Complex Numbers − Dr A. J.

Bevan 17

September 5, 2009

Mathematical Techniques: Revision Notes

Dr A. J. Bevan,

These notes contain the core of the information conveyed in the lectures. They are not a substitute for
attending the lectures and none of the examples covered are reproduced here. Worked examples of the
techniques described in this note can be found in the tutorial question/solution material provided on the
course web site.
√
−1 = i, where i is an imaginary number. It follows that i×i = i2 = −1. Imaginary numbers are orthogonal
to real numbers.
Complex numbers are composites of real and imaginary numbers:

z = a + ib,

where a is the real part of the complex number with a magnitude a along the real axis, and ib is the imaginary
part, with a magnitude b along the imaginary axis.
Here i denotes an imaginary number, however it is common place to see the symbol j used in engineering
circles to denote an imaginary number.

20 Argand Diagrams

We can represent z as a point in the real vs imaginary plane as shown in Figure 6. This type of diagram is
called an Argand Diagram.
Im(z)

b z=a+ib

a
Re(z)

Figure 6: The complex number z = a + ib represented on an Argand Diagram.

z can also be expressed in terms of its distance from the origin r, and the angle subtended between z, the
Complex Numbers − Dr A. J. Bevan 18

origin and the real axis θ. For z = a + ib,


r = a2 + b 2 , (20.1)
b
tan θ = . (20.2)
a

So

z = r(cos θ + i sin θ).

r is the magnitude of the complex number, and θ is the argument of the complex number.

21 Operators

Powers of i
√
Given that i = −1, it follows that i2 = −1. With this knowledge we are able to evaluate in ,
√
i = −1,
i2 = −1,
i3 = −i,
(21.1)

and so on.
Addition and Subtraction
Given two complex numbers, z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id, we can add them together:

z3 = z1 ± z2 ,
= (a ± c) + i(b ± d).

Multiplication
When multiplying two complex numbers z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id, together we compute the following
product

z1 × z2 = (a + ib)(c + id),
= ac + ibc + iad + i2 bd,
= (ac − bd) + i(bc + ad).

Conjugation
The complex conjugate of a complex number z is denoted as z ∗ . The operation of taking the conjugate of a
complex number changes the sign of the imaginary part of z. So for our complex number z = a + ib, we find
that z ∗ = a − ib. If we multiply a complex number z by its conjugate z ∗ , we obtain

zz ∗ = (a + ib)(a − id),
= a2 + b 2 .
Complex Numbers − Dr A. J. Bevan 19

which is a real number.

Division
When dividing z1 = a + ib by z2 = c + id, we need to obtain a real number as the denominator. To simplify
the problem, we can multiply z1 /z2 by (z2 /z2 )∗ as follows:

z1 a + ib
= ,
z2 c + id
a + ib c − id
= × ,
c + id c − id
(ac + bd) + i(bc − ad)
= ,
c2 + d2

where the denominator is a real number as desired.

22 The exponential form of a complex number

We obtained the result that z = a + ib = r(cos θ + i sin θ) in the previous section. We can use the Maclaurin
series expansions for sin θ, cos θ and eiθ to write
  
(θ)2 (θ)4 (θ)6 (θ)3 (θ)5 (θ)7
z = r 1− + − + ... + i θ − + − + ... , (22.1)
2! 4! 6! 3! 5! 7!
 
(iθ)2 (iθ)3 (iθ)4
z = r 1 + iθ + + + + ... ,
2! 3! 4!

where we can associate the terms in square brackets as the Maclaurin series expansion for eiθ .
Now we can revisit how operators act on complex numbers using the exponential form. If we have complex
numbers, z = reiθ , z1 = r1 eiθ1 , and z2 = r2 eiθ2 then:

zz ∗ = r2 ,
ln(z) = ln(r) + iθ,
z1 × z2 = r1 r2 ei(θ1 +θ2 ) ,
z1 r1 i(θ1 −θ2 )
= e .
z2 r2

It is more straightforward to manipulate the exponential form, as opposed to the cartesian form, when
calculating products and quotients of complex numbers.
Sometimes it can be useful to express sine and cosine functions in terms of exponentials, for example when
integrating. Given that eiθ = cos(θ) + i sin(θ), it follows that

eiθ + e−iθ
cos(θ) = ,
2
eiθ − e−iθ
sin(θ) = .
2i
Complex Numbers − Dr A. J. Bevan 20

23 Powers of a complex number

z = reiθ ,
2
z = reiθ × reiθ ,
= r2 ei2θ ,

and in general, we may write the nth power of z as

zn = rn einθ .

This result can be expressed in terms of sine and cosine functions as

zn = rn (cos θ + i sin θ)n ,

= rn (cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ)),

which utilizes de Moivre’s Theorem1 .

24 Roots of a complex number

1
z2 = r1/2 eiθ/2 ,

but this is not the complete solution, just one part of it. The argument of the square root of a complex
number is halved. We need to consider that the complex number is written as r(cos θ + i sin θ), where unique
solutions to the complex number have 0 ≤ θ < 2π. By halving the argument of a complex number we may
make room for another unique solution in this range.
For example, if we take the square root of some complex number z = eiπ/2 , then z 1/2 will have an argument
with some value between 0 and 2π. One solution to this is simply z1 = eiπ/4 . But if we think in terms of
sines and cosines, the complex number z is periodic in terms of its argument, so an equally valid solution is
z2 = ei(π/2+2π)/2 = ei5π/4 . If we consider another solution z3 = ei(π/2+4π)/2 , we see that this occupies the
same position on the Argand diagram as z1 . . . and so on. There are two unique solutions for z 1/2 .
We can generalise the result obtained here to the following rule

1
zn = r1/n ei(θ+m2π)/n ,

where m = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1 gives the set of nth roots of a complex number. There are n such roots with
0 ≤ arg(z) < 2π.

25 Hyperbolic Functions

The hyperbolic functions are analogues of the trigonometric functions. These functions are useful in a
number of branches of mathematics, science, and enginnering. The hyperbolic sine function is given by
1 i.e. (cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ).
Complex Numbers − Dr A. J. Bevan 21

sinh(x) = −i sin(ix), and the hyperbolic cosine function is cosh(x) = cos(ix). Using the exponential form of
a complex number it follows that:

1 x 
sinh(x) = e − e−x ,
2
1 x 
cosh(x) = e + e−x .
2

The hyperbolic tangent is given by the ratio:

sinh(x)
tanh(x) = ,
cosh(x)
ex − e−x
= .
ex + e−x

Figure 7 shows distributions of the sinh(x), cosh(x) and tanh(x) functions.

Given these definitions it is possible to determine the derivatives of the hyperbolic functions:

d
[sinh(x)] = cosh(x),
dx
d
[cosh(x)] = sinh(x),
dx
d
[tanh(x)] = 1 − tanh2 (x).
dx

The corresponding integrals are:

sinh(x)dx = cosh(x) + C,

cosh(x)dx = sinh(x) + C,

tanh(x)dx = ln | cosh(x)| + C.

The inverse hyperbolic functions are defined in an analogous way to the inverse trigonometric functions, and
the derivatives and integrals of the inverse hyperbolic functions can be determined using the same methods
utilized for the trigonometric counterparts.

25.1 Hyperbola

The equation describing a hyperbola centred on the origin is (ax)2 − (bx)2 = 1. We can relate this equation
to hyperbolic functions by considering a parametric equation in terms of some variable t, where

x = cosh t,
y = sinh t.

When t = 0, then x = 1, and y = 0. The lower part of the hyperbola for x > 0 corresponds to t < 0, and
the upper part of the curve corresponds to t > 0. As the hyperbola is symmetric about the y−axis, similar
Complex Numbers − Dr A. J. Bevan 22

10

y
0

-2

-4

-6

-8

-10
-3 -2 -1
x0 1 2 3

10

5
y

0
-3 -2 -1
x0 1 2 3

0.5
y

-0.5

-1

-3 -2 -1
x0 1 2 3

Figure 7: The hyperbolic functions (top) sinh(x), (middle) cosh(x), and (bottom) tanh(x).

behaviour is seen for x < 0 where

x = − cosh t,
y = sinh t.

This is illustrated in Figure 8.

Complex Numbers − Dr A. J. Bevan 23

1
y

-1

-2

-3
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
x

Figure 8: The hyperbola x2 − y 2 = 1.

25.2 Catenary

The use of hyperbolic functions is quite common in engineering and physics applications. One of these is
the equation describing a wire linked between two supports. The wire will naturally sag in the middle, and
the equation describing the position of the wire between the two supports is called a catenary. The general
form of a catenary supported by two vertical posts of the same height is given by:

y = a cosh(x/a) + b.

As cosh(x = 0) = 1, the value of y(x = 0) = a + b. The parameter a is related to the width of the catenary,
where the curve is narrower for a smaller value of a. Figure 9 shows catenaries with different values of a.
Complex Numbers − Dr A. J. Bevan 24

14

12

10

8
y

0
-10 -5 0 5 10
x

Figure 9: Catenaries for (solid) a = 1, (dashed) a = 2, and (dotted) a = 5.