railway, preventing any
pedestrians or animals getting onto the line.

With the appearance of motor vehicles, this barrier became less effective and
the need for a barrier to livestock diminished dramatically. Many countries
therefore substituted the gated crossings with weaker but more highly visible
barriers and relied upon road users following the associated warning signals to
stop.

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In many countries, level crossings on less important roads and railway lines are
often "open" or "uncontrolled", sometimes with warning lights or bells to warn
of approaching trains. Un gated crossings represent a safety concern; many
accidents have occurred due to failure to notice or obey the warning.

Level crossings present a significant risk of collisions between trains and road
vehicles. Level crossings in India, China, Thailand, and Malaysia are still
largely manually-operated, where the barriers are lowered using a manual
switch when trains approach. Block diagram of the automatic railway gate
system is represented below.

Fig.1 Block Diagram: Automatic Railway Gate Control

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7. Project Description:

Our project is designed using 8051 microcontroller to avoid railway accidents

happening at unattended railway gates. This project utilizes two IR trans-
receiver pair; one pair of IR trans-receiver is fixed at one side of the railway
gate and similarly the other pair is fixed at the other side of the railway gate.
Whenever a signal from any of the trans-receiver is detected a buzzer is
sounded for say five seconds and then the gates are closed we will be using DC
geared motor to open and close the gates. Now when the train is again detected
at other IR trans-receiver the gates are opened. We will be using L293 driver IC
to control the motor i.e. open and close the gates.

This type of gates can be employed in an unmanned level crossing where the
chances of accidents are higher and reliable operation is required. Since, the
operation is automatic; error due to manual operation is prevented. Automatic
railway gate control is highly economical microcontroller based arrangement,
designed for use in almost all the unmanned level crossings in the country.

Existing System:-

1. Manual/Physical gate closing & opening.

2. Manual switch based gate closing & opening.

Limitations of exiting system:-

1. Chances of human error.

2. Time consuming.

3. A lot of human resource is required.

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Features of Proposed System:-

1. The system will consist of 2 IR trans-receiver pairs.

2. Micro controller based circuit design.

3. Automatic train sensing & gate controlling.

4. Bidirectional gate controlling or Bidirectional train sensing.

5. If required PC based GUI for better interface.

6. The gate will be closed till the whole train passes out.

Software Used:-

1. Assembly Language for the Microcontroller coding.

2. Keil Compiler

3. Micro Flash Programmer for loading the code into the controller.

Advantages:-

1. Reduces Chances of human error.

2. Less Time consuming.

3. No human resource is required.

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Applications:

1. Railway gate controlling.

2. The Intel MCS-51 (commonly termed 8051) is an internally Harvard

architecture, complex instruction set computing (CISC) instruction set, single
chip microcontroller (µC) series developed by Intel in 1980 for use in embedded
systems.[1] Intel's original versions were popular in the 1980s and early 1990s
and enhanced binary compatible derivatives remain popular today.

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 8. Component Used In Project

1. Microcontroller
2. IC ULN2803
3. Operational amplifier
4. DC Geared Motor
5. Resistor
6. IR Sensors
7. Software
8. Capacitor
9. Rectifier
10.Transformer
11.Crystal oscillator
12.Toy train and track

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 9. Bill of Material

S.no. Name of component Cost of component(in Rupees)

1. Microcontroller 350

2. IC ULN2803 70

3. OP AMP 70

4. DC Geared Motor 250

5. Resistors 5*6=30

6. IR Sensors 8*4=32

7. Cylindrical Capacitor 10

8. Rectifier 10

9. Step down transformer 140

10. Crystal Oscillator 15*2=30

11. Voltage Reulator 25

12. Ceramic capacitor 5*4=20

13. Toy Train 300

14. PCB 2*70=140

TOTAL COST 1477

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 10. Microcontroller

A microcontroller is a kind of miniature computer that you can find in all kinds
of gizmos. Some examples of common, every-day products that have
microcontroller’s built-in . If it has buttons and a digital display, chances are it
also has a programmable microcontroller brain. Every-Day Examples of
Devices that Contain Microcontrollers Try making a list and counting how
many devices with microcontrollers you use in a typical day. Here are some
examples: if your clock radio goes off, and you hit the snooze button a few
times in the morning, the first thing you do in your day is interact with a
microcontroller. Heating up some food in the microwave oven and making a
call on a cell phone also involve operating microcontrollers. That’s just the
beginning. Here are a few more examples: turning on the television with a
handheld remote, playing a handheld game, using a calculator, and checking
your digital wristwatch. All those devices have microcontrollers inside them
that interact with you.

Intel's original MCS-51 family was developed using N-type metal-oxide-

semiconductor (NMOS) technology like its predecessor Intel MCS-48, but later
versions, identified by a letter C in their name (e.g., 80C51) used
complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) technology and consume
less power than their NMOS predecessors. This made them more suitable for
battery-powered devices.

Now, fig.2 showing the 40 pins 8051 microcontroller available in market

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 Fig.2.1 – microcontroller 8051

11. Features and Applications

The 8051 architecture provides many functions (central processing unit (CPU),
random access memory (RAM), read-only memory (ROM), input/output (I/O),
interrupt logic, timer, etc.) in one package:

1) 8-bit arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and accumulator, 8-bit registers (one
16-bit register with special move instructions), 8-bit data bus and 2×16-
bit address bus/program counter/data pointer and related 8/11/16-bit
operations; hence it is mainly an 8-bit microcontroller
Boolean processor with 17 instructions, 1-bit accumulator, 32 registers (4 bit-
addressable 8-bit) and up to 144 special 1 bit-addressable RAM variables (18
bit-addressable 8-bit)

Multiply, divide and compare instructions

2) 4 fast switchable register banks with 8 registers each (memory mapped)

3) Fast interrupt with optional register bank switching
4) Interrupts and threads with selectable priority

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 5) Dual 16-bit address bus – It can access 2 x 216 memory locations – 64
KB (65,536 locations) each of RAM and ROM
6) 128 bytes of on-chip RAM (IRAM)
7) 4 KiB of on-chip ROM, with a 16-bit (64 KiB) address space (PMEM).
Not included on 803X variants
8) Four 8-bit bi-directional input/output port, bit addressable
9) UART (serial port)
10) Two 16-bit Counter/timers
11) Power saving mode (on some derivatives)
One feature of the 8051 core is the inclusion of a boolean processing engine
which allows bit-level boolean logic operations to be carried out directly and
efficiently on select internal registers, ports and select RAM locations. This
feature helped cement the 8051's popularity in industrial control applications
because it reduced code size by as much as 30%.[citation needed] Another
feature is the inclusion of four bank selectable working register sets which
greatly reduce the amount of time required to complete an interrupt service
routine. With one instruction, the 8051 can switch register banks versus the time
consuming task of transferring the critical registers to the stack, or designated
RAM locations. These registers also allowed the 8051 to quickly perform a
context switch.

Once a UART, and a timer if necessary, has been configured, the programmer
needs only write a simple interrupt routine to refill the send shift register
whenever the last bit is shifted out by the UART and/or empty the full receive
shift register (copy the data somewhere else). The main program then performs
serial reads and writes simply by reading and writing

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 Block diagram of microcontroller 8051

Fig.2.2 microcontroller 8051

Block Diagram is been explain further on next page

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Pin Description
1.)VCC: Supply voltage.

2.)GND: Ground.

3.) Port 1: Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port. Port pins P1.2 to P1.7
provide internal pull-ups. P1.0 and P1.1 require external pull-ups. P1.0 and P1.1
also serve as the positive input (AIN0) and the negative input (AIN1),
respectively, of the on-chip precision analog comparator. The Port 1 output
buffers can sink 20 mA and can drive LED displays directly. When 1s are
written to Port 1 pins, they can be used as inputs. When pins P1.2 to P1.7 are
used as inputs and are externally pulled low, they will source current (IIL)
because of the internal pull-ups. Port 1 also receives code data during Flash
programming and verification.

Table no. 1.2, representing the respective functions of port pin

4.) Port 3: Port 3 pins P3.0 to P3.5, P3.7 are seven bi-directional I/O pins with
internal pull-ups. P3.6 is hard-wired as an input to the output of the on-chip
comparator and is not accessible as a general-purpose I/O pin. The Port 3 output
buffers can sink 20 mA. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins they are pulled high
by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are
externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pull-ups.
Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the
AT89S2051/S4051 as listed below:

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Port3 also receives some control signals for Flash programming and
verification.

Table no. 1.3 representing the alternate functions of its respective port pin

5.) RST:Reset input. Holding the RST pin high for two machine cycles while
the is running resets the device. Each machine cycle takes 6 or clock cycles.

6.) XTAL1:Input to the inverting amplifier and input to the internal clock
operating circuit.

7.) XTAL2:Output from the inverting amplifier.

Characteristics:XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of

an inverting amplifier which can be configured for use as an on-chip . Either a
quartz crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the device from an
external clock source, XTAL2 should be left unconnected while XTAL1 . There
are no requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal, since the
input to the internal clocking circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but
minimum and maximum voltage high and low time specifications

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 12. INTRODUCTION TO THE 8052

The 8052 microcontroller is the 8051's "big brother." It is a slightly more

powerful microcontroller, sporting a number of additional features which the
developer may make use of:

 256 bytes of Internal RAM (compared to 128 in the standard 8051).

 A third 16-bit timer, capable of a number of new operation modes and 16-
bit reloads.
 Additional SFRs to support the functionality offered by the third timer.

256 BYTES OF INTERNAL RAM

The standard 8051 microcontroller contains 128 bytes of Internal RAM that are
available to the developer as working memory for variables and/or for the
operating stack. Instructions that refer to addresses in the range of 00h through
7Fh refer to the 8051's Internal RAM, while addresses in the range of 80h
through FFh refer to Special Function Registers (SFRs).

Although the 8052 has 256 bytes of Internal RAM, the above method of
referrencing them remains true. Any address between 00h and 7Fh refers to
Internal RAM whereas address in the range of 80h through FFh refer to SFRs.

The 8052's additional Internal RAM may only be referred by Indirect

Addressing. Indirect addressing always refers to Internal RAM, never to an
SFR.

Thus, to read the value contained in Internal RAM address 90h, the developer
would need to code something along the lines of the following:

MOV R0,#90h ;Set the indirect address to 90h

MOV A,@R0 ;Read the contents of Internal RAM pointed to by R0

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The above code first assigns the value 90h to the register R0. It subsequently
reads, indirectly, the contents of the address contained in R0 (90h). Thus, after
these two instructions have executed, the Accumulator will contain the value of
Internal RAM address 90h.

It is very important to understand that the above code is not the same as the
following:

MOV A,90h ;Reads the contents of SFR 90h (P1)

This instruction uses direct addressing; recall that direct addressing reads
Internal RAM when the address is in the range of 00h through 7Fh, and reads an
SFR when the address is in the range of 80h through FFh. Thus in the case of
this second example, the move instruction reads the value of SFR 90h-which
happens to be P1 (I/O Port 1).

Program memory

Program memory (PMEM, though less common in usage than IRAM and
XRAM) is up to 64 KiB of read-only memory, starting at address 0 in a separate
address space. It may be on- or off-chip, depending on the particular model of
chip being used. Program memory is read-only, though some variants of the
8051 use on-chip flash memory and provide a method of re-programming the
memory in-system or in-application. In addition to code, it is possible to store
read-only data in program memory, accessed by the MOVC A,

@DPTR instruction. Data is fetched from the address specified in the 16-bit
special function register DPTR.

Special jump and call instructions make access within the same 2 KiB of
program memory slightly smaller

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 13. IC ULN 2803 Pinout & Working
Introduction

IC ULN2803 consists of octal high voltage, high current darlington transistor

arrays. The eight NPN Darlington connected transistors in this family of arrays
are ideally suited for interfacing between low logic level digital circuitry (such
as TTL, CMOS or PMOS/NMOS) and the higher current/voltage requirements
of lamps, relays, renter hammers or other similar loads for a broad range of
computer, industrial, and consumer applications. Pinout of the IC ULN2803 is
shown below

Features

• Eight Darlingtons with Common Emitter & open collector output

•. Free wheeling clamp diodes for transient suppression.

• Output Current to 500 mA.

• Output Voltage to 50 V.

• Inputs pinned opposite outputs to simplify board layout.

Pinout

fig. 3.1- IC ULN 2803

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Working

The ULN 2803 IC consists of eight NPN Darlington connected transistors

(often called a Darlington pair). Darlington pair consists of two bipolar
transistors such that the current amplified by the first is amplified further by the
second to get a high current gain β or hFE. The figure shown below is one of the
eight Darlington pairs of ULN 2803 IC.

Fig. 3.2 circuit inside of IC ULN 2803 between in and out port

Now 2 cases arise:-

Case 1: When IN is 0 volts.

Q1 and Q2 both will not conduct as there is no base current provided to them.
Thus, nothing will appear at the output (OUT).

Case 2: When IN is 5 volts.

Input current will increase and both transistors Q1 and Q2 will begin to conduct.
Now, input current of Q2 is combination of input current and emitter current of
Q1, so Q2 will conduct more than Q1 resulting in higher current gain which is
very much required to meet the higher current requirements of devices like
motors, relays etc. Output current flows through Q2 providing a path (sink) to

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ground for the external circuit that the output is applied to. Thus, when a 5V
input is applied to any of the input pins (1 to 8), output voltage at corresponding
output pin (11 to 18) drops down to zero providing GND for the external circuit.
Thus, the external circuit gets grounded at one end while it is provided +Vcc at
its other end. So, the circuit gets completed and starts

14. Operational Amplifier

An operational amplifier (often op-amp or opam) is a DC-coupled high-
gain electronic voltage amplifier with a differential input and, usually, a single-
ended output. In this configuration, an op-amp produces an output potential
(relative to circuit ground) that is typically hundreds of thousands of times
larger than the potential difference between its input terminals.

Operational amplifiers had their origins in analog computers, where they were
used to do mathematical operations in many linear, non-linear and frequency-
dependent circuits. The popularity of the op-amp as a building block in analog
circuits is due to its versatility. Due to negative feedback, the characteristics of
an op-amp circuit, its gain, input and output impedance, bandwidth etc. are
determined by external components and have little dependence on temperature
coefficients or manufacturing variations in the op-amp itself.

Op-amps are among the most widely used electronic devices today, being used
in a vast array of consumer, industrial, and scientific devices. Many standard IC
op-amps cost only a few cents in moderate production volume; however some
integrated or hybrid operational amplifiers with special performance. Op-amps
may be packaged as components, or used as elements of more complex
integrated circuits.

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 The op-amp is one type of differential amplifier. Other types of differential
amplifier include the fully differential amplifier (similar to the op-amp, but with
two outputs), the instrumentation amplifier (usually built from three op-amps),
the isolation amplifier (similar to the instrumentation amplifier, but with
tolerance to common-mode voltages that would destroy an ordinary op-amp),
and negative feedback amplifier. Op amp having following features is showed
in fig. 4.1

 Two Independent, High-Gain, Frequency Compensated Op-Amps

 Input Offset Voltage: 2 mV
 Input Offset Current: 20 nA
 Input Bias Current: 80 nA
 Supply Current: 1.7 mA
 Supply Voltage: ±5V to ±18V

Fig. 4.1-Opamp UN741CN

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Op-amp characteristics

An equivalent circuit of an operational amplifier that models some resistive

non-ideal parameter. Now look into the circuit of op amp where we get
knowledge about the integrated circuit of different resistor in order to achieve
amplification input.

Fig. 4.2- circuit of OP amp in order to amplifying the input

An ideal op-amp is usually considered to have the following properties:

 Infinite open-loop gain G = vout / vin

 Infinite input impedance Rin, and so zero input current
 Zero input offset voltage
 Infinite output voltage range
 Infinite bandwidth with zero phase shift and infinite slew rate
 Zero output impedance Rout
 Zero noise
 Infinite common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR)
 Infinite power supply rejection ratio.

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 15. DC Geared Motor

Stepper Motor Basics

A stepper motor is a brushless, synchronous electric motor that converts digital

pulses into mechanical shaft rotations. Each rotation of a stepper motor is
divided into a set number of steps, sometimes as many as 200 steps. The stepper
motor must be sent a separate pulse for each step. The stepper motor can only
receive one pulse and take one step at a time and each step must be the same
length. Since each pulse results in the motor rotating a precise angle — typically
1.8 degrees — you can precisely control the position of the stepper motor
without any feedback mechanism.

As the digital pulses from the controller increase in frequency, the stepping
movement converts into a continuous rotation with the velocity of the rotation
directly proportional to the frequency of the control pulses. Stepper motors are
widely used because of their low cost, high reliability, and high torque at low
speeds. Their rugged construction enables you to use stepper motors in a wide
environmental range.

Advantages of Using Stepper Motors

 A wide range of rotational speeds can be utilized since the speed of a step
motor is proportional to the frequency of the input pulses from your controller.

 Precise open-loop positional control is possible with a stepper motor without

any feedback mechanism.

 Very low speed rotation is possible with a load that is coupled directly to the
shaft of the stepper motor.

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 A stepper motor is quite reliable because there are no contact brushes.
Generally, the life of a stepper motor is determined by the life of the stepper
motor bearing.

 A stepper motor is very good at starting, stopping, and reversing direction.

 A stepper motor provides precise positioning and repeatability of movement.

 An energized stepper motor maintains full torque at standstill position.

Types of Stepper Motors

There are three kinds of step motors: permanent magnet, hybrid, and variable
reluctance. Hybrid step motors offer the most versatility and combine the best
characteristics of variable reluctance and permanent magnet stepper motors.
Hybrid stepper motors are constructed with multi-toothed stator poles and a
permanent magnet rotor. A standard hybrid stepper motor has 200 rotor teeth
and rotates 1.8 degrees per step. Hybrid stepper motors provide high static and
dynamic torque and they run at very high step rates. Applications for hybrid
stepper motors include computer disk drives and cd players. Hybrid stepper
motors are also widely used in industrial and scientific applications. Hybrid step
motors are used in robotics, motion control, automated wire cutting, and even in
high-speed fluid dispensers.

Step Modes

Stepper motor "step modes" include full step, half step, and micro step. The
type of step is dependent on the stepper motor driver controlling the stepper
motor. Many stepper motor controllers are multi-step capable (usually adjusted
by switch setting).

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Full Step

Standard hybrid stepping motors have 200 full steps per revolution. If you
divide the 200 steps into the 360 degrees of rotation you get 200 1.8 degree
steps. Normally this is achieved by energizing both windings while alternately
reversing the current, meaning one pulse from the driver is equal to one full step
on the step motor.

Half Step

Half Step means that the stepping motor is rotating at 400 steps per revolution
(0.9 degree steps x 400 = 360 degrees). First one winding is energized and then
two windings are alternately energized. This will cause the rotor of the stepping
motor to move at half the distance (0.9 degrees). In half-step mode, a typical
stepper motor provides about 30% less torque, but it provides a smoother
motion than it would in full-step mode.

Micro step

Micro stepping is a relatively new stepping motor system. Micro stepping

energizes the stepper motor winding in a manner that further subdivides the
number of positions between poles. Some micro stepping controllers are
capable of dividing a full step (1.8 deg) into 256 micro steps. This would result
in 51,200 steps in one revolution (.007 deg/step). Micro stepping is usually
applied to applications that require accurate positioning and smoother motion
over a broad range of speeds. As in the half-step mode, micro stepping reduces
torque by about 30% compared to full-step mode.

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Linear Motion Control

Stepping motors are often used for linear motion control using a lead screw or
worm gear drive. The pitch of the lead screw controls the amount of linear
distance traveled in one revolution of the screw. So, if the lead is equal to one
inch per revolution and there are 200 full steps in one revolution of the stepping
motor shaft, then the resolution of the lead screw system would be 0.005 inches
per step. Finer resolutions can be attained using the step motor and stepping
motor driver combination in micro step mode.

Series and Parallel Connection

A stepper motor can be connected either in series or parallel mode. A series

connection system results in high inductance and consequently greater torque at
low speeds. A parallel connection method will reduce the inductance resulting
in increased torque at higher speeds

Stepper Motor Drivers Overview

The stepper motor is controlled by a stepper motor driver board. The stepper
motor driver receives step and direction signals from a control system, typically
a computer, and converts them into electronic signals which run the stepper
motor. One pulse is needed for every step of the stepper motor shaft. In full-step
mode, assuming you're using a standard 200 step motor, 200 steps or pulses
completes one revolution of the stepping motor shaft. The speed and rotation of
the stepper motor shaft is directly proportional to the frequency of the pulse.

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The speed and torque of a stepper motor is determined by the flow of current
from the stepping motor driver to the stepping motor winding. Inductance
reduces the flow or limits the time it takes for the current to energize the
winding. Most stepper motor driver circuits are designed to supply a greater
amount of voltage than the stepper motor's rated voltage. The higher the output
voltage from the stepper motor driver, the higher the level of torque versus
speed. In general, the stepper motor driver's output voltage, also known as bus
voltage, should be rated five to ten times higher than the stepper motor's voltage
rating. In order to protect the stepping motor, the step motor controller's current
should be limited to the step motor current rating.

Controller (Indexer) Overview

The stepper motor controller, also known as an indexer, provides step and
direction outputs to the stepping motor driver. Most applications require that the
controller manages other functions as well such as acceleration, deceleration,
steps per second, and distance. The controller (indexer) can also connect to and
control other external signals as defined by the project. The final product of
stepper motor industries available in market is shown in fig.5.1

Communications to the stepping motor system indexer is usually provided

through an RS-232 or RS-485 port. In either configuration, the indexer can
receive high level commands from a host computer and supply the appropriate
step and direction pulses to the stepper motor driver. The stepping motor system
indexer includes auxiliary input/output for monitoring from external sources
such as Go, Home, Jog, or Limit switch.

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 Fig.5.1- Stepper motor of 350RPM

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 16. Resistor
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that
implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. Resistors act to reduce
current flow, and, at the same time, act to lower voltage levels within circuits. In
electronic circuits, resistors are used to limit current flow, to adjust signal
levels, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines among other uses.
High-power resistors, that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat,
may be used as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test
loads for generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that only change slightly
with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used to
adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as
sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity. The figure
6.1 showing below is a resistor.

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic

circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as
discrete components can be composed of various compounds and forms.
Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits.

Fig.6.1- Resistor

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 17. IR Sensors
An infrared sensor is an electronic instrument which is used to sense certain
characteristics of its surroundings by either emitting and/or
detecting infrared radiation. Infrared sensors are also capable of measuring the
heat being emitted by an object and detecting motion

Principle of Operation

IR Sensors work by using a specific light sensor to detect a select light

wavelength in the Infra-Red (IR) spectrum. By using an LED which produces
light at the same wavelength as what the sensor is looking for, you can look at
the intensity of the received light. When an object is close to the sensor, the
light from the LED bounces off the object and into the light sensor. This results
in a large jump in the intensity, which we already know can be detected using a
threshold e.g. fig.7.1 represent the working of IR sensors

Fig.7.1-reflection of infrared rays from an object coming through the IR Led

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 Fig. 7.2-demonstration of reflection of infrared rays with object and no-object

Detecting Brightness
Since the sensor works by looking for reflected light, it is possible to have a
sensor that can return the value of the reflected light. This type of sensor can
then be used to measure how "bright" the object is. This is useful for tasks like
line tracking. Now for the detection of amount of infrared rays are being
reflected from the object. We demonstrate another activity by using infrared
sensors with using lightly coloured object and dark coloured object .Fig. 7.3
represent the following activity.

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 o

fig.7.3-Demonstration of amount of infrared rays reflected from diff. object

Infrared Radiation Theory

Infrared waves are not visible to the human eye. In the electromagnetic
spectrum, infrared radiation can be found between the visible and microwave
regions. The infrared waves typically have wavelengths between 0.75 and
1000µm.

The wavelength region which ranges from 0.75 to 3µm is known as the near
infrared regions. The region between 3 and 6µm is known as the mid-infrared
and infrared radiation which has a wavelength greater higher than 6µm is
known as far infrared.

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Infrared technology finds applications in many everyday products. Televisions
use an infrared detector to interpret the signals sent from a remote control. The
key benefits of infrared sensors include their low power requirements, their
simple circuitry and their portable features.

The Foundations of Infrared Science

Infrared radiation was first discovered by the astronomer William Herschel. He

conducted an experiment in which he used a prism to refract light from the sun.
Herschel was able to detect the presence of infrared radiation beyond the red
part of the visible spectrum using a thermometer to measure an increase in
temperature. In 1800 Herschel published his findings to the Royal Society of
London.

The Types of Infrared Sensors

Infrared sensors are broadly classified into two main types:

 Thermal infrared sensors – use infrared energy as heat. Their photo

sensitivity is independent of the wavelength being detected. Thermal
detectors do not require cooling but do have slow response times and low
detection capabilities.

 Quantum infrared sensors – provide higher detection performance and

faster response speed. Their photo sensitivity is dependent on wavelength.
Quantum detectors have to be cooled in order to obtain accurate
measurements.

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The Working Principle of Infrared Sensors

All objects which have a temperature greater than absolute zero (0 Kelvin)
posses thermal energy and are sources of infrared radiation as a result.

Sources of infrared radiation include blackbody radiators, tungsten lamps and

silicon carbide. Infrared sensors typically use infrared lasers and LEDs with
specific infrared wavelengths as sources.

A transmission medium is required for infrared transmission, which can be

comprised of either a vacuum, the atmosphere or an optical fiber.

Optical components, such as optical lenses made from quartz, CaF2, Ge and Si,
polyethylene Fresnel lenses and Al or Au mirrors, are used to converge or focus
the infrared radiation. In order to limit spectral response, band-pass filters can
be used.

Next, infrared detectors are used in order to detect the radiation which has been
focused. The output from the detector is usually very small and hence pre-
amplifiers coupled with circuitry are required to further process the received
signals.

Infrared Tracking

Infrared tracking, or infrared homing, is a missile guidance system which

operates using the infrared electromagnetic radiation emitted from a target in
order to track it. These missile systems are often known as 'heat-seekers' as
infrared is radiated strongly by hot bodies such as people, vehicles and aircraft.

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 18. Software

Keil Compiler is been used as a software in microcontroller. The Keil C51 C

Compiler for the 8051 microcontroller is the most popular 8051 C compiler in
the world. It provides more features than any other 8051 C compiler available
today.

The C51 Compiler allows you to write 8051 microcontroller applications in C

that, once compiled, have the efficiency and speed of assembly language.
Language extensions in the C51 Compiler give you full access to all resources
of the 8051.

The C51 Compiler translates C source files into relocatable object modules
which contain full symbolic information for debugging with the µVision
Debugger or an in-circuit emulator. In addition to the object file, the compiler
generates a listing file which may optionally include symbol table and cross
reference information

19. Capacitor
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-
terminal electrical component used to store electrical energy temporarily in
an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at
least two electrical conductors (plates) separated by a dielectric (i.e.
an insulator that can store energy by becoming polarized). The conductors can
be thin films, foils or sintered beads of metal or conductive electrolyte, etc. The
non-conducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge capacity.
Materials commonly used as dielectrics include glass, ceramic, plastic
film, air, vacuum, paper, mica, and oxide layers. Capacitors are widely used as

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parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor,
an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor stores energy in
the form of an electrostatic field between its plates.

When there is a potential difference across the conductors (e.g., when a

capacitor is attached across a battery), an electric field develops across the
dielectric, causing positive charge +Q to collect on one plate and negative
charge −Q to collect on the other plate. If a battery has been attached to a
capacitor for a sufficient amount of time, no current can flow through the
capacitor. However, if a time-varying voltage is applied across the leads of the
capacitor, a displacement current can flow.

An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, its capacitance.

Capacitance is defined as the ratio of the electric charge Q on each conductor to
the potential difference V between them. The SI unit of capacitance is
the farad (F), which is equal to one coulomb per volt (1 C/V). Typical
capacitance values range from about 1 pF (10−12 F) to about 1 mF (10−3 F).

The larger the surface area of the "plates" (conductors) and the narrower the gap
between them, the greater the capacitance is. In practice, the dielectric between
the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field
strength limit, known as the breakdown voltage. The conductors
and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct

current while allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks,
they smooth the output of power supplies. In resonant circuits they
tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power transmission systems,
they stabilize voltage and power flow. The diagram of cylindrical capacitor

Is given in fig. 8.1 & its parts is given fig.8.2.

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Fig.8.1-Cylindrical capacitor fig.8.2-parts of capacitor

20. Rectifier
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which
periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one
direction. The process is known as rectification.

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which

periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one
direction. The process is known as rectification. Physically, rectifiers take a
number of forms, including vacuum tube diodes, mercury-arc valves, copper
and selenium oxide rectifiers, semiconductor diodes, silicon-controlled
rectifiers and other silicon-based semiconductor switches.

Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found serving as components of
DC power supplies and high-voltage direct current power transmission systems.
Rectification may serve in roles other than to generate direct current for use as a
source of power. Detectors of radio signals serve as rectifiers. In gas heating
systems flame rectification is used to detect presence of a flame.

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Because of the alternating nature of the input AC sine wave, the process of
rectification alone produces a DC current that, though unidirectional, consists of
pulses of current. Many applications of rectifiers, such as power supplies for
radio, television and computer equipment, require a steady constant DC current
(as would be produced by a battery). In these applications the output of the
rectifier is smoothed by an electronic filter (usually a capacitor) to produce a
steady current.

More complex circuitry that performs the opposite function, converting DC to

AC, is called an inverter

Halfwave Rectifier

In half-wave rectification of a single-phase supply, either the positive or

negative half of the AC wave is passed, while the other half is blocked. Because
only one half of the input waveform reaches the output, mean voltage is lower.
Half-wave rectification requires a single diode in a single-phase supply, or three
in a three-phase supply. Rectifiers yield a unidirectional but pulsating direct
current; half-wave rectifiers produce far more ripple than full-wave rectifiers,
and much more filtering is needed to eliminate harmonics of the AC frequency
from the output.

Full wave Rectifier

A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of

constant polarity (positive or negative) at its output. Full-wave rectification
converts both polarities of the input waveform to pulsating DC (direct current),
and yields a higher average output voltage. Two diodes and a center
tapped transformer, or four diodes in a bridge configuration and any AC source
(including a transformer without center tap), are needed. Single semiconductor
diodes, double diodes with common cathode or common anode, and four-diode

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bridges, are manufactured as single components. Circuit diagram of full wave
rectifier is shown in fig 9.1

Fig.9.1-circuit of full wave rectifier

21. Transformer

Transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two

or more circuits through electromagnetic induction. Electromagnetic induction
produces an electromotive force within a conductor which is exposed to time
varying magnetic fields. Transformers are used to increase or decrease the
alternating voltages in electric power applications.

A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a

varying magnetic flux in the transformer core and a varying field impinging on
the transformer's secondary winding. This varying magnetic field at the
secondary winding induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or voltage in
the secondary winding due to electromagnetic induction. Making use

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of Faraday's Law (discovered in 1831) in conjunction with high magnetic
permeability core properties, transformers can be designed to change,
efficiently AC voltages from one voltage level to another within power
networks.

22. Step Down Transformer

Step down transformer: is one whose secondary voltage is less than its primary
voltage. It is designed to reduce the voltage from the primary winding to the
secondary winding. This kind of transformer “steps down” the voltage applied
to it.

As a step-down unit, the transformer converts high-voltage, low-current power

into low-voltage, high-current power. The larger-gauge wire used in the
secondary winding is necessary due to the increase in current. The primary
winding, which doesn’t have to conduct as much current, may be made of
smaller-gauge wire.

It is possible to operate either of these transformer types backwards (powering

the secondary winding with an AC source and letting the primary winding
power a load) to perform the opposite function: a step-up can function as a step-
down and visa-versa. Integral part of the step down transformer is given below
in fig.10.1

One of the most important considerations to increase transformer efficiency and

reduce heat is choosing the metal type of the windings. Copper windings are
much more efficient than aluminum and many other winding metal choices, but
it also costs more. Transformers with copper windings cost more to purchase

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initially, but save on electrical cost over time as the efficiency more than makes
up for the initial cost.

Fig.10.1-step down transformer

23. Crystal Oscillator

A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the

mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an
electrical signal with a precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to
keep track of time, as in quartz wristwatches, to provide a stable clock
signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio
transmitters and receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric resonator
used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator circuits incorporating them became
known as crystal oscillators, but other piezoelectric materials including
polycrystalline ceramics are used in similar circuits. Diagram of crystal
oscillator of 3.5 Hz frequency is given in fig.11.1

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 Fig.11.1- crystal oscillator of 3.5 Hz

Final photographs of integrated circuit of automatic railway gate

control system

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