INFRASTRUCTURE

KOMAL ARORA
BUILDING SERVICES
1509007
SEMESTER 9
DR.DY PATIL COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE
5TH YEAR, BARCH
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What is infrastructure? Definition and examples

The development of a country wholly depends on the availability of its

infrastructural facilities. Infrastructure plays a vital role in the improvement
of the country’s standard of living. It also plays an important role in
contributing to a higher rate of economic growth.

Infrastructure refers to the basic systems and services that a country or organization
needs in order to function properly. For a whole nation, it includes all the physical
systems such as the road and railway networks, utilities, sewage, water, telephone
lines and cell towers, air control towers, bridges, etc., plus services including law
enforcement, emergency services, healthcare, education, etc.

These infrastructure systems, which require large initial investments, are essential
for enabling productivity in an economy. Most projects are either completely funded
by the government or heavily subsidized.

According to Finances Rule, is a term that engineers, urban and country planners,
and policy makers use to describe the essential facilities, services, and organization
structures for all cities and communities.

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Without infrastructure – all those things our economy requires to function and that
we take for granted – society as we know it would not exist.

The prefix infra- means ‘below’, and often these elements are, in fact, underground,
like natural gas and water supply systems.

In current environments, infrastructure refers to any facility we expect but do not

think about – we take it for granted – because it works for us in the background.

Infrastructure can include:

 Road & railway systems, tunnels, and bridges.

 Mass-transit systems, including buses, subways (UK: underground trains),
elevated trains, etc.
 Energy-generating facilities including power stations, wind farms, hydro-
electric plants, etc.
 The national power grid; electrical power lines and connections.
 Telephone cables and mobile phone towers.
 Reservoirs and dams.
 Pumping stations and levees.
 Ports, airports, waterways and canals.
 Hurricane barriers.
 Fire-fighting equipment and personnel.
 Health services, hospitals, clinics, and emergency response systems.
 Education, including schools, colleges, universities, and other adult
education facilities.
 Police and prisons.
 Waste removal and sanitation facilities.

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What exactly does infrastructure mean?

Choate’s and Walter’s publication triggered crisis discussions and the increase in
infrastructure asset management and maintenance planning in the United States.

However, public-policy discussions had one glaring obstacle – there was not a
precise definition for the term.

In a paper – Infrastructure for the 21st Century – the US National Research

Council sought to clarify the meaning of ‘public works infrastructure’ with the
following comment:

“… both specific functional modes – highways, streets, roads, and bridges; mass
transit; airports and airways; water supply and water resources; wastewater
management; solid waste treatment and disposal; electric power generation and
transmission; telecommunications; and hazardous waste management – and the
combined system these modal elements comprise.”

“A comprehension of infrastructure spans not only these public works facilities,

but also the operating procedures, management practices, and development policies
that interact together with societal demand and the physical world to facilitate the
transport of people and goods, provision of water for drinking and a variety of
other uses, safe disposal of society’s waste products, provision of energy where it
is needed, and transmission of information within and between communities.”

Infrastructure is the term for the basic physical systems of a business or nation—
transportation, communication, sewage, water, and electric systems are all examples
of infrastructure. These systems tend to be high-cost investments and are vital to a
country's economic development and prosperity. Projects related to infrastructure
improvements may be funded publicly, privately, or through public-private
partnerships. In economic terms infrastructure often involves the production
of public goods or production processes that support natural monopolies.

Public infrastructure refers to infrastructure facilities, systems, and structures that are owned
and operated by the “public,” i.e., the government. It includes all infrastructural facilities
that are open to the general public to use. Infrastructure includes all essential systems and

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facilities that facilitate the smooth flow of an economy’s day-to-day activities and enhance
the people’s standard of living. It includes basic facilities such as roads, water supply,
electricity, telecommunications, and many more.

Understanding Infrastructure
The term infrastructure was first used in the English language in the late 1880s. The
work comes from Latin roots "infra-" meaning "below" and "struere" meaning "to
build". Infrastructure is the foundation upon which the structure of the economy is
built, often times quite literally. In 1987, a panel of the U.S. National Research
Council adopted the term “public works infrastructure” to refer to functional modes
including highways, airports, telecommunications, and water supplies, as well as the
combined systems that these elements comprise.

Applicable to large- and small-scale organizational frameworks, infrastructure can

include a variety of systems and structures as long as there are physical components
required. For example, the electrical grid across a city, state or country is
infrastructure based on the equipment involved and the intent to provide a service to
the areas it supports. Similarly, the physical cabling and components making up the

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data network of a company operating within a specific location are also the
infrastructure for the business in question, as they are necessary to support business
operations.

Because infrastructure very often involves the production of either public goods or
goods that lend themselves to production by natural monopolies, it is very typical to
see public financing, control, supervision, or regulation of infrastructure. This
usually takes the form of direct government production or production by a closely
regulated, legally sanctioned, and often subsidized monopoly. At smaller scales,
infrastructure can also often take on the characteristics of club goods or goods most
readily produced by localized monopolies, and can be provided within the context
of a private firm producing infrastructure for use within the firm or provided by
localized arrangements of formal or informal collective action.

IT Infrastructure
Many technical systems
are often referred to as
infrastructures, such as
networking equipment
and servers, due to the
critical function they
provide within

specific business environments. Without the information technology (IT)

infrastructure, many businesses struggle to share and move data in a way that
promotes efficiency within the workplace. If IT infrastructure fails, many business
functions cannot be performed.

Types of Infrastructure
Infrastructure can be put into several different types including:

 Soft infrastructure: These types of infrastructure make up institutions that

help maintain the economy. These usually require human capital and help

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deliver certain services to the population. Examples include the healthcare

system, financial institutions, governmental systems, law enforcement, and
education systems.
 Hard Infrastructure: These make up the physical systems that make it
necessary to run a modern, industrialized nation. Examples include roads,
highways, bridges, as well as the capital/assets needed to make them
operational (transit buses, vehicles, oil rigs/refineries).
 Critical Infrastructure: These are assets defined by a government as being
essential to the functioning of a society and economy, such as facilities for
shelter and heating, telecommunication, public health, agriculture, etc. In the
United States, there are agencies responsible for these critical infrastructures,
such as Homeland Security (for the government and emergency services),
the Department of Energy, and the Department of Transportation.

Financing of Public Infrastructure

Public infrastructure is financed in a number of ways, including publicly

(through taxes), privately (through private investments), and public-private
partnerships.

1. Taxation
Public Infrastructure may be financed through taxes, tolls, or metered user fees.
Since public infrastructure is open for use by the general public, the general public
pays for the infrastructure facilities through taxes.

2. Investments
Public infrastructure tends to be high-cost investment projects; the returns on which
are extremely high and prosperous. Hence, such projects attract several investment
opportunities. Sometimes, private companies choose to invest in a country’s
infrastructure projects as part of their expansion initiatives. For example, a power
and energy company opts to build railways and pipelines in a country where it wants

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to refine petroleum. The investment benefits both the company and the domestic
economy.

3. Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs)

Public-private partnerships (PPPs) are best described as a partnership or an
arrangement between two or more private organizations and the public sector. A
public-private partnership is the most popular means of financing large public sector
projects. It helps share risks and makes the economy prosperous by bringing in
investment opportunities, opening up employment opportunities, and increasing the
standard of living of the people.

Along with the aforementioned sectors, infrastructure includes waste disposal

services, such as garbage pickup and local dumps. Certain administrative functions,
often covered by various government agencies, are also considered part of the
infrastructure. Educational and healthcare facilities may also be included, along with
specific research and development functions and necessary training facilities.

The infrastructure is important for faster economic growth and alleviation of poverty
in the country. The adequate infrastructure in the form of road and railway transport
system, ports, power, airports and their efficient working is also needed for
integration of the Indian economy with other economies of the world

A distinguishing feature of infrastructure is that while the demand-supply gap in case

of other factors can be met by importing some of them, the deficiency of
infrastructure cannot be made up through imports. Because location-based the need
for relevant infrastructure facility can be met through development of its capacity in
the domestic economy. For example, you cannot import power facility, roads, ports
or railways as they have to be built up in the domestic economy.

IMPORTANT FEATURES OF INFRASTRUCTURE:

It is worthwhile to mention some distinctive features of infrastructure – First, the
building of infrastructure requires large and lumpy investment and they contribute
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to output, after a long time that is their gestation period is quite long. Second, due
to large overhead capital and lumpy investment, the significant economies of scale
are found in most of them. Due to the significant economies of scale found in
many infrastructure services, they have the characteristics of natural money. The
third important feature of infrastructure facilities is they create externalities.

 For example, building of rural roads will benefit agriculture as the farmers
are able to sell their products in towns where they can get remunerative
prices.
 Besides, they can get some inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides and other
industrial products at relatively cheaper prices as their transport costs
decline due to improved transportation. Power plants generate both positive
and negative externalities.
 The construction of power plants produces electricity which is used for
industrial helps production and commercial use and thereby helps in
acceleration of economic growth.
 A power plant also produces negative externalities in the form of emission
of pollutants, especially CO2.
 The above feature of infrastructure means that competitive market system
will not be able to achieve a socially optimal level of infrastructural
services in most of the cases. Besides, in many of infrastructural facilities,
there are significant economies of scale and therefore they have the features

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natural monopoly. In other words, we find market failure to achieve their

socially optimal level.

Therefore, these infrastructural facilities are either built or run by the government
and public sector enterprises or if private sector is permitted to make investment in
them and run them, they need to be regulated by the government, so that they
should not exploit the consumers. For example, the distribution of electricity which
is an infrastructural service is being provided by two power Companies of Tata and
Reliance in different regions of Delhi, the electricity rates and other charges are
being regulated by an authority appointed by the government. Similarly, in
telecommunication, which is another infrastructural service, various companies
such as Airtel, Vodaphone, Idea, MTNL are providing this service of wireless
telephony (i.e., mobile service) are being regulated by TRAI.

It needs to be emphasized that good quality infrastructure is important not only for
faster economic growth but also to ensure inclusive growth. By inclusive growth
we mean that benefits of growth are shared by the majority of the people of a
country. Thus the inclusive growth will lead to the alleviation of poverty and
reduction in income inequality in the country.

For example, micro, small and medium enterprises (MSME) are dispersed
throughout the economy and production by them and their growth require access to
quality and reliable infrastructure services to compete efficiently with large-scale

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enterprises which can often build some of their own infrastructure such as
installing their own small power plants or generators. Besides, large-scale firms
can even locate themselves near ports and near transport hubs where required
infrastructure is available.

Small enterprises, on the other hand, are dispersed widely in the economy and have
to rely on the availability of the general infrastructure facilities. Thus, by building
up general infrastructure facilities helps the small enterprises to compete
successfully with large-scale industries and being labour-intensive generate large
employment opportunities for the workers. This will help to alleviate the poverty in
developing countries.

The expansion in infrastructure facilities such as irrigation, rural electrification,

roads and road transport will promote agricultural growth and setting up of agro-
processing industries. These general infrastructure facilities will help farmers and
owners of processing industries to get their requirements of raw materials,
fertilizers and other inputs at cheap rate and also help them to bring their products
to the markets which are located in big towns and cities.

Thus, according to Thirlwall, “For poor farmers improved infrastructure will

reduce their input cost and increase agricultural production and reduce traders’
monopoly by improving their access to markets. Nearly two-thirds of African
farmers are cut off from national and world markets, because of poor infrastructure
and market access. Better transport means greater access to public resources

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including schools, hospitals and other health facilities”.

It follows from above that the expansion of infrastructure facilities will ensure
sustained growth of employment in agriculture and small-scale rural industries and
bring prosperity in the rural areas and in this way ensure inclusive growth. Besides,
this will also help to prevent the mass exodus of the rural people to urban areas
where they cause problems of urban congestion, growth of slums and acute
housing shortage

Lack of adequate infrastructure not only holds lack economic development, it also
causes additional costs in terms of time, effort and money of the people for
accessing essential social services such as healthcare and education. Emphasizing
the importance of adequate infrastructure, authors of Economic Survey of India for
the Year 2013 -14 quite rightly write, “Rural economic growth in recent years has
put enormous pressure on existing infrastructure particularly on transport, energy
and communication. Unless it is significantly improved infrastructure will continue
to be a bottleneck for growth and obstacle to poverty reduction”. In other words, it
is the challenge to ensure strong, sustainable and balanced development through
integration of the economy with environmentally sustainable development of
infrastructure.

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It may be noted that with large investment in infrastructure during the last decade
(2003-04 to 2013-14) India has become the second fastest growing economy of the
world but in the two years (2012- March 2014) economic growth slowed down and
this has been mainly due to the stalled infrastructure projects which held back
economic development. It is therefore urgently needed that infrastructure projects
be given environment clearance quickly and investment in them be speeded up if
the Indian economy is to be brought back on the fast growth trajectory.

The availability of good quality infrastructure raises productivity levels in the

economy and brings down costs of the enterprises. Besides, the availability of
adequate infrastructure helps to expand trade not only within a country by
improving transport facilities but also promote foreign trade through improvement
of ports and airports. It also helps to diversify production by the firms as they are
able to get the required supplies of raw materials and other inputs from the places
where these are available in abundance. Furthermore, with improved infrastructure
the firms can produce goods in accordance with the demands of the people of
different regions and countries.

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According to World Bank estimates, in the year 2008 developing countries made
investment of around $ 500 billion a year in new infrastructure—transport, power,
water, sanitation, telecommunication, irrigation and so on equal to 20 per cent of
GDP but the need for infrastructure investment is still large. In developing
countries one billion people still lack access to clean water, two billion people lack
access to sanitation and electric power and adequate transport facilities are still
lacking in developing countries

Airports:
Airport development is a basic infrastructure requirement for international
connectivity, especially because the demand for air travel is projected to grow
rapidly in India. There had been a significant progress of airport development in
the Eleventh Plan period with the development of four new airports at Bangalore,
Hyderabad, Delhi and Mumbai under public-private participation (PPP) mode. To
expand airport infrastructure in India, modernisation of airport infrastructure in
metro and non-metro cities and construction of Greenfield airports are under
consideration of the government.

Development of 35 non-metro airports which have been identified based on

regional connectivity, development of regional hubs etc. has been undertaken by
Airports Authority of India (AAI). Out of 35 metro airports work has been
completed in 33 metros and in the remaining two airports of Vadodra and
Khajuraho work is in progress.

Ports:
Ports are another important infrastructure for international trade connectivity. It is
mainly through these that the goods are exported to other countries and the goods
and raw materials are imported. Without efficient ports it is not possible to expand
foreign trade. In the Eleventh Plan period (2007- 12) some problems were faced
for expansion of the Indian ports because several issues had to be resolved for the
proposed public-private participation (PPP) in this connection. These have now
been resolved and it is expected that in the next five years there will be significant
progress in this area. As regards minor ports which come under State governments,
there has been good progress in the Eleventh Plan period.

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During 2013-14 major and non-major ports in India handled a total cargo of 980
million tonnes reflecting increase of 5.0 per cent over 2012-13. This can mainly be
attributed to an increase of 1.8 per cent in the cargo handled at major ports. In
contrast, traffic at non-major ports increased at around 9.6 per cent during 2013-14
as compared to 9.8 per cent in 2012-13.

Telecommunications:
Telecommunications occupy an important place in the modern economy. E-
commerce and E-governance require the efficiency of telecommunication services.
The companies like Amazon, Flipkart, Snapdeal are engaged in E-commerce for
sale of goods. They work through mobiles and internet network. Besides, many
BPO companies are providing outsourcing services through telecommunication.
Without the efficient telecommunication system, the business through E-commerce
and BPO is not possible. Telecommunications and the associated increase in
Internet connectivity is a productivity enhancing development and India is well
based to benefit from this.

Telecommunications in India have seen impressive expansion and large investment

in the past several years with a tele-intensity increasing from 26.2 per cent in 2008
to 78.7 per cent in 2012. The expansion of telecommunications in India has been
led by private sector whose market share (in terms of number of connections)
increased from 73.5 per cent in 2008 to 86.3 per cent in 2012. However, due to
arbitrariness and irregularities in the allocation of 2G Spectrum in 2008, 2G
licenses and associated spectrum were cancelled by the Supreme Court in 2011 and
ordered for reallocation of the spectrum through auction. The new auction of 2G
spectrum was completed by January 2013.

There is a very large scope for further expansion in the telecommunications,

especially with the introduction of 3G and 4G services. Besides, recently in July
2015, Prime minister has launched Digital India scheme to promote the role of
telecom. In India a large number of companies providing telecom services have
come into being. Business firms and even farmers can sign up for a telecom service
which provides information through SMS or E-mail about market prices and other
prevailing market conditions. This will help them to take optimal decisions

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regarding their business. Banks are also providing their customers, through SMS or
E-mail, the status of their deposits and withdrawal. Besides, the banks are
providing through E-mail the information regarding investment avenues open to
them.

Keeping in view the role of an efficient telecom network in E-commerce and E-

governance and delivery of public services provisions for state-of-art IT facilities
in the country need to be put in place. Issues requiring attention include the policy
for better spectrum management, strengthening a national fibre-optic network,
network mobile number possibility and rural telephony.

Evaluation of the Performance of Infrastructural Services:

Whether in the public sector or regulated private sector the performance of
infrastructural services has been quite poor. In many developing countries, the
majority of the population, does not have access to the electricity and until recently
in telephone services. After over 50 years of independence, in India the adequate
pucca rural roads had not been built and natural highways were in very bad shape
and not properly built and maintained lack of good ports and ports in India affected
foreign trade of the country. It is only since 2001 that the work of building rural
roads, highways, good ports and airports has been started in the 10th, 11th and 12th
Five Year Plan.

In the case of electricity, the quality of service has been quite poor. There have
been quite often fluctuations in voltages and often supply-cuts even in capital
city of Delhi. In UP, Haryana and other states there are interruptions of supply
for many hours compelling big companies to install their own big generators.
Besides, State Electricity Boards which are usually responsible for distribution of
electricity are running heavy losses. Prices charged by them even do not cover
variable costs of supply, let alone contributing to overhead costs.

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Similarly, until recently before the extensive use of mobile-phone wireless

technology, telephone connections were very few and were a luxury consumer
service rather than an essential productive service required to link markets,
producers and consumers. Besides, one has to wait for many years to get telephone
connection. However in the last 12 years, regarding telephone service things have
improved a lot in India, especially with the widespread use of mobile telephone
service. Likewise, in India, the performance of railways port and airport services
has been quite inefficient and poor and need drastic reforms to be undertaken to
improve their services.

Discussed below are some of the most critical significance of economic

infrastructure and its impact on the economy.

 The smooth functioning of the economy. Infrastructural facilities are very

necessary and vital for the smooth functioning of the economy. They are like wheels
of development without which the economy will not be able to function properly.

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 Development of agriculture. The development of agriculture, to a considerable

extent, depends on the adequate expansion and development of irrigation, credit,
transport, power, marketing, training and education. It also depends on the
improvement of research and development and other such facilities.

 Development of industry. Industrial production requires not only machinery and

equipment but also requires the following. Energy, skilled manpower, management,
banking, insurance and transportation services are crucial. These activities and
facilities will directly lead to the development of the industrial sector of the
economy.

 Promotion of investment. Infrastructural development is definitely a pre-condition

got increasing economic investments. Those areas with the sound infrastructural
base may succeed in attracting all the more capital for investment.

 Improvement in productivity. Infrastructural development such as transportation

facilities and education increase the productivity. Development of science and
technology is also important in improving the economic productivity. Moreover,
research and development also play a critical role in economic improvement.

 Employee generation. Infrastructures play a crucial role in the generation of

employment opportunities. They improve mobility, efficiency and productivity of
labour. Moreover, larger investment, development of industry and agriculture create
all the more employment opportunities.

Some of the secondary but essential significance of the economic infrastructure

are as follows.

 Development of backward regions. The development of backward regions and the

removal of regional imbalances is yet another significant contribution of
infrastructural facilities. The lack of infrastructural facilities in the backward regions
will act as a constraint on the development of those regions.

 Social change. Infrastructural facilities will also act as an instrument of social

changes. Development of industries, transport facilities and education will change

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the outlook of people. Apart from these, even science, technology and growth of
towns and cities will lead to a changed economic outlook.

 The growth of GDP. There exists a very close relationship between spending for
infrastructure and GDP growth. Studies reveal that 1% growth in the stock of
infrastructure often associates with 1% growth in per capita GDP.

 All round development/Overall development. Infrastructural development is

important not only for economic growth but also for the overall development. The
all-round development of the country and economy is crucial. Infrastructural
facilities are also necessary for technological innovation. Along with technological
innovation, economic infrastructural facilities are also important for the eradicating
poverty and enhancing globalization.

IMPORTANCE OF ECONOMIC INFRASTRUCTURE

Economic infrastructure is the nerve centre of the economic system. It plays an

important role in the development of not only the economy but of the civilization as
well. It is a public utility service which gives place and time utility to goods and
services. They link production, distribution centres and the end consumers as well.
Therefore, infrastructures bring together the elements of the economic system.

To conclude, the following are some of the prime importance of infrastructures.

i. They help in the development of the market and all the elements within.

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ii. It also facilitates large-scale production for the purpose of smooth functioning of the
economy.

iii. They result in the territorial division of labour which is great.

iv. They also ensure price stability in the market.

v. Economic infrastructure definitely ensures the mobility of labour and capital

within/from the economy.

vi. It results in the overall growth of towns and cities.

vii. Infrastructures provide for a lot of employment generation and employment

opportunities.

viii. They also play a crucial role in national defence activities.

ix. Infrastructures in the economy directly result in the unity of various economic
components.

x. The economy and the nation will be able to meet any emergencies that arise.

xi. It creates a place and time utility.

xii. Infrastructural development plays a vital role in the development of agriculture

and industry.

xiii. Infrastructure like transportation, communication and telecommunication breaks

any economic isolation that prevails in the country.

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xiv. They are a great and rich source of revenue to the Government.

xv. The development of economic infrastructure will directly result in the

development of economic trade.

xvi. According to Census of India, 50% India will get urban by Year 2050; as
compared to around 31% currently.
xvii. Initiatives such as Housing for all, Smart Cities, etc. are fuelling the growth
the Urban Infrastructure and construction development.
Housing for All by 2022, the government’s flagship scheme PMAY launched in
June 2015 aims to build 20 million urban homes and 30 million rural houses by
2022.

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xviii. In March 2018, construction of additional 3, 21,567 affordable houses was

sanctioned under PMAY.
xix. Highway network in the country is expected to cover 50,000 km by 2019. All
villages in India will be connected through a road network by 2019 under
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY)

xx. Indian Real estate sector in India is expected to reach a market size of US$
180 billion by 2020 and US$ 1 trillion by 2030. It is expected to contribute
13% of the country’s GDP by 2025.
xxi. Services sectors such as IT and ITeS, retail, consulting and e-commerce
have registered high demand for office space driving growth of real estate
services in the country.

How can a park be designed to serve as infrastructure(s)? Thinking not in terms

of metaphor alone. But rather a park as the architecture for numerous designed
outcomes. Park as infrastructure, means park as platform not only designed
object/scape. From a singular tool to multivalent toolkit. It is important in such
discussion to think of the less immediate impact. Of social design, the design of
relationships. Such a platform-as toolkit-may result from more efficient, and
stack(ed) programming. Thus maximizing urban spaces, suburban spaces, available
spaces, that are under-performing. In essence, we should think about the best ways

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to maximize our various infrastructural corridors: utility, transportation, waterways

et al.
To conclude, performance of enterprises providing infrastructural services has
been a factor in the poor performance of many developing countries including
India. Thus the case for reforming the infrastructural sectors is very strong, both
for improving their own performance and for removing the drag of an unreformed
and poorly performing infrastructure sector on the realisation of potential benefits
of reforms in other sectors.

BIBLOGRAPHY

President’s Commission on Critical Infrastructure Protection, October 1997, pp. B-

1 to B-2, PDF at https://fas.org/irp/crs/RL31556.pdf

Summary, "Critical Infrastructures: What Makes an Infrastructure Critical?" Report

for Congress, Order Code RL31556, Congressional Research Service (CRS),
Updated January 29, 2003, PDF at https://fas.org/irp/crs/RL31556.pdf

https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/knowledge/economics/public-
infrastructure

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/i/infrastructure.asp

https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/12990/1/MPRA_paper_12990

.Buhr W. What is Infrastructure? Volkswirtschaftliche Diskussionsbeiträge, 2003,

no. 107-03. Available at: http://www.wiwi.uni-siegen.de/vwl/repec/sie/papers/107-
03.pdf.

Nijkamp P. Infrastructure and Suprastructure in Regional Competition: A Deus Ex

Machina? In: Batey P.W.J., Friedrich P. (eds.) Regional Competition. Berlin,
Heidelberg, N.Y.: Springer-Verlag, 2000, pp. 87–107

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