Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, R.V. College of Engineering, Bangalore – 59.

Edition

2006

Dept. of Industrial Engineering & Management

Laboratory Manual

MATERIAL TESTING LAB

Material Testing lab Manual

Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, R.V. College of Engineering, Bangalore – 59.

Material Testing lab Manual

Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, R.V. College of Engineering, Bangalore – 59.

Department of Industrial Engineering and Management

R.V. College of Engineering, Bangalore – 59

MATERIALS TESTING LABORATORY

SCHEME OF CONDUCT AND EVALUATION

CLASS: III SEMESTER (New Scheme) SUBJECT CODE: MEL37 A

YEAR: 2006 CLASS MARKS: 25

No. of
Class
Class
Sl. Expt.
Title &
No No.
Test
Mark
s
CYCLE – I
01 MT01 Tension Test on Mild Steel Specimen 01 20
02 MT02 Torsion Test on Mild Steel Specimen 01 20
Impact Tests (IZOD and CHARPY) on Mild Steel
MT03
03 Specimen 01 20
D01 Non-Destructive Tests – Demonstration
04 MT04 Rockwell hardness Test 01 20
CYCLE – II
05 MT05 Wear Test 01 10
MT06 Double Shear Test on Mild Steel Specimen
06 01 20
D02 Fatigue Test – demonstration
07 MT07 Compression Test on Mild Steel Specimen 01 20
08 MT08 Brinell Hardness Test 01 20
CYCLE – III
09 MT09 Vickers hardness Test 01 10
10 MT10 Bending Test on wood 01 20
S01 Preparation of specimen for metallographic examination.
11 Microstructure study of the Engineering materials – 01 10
S02
identification
Heat treatment of steel materials & study of their hardness
12 D03 01 10
using their Rock-well testing machine--Demonstration
13 TEST 01 50
TOTAL 13 250
KEY
MT –Materials Testing Expt. S – Study Expt. D – Demonstration Expt.

EVALUATION SCHEME:

CLASS MARKS = Class work total + Test Marks

(Reduced to 25) 10

Material Testing lab Manual

Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, R.V. College of Engineering, Bangalore – 59.

Proposed by: Prepared by: Approved by

D.Venugopal setty.
Shobha N S H.M.Shadakshara Prof.K.S.Badarinarayana
SYLLABUS
MATERIALS TESTING LABORATORY
(Common to ME I IP I AU I IM I MA)
Sub Code MEL37 A/MEL47 A IA Marks 25
Hrs/Week 03 Exam Hours 03
Total Hrs. 42 Exam Marks 50

PART-A

1. Preparation of specimen for metallographic examination of engineering materials and

study the microstructure of plain carbon steel, tool steel, gray C.I, SG iron, Brass,
Bronze.

2. Heat treatment: Annealing normalizing hardening and tempering of steel & to study
their Rock-well hardness (Demonstration only)

PART-B

3. Conduction of tensile, shear, compression, torsion and bending tests of a Mild Steel
specimen using a Universal Testing Machine.

4. Conduction of Izod and Charpy tests on Mild Steel Specimen.

5. Experiment on Wear Study.

6. Brinell, Rockwell and Vicker's Hardness tests.

7; .Fatigue Test- (demonstration only).

8. Non-destructive test experiments - (demonstration only).

(a). Ultrasonic flaw detector
(b). Magnetic crack detector
(c). Dye penetrant testing

Scheme of Examination:
ONE question from part -A : 10 Marks
(Identification only)
ONE question from part -B : 30 Marks
Viva-Voce : 10 Marks

Material Testing lab Manual

Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, R.V. College of Engineering, Bangalore – 59.

Material Testing lab Manual

Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, R.V. College of Engineering, Bangalore – 59.

INTRODUCTION:
Materials constitute an important component of the curriculum of every branch of
engineering and applied science. For fabrication of machines, manufacture of parts,
building of plants and structures, and carrying out processes, the choice of the material is
critical. An awareness of materials available to the characteristic material properties & us
are desirable for efficient problem solving, decision-making, and development of
advanced materials and functioning of an engineer. The need for materials literacy of
engineers and technologists is now recognized all over the world. It is clear that an
engineer should keep the materials scenario in mind while designing a component or
machine. Otherwise his design may become redundant. For the efficient design of
engineering products, problem solving, decision making and the overall efficient
functioning of an engineer, an awareness of available materials, there potentials and
limitations, and an understanding of there properties and behaviour or desirable.

Every engineering material is known by its set of properties. A variety of tests are
conducted in the Material Testing Laboratory to evaluate & compare the mechanical
properties of different materials.

The Mechanical Properties are:

1. Stiffness 6. Ultimate Tensile Strength
2. Elastic Strength 7. Fracture Strength
3. Yield Strength 8. Stress
4. Ductility 9. Strain
5. Malleability 10. Toughness

These tests are classified into three categories:

1. Loading conditions
 Static tests - Tension, compression, Torsion, Bending, Shear Tests
 Dynamic tests–Impact tests- Charpy Test, Izod Test
 Repeated loading - Fatigue test.
 High Temperature tests - Creep test

2. Hardness Tests
 Penetration Tests - Rockwell Hardness Test, Brinell Hardness Test, Vicker’s
Hardness Test

3. Non- destructive Tests

 Visual Inspection  Radiography
 Magnetic Particle inspection  Ultrasonic test
 Magnetic crack detector  X-Ray test.
 Dye penetrate test

Material Testing lab Manual

 EXPERIMENT No. MT01

TENSION TEST ON DUCTILE MATERIAL

AIM: - To determine the strength and several properties of ductile steel, to observe the behaviour
of the material under load and to study the fracture and thus determine the following:
1. Yield strength
2. Tensile strength
3. Ductility
i. Percentage elongation
ii. Percentage reduction in area
4. Modulus of elasticity (Graphical Method)
APPARATUS / INSTRUMENTS / EQUIPMENT USED: -
1. Universal Testing machine
2. Extensometer
3. Vernier caliper
4. scale

UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

Equipment Description:UTM as name implies, are general purpose machines. They vary greatly
in physical size, load capacity, versatility & sophistication.

In its simplest form, a UTM system includes a load frame where the test is actually performed.
The load frame must, of course, be rugged enough for the application. Some means of control
over the load frame is necessary. This control can be as simple as hand wheel on a valve or as
complex as a computer to control the loading & unloading process and the rates at which these
are done. Generally a recorder is used to record permanently the results of the tests.
Grips or some other accessory are used to interphase between the sample being tested & the load
frame itself. The action & use of the grips is often one of the most critical and least understood
parts of the test.
Each UTM is desired to have a maximum load capacity. Small units may have a load of few
100N or even less.

The UTM can be used for:

1. Tensile test
2. Shearing test
3. Compression test
4. Bending test
5. Functions of
i. Yield point
ii. Elasticity Modulus,
iii. Young's Modulus
iv. Ultimate value
v. Break value

PROCEDURE:-
1. Determine the average cross-section of the given specimen. Scribe a line along the bar and with a
centre punch lightly mark a 120 mm gauge length symmetrical with the length of the bar.
2. Firmly grip the upper end of the specimen in the fixed head of the testing machine using proper
fixing devices or shackles. The specimen is placed such that the punch marks face the front of the
machine
3. Firmly attach the extensometer to the specimen so that the axis coincides with that of the
specimen. Adjust the testing machine and extensometer to read zero. Grip the lower end of the
specimen taking care not to disturb the fixing of the extensometer.
4. Select suitable increments of load (between 200 and 500 kgs) to obtain at least 15 readings of
strain within the proportional limit. Apply the load at a slow speed, taking simultaneous
observations of load and strain without stopping the machine. The extensometer is used only
till the yield point value is reached at which point the extensometer dial makes two complete
revolutions. After this, the elongation is observed on the scale fixed to the machine frame.
5. Loading is continued till the failure of the specimen. Record the ultimate load and breaking
load.
6. Remove the broken specimen from the machine and observe the failure characteristics.
Measure the dimension of the smallest section. Hold the broken parts together and measure the
gauge length.
7. Plot a stress-strain diagram and mark the following on the graph:
a. Upper yield point
b. Lower yield point
c. Breaking stress
d. Ultimate stress
8. Calculate the slope of the graph (within the elastic limit), which is the Young’s modulus
value of the given material.
 R.V. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, BANGALORE-560059
DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ENGG. AND MANAGEMENT

MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY

OBSERVATION / DATA SHEET

Date: Name: USN:

Lab : MT Lab Class: III Sem Expt.No:

Title of the Experiment: TENSION TEST

OBSERVATIONS:

Least count of extensometer =0.01mm

Least count of Vernier caliper = 0.02mm

DETAILS OF SPECIMEN:

Material : Mild steel

Total length of specimen (L) :330mm
Length between shoulders (l) :133mm
Gauge length (l1) :120mm
Diameter at the ends (D) :19mm
Diameter of reduced section (d) :14mm
Diameter of ruptured section (d1) :8.5mm
Gauge length after fracture (l2) :15.5mm
Shoulder
SKETCH OF THE SPECIMEN:

d D

l1
l
L

Contd…..

Signature of the staff in charge

 R.V. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, BANGALORE-560059
DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ENGG. AND MANAGEMENT

MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY

OBSERVATION / DATA SHEET

Date: Name: USN:

Lab : MT Lab Class: III Sem Expt.No:

Title of the Experiment: TENSILE TEST

EXPERIMENTAL READINGS:

Extensometer Reading Scale

Sl. Load
reading
No (Kg) Left Right Remarks
(mm)
1 500 3 0
2 1000 6 0
3 1500 7 1
4 2000 10 3
5 2500 11.5 4.5
6 3000 13 6
7 3500 15 8
8 4000 17 9.5
9 4500 19 11
10 5000 20.5 13
11 5500 22.5 16.5 Yield point
12 6000 1.5
13 6500 3
14 7000 4.5
15 7500 6.5
16 8000 9.5
17 8500 13 Ultimate point
18 8000 35
19 6500 39.5
20 6000 40 Breaking point

Signature of the staff in charge

R.V. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, BANGALORE-560059

 DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ENGG. AND MANAGEMENT

MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY

OBSERVATION / DATA SHEET

Date: Name: USN:

Lab : MT Lab Class: III Sem Expt.No:

Title of the Experiment: TENSILE TEST

Tabulated results:
Sl. Load Extensometer Reading Scale Stress Strain Remarks
No (mm) Reading (N/mm2)
Left Right Average (mm)
1 4905 0.03 0 0.015 31.86 0.00013
2 9810 0.06 0 0.03 63.73 0.00025
3 14715 0.07 0.01 0.04 95.59 0.00033
4 19620 0.1 0.03 0.065 127.46 0.00054
5 24525 0.115 0.045 0.08 159.32 0.00067
6 29430 0.13 0.06 0.095 191.19 0.00079
7 34335 0.15 0.08 0.115 223.05 0.00096
8 39240 0.17 0.095 0.1325 254.92 0.00110
9 44145 0.19 0.11 0.15 286.78 0.00125
10 49050 0.205 0.13 0.1675 318.65 0.00140
11 53955 0.205 0.165 0.195 350.51 0.00163 Yield point
12 58860 1.5 382.38 0.0125
13 63765 3 414.25 0.025
14 68670 4.5 446.11 0.0375
15 73575 6.5 477.97 0.0542
16 78480 9.5 509.85 0.07916
17 83385 13 541.70 0.1083 Ultimate
point
18 78480 35 509.85 0.2916
19 73575 36 477.97 0.3083
20 68670 37.5 466.11 0.3167
21 63765 39.5 414.25 0.329
22 58860 40 382.38 0.3334 Breaking
Point

Signature of the staff in charge

Stress-Strain Diagram
SPECIMEN CALCULATION:
For Sl. No.3

1.Applied load , P = 1500 x 9.81 =14715 N

2.Area of cross section before fracture , A=  d² / 4 =  x (14)2 /4 = 153.93 mm2

3.Area of cross section after fracture =  d12 / 4 =  x (8.5)2 /4 = 56.745 mm2

4.Applied stress = P / A = Load/ Initial area of cross section = 14715/153093

= 95.595 N/mm2 = 77.18 X106 N/m2

5. Strain = Change in length / Original length = 0.035/120= 0.000333

6. % Elongation = Change in gauge length X100 / Original gauge length

= (L2 -L1 )X 100 / L1 = (155-120)X100/120 = 29.17%

7. % Reduction in area = (Original area – Area after fracture)X100 / Original area

= (153.93 –56.745 )X100 / 153.93 = 63.135%

8.Yield strength = Load at yield point / Initial area of cross section = 5300*9.81/153.93 
= 337.77 N/mm2 =3.377 X108 N/m2

9. Tensile strength = Maximum load / Initial area of cross section =

83385/153.93= 541.7 N/mm2 = 5.417 X108N/m2

10. Breaking strength = Load at break point / Initial area of cross section
= 58860/153.93=382.382 N/mm2 =3.823 X108 N/m2
11.Modulus of elasticity (Graphical), E = Slope of Graph = 2.4 X1011N/m2

RESULT :-

Experimental results are as follows:

Percentage elongation = 29.166%

Percentage reduction in area = 63.135%
Yield strength = 3.377 X108 N/m2
Tensile strength = 5.417 X108N/m2
Breaking strength = 3.823 X108 N/m2
Modulus of elasticity (Graphical), E = 2.4 X1011N/m2
 EXPERIMENT No. MT02

TORSION TEST

AIM: - To determine the behaviour of ductile steel when subjected to torsion, and obtain the
following tensional properties:
 Modulus of rigidity
 Maximum Shear strength of the material

APPARATUS/EQUIPMENT/INSTRUMENTS USED

 Torsion testing machine,

 Torsion Shackles,
 Vernier Calipers
TORSION TESTING MACHINE

Equipment description:
Torsion Testing Machine is
designed for conducting
Torsion and Twist on
various metal wires, tubes,
sheet materials.

This Machine applies a

torque on the specimen
held in its chuck and
measures the twist.

Suitable for Torsion and

Twist test on various
metal rods and flats.
Torque measured by
pendulum dynamometer
system. Geared motor to apply torque to specimen through gear box. Set of jaws to
accommodate different size and diameter of test specimens provided.
 R.V. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, BANGALORE-560059
DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ENGG. AND MANAGEMENT

MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY

OBSERVATION / DATA SHEET

Date: Name: USN:

Lab : MT Lab Class: III Sem Expt.No:

Title of the Experiment: TORSION TEST

OBSERVATIONS:

Least count of the Vernier caliper =0.01mm

Least count of the Torque Indicator r=60Kg-cm
Least count Twist Indicator =0.5°
TORQUE AND TWIST READINGS:

TORQUE Twist (Degrees)

Sl.No. Kg-Cm (x 60)
1 2
1. 0 10 0
2. 3 20 0.25
3. 12 30 0.75
4. 14 40 1.00
5. 15 50 1.25
6. 16 60 1.25
7. 17 70 1.25

Signature of the staff in charge

PROCEDURE:-
1. Measure the dimensions of the specimen using Vernier caliper
2. Fix the specimen between the shackles. The axis of the specimen should coincide with
the axis of the shackles
3. Rotate the wheel very slowly to give a twist of θ1=10°
4. Note down the corresponding torque developed (kg-cm), T and the angle of twist, θ 2
from the indicators.
5. Increase the twist θ1 in steps of 10° till the failure of the specimen. Note the
corresponding values of θ2 and T.
6. Calculate the effective twist, θ = θ1 ~ θ2
7. Calculate shear strength using formula, = T x R / J
8. Plot a graph between  and θ.
9. Calculate rigidity modulus from the slope, G = Slope x L / R

TABULATION:

Sl Torque Torque TWIST (Degree)

TWIST,  Shear Stress,
No (division) (N-m)
 1°  2°  °=  1° ~  2° (radians) (x108N/m2)
1 0 0 10 0 10.00 0.1745 0
2 3 17.658 20 0.025 19.75 0.3447 89.93
3 12 70.632 30 0.75 29.25 0.5105 359.72
4 14 82.404 40 1.00 39.00 0.6807 419.68
5 15 88.290 50 1.25 48.75 0.8508 449.66
6 16 94.176 60 1.25 58.75 1.0254 479.63
SPECIMEN CALCULATION (for sl.no.2)

1. Torque division = 3
Torque (T) = 3x60 Kg- Cm
T = 3x60x9.81/100 = 17.658 N – m
2. Twist, =  1 ~ 2= 20 ~ 0.25 = 19.75° = 19.75 x  /180 = 0.3447 radians
3. Diameter (D) = 10 mm,
Polar moment of inertia, J =  D4 / 32
=  (10)4 / 32 = 981.75 mm4 = 981.75 x10-12 m4

4. Shear stress, 
= T x R /J = 17.658 x (5/1000)/ 981.75 X10-12 = 8.993 x107 N/m2

5. Maximum shear stress, max = 5.0961 x108 N/m2

6.
1. Modulus of rigidity or Polar Moment of Inertia, G = Slope x L / R N/m2
=(1.56x103x130)/5=4.056x109 N/m2

RESULTS: -

1. Maximum shear stress = 5.0961 x108 N/m2

2. Modulus of rigidity = 4.056 x 109 N/m2
 EXPERIMENT No. MT03
IMPACT TEST – IZOD AND CHARPY

AIM:- To determine the relative impact resistance of a given specimen by conducting the IZOD
and Charpy tests.

APPARATUS / INSTRUMENTS / EQUIPMENT USED:-

 Impact testing machine,

 Vernier caliper,
 Centerpiece or setting gauge,
 Allen key.

IMPACT- TESTING MACHINE

Theory: Impact loading differs from quasi-static loading. In that a load is applied over a very
short time instead of being introduced gradually at some constant rate. This causes significant
changes in the observed material properties from those associated with normal static tests. In the
case of impact loading the effects measured are of a dynamic nature, with vibration and possibly
fracture being observed.
The Notched Bar test, where specimens are subjected to axial, bending or torsion loads using
specialized testing machines. The technique involves swinging a weight of W from a certain
specified height h to strike the notched specimen, breaking it as it passes through, and arriving at
a height h', lower than the initial position of the pendulum.
The energy expended in rupturing the specimen can be described using the equation
U = W (h-h')
Where,
W= Weight h & h’= Specified height

R.V. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, BANGALORE-560059

DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ENGG. AND MANAGEMENT

MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY

OBSERVATION / DATA SHEET

Date: Name: USN:

Lab : MT Lab Class: III Sem Expt.No:

Title of the Experiment: IMPACT TEST--- IZOD

OBSERVATIONS:
Least count of Vernier Calliper:0.02mm
Least count of the Dial on the Impact testing machine = 0.1 kg-m

EXPERIMENTAL READINGS:

Dial Reading (Kg-m)

Dimensions of the Notch Energy
Material Initial Final
specimen angle consumed
(E1) (E2)
(Kg-m)
Mild Length = 27.0mm. 45° 0 1.5 1.5
Steel Diameter =12mm
Dia. of notch=9mm
Depth of notch =1.5mm
Width of notch = 3.0mm
Cast Length = 25.0mm 45° 0 0.1 0.1
Iron Diameter = 11.0mm
Dia .of notch = 7.84mm
Depth of notch=1.58mm
Width of notch = 3.0mm

Signature of the staff in charge

PROCEDURE: -
1. Raise the pendulum and fix it to the pendulum notch. Place a thick wooden plank on the
stand below the pendulum pipe.

2. Keep the reading pointer at 17 kg-m on the inner scale. Release the Izod lever and allow
the pendulum to swing freely. Arrest the movement of the pendulum by using the
pendulum brake.

3. Record the indicator reading, which will give the energy lost due to friction and air drag.
See if the pointer comes to ‘o’ (Zero) reading. If not, there will be on error (in calibration
of the instrument). Note that as initial reading. Again raise the pendulum and fix it onto
the notch.

4. Measure the lateral dimension of the specimen at the full section and at the notch and
check whether the dimensions conform to the given standard,

5. Now fix the Izod specimen inside the damping device, hold the specimen in hand
vertically such that the half of the V-notch is just above the horizontal surface of the
clamping device (cantilever beam position) and the notch is facing the pendulum.

6. Now insert the setting gauge such that the pointer edge of the setting gauge correctly fits
inside the V-groove. Simultaneously tighten the clamping screw using allen key and
check that there is no movement of the specimen.
7. After ascertaining that, there will be nobody in the range of swinging the pendulum.
8. Operate the Izod lever. Now the pendulum will swing freely and the specimen will be
smashed. Care must be taken to see that proper range is selected on the indicator (The
circular opening in the dial should be fully-3/4th red and partly black)

9. Stop the swinging pendulum by applying the pendulum brake.

10. Note the reading on the dial corresponding to the pointer.

11. Calculate the difference between final and initial readings. This value gives the impact
energy consumed or lost in breaking the specimen.
TABULATION AND CALCULATION:-
Material Dial Reading Energy Energy
consumed Consumed
Initial E1 Final E2
(E2- E1) (Kg- (E2- E1) , J
(Kg-m) (Kg-m)
m)
Mild Steel 0 1.5 1.5 14.715

Cast Iron 0 0.1 0.1 0.981

SPECIMEN CALCULATION (For Mild Steel):-

Actual energy absorbed by the specimen during fracture

= Energy recorded on the dial indicator with specimen in position - Energy recorded on the
dial indicator without specimen in position.

= 1.5- 0 = 1.5 Kg-m = 1.5x9.81 = 14.715 J

RESULTS:-

The actual energy absorbed by the specimens is as follows: -

1. Mild steel = 14.715 J

2.Castiron = 0.981J
 R.V. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, BANGALORE-560059
DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ENGG. AND MANAGEMENT

MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY

OBSERVATION / DATA SHEET

Date: Name: USN:

Lab : MT Lab Class: III Sem Expt.No:

Title of the Experiment: IMPACT TEST---CHARPY

OBSERVATIONS:
Least count of Vernier Calliper:0.02mm
Least count of the Dial on the Impact testing machine =0.1Kgm

EXPERIMENTAL READINGS:

Dial Reading
Notch (Kg-m)
Material Dimensions of the specimen
angle Initial Final Energy
(E1) (E2) consumed
Brass Length = 60 mm 900 0 1.05 1.05
Breadth = 10 mm
Width of the notch=10mm
Depth of notch=02 mm

Mild Length = 56.20 mm 900 0 3.8 3.8

Steel Breadth = 9.76 mm
Width of the notch=10mm
Depth of notch=02 mm

Signature of the staff in charge

RESULT :

DIMENSIONS OF SPECIMEN BEFORE TESTING

 SL. PARAMETERS MATERIALS
NO. BRASS MILD STEEL
1 Length of the specimen (mm) 56.20 55.20
2 Breadth of the specimen (mm) 9.76 9.72
3 Thickness of the specimen (mm) 9.72 9.64

SPECIMEN CALCULATION

BRASS
Actual energy absorbed by specimen during fracture
= Energy recorded on the dial indicator with specimen in position - Energy recorded
on the dial indicator without specimen in position
= 1.05-0 = 1.05 kg-m = 1.05x9.81 = 10.30 N-m = 8.829 J

RESULTS:
The actual energy absorbed by the different specimens are as follows:-
Brass: - 10.3 J
Mild steal: -37.27 J
 EXPERIMENT No. D01
NON -DESTRUCTIVE TESTS

INTRODUCTION: -

A Non - destructive test is an examination of a component in any manner which will not
impair its future use. Although non-destructive test do not provide a direct measurement of
mechanical properties, but they are very useful in revealing defects in components which could
impair their performance when put in service.

Non –destructive tests make components more reliable, safe and economical.

ULTRASONIC TEST
AIM: To study the ultrasonic flaw detector and to determine the location of the interior crack or
cavity in the given specimen.

APPARATUS: Ultrasonic flaw detector.

THEORY: Ultrasonic flaw detector is a device, which is used to detect internal discontinuities
in the material by nondestructive means. It makes use of phenomenon of back reflection (echo)
of waves by surfaces. When ultrasonic waves are made to pass through the test material, portion
of the sound is immediately reflected from the surface at which they enter as a very large echo.
Part of the sound will continue on into the test material, until it is partially reflected from the
back surface as a second echo. If there is a discontinuity in the material, a portion of the sound
will be reflected from the discontinuity and will return to the receiver as a separate echo
between the echoes received from the front and back surface. The signals received are shown on
a cathode ray tube, which also has a time base connected to it, so that the position of the signal
on the screen gives an indication of the distance between the crystal generator and the surface
from which the echo originates.

Sound waves oscillating with a frequency greater than 20,000 cps are inaudible and are known
as “ultrasound”. High frequency sound is produced by a piezoelectric crystal, which is
electrically pulsed and then vibrates at its own natural frequency. In order to transmit the sound
waves from the crystal to the metal, it is necessary to provide a liquid couplant. This is
accomplished by using a film of oil between the crystal and the test piece. After the crystal has
given off its short burst of sound waves, it stops vibrating and listens for the returning echoes,
i.e., one crystal probe is used to send and receive the sound. This cycle of transmitting and then
receiving is repeated at an adjustable rate from 100 to 1000 times per second.

Returning echoes on the CRT causes short vertical spikes called pips. These are spaced along the
baseline according to their time of receipt. Since the sound travels through the material at a
constant speed, the spacing of the pips can be considered as indicating thickness. Selecting and
expanding full screen size of the CRT can eliminate unwanted echoes caused by reverberations
with the test piece.
PROCEDURE:

1. Clean the surface of the test piece.

2. Place the probe against the surface of test piece using thin oil film.
3. Switch on the power supply of the ultrasonic wave generator.
4. Adjust the number of cycles of transmitting and receiving the signals to the desired value.
5. Select the segment of time, which contain the echo pips.
6. Observe the echo from the cavity if any on the CRT and measure the relative distances of
pips on the time axis.

Let A = Time elapsed between the pips of front surface echo and bottom surface
echo (sec)
B = Time elapsed between the pips of front surface echo and cavity surface echo
(sec)
H = Thickness of test specimen (mm)

Location of the crack from the front surface x = (B/A)x h

ADVANTAGES:

1. It is a fast, reliable method of non destructive inspection

2. It is a very sensitive method.
3. The minimum flow size which can be detected is equal to about 0.1% of the distance
from the probe to the defect.
4. Big castings can be systematically scanned for initial detection of major defects.
5. Ultrasonic inspection involves low cost and high speed of operation.
6. The sensitivity of ultrasonic flow detection is extremely high, being at a maximum when
using waves of highest frequency.

LIMITATIONS:

1. Ultrasonic inspection is sensitive to surface roughness since cost surfaces are usually rough,
some preliminary machining an castings will be required.
2. In complex castings the interpretation of the oscillographic trace may not be easy. Waves
reflected from corners or other surfaces may give a false indication of defects.

APPLICATIONS:

1. Inspection of large castings and forgings, for internal soundness, before carrying out
expensive machining operations
2. Inspection of moving strip or plate (for laminations) as regards its thickness.
3. Routine inspection of locomotive axles and wheel pins for fatigue cracks.
4. Inspection of rails for bolt-hole breaks without dismantling railed assemblies.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TEST

AIM: To detect the surface or subsurface crack of the given ferromagnetic material.
APPARATUS: Magnetic field generator and ferromagnetic powder.

Magnetic
particles U-Horse Magnet

THEORY: The magnetic particle method of inspection is a ofprocedure

Location Crack used to determine the
presence of defects at or near the surface of the ferromagnetic objects. This method consists of
placing fine ferromagnetic particles on the surface. The particles can be applied either dry or in
a liquid carrier such as water or kerosene. When the part is magnetized with a magnetic field, a
discontinuity (defects) on the surface causes the particles to gather visibly around it. Thus, the
defects become a magnet due to the principle of flux leakage where magnetic field lines are
interrupted by the defect and collect the ferromagnetic particles. The collected particles
generally take the shape and size of the defects. Sub surface defects can also be detected by this
method, provided they are not deep. The ferromagnetic particles may be colored with pigments
for better visibility on the metal surfaces.

The magnetic fields can be generated either with direct current or alternating current, using
yokes, bars and coils. The equipment may be portable or stationery.
Procedure:
1. Clean the surface of the test specimen to remove scales, oil and grease.
2. Apply a thin layer of ferromagnetic particles over the surface to be tested.
3. Magnetize the test piece.
4. Observe the shape and size of the magnetic particles collected, which is the shape and size
of the defect.

VISUAL INSPECTION

Defects like surface cracks, tears, blowholes, metal penetration, rattails and buckles, swells,
shifts, surface roughness and shrinkage are easily located by visual inspection.

It is carried out with the marked eye or using a magnifying glass. This method is the simplest,
fastest and most commonly employed, but requires greater skill on the part of the inspector to
locate and identify different manufacturing defects.

The inspector identifies the casting defects and assigns their cause to some foundry operation or
raw materials so that corrective measures can be employed.

Visual inspection ensures that none of the features of a casting has been omitted or malformed by
moulding errors short running or mistakes in fitting.
 LIQUID PENETRANT TEST

AIM: To detect the surface defects by penetrant test.

APPARATUS: Penetrant, developer and ultraviolet light source.

THEORY: In the liquid penetrant test, liquids are applied to the surface of the part and
allowed to penetrate into surface openings, cracks, seams and porosity. Two commonly
known types of liquid penetrants are:
(a) Fluorescent Penetrants which fluoresce under ultraviolet light, and
(b) Visible penetrant using dyes, usually red if which appear as bright outlines on the
surface.
The test piece is coated or socked in a liquid penetrant and the surplus coating is wiped off.
After a short time, a developing agent is added to allow the penetrant to seep back to the
surface (due to capillary action) and spread to the edges of openings. The surface is then
inspected for defects, either visually in the case of dye-penetrants or under ultraviolet light
for fluorescent penetrant. The developer includes dry powders, aqueous liquid and non-
aqueous liquid. This method is capable of detecting variety of surface defects and is used
extensively.

PROCEDURE:
1. Clean the test piece surface to remove scales, oil and grease.
2. Immerse the test piece in the selected penetrant and hold it for some time.
3. Remove the excess penetrant on the test piece surface.
4. Apply the developer on the surface of the test piece.
5. Examine the surface of the test piece under appropriate viewing conditions.
6. Clean the surface to prevent corrosion, etc.

OTHER NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTS

1. Hammer Test
2. Radiography Test
X- Ray radiography
Gamma-ray radiography

3. Testing for metal composition

-Wet analysis
- Spectroscopy
- Spot test techniques.
EXPERIMENT No. MT04

ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

AIM:- To determine the Rockwell hardness number of the given specimen.

APPARATUS / INSTRUMENTS / EQUIPMENT USED:-

 Rockwell Hardness tester

 Indentors

ROCKWELL HARDNESS TESTER

Equipment Description: Rockwell HTM impacts a standard load on a steel ball or diamond
indenter.

Rockwell hardness test determines the hardness of ceramic substrates. The most common method
of calculating hardness of plastics such as nylon, polycarbonate, polystyrene, and acetal is done
by Rockwell hardness test. This test is also used for measuring the resistance of the plastic to
indentation. The dial gauge is used to calculate the difference in depth produced by two different
forces. The load applied, indenter diameter and the indentation depth can be measured using
Rockwell hardness value.
 R.V. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, BANGALORE-560059
DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ENGG. AND MANAGEMENT

MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY

OBSERVATION / DATA SHEET

Date: Name: USN:

Lab : MT Lab Class: III Sem Expt.No:

Title of the Experiment: ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

OBSERVATIONS AND TABULATION

Rockwell Hardness
SL.NO Material Scale Load(Kg) Indenter Number
Trail 1 Trail 2 Trail 3
1 Mild steel C 150 Cone(120°) 107 107 108
2 Cast Iron C 150 Cone(120°) 93 94 93
3 Brass B 100 Ball (1/16th 48 51 46
4 Copper B 100 Ball (1/16th 91 95 101
5 Aluminium B 100 Ball (1/16th 52 54 52

Signature of the staff in charge

SELECTION OF LOAD AND INDENTOR

 Scale Major Load Indentor Application
Symbol (Kg)
A 60 Cone Cemented carbide, thin steel, hardened
steel.
B 100 (1/16)” Ball Copper alloys, Soft Steels, Aluminum
Alloys, Malleable Iron
C 150 Cone Steel, Hard cast Iron, Paralyte malleable
Iron, Deep case hardened steel.

PROCEDURE

1. Place the specimen on the anvil.

2. Select the load and indentor combination based on specimen material.
3. Raise the anvil until the specimen comes in contact with the indentor. Continue to raise
the anvil slowly till the pilot lamp goes off. This indicates that the minor load of 10 kg is
acting on the indentor.
4. Actuate the lever to apply the major load.
5. Give at least 10 seconds after the lever comes to rest position.
6. Read the position of the pointer on the corresponding scale of the dial, which gives the
Rockwell hardness number.
7. Make three tests on each specimen.
8. Calculate average Rockwell hardness number.
9. Plot the bar chart separately for B-Scale and C-Scale
TABULATION AND CALCULATIONS:-
Rockwell Hardness Number
SL.
Material Scale Load(Kg) Indenter Trial
NO Trial 2 Trial 3 Avg.RHN
1
1 Mild steel C 150 Cone(120°) 107 107 108 107.33
2 Cast Iron C 150 Cone(120°) 93 94 93 93.33
Ball dia
3 Brass B 100 (1/16th of an 48 51 46 48.33
inch)
Ball dia 91 95
4 Copper B 100 (1/16th 101 95.66
of an inch)
Ball 52 54
Aluminiu
5 B 100 dia(1/16th 52 52.66
m
of an inch)

SPECIMEN CALCULATION:-

Material : BRASS

Scale : B-Scale

Indentor = 1/16” Ball Indentor

Major Load Applied = 100 Kgs

Rockwell Number for trail 1, RHN1 = 48

Rockwell Number for trail 2, RHN2 = 51

Rockwell Number for trail 3, RHN3 = 46

Average Rockwell Number = (RHN1+RHN2+ RHN3) / 3

= (48+51+46) / 3 = 48.33 Kg/cm2

RESULTS:-
MATERIAL ROCKWELL HARDNESS
NUMBER
Cast Iron 93.33
Mild Steel 107.33
Brass 48.33
Copper 95.66
Aluminium 52.66
C Scale

B Scale
 EXPERIMENT No. MT06

DOUBLE SHEAR TEST

AIM:- To conduct a Double shear test on different materials and obtain their shear strengths.

APPARATUS / EQUIPMENT / INSTRUMENTS USED:-

• Universal testing machine,

• Vernier calipers,
• Double shear shackles.

UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

DOUBLE SHEAR SHACKLES AND SPECIMEN:

 R.V. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, BANGALORE-560059
DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ENGG. AND MANAGEMENT

MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY

OBSERVATION / DATA SHEET

Date: Name: USN:

Lab : MT Lab Class: III Sem Expt.No:

Title of the Experiment: DOUBLE SHEAR TEST

OBSERVATIONS:

Least count of vernier caliper =0.02mm

TABULATION

Sl.
MATERIAL DIAMETER (mm) Failure Load (Kg)
No.
1 Brass 7.7 3200
2 Mild Steel 7.7 4300

Signature of the staff in charge

PRINCIPLE:

Shear stress is caused by forces which act parallel to in area if cross-section and tend to produce
sliding of one portion past another portion as shown in figure below:

If the force is resisted by failure through one plane and single area, then the material is said to be
in single shear. In single shear,

failure load P P 4P
‫=ح‬    N / m2
area of cross section A D 4 D
2 2

Where, D - initial diameter of the specimen.

P - failure load.
P P

If 2 areas resist the fracture, then the area is said to be in double shear.

Failure Load P 2P
   N / m2
2  Area of cross section 2 A D 2

For conduction shear test, a suitable steel shackle may be fabricated based upon fork and eye
plate principle the specimen is inserted as a connecting pin in the bush housing between the
shackles; the fork plates of the shackle held rigidly together by bolts for avoiding any bending
tendency of the specimen under high loads, and is tested in double shear.

1. The diameter of the specimen is measured using vernier calipers and the area of cross
section of the specimen is calculated.
2. The specimen is than inserted inside the shear shackles & is placed inside the shear center
plate.
3. The entire assembly is then placed on the lower cross slide of the universal testing
machine.
4. The intermediate cross slide is then moved down till it makes contact with the top of the
centre plate, through which the load is applied on the specimen.
 5. The machine is started and the load is applied gradually till the specimen fails. At this
point note down the load and the corresponding dial gauge reading.

OBSERVATION:
Sl.
MATERIAL DIAMETER (mm) Failure Load (Kg)
No.
1 Brass 7.7 3200
2 Mild Steel 7.7 4300

CALCULATION OF DOUBLE SHEAR STRENGTH

MILD STEEL

Area of cross section,

A
d 2
 
 7.7 
2
 46.566mm 2
4 4
 46.566  10 -6 m 2

Double strength,

Failure Load 4300  9.81

   452.937 10 6 N / m 2
2  Area of cross section 
2  46.566  10 6


BRASS

A
d 2
 
 7.7  2  46.566mm 2
Area of cross section, 4 4
 46.566  10 -6 m 2
Double strength,

Failure Load 3200  9.81

   337.069  10 6 N / m 2
2  Area of cross section 
2  46.566  10 6

RESULT:

SL.N0 MATERIAL DOUBLE SHEAR

STRENGTH
1 MILD STEEL 452.937 X106 N/m2
2 BRASS 337.0699 X106 N/m2
EXPERIMENT No. D02

FATIGUE TEST
AIM: To determine the fatigue limit and the fatigue strength.
APPARATUS: Fatigue testing machine and micrometer caliper.

THEORY: Failure due to repeatedly applied load is known as fatigue. The physical effect of a
repeated load on a material is different from the static load, failure always being brittle fracture
regardless of whether the material is brittle or ductile. Mostly fatigue failure occurs at stress well
below the static strength of the material. If the applied load changes from any magnitude in one
direction to the same magnitude in the opposite direction, the loading is termed completely
reversed, where as if the load changes from one magnitude to another (the direction does not
necessarily change), the load is said to be fluctuating load.
Fatigue testing machine: In the simplest type of machine for fatigue testing, the load applied is of
bending type. The test specimen may be of simply supported beam or a cantilever. R.R.Moore
rotating beam type machine for a simply supported beam.A specimen of circular cross-section is
held at its ends in special holders and loaded through two bearings equidistant from the center of
the span. Equal loads on these bearings are applied by means of weights that produce a uniform
bending moment in the specimen between the loaded bearings. A motor rotates the specimen.
Since the upper fibers of the rotating beam are always in compression while the lower fibers are
in tension, it is apparent that a complete cycle of reversed stress in all fibers of the beam is
produced during each revolution. A revolution counter is used to find the number of cycles the
specimen is repeatedly subjected to the load. For simply supported beam, maximum bending
moment is at the center.
The testing techniques are subjected to a series of identical specimens to loads of different
magnitudes and note the number of cycles N of stress (or load) necessary to fracture the
specimen. The data are plotted on a semi logarithmic paper, the stress S being plotted to a linear
scale and the number of cycles N to a logarithmic scale.This is known as stress-cycle (S-N)
diagram and the fatigue limit can be, determined from the diagram. Fatigue limit or endurance
limit is the stress below, which a material can be, stressed cyclically an indefinitely large number
of times without failure. The fatigue strength is the stress at which a metal fails by fatigue after a
certain number of cycles.
Specimens: All specimens should be taken from the same rod, each specimen should receive
same kind of machining and heat treatment. The specimens for tests have no sharp stress raisers.
The surface of the specimen is polished.

Fracture appearance: Under repeated loading, a small crack forms in a region of high-localized
stress, and a very high stress concentration accompanies the crack. As the load fluctuates, the
crack opens and closes and progresses across the section. Frequently this crack propagation
continues until there is in sufficient cross section left to carry the load and the member ruptures,
the failure being fatigue failure. Therefore fractured surface shows two surfaces of distinctly
different appearance.

1. A smooth surface where the crack has spread slowly and the walls of the crack are polished
by repeated opening and closing. This surface usually shows characteristic of beach or
clamshell marking.
2. A crystalline or fibrous surface where sudden failure occurred.
PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the diameter d and the length L of the specimen.
2. Fasten the specimen in the chucks of the testing machine.
3. Set the maximum load. Set the counter to zero, and start the machine.
4. Note the number of cycles N the specimen experiences before fracture.
5. Repeat the above test on the other specimens with gradually reduced loads. Draw the S-
N diagram and obtain the endurance limit.
 EXPERIMENT No. MT10

BENDING TEST

AIM:- To conduct the bending test on the given material and there by determine the following:

i. Stiffness
ii. Maximum bending moment
iii. Maximum bending stress at failure
iv. Modulus of elasticity

APPARATUS/EQUIPMENT/INSTRUMENTS USED
 Universal Testing Machine
 Cathetometer
 Bending test attachment
 Former (acting as a knife edge to apply a concentrated load at the center of the
specimen)
Cathetometer

The Cathetometer can measure with great precision the difference in level between two points
whether or not they lie on the same vertical line. This instrument is made of a robust graduated
vertical copper rod, more than a meter long. The rod turns on its axis and is mounted on a tripod
with leveling screws. Attached to the rod are two horizontal collimeter telescopes attached to
tracks which have a ruler and a pointer and which can slide along the rod. The instrument's case
has the form of a right angle prism and rests on a strong metallic tripod. Less sophisticated
cathetometers have one telescope with which the two points are collimated successively.
If two points, A and B, are collimated through the telescopes and the positions assumed by the
two pointers are read on the scale, the difference between gives the distance between the
horizontal planes of the two points. The collimation is effected by creating a coincidence
between the image of the point (observable through the telescopes) and the center of the
instrument's optical grid. The degree of precision obtained in measurement depends on the
approximation obtained with the ruler and on the care with which the graduated rod is put
vertical and the telescopes horizontal.
 R.V. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, BANGALORE-560059
DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ENGG. AND MANAGEMENT

MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY

OBSERVATION / DATA SHEET

Date: Name: USN:

Lab : MT Lab Class: III Sem Expt.No:

Title of the Experiment: BENDING TEST

OBSERVATIONS
Least count of vernier caliper = 0.02mm
Least of cathetometer = 0.01mm

MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS

Length (l) mm 400

Breadth (b) mm 46
Thickness (d) mm 71

LOAD AND DEFLECTION READINGS

Cathetometer initial reading = 17.272mm

Sl. No Load (Kg) MATERIAL: MATTI WOOD
Final Reading Final-Initial Reading
1 0 17.272 0
2 300 17.403 0.131
3 600 17.413 0.141
4 900 17.413 0.141
5 1200 17.541 0.269
6 1500 17.788 0.516
7 1800 18.007 0.735
8 2100 18.126 0.854
9 2400 Breaking point

Signature of the staff in charge

PRINCIPLE
A bending test can be performed on an actual being cross -section by using a 3-point loading
system. The bending fixture is supported on the platform of the hydraulic cylinder of the UTM ,
The loading edge is held in the middle or intermediate crosshead. At a particular load , the
deflection at the centre of the beam is determined using a dial gauge.

The deflection at the centre of the beam is given by

 = W L 3 / (48 E I )
E = W L 3 / (48  I )
Stiffness , W/ = 48 EI/ L3
This is derived from the bending equation , M/I = / y = E/R
The beam with simply supported at two ends and loaded at the centre is as shown in figure

For the above beam

Maximum bending moment = WL/4

Since cross section of beam is rectangle with dimensions b&d,
I = bd3 / 12
Therefore, s = 3WL / (2d3) N/m2
Where L = Length of the specimen in meters,
b = breadth of the specimen in meters ,
d = depth or thickness of the specimen in meters ,
W= Applied load in N
PROCEDURE

1. The bending test attachment is fitted in the universal testing machine and the specimen is
fixed in it using the special shackles provided for the purpose.
2. The breadth and thickness of the specimen are measured using vernier caliper and its
length determined after fixing
3. The loading former is fixed in the intermediate cross head firmly and is adjusted till it just
touches the specimen.
4. Record the initial cathetometer reading .
5. Load is applied, and after every 300 Kg, the cathetometer is focused on the wood
specimen and the corresponding reading recorded.
6. Loading is continued till the specimen fails
7. Calculations are made.
8. A graph of load against deflection is plotted.

Principal features of supporting and loading devices for BEAM TESTS indicating
provision for longitudinal and lateral rotational adjustment at support

DEFLECTION MEASURING DEVICES

BENDING OF A BEAM
MATERIAL: TEAK WOOD
BENDING MOMENT CALCULATIONS

SL. LOAD W DEFLECTION READING  (mm) Bending

NO. (X9.81 N) moment (N-m)
1 0 162.60 162.60 0 0
2 300 162.60 163.53 0.93 286.94
3 600 162.60 164.03 1.43 573.89
4 900 162.60 164.42 1.92 860.83
5 1200 162.60 165.16 2.56 1147.77
6 1500 162.60 165.34 2.74 1434.71
7 1800 162.60 165.50 2.90 1721.66
8 2100 162.60 166.00 3.40 2008.60
9 2400 162.60 166.64 4.04 2295.54
10 2700 162.60 166.80 4.20 2582.48
11 3000 162.60 167.32 4.72 2869.43

MATERIAL : MATTI WOOD

BENDING MOMENT CALCULATIONS

LOAD W DEFLECTION  (mm) Bending moment

(X9.81 N) (N-m)
INITIAL FINAL = Final – Initial
1 0 17.272 17.272 0 0
2 300 17.272 17.403 0.131 286.94
3 600 17.272 17.413 0.141 573.89
4 900 17.272 17.413 0.141 860.83
5 1200 17.272 17.541 0.269 1147.77
6 1500 17.272 17.788 0.516 1434.71
7 1800 17.272 18.007 0.735 1721.66
8 2100 17.272 18.126 0.854 2008.60
9 2400 17.272 Breaking
point
 DEFELECTION vs LOAD GRAPH FOR TEAK WOOD

3500

3000

2500
LOAD (X9.81 N )

2000

1500

1000

500

0
0 0.93 1.43 1.92 2.56 2.74 2.9 3.4 4.04 4.2 4.72
DEFLECTION (X0.001 m)

DEFLECTION vs LOAD FOR

MATTI WOOD

1600
LOAD (X9.81 N)

1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 1.15 1.65 2.25 1.05 3.35

DEFLECTION (X0.001 m)
SPECIMEN CALCULATION

MATERIAL : TEAK WOOD (Sl. No. 2)

1. Deflection,  = Final reading - Initial reading = (17.541-17.272) =

0.269 mm =26.9 x 10-3 m

2. Load, W = 1200 Kg = 1200 x 9.81= 11772 N

Length of the specimen, l = 400.0 mm = 0.4 m
Breadth of the specimen, b =47.0 mm = 0.47m
Thickness of the specimen, d = 71.0 mm = 0.071m

3. Bending moment, M = W l / 4 = 11772x 0.4 /4 = 1177.2 N-m

4 Maximum bending moment = Wmax x l /4

= 3000 x9.81 x 0.39/4 = 2869.43N-m
5 Momentum of inertia, I = bd3/12= 0.47 x (0.71 )3/12 = 1.4018 x 10-6 m4

6 Stiffness = W / = 2400 x 9.81/ 26.9 x 10 –3 N/m

= 875.24 x 103 N/m
7 Maximum bending stress = 3 Wmax L/ ( 2 bd2 )
= 3 x 3000 x 9.81 x 0.4 / (2 x 0.071 x (0.047)2)
= 91.82 x 106 N/m2
8 From graph W vs ,
W = 2500x9.81 N = 3.9 x 10-3 m
Now,
Young’s Modulus, E = WL3 / (48 I )
= 4.28 x 1015 N/m2

RESULT :

SL. PROPERTIES MATERIALS

No
TEAK WOOD MATTI WOOD

1 Modulus of Elasticity 9.95 x 109 6.19 x 109

2 (Young’s Modulus) ( N/m2) 2869.43 1397.93
3 Maximum Bending (N-m) 6.29 x 106 4.04 x 106
4 Stiffness (N/M) 91.82 x 106 44.17x106

CONCLUSION:

From above results, it can be concluded that

Teak Wood is having more strength than Matti Wood

EXPERIMENT No. MT08

BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

AIM:- To find out the Brinell Hardness Number for the given specimen/s of ferrous metals (mild
steel, cost iron) and non-ferrous metals (copper, Brass)

APPARATUS / EQUIPMENT/INSTRUMENTS USED:-

 Brinell hardness testing machine ,

 Ball Indentor
 Traveling microscope .

Brinell Hardness Testing Machine

Equipment Description:Brinell HTM measures the resistance of a material to the penetration of a

hardened steel ball subjected to a standard load.

This Hardness Tester uses a machine to measure hardness by determining the depth of
penetration of a spherical shaped device under controlled conditions. A carbide sphere of a
specified diameter under a specified load is applied to the surface of the material and the
diameter of the indentation is measured. The diameter of the indentation made is measured with
the aid of Microscope.

The Brinell hardness value is obtained by dividing the load to the actual surface area. This
number is used to make relative comparisons of the different materials.
The formula used to calculate the Brinell hardness number is as follows:
Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) = F/[∏/2 (D-√D²- Di²)]
Where
F - Applied Load
D - Diameter of the spherical indenter
Di -Diameter of the resulting indenter impression

These machines are robustly built to provide laboratory accuracy in the harshest industrial
environments and are used all over the world. The only disadvantage is more time is consumed
for measuring hardness.
 R.V. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, BANGALORE-560059
DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ENGG. AND MANAGEMENT

MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY

OBSERVATION / DATA SHEET

Date: Name: USN:

Lab : MT Lab Class: III Sem Expt.No:

Title of the Experiment: BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

OBSERVATIONS:

Diameter of ball indenter =2.5mm

Least count of micrometer =0.001mm

TABULATION:
Sl. LOAD Duration of Diameter of
MATERIAL
No. (KG) loading (sec) indentation(mm)
1 Steel 187.5 15 1.117 1.255 1.247
2 Cast Iron 187.5 15 1.043 1.031 1.045
3 Brass 62.5 15 0.82 0.812 0.831
4 Copper 62.5 15 0.965 0.955 0.975

Signature of the staff in charge

DERIVATION FOR BRINELL HARDNESS NUMBER

The principle of the Brinell Hardness Number is as shown in Figure .

From the geometry of the figure,

h = depth of indentation in mm
d = diameter of indentation in mm
D = diameter of indentor ball in mm
O
From triangle OAE, D/2 D/2

OA =Sqrt ( OE2 – EA2)

C A E
= Sqrt[( D/2)2 –(d/2)2] h
h = OB- OA
= D/2 - Sqrt[( D/2)2 –(d/2)2] B h
Area of spherical indentation, d

A = P x DXh=P x Dx{D/2 - Sqrt[( D/2)2 –(d/2)2]}

= P x (D/2) x{ D - Sqrt[( D)2 –(d)2]}

BHN = Load / Area of spherical indentation

= P
P x (D/2) x[( D – Sqrt [( D)2 –(d)2]

Cross Sections of Indentation in Brinell Test

PROCEDURE:

1. Place the polished specimen on the platform.

2. Raise the platform till the surface of the specimen gets focused on the microscope screen.

3. Select the load by pressing the load selector.

 Load P : 30XD2 for ferrous materials
:10 D2 For non ferrous materials
: 5 D2 for soft metals and alloys
Where P is the load in kg. and
D is the diameter of the indentor in mm.
4 Press the actuator in position,then the load acts on the indentor.
5. Wait till the handle on the left side of the frame comes to rest position. Now allow the load to
act for 15 seconds for ferrous materials and 30 seconds for non ferrous materials.
6. Press the handle down without jerk to release the load and to bring the objective lens back into
position
7. Measure the diameter of the indentation using the micrometer and microscope
8. For each materials make at least three indentations and measure the diameters.
9. Calculate the BHN for each diameter obtained and take the average of the three.
10. Tabulate the results.
11. Draw the Bar chart

TABULATION AND CALCULATIONS

Sl Material Load Duration Diameter of Indentation Average

No (Kg) Of Loading (mm) BHN
(Sec) (X108N/M2)
1 COPPER 62.5 30 0.965 0.955 0.975 8.05
2 BRASS 62.5 30 0.82 0.812 0.831 11.478
3 MILD STEEL 187.5 15 1.117 1.255 1.247 15.394
4 CAST IRON 187.5 15 1.043 1.031 1.045 21.112
SPECIMEN CALCULATION

MATERIAL : COPPER

Applied Load, P = 62.5 Kg.

Diameter of Ball, D = 2.5 mm

Avg.Diameter of Indentation, d= 0.965 mm

BHN = P / [  x (D/2) x (D- Sqrt D2 – d2)]

= 62.5 / [ x(2.5/2)x(2.5 – Sqrt (2.5)2 – (0.965)2)]
= 82.143Kg / mm2 = 82.143x9.81 N /mm2 = 8.05 x 108 N/m2

RESULT:

1. Bar chart was drawn for the given materials

2. The BHN’s of the given materials are as shown in below:

SL. MATERIAL BRINELL HARDNESS
NO NUMBER
(X108N/ m2)
1 COPPER 8.05
2 BRASS 11.478
3 MILD STEEL 15.394
4 CAST IRON 21.112

EXPERIMENT No. MT09

 VICKER’S HARDNESS TEST

AIM: - To determine the Vicker’s Hardness number of the given material

APPARATUS/EQUIPMENT/INSTRUMENTS USED: -
 Vicker’s Hardness Tester,
 Diamond pyramid indentor.
Vickers Hardness Testing Machine

Vickers HTM is used to measure hardness of metals with hard surfaces. It is measured from the
size of an impression produced under standard load by a diamond indenter used, which is
pyramid-shaped. The diagonal length is measured with a Microscope. The formula used to
calculate the Vickers Hardness Number is as follows:
Vicker Number (HV) = 1.854(F/ D²)
Where,
F - Applied Load, D² - Indentation Area

Advantages of Vickers Hardness Tester

The diagonal of the square can be measured easily and accurately Easier method for testing
harder materials.

Disadvantages of Vickers Hardness Tester

More Complicated & Expensive
 R.V. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, BANGALORE-560059
DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ENGG. AND MANAGEMENT

MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY

OBSERVATION / DATA SHEET

Date: Name: USN:

Lab : MT Lab Class: III Sem Expt.No:

Title of the Experiment: VICKERS HARDNESS TEST

OBSERVATIONS:

Indentor = Square pyramid indentor

Least count of traveling micrometer =0.001mm

TABULATIONS

Sl. No. MATERIAL Standard Diagonal width (mm)

Load P
(Kg) d1 d2
1 BRASS 20 0.500 0.500 0.486 0.500 0.467 0.500
2 CAST IRON 30 0.501 0.530 0.544 0.559 0.516 0.539
3 MILD STEEL 30 0.618 0.610 0.625 0.618 0.620 0.613
4 COPPER 20 0.569 0.553 0.558 0.547 0.547 0.548
1 BRASS 20 0.500 0.500 0.486 0.500 0.467 0.500

Signature of the staff in charge

THEORY :-

Vickers hardness number indicate the extent of resistance offered by the material to permanent
indentation under static loading .

The test consists in forcing a square based diamond pyramid (with an angle of 136 0 between
opposite faces) into the ground or polished surface to be tested. The pyramidal indentor makes
impressions that remain geometrically similar irrespective of its size.

The hardness number is derived from the relationship between the applied load and the surface
area of the indentation.

Definition: Vickers hardness number is defined as the ratio between load and surface area of the
impression and is calculated by formula,
Vickers hardness number (VHN) = 2 P sin (q/2)/ d2
= (1.854xP/d2) Kg/mm2
=(18.188 x 106 x P/d2) /m2

Where P = applied load in kg

d = Length of diagonal of indentation in m
 = apex angle of the pyramidal indentor

PRINCIPLE :-

Diamond pyramid Indentor

(included angle 1360 )

d2 d1

Top view of indentation

 PROCEDURE:-
1. Place the polished specimen on the platform
2. Raise the platform till the surface of the specimen is focused on the microscope screen.
3. Select the load by pressing the load selector button
4. Load , P = 30 Kg, For ferrous materials
5. = 20 Kg. For non-ferrous materials
6. Wait till the handle on the left side of the frame comes to rest position, and after that
allow the load to act for 15 seconds for ferrous materials and 30 seconds for non-ferrous
materials
7. Press the handle down without any jerk to release the load and to bring the objective lens
back into the position
8. Measure the length of the diagonals (d1 and d2) using the traveling micrometer and
calculate their average, d.
9. For each material make at least three indentations and measure the length of the
diagonals
10. Using the formula, calculate the Vickers hardness number for each trial and calculate
their average.

TABULATION AND CALCULATIONS

Sl. MATERIAL Load Length of diagonal (mm) VHN X106 Average
No. (Kg) d1 d2 d=(d1+d2) / 2 N/m2 VHNX106
N/m2
1 BRASS 20 0.500 0.500 0.500 1455.02 1493.04
0.500 0.476 0.488 1527.46
0.486 0.500 0.493 1496.65
2 COPPER 20 0.569 0.547 0.558 1168.26 1186.74
0.553 0.547 0.550 1202.49
0.558 0.548 0.553 1189.48
3 CAST IRON 30 0.541 0.559 0.550 1803.74 1885.3
0.530 0.516 0.523 1994.79
0.544 0.539 0.542 1857.38
4 MILD STEEL 30 0.618 0.618 0.618 1428.64 1431.76
0.610 0.620 0.615 1442.61
0.625 0.613 0.619 1424.03

SPECIMEN CALCULATION

Material : Brass
Load,P = 20 Kg = 20 x 9.81 N = 196. 2 N

For Trial 1, Length of diagonals, d1 = 0.500 mm & d2 = 0.500 mm

Average length of diagonal, d = (d1 +d2)/2 = (0.500 +0.500)/2
= 0.500 mm = 0.500 x 10- 3 m
VHN1 = (18.188 x 20)/ (0.500 x 10- 3 ) 2 = 1455.02 x 106 N/m2
VHN2 = (18.188 x 20)/ (0.488 x 10- 3 ) 2 = 1527.46 x 106 N/m2
VHN3 = (18.188 x 20)/ (0.493 x 10- 3 ) 2 = 1496.65 x 106 N/m2

Average VHN = (VHN1+VHN2+VHN3) / 3

= {(1496.63+1455.02 +1455.02) x 106} / 3 N/m2

= 1493.04 x 106 N/m2

RESULTS:-

MATERIAL VICKER’S HARNESS

NUMBER (x106 N/M2)
COPPER 1186.74
BRASS 1493.04
CAST IRON 1885.30
MILD STEEL 1431.76

EXPERIMENT No. –MT07

COMPRESSION TEST
AIM: To study the behaviour of the given materials under compressive loading and to determine
the following properties:

1. Maximum Compressive strength,

2. Proportional limit,
3. Elastic limit (Young’s modulus)

APPARATUS/EQUIPMENT/INSTRUMENTS USED

• Universal testing machine,

• Vernier Caliper,
• Compression shackles.

Universal Testing Machine

 R.V. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, BANGALORE-560059
DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ENGG. AND MANAGEMENT

MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY

OBSERVATION / DATA SHEET

Date: Name: USN:

Lab : MT Lab Class: III Sem Expt.No:

Title of the Experiment: COMPRESSION TEST

OBSERVATIONS:

Least count of Vernier Caliper =0.02mm

TABULATION

SL. CHARACTERISTIC OF THE MATERIAL

NO. SPECIMEN
BRASS MILD STEEL

1. 22.00 21.16
Initial Height of the specimen (hi) mm

2. 18.00 18.40
Initial Diameter of the specimen (di) mm

3. 16.78 14.70
Final Height of the specimen (hf) mm

4. 21.60 22.60
Final Diameter of the specimen (df) mm

Signature of the staff in charge

TABULATION:

INITIAL SCALE READING = 100 mm

MATERIAL : MILD STEEL MATERIAL : BRASS

SL. LOAD SCALE SL. NO LOAD (KG) SCALE
NO (KG) READING READING
(mm) (mm)
1 0 100 1. 0 10.0
2 1000 101 2. 1000 10.0
3 2000 101 3. 2000 10.0
4 3000 101 4. 3000 10.0
5 4000 101 5. 4000 10.0
6 5000 101 6. 5000 10.0
7 6000 101 7. 6000 10.0
8 7000 101 8. 7000 10.0
9 8000 101 9. 8000 100
10 9000 101 10. 9000 101
11 14000 102 11. 10000 101
12 15000 103 12. 11000 101
13 16000 104 13. 12000 101
14 17000 104 14. 13000 101
15 18000 105 15. 14000 101
16 19000 105 16. 15000 102
17 20000 106 17. 16000 103
18 21000 106 18. 17000 103
19 22000 106 19. 18000 103
20 23000 106 20. 19000 104
21 24000 107 21. 20000 104
22 25000 108 22. 21000 104
23 14000 102 23. 22000 104
24 15000 103 24. 23000 105
25. 24000 105
26. 25000 105
27. 26000 106
28. 27000 106
29. 28000 106
 PROCEDURE :

1. Fix the lower and upper compression plates in between the bottom cross head and
intermediate crosshead.
2. Measure the initial diameter (di) and initial height (hi) of the given specimen using vernier
caliper.
3. Place the specimen at the centre of the bottom plate and bring the top of the specimen in
contact with the top plate by moving the intermediate cross head down wards.
4. Apply compressive load in steps of 1000 Kg.
5. The experiment is continued till the specimen attains a barrel shape on reaching the max
load for ductile materials or fractures at maximum load for brittle materials.
6. 6.Record load values and corresponding decrease in heights form the scale which is fixed to
the UTM.
7. Measure final height (hf ) and largest diameter of the specimen (df) using vernier caliper
8. Calculate stress and corresponding strain.
9. Plot the stress- strain diagram .
10. Calculate the young’s modulus from the graph
( Slope of the graph –with in elastic limits)

MATERIAL : BRASS

INITIAL SCALE READING = 100 mm , A= 254.47mm2

SL NO LOAD SCALE STRESS STRAIN

(Kg) READING x106(N/m2)
(mm)
1 0 100 0 0
2 1000 100 38.55 0
3 2000 100 77.10 0
4 3000 100 115.65 0
5 4000 100 154.20 0
6 5000 100 192.75 0
7 6000 100 231.30 0
8 7000 100 269.85 0
9 8000 100 308.41 0
10 9000 101 346.96 0.045
11 10000 101 385.51 0.045
12 11000 101 424.06 0.045
13 12000 101 462.61 0.045
14 13000 101 501.16 0.045
15 14000 101 539.71 0.045
16 15000 102 578.26 0.091
17 16000 103 616.81 0.136
 18 17000 103 655.36 0.136
19 18000 103 693.91 0.136
20 19000 104 732.46 0.182
21 20000 104 771.01 0.182
22 21000 104 809.56 0.182
23 22000 104 848.12 0.182
24 23000 105 886.67 0.227
25 24000 105 925.22 0.227
26 25000 105 963.77 0.227
27 26000 106 1002.32 0.273
28 27000 106 1040.87 0.273
29 28000 106 1079.42 0.273

MATERIAL: MILD STEEL

INITIAL SCALE READING :-

SL NO LOAD SCALE STRESS STRAIN

(Kg) READING x106(N/m2)
(mm)
1 0 100 0 0
2 1000 100 38.55 0
3 2000 100 77.10 0
4 3000 100 115.65 0
5 4000 100 154.20 0
6 5000 100 192.75 0
7 6000 100 231.30 0
8 7000 100 269.85 0
9 8000 100 308.41 0
10 9000 101 346.96 0.045
11 10000 101 385.51 0.045
12 11000 101 424.06 0.045
13 12000 101 462.61 0.045
14 13000 101 501.16 0.045
15 14000 101 539.71 0.045
16 15000 102 578.26 0.091
17 16000 103 616.81 0.136
18 17000 103 655.36 0.136
19 18000 103 693.91 0.136
20 19000 104 732.46 0.182
21 20000 104 771.01 0.182
22 21000 104 809.56 0.182
23 22000 104 848.12 0.182
24 23000 105 886.67 0.227
25 24000 105 925.22 0.227
26 25000 105 963.77 0.227
27 26000 106 1002.32 0.273
28 27000 106 1040.87 0.273
29 28000 106 1079.42 0.273
SPECIMEN CALCULATION

Material: Brass (Sl.No.2)

1.Stress = P/A = Load in Kgs x 9.81 / Initial Area

2.Initial Area (Ai) = di2/4 =  x (18.00)2/4 = 254.47 mm2

= 245.47 x 10-6 m2

3.Stress = 1000 x 9.81 / (245.47 x 10-6) = 38.55 x 106 N/m2

4.Change in Height = Scale reading – Initial Scale reading

= 100 – 100 = 0mm

5.Strain = Change in Height / Original Height

= 0/ 21.16 = 0.00

6.Final area (Af) = df2/4 =  x (21.6)2/4 = 401.15 mm2

= 388.15 x 10-6 m2

7. % increase in area = (Af – Ai) x 100 / Ai = 44.00

8. % decrease in height = (hf – hi) x 100 / hi = 23.73

9. Compressive Strength = Max. Load / Initial Area

= 28000 x 9.81/ (245.47 x 10-6) = 10.79 x 108 N/m2

10. Modulus of elasticity (from graph) = 10.33 x 109 N/m2

SPECIMEN CALCULATION

B. Material: Mild Steel (For l.No.2)

1.Stress = P/A = Load in Kgs x 9.81 / Area

2.Initial Area (Ai) = di2/4 =  x (18.00)2/4 = 254.47 mm2

= 245.47 x 10-6 m2

3.Stress = 1000 x 9.81 / (245.47 x 10-6) = 38.55 x 106 N/m2

4.Change in Height = Scale reading – Initial Scale reading

= 101 – 100 = 1mm
 5. Strain = Change in Height / Original Height
= 1/ 21.16 = 0.047

6. Final area (Af) = df2/4 =  x (22.6)2/4 = 401.15 mm2

= 401.15 x 10-6 m2

7. % increase in area = (Af – Ai) x 100 / Ai = 57.64

8. % decrease in height = (hf – hi) x 100 / hi = 30.53

9. Maximum Compressive Strength = Max. Load / Initial Area
= 25000 x 9.81/ (245.47 x 10-6) = 9.64 x 108 N/m2

10. Modulus of elasticity (from graph) = 5.67 x 109 N/m2

SPECIMEN SKETCH

MATERIAL :DUCTILE MATERIAL :BRITTLE

BEFORE TESTING BEFORE TESTING

AFTER TESTING
AFTER TESTING

STRESS vs STRAIN GRAPH FOR BRASS MATERIAL

RESULT

SL. PARAMETER BRASS MILD

NO. S
T
E
E
L
1. Decrease in height (%) 23.73 30.53

2 Increase in area (%) 44.00 57.64

3 Compressive strength ( N/m2) 10.7942x108 96.377x108

4 Modules of elasticity (N/m2) 1.033x109 5.67x109

 EXPERIMENT No.S01&S02

PREPARATION OF SPECIMEN FOR METALLOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION &

MICROSTRUCTURE STUDY OF THE ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Objective: To study the microstructure of the given specimen (micro-section) and to

determine the grain size.

Apparatus: Hand press, flat file, emery papers of various grades, rotary polishing machine
and metallurgical microscope.

Theory: Micrography is the study of the structures of metals and their alloys under a
microscope at magnification from x75 to x1500. The observed structure is called the
microstructure. The metallographic studies include;

1. Determination of size and shape of the crystallites, which constitute an alloy.

2. Reveal the structure characteristic of certain type of mechanical working operations.
3. Detect the micro-defects such as nonmetallic inclusions, micro cracks, etc.
4. Determine the chemical content of alloy.
5. It indicates the quality of heat treatment.
Preparation of specimens for microscopical examination: The various steps involved in
preparing a specimen for microscopic examination are given below.

1. Selection of specimen: When investigating the properties of a metal, it is essential that the
specimen must be homogeneous in composition and crystal structure. A specimen of 10mm
diameter or 10mm square is cut from the metal with a saw or water-cooled slitting wheel. The
thickness of the specimen should not be more than 12mm. When a specimen is so small that it is
difficult to hold, the specimen may be mounted in a suitable compound like thermoplastic resin,
by using a hand press. In cases where neither pressure nor heating is desirable, a cold setting
thermoplastic resin can be cast round the specimen, a specimen whose surface has been prepared
for micro analyses is called micro-section.

2. Grinding: It is primarily necessary to obtain a reasonably flat surface of the specimen. This
can be achieved either by using a fairly coarse file or by using motor-driven emery belt. Care
must be taken to avoid overheating of the specimen by rapid grinding methods; since this may
lead to alterations in the microstructure. When the original hacksaw marks have been ground
out, the specimen should be thoroughly washed.

3. Fine grinding: Fine grinding is carried out on waterproof emery papers of progressively finer
grades (220, 320, 400 and 600) that are attached to a plane glass plate. The specimen is drawn
back and forth along the entire length of No. 220 paper, so that scratches produced are roughly
at right angles to those produced by the preliminary grinding operation. Having removed the
primary grinding marks, the specimen is washed thoroughly. Grinding is then continued on No.
320 paper and again turning the specimen through 900 until the previous scratch marks has been
removed. This process is repeated with No. 400 and No. 600 papers. Light pressure should be
used at all stages.

4. Polishing: The final polishing operation is to remove the fine scratches on the surface by
using a rotary polishing machine. The specimen is polished by rubbing it on a soft moist velvet
cloth mounted on a flat rotating disc, with the polishing paste. Suitable polishing pastes are fine
alumina, magnesia, Chromium oxide or diamond dust. Polishing is continued until a mirror
scratch free finish is obtained. Non-ferrous specimens are best finished by hand on a small piece
of selvyt cloth wetted with silvo polishing. This should be accomplished with a circular sweep
of the hand instead of back and forth motion used in grinding. During polishing a constant trip
of water is fed to the rotating pad. After polishing, the specimen must be washed thoroughly.
The grease films if any can be removed by immersing the specimen in boiling ethanol.

5. Etching: To make its structure apparent under the microscope, it is necessary to impart unlike
appearances to the constituents. This is generally accomplished by selectively corroding or
etching the polished surface by applying a chemical etching reagent. Grain boundaries will etch
at different rates than the grains, then leaving the grains standing out and they become visible
with a reflected light microscope.
 EXPERIMENT No. –D03

HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL MATERIALS & STUDY OF THEIR HARDNESS

USING THEIR ROCK-WELL TESTING MACHINE
(ANNEALING AND NORMALIZING OF STEEL)

Objective: To heat treat the given steel specimen( anneal or normalize)and determine the
Rockwell hardness.

Apparatus: Austenitizing furnace (upto-1000ºC) and Rockwell hardness testing machine.

Theory: The microstructure of steel part can be modified by heat treatment techniques, that is,
by controlled heating and cooling of the alloys at various rates. These treatments induce phase
transformations that greatly influence mechanical properties of steel. The various heat-treatment
processes are annealing, normalizing, hardening and tempering.

Annealing of steel is the process of heating the steel specimen to its austenizing temperature,
holding it there long enough to dissolve the cementite and disperse the carbon uniformly and
then cool it very slowly to change the structure to the softest state. The low rate of cooling is
achieved by turning the furnace off and letting the closed furnace cool down to ambient
temperature. The annealing temperature of hypoeutectoid steel is

tanneal = Upper critical temperature + 30ºC to 50ºC

To avoid excessive softness in the annealing of steels, the cooling cycle may be done
completely in still air. This process is called normalizing. In normalizing, the part is heated to
normalizing temperature and is withdrawn from the furnace. It is then cooled in still air at the
room temperature. The more drastically cooled austenite decomposes into a more dispersed
aggregate made up of pearlite. After annealing and normalizing, a fine grain structure is
obtained, provided there is no super heating. The normalizing temperature is usually 30ºC to
50ºC more than that of annealing temperature.

The purposes of annealing are:

1. To obtain softness.
2. To improve machinability.
3. To increase ductility and toughness.
4. To relieve internal stresses.
5. To refine the grain size. .
6. To prepare steel for subsequent cold working.
The purposes of normalizing the steel are:
1. To eliminate coarse-grained structure obtained in previous working (rolling, forging or
stamping).
2. To increase the strength of medium carbon steel.
3. To improve machinability of low carbon steel.
4. To reduce internal stresses.
Heat-treating furnace: A heat-treating furnace is a refractory lined chamber in which the metal
parts are heated to the required temperature. Usually the furnace consists of a box-like structure
of steel shell, door, refractory lining. heating source, temperature controls and temperature
indicators.

Procedure for annealing:

1. Heat the given steel specimen in a box type furnace until the specimen reaches the
annealing temperature.
2. keep the specimen in the furnace at the annealing temperature for some time
3. Cool the specimen by switching off the furnace.
4. Remove the steel specimen from the furnace when the furnace is cooled down to
atmospheric temperature.
5. Determine the hardness of the annealed specimen using Rockwell hardness testing machine.

Procedure for normalizing:

1. Heat the given steel specimen in a box type furnace until the specimen reaches the
normalizing temperature.
2. keep the specimen in the furnace at the normalizing temperature for some time
3. Remove the steel specimen from the furnace when the furnace is cooled down to
atmospheric temperature.
4. Determine the hardness of the normalized specimen using Rockwell hardness testing
machine.
 EXPERIMENT NO. MT05

WEAR TEST
AIM: To study the wear properties of the given specimen and to determine the wear rate.

APPARATUS/ TOOLS/ EQUIPMENT USED:

 Wear testing machine

 Tachometer
 Scale
 Digital weighing machine
 Digital stopwatch.

THEORY: Wear is defined as the progressive loss or removal of material from a surface.
Usually parts damaged by wear can be repaired or replaced before disastrous failure takes place.
Wear is usually classified as adhesive, abrasive, corrosive, fatigue, fretting, and impact wear.
Adhesive wear: If a tangential force is applied between the two sliding blocks, shearing can take
place either at the original interface or along a path below or above it, causing adhesive wear.
The fracture path depends on whether or not the strength of the adhesive bond of the asperities is
greater than the cohesive strength of either of the two sliding bodies. Thus during sliding,
fracture at the asperity usually follows a path in the weaker or softer component. A wear
fragment is then generated. Although this fragment is attached to the harder component, it
eventually becomes detached during further rubbing at the interface and develops into a loose
wear particle. This process is known as adhesive wear or sliding wear. Adhesive wear can be
reduced by:

1. Selecting materials that do not form strong adhesive bonds.

2. Using a harder material as one of the pair.
3. Using materials that oxidize more easily.

Abrasive wear: Abrasive wear is caused by a hard and rough surface sliding across a surface.
This type of wears removes particles by forming microchips, thereby producing grooves or
scratches on the softer surface. The abrasive wear resistance of metals is directly proportional to
their hardness. Abrasive wear can thus be reduced by increasing the hardness of materials or by
reducing the normal load.

Several methods can be used to observe and measure wear. In general a wear testing machine
consists of a means for applying load to a specimen of materials, which is rubbed at a given
speed over another piece of material or over an abrasive surface. The amount of wear after a
given amount of rubbing is measured either by loss of weight of the specimen or by dimensional
changes.
 Wear Testing Machine

The material abrasion wear test machine is used to determine the wear coefficient of hard and
soft coating and monolithic materials by abrasive wear in a ball on plate contact configuration.
The machine may also be used as a crater generating tool on coated surfaces for coating
thickness determination. Test materials are paint films, plastic, coating, shoe material, slurry
abrasion. This system can do following wear test:

1. Ball Cratering Test

2. Grinding Process
3. Micro scale Abrasion

In general wear testing machine consists of a means for applying load to a specimen of
material, which is rubbed at a given speed over another piece of material or over an
abrasive surface. The amount of wear after a given amount of rubbing is measured
either by loss of weight of specimen or by dimensional changes
 R.V. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, BANGALORE-560059
DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ENGG. AND MANAGEMENT

MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY

OBSERVATION / DATA SHEET

Date: Name: USN:

Lab : MT Lab Class: III Sem Expt.No:

Title of the Experiment: WEAR TEST

OBSERVATIONS:

 Least count of Vernier Caliper = 0.02mm

 Radius of wear track in meter (R) = 90mm
 Speed of the wheel in RPM, (N) = 400
 Length of the arm from specimen holder to load point (L1) =300mm
 Length of the arm from specimen holder to Hanger point (L2) =150mm
 Sliding time (T) = 10min

TABULATION:
Sl. Specimen Load, Weight (gms) Density,  BHN
No Material WH Initial (w1) Final (w2) (x103 kg/m3)
(Kg)
1 Aluminium 1 0.951 0.949 2.8 40
2 Brass 1 2.411 2.325 6.8 103
3 Aluminium 2 0.949 0.946 2.8 40
4 Brass 2 2.325 1.158 6.8 103

Signature of the staff in charge

PROCEDURE:
1. Clean the surface of the disc and the specimen by alcohol and acetone.
 2. Weigh the specimen in digital weighing machine, measure the length of the arm and the
track radius by using scale. Also a note down the length of specimen.
3. Fix the specimen on the horizontal arm using Allen key and place it on the disc.
4. Note down the speed of the disc and switch on the motor.
5. Load the specimen and adjust the displacement sensor to read zero.
6. Switch off the motor after the required interval of time 10 min.
7. The final weight is recorded using digital weighing machine.
8. The wear coefficient and wear rate are calculated by the formulae
VH
Wear coefficient K  and
FS
Wear rate in debri’s (mm3), V = Weight loss / Density of metal
= (Initial weight – Final weight) / Density of metal
9. Repeat the above procedure to the other specimen for a given period at constant velocity.
Load may also be changed from 1 kg to 2 kg.
10. Repeat the procedure on the other specimens for given load by changing time, speed of
the track, track radius, etc.

Formulae used:-
VH
Wear coefficient K  and
FS
Wear rate = V / S

Where
V = Volume of wear m3 = Weight loss / 

Weight loss (Kg) = (W1 – W2) / 100

W1 = Initial weight of the specimen (gms)
W2 = Final weight of the specimen (gms)
 = Density of the metal (Kg/m3)

H = Hardness of material (B H N) N/m2

L = Normal load (Newton) = W x 9.81 x L1 / L2

W = applied load in Kgs,

L1 = length of the arm from specimen holder to load point in meter
 L2 = length of the arm from specimen holder to hanger point in meter

S = Sliding distance (meter) =  x D x N x T = 2RNT

D = Diameter of wear track in meter

R = Radius of wear track in meter
N = Speed of the wheel in rpm and
T = Sliding time in minutes

Wear rate (mm3 / m) = V/S

V = Volume of wear in debri’s in mm3

S = Sliding distance in meter

Sl. Specimen Load, Weight (gms) Density, BHN Wear Wear

No Material WH Initial Final  (x103 coefficient rates,mm3/m
(Kg) (w1) (w2) kg/m3) Kx10-12 x10-13
1 Aluminium 1 0.951 0.949 2.8 40 2.49 3.0565
2 Brass 1 2.411 2.325 6.8 103 113
3 Aluminium 2 0.949 0.946 2.8 40 1.90 4.5845
4 Brass 2 2.325 1.158 6.8 103 110

Specimen Calculation

Material – Aluminum

Least count of Vernier Caliper = 0.01 mm

Weight loss = W1 – W2 = 0.951 – 0.949 = 2 x 10-3 gms = 2 x 10-6 Kg
Density of the metal,  = 2.8 x 104 Kg/m3
Harness of material H = 40 B H N
Radius of wear track in meter R = 93 x 10-3 m
Speed of the wheel in rpm N = 400 rpm
Sliding time T = 10 min
Length of the arm from specimen holder to load point, L1 = 360 x 10-3 m
Length of the arm from specimen holder to hanger point in meter L2 = 150 x 10-3 m

For trial 1,
Load = 1 Kg
Initial Weight, W1 = 0.951 gms
Final Weight, W2 = 0.949 gms
Weight loss = W1 – W2 = 0.951 – 0.949 = 2 x 10-3 gms = 2 x 10-6 Kg
 w1  w2 2  10  6
Volume of material removed  
  2.8  10 3 
= 7.143 x 10-10 m3
H = 40

 W H L2  1   9.81  150 mm
Force F =    9.81   4.905 N
 L1  300 mm

Sliding distance = 2RNT = 2 x 93 x 10-3 x 400 x 10 = 2337 m

7.143  10 10  40
Wear coefficient K 1   2.49  10 12
4.905  2337

Wear rate = V / S = 7.143 x 10-10 / 2337

= 3.0565 x 10-13 mm3 / m

Advantages
i. High reproducibility
ii. Short test time
iii. Simple flat test geometry
iv. Simple operation

Disadvantages
i. The tester does not have an arrangement for keeping the air humidity at a constant level.
ii. Large variations in humidity might affect the reproducibility.
iii. Expensive

Department of Industrial Engineering and Management

R.V. College of Engineering, Bangalore – 59

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. How do you define the word 'Engineering Material’?

2. What are the objectives of testing of materials?
3. Write brief classification of materials.
4. List out the properties of materials.
5. What is purpose of doing the following tests: Tensile Test, Compression Test, Shear Test,
Impact Test, Hardness Test
6. In Tensile test, what is the nature of failure for brittle and ductile material?
7. Define stress and strain. In what unit is each one measured?
8. State Hook's law. Is this applicable to all materials?
9. Define the following terms: elastic limit, proportional limit, yield point, yield strength,
resilience and toughness. Do all materials have yield point? Give examples
10. What is the use of tensile test? What factor should be considered in selecting the gauge
length?
11. Which property in a tension test is an indication of stiffness of a material?
12. What is the difference between the proportional limit and the elastic limit?
13. Distinguish between yield point and yield strength?
14. What are the uses of hardness test?
15. What are the types of hardness measurement?
16. What are the types of hardness test, with brief explanation?
17. What are the advantages of Rockwell test over Brinell's Test?
18. How do you define single shear and double shear?
19. How do you place the specimens in impact test?
20. What is metallography?
21. What are the types of metallurgical microscopes?
22. What are the steps involved for preparation of metallographic specimen?
23. What is the purpose of conducting the wear test?
24. What are the types of wear?
25. What are the factors affecting wear?
26. What is the importance of fatigue test?
27. Describe the events that occur when a specimen undergoes a tension test.
28. How is stress calculated? What additional measurement must be made to determine the
true stress?
29. Explain why the difference between engineering strain and true strain becomes larger as
strain increases in tension?
30. What is breaking stress? How does it differ from the maximum stress?
31. If a brittle material and a ductile material have same tensile strength. Which one will
require the greater energy for fracture? Explain.
32. Describe the difference between brittle and ductile fracture?
33. What is universal testing machine? Describe briefly the mechanism for applying load,
and for measuring force in testing machine.
34. What is the effect of rate of loading on tensile properties?
35. What are the limits of ratio of the height to the diameter of the compression specimen?
36. Explain compression fracture of the following materials: (a) cast iron, (b) mild steel and
(c) wood.
37. How failure in bending occurs in the following materials? (a) Cast iron, (b) mild steel
and (c) wood.
38. What physical property of the material is determined by means of an impact test?
39. Discuss the significance and advantages of impact test compared with static tests.
40. In what units are the results of an impact test usually given?
41. For impact tests why are notch specimens used?
42. What is difference between Charpy tests and Izod tests?
43. What is meant by velocity sensitivity and notch sensitivity?
44. What is the effect of temperature on impact toughness? What is a transition temperature?
45. Explain the impact fracture as in the case of ductile material.
46. Define hardness. Why is hardness test conducted instead of tension test?
47. What physical properties of a material can be estimated from a hardness test?
48. What is the unit for Brinell hardness number?
49. Where are the Vickers and Rockwell hardness test employed?
50. Why is a minor load applied before setting the Rockwell measuring dial?
51. What is stress concentration? What is stress raiser?
52. What is meant by the term fatigue of metals?
53. Define the following terms in discussing fatigue tests: Stress cycle, maximum stress,
range of stress, minimum stress, normal stress, alternating stress, amplitude, mean stress,
fatigue life, fatigue limit, stress ratio, cycle ratio, fatigue strength and fatigue ratio.
54. Explain why there is difference between a theoretical stress concentration factor and the
actual-strength reduction factor found in actual tests?
55. What are the types of fatigue loading? Give examples of machine parts and structures
subjected to fatigue loading.
56. If a material does not have an endurance limit, how would you estimate its fatigue life?
57. What type of fracture would you expect in the case of steel member fractured by
repeatedly applied loads? Explain the mechanism of such fracture.
58. What is creep? Name two structural or machine members in which creep strength is an
important property.
59. State the resemblance and the difference between creep and slip?
60. Does wood creep? State evidence for your answer.
61. Define wear of the material. Name different types of wear.
62. Define micrography.
63. What are the general objectives of the macro examination of a metallic component as
compared with the micro examination of a metal?
64. Describe the various steps involved in preparation of specimen for micrographic
examination.
65. What is the difference between eutectic and eutectoid?
66. Explain the Curie point in iron, iron-carbide equilibrium diagram.
67. What is annealing? What are the purposes for annealing steel?
68. How does normalizing differ from annealing as applied to steels?
69. What are the advantages of the normalizing process in respect of final properties?
70. Describe the hardening process. Where does the defect occur after hardening the steel?
71. Explain what happens in steel when it is hardened by quenching.Name several quenching
media.
72. What is age hardening?
73. Explain the difference between hardness and harden ability?
74. What is tempering? What purpose does it serve?
75. Why steel specimen should be tempered after hardening?
76. Both annealing and tempering are the processes used to soften steel. Outline the
conditions when these treatments would be used.
77. Identify the non-destructive technique that is capable of detecting internal flaws and
those that detect external flaws only.
78. How is the depth of a flaw measured in ultrasonic testing?
79. On what principle does ultrasonic inspection equipment operates?
80. Describe the magnetic particle method.