CHAPTER 21

NAVIGATIONAL MATHEMATICS

GEOMETRY

2100. Definition a point. It is measured by the arc of a circle intercepted be-

tween the two lines forming the angle, the center of the circle
Geometry deals with the properties, relations, and being at the point of intersection. In Figure 2101, the angle
measurement of lines, surfaces, solids, and angles. Plane formed by lines AB and BC, may be designated “angle B,”
geometry deals with plane figures, and solid geometry “angle ABC,” or “angle CBA”; or by Greek letter as “angle
deals with three–dimensional figures. α.” The three letter designation is preferred if there is more
A point, considered mathematically, is a place having than one angle at the point. When three letters are used, the
position but no extent. It has no length, breadth, or thick- middle one should always be that at the vertex of the angle.
ness. A point in motion produces a line, which has length, An acute angle is one less than a right angle (90°).
but neither breadth nor thickness. A straight or right line A right angle is one whose sides are perpendicular (90°).
is the shortest distance between two points in space. A line An obtuse angle is one greater than a right angle (90°)
in motion in any direction except along itself produces a but less than 180°.
surface, which has length and breadth, but not thickness. A A straight angle is one whose sides form a continuous
plane surface or plane is a surface without curvature. A straight line (180°).
straight line connecting any two of its points lies wholly A reflex angle is one greater than a straight angle
within the plane. A plane surface in motion in any direction (180°) but less than a circle (360°). Any two lines meeting
except within its plane produces a solid, which has length, at a point form two angles, one less than a straight angle of
breadth, and thickness. Parallel lines or surfaces are those 180° (unless exactly a straight angle) and the other greater
which are everywhere equidistant. Perpendicular lines or than a straight angle.
surfaces are those which meet at right or 90° angles. A per- An oblique angle is any angle not a multiple of 90°.
pendicular may be called a normal, particularly when it is Two angles whose sum is a right angle (90°) are com-
perpendicular to the tangent to a curved line or surface at plementary angles, and either is the complement of the
the point of tangency. All points equidistant from the ends other.
of a straight line are on the perpendicular bisector of that Two angles whose sum is a straight angle (180°) are
line. The shortest distance from a point to a line is the length supplementary angles, and either is the supplement of the
of the perpendicular between them. other.
Two angles whose sum is a circle (360°) are exple-
2101. Angles mentary angles, and either is the explement of the other.
The two angles formed when any two lines terminate at a
common point are explementary.
An angle is formed by two straight lines which meet at
If the sides of one angle are perpendicular to those of
another, the two angles are either equal or supplementary.
Also, if the sides of one angle are parallel to those of anoth-
er, the two angles are either equal or supplementary.
When two straight lines intersect, forming four angles,
the two opposite angles, called vertical angles, are equal.
Angles which have the same vertex and lie on opposite
sides of a common side are adjacent angles. Adjacent an-
gles formed by intersecting lines are supplementary, since
each pair of adjacent angles forms a straight angle.
A transversal is a line that intersects two or more other
lines. If two or more parallel lines are cut by a transversal,
groups of adjacent and vertical angles are formed,
A dihedral angle is the angle between two intersecting
Figure 2101. An angle. planes.

327
328 NAVIGATIONAL MATHEMATICS

2102. Triangles center of the opposite side. The three medians of a triangle
meet at a point called the centroid of the triangle. This point
A plane triangle is a closed figure formed by three divides each median into two parts, that part between the
straight lines, called sides, which meet at three points called centroid and the vertex being twice as long as the other part.
vertices. The vertices are labeled with capital letters and the Lines bisecting the three angles of a triangle meet at a
sides with lowercase letters, as shown in Figure 2102a. point which is equidistant from the three sides, which is the
An equilateral triangle is one with its three sides center of the inscribed circle, as shown in Figure 2102b.
equal in length. It must also be equiangular, with its three This point is of particular interest to navigators because it is
angles equal. the point theoretically taken as the fix when three lines of
An isosceles triangle is one with two equal sides, position of equal weight and having only random errors do
called legs. The angles opposite the legs are equal. A line not meet at a common point. In practical navigation, the
which bisects (divides into two equal parts) the unequal an- point is found visually, not by construction, and other fac-
gle of an isosceles triangle is the perpendicular bisector of tors often influence the chosen fix position.
the opposite side, and divides the triangle into two equal The perpendicular bisectors of the three sides of a tri-
right triangles. angle meet at a point which is equidistant from the three
A scalene triangle is one with no two sides equal. In vertices, which is the center of the circumscribed circle,
such a triangle, no two angles are equal. the circle through the three vertices and the smallest circle
An acute triangle is one with three acute angles. which can be drawn enclosing the triangle. The center of a
A right triangle is one having a right angle. The side circumscribed circle is within an acute triangle, on the hy-
opposite the right angle is called the hypotenuse. The other potenuse of a right triangle, and outside an obtuse triangle.
two sides may be called legs. A plane triangle can have only A line connecting the mid–points of two sides of a tri-
one right angle. angle is always parallel to the third side and half as long.
An obtuse triangle is one with an obtuse angle. A Also, a line parallel to one side of a triangle and intersecting
plane triangle can have only one obtuse angle. the other two sides divides these sides proportionally. This
An oblique triangle is one which does not contain a principle can be used to divide a line into any number of
right angle. equal or proportional parts.
The altitude of a triangle is a line or the distance from The sum of the angles of a plane triangle is always
any vertex perpendicular to the opposite side. 180°. Therefore, the sum of the acute angles of a right tri-
A median of a triangle is a line from any vertex to the angle is 90°, and the angles are complementary. If one side
of a triangle is extended, the exterior angle thus formed is
supplementary to the adjacent interior angle and is there-
fore equal to the sum of the two non adjacent angles. If two
angles of one triangle are equal to two angles of another tri-
angle, the third angles are also equal, and the triangles are
similar. If the area of one triangle is equal to the area of an-
other, the triangles are equal. Triangles having equal bases
and altitudes also have equal areas. Two figures are con-
gruent if one can be placed over the other to make an exact
fit. Congruent figures are both similar and equal. If any side
of one triangle is equal to any side of a similar triangle, the
triangles are congruent. For example, if two right triangles
have equal sides, they are congruent; if two right triangles
have two corresponding sides equal, they are congruent.
Figure 2102a. A triangle.
Triangles are congruent only if the sides and angles are
equal.
The sum of two sides of a plane triangle is always
greater than the third side; their difference is always less
than the third side.
The area of a triangle is equal to 1/2 of the area of the
polygon formed from its base and height. This can be stated
algebraically as:
bh
Area of plane triangle A = -------
2
The square of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal
Figure 2102b. A circle inscribed in a triangle. to the sum of the squares of the other two sides, or a2 + b2
 NAVIGATIONAL MATHEMATICS 329

= c2. Therefore the length of the hypotenuse of plane right the circle, which has only one point in common with the cir-
triangle can be found by the formula : cumference. A tangent is perpendicular to the radius at the
point of tangency. Two tangents from a common point to
2 2 opposite sides of a circle are equal in length, and a line from
c = a +b the point to the center of the circle bisects the angle formed
by the two tangents. An angle formed outside a circle by the
2103. Circles intersection of two tangents, a tangent and a secant, or two
secants has half as many degrees as the difference between
A circle is a plane, closed curve, all points of which are the two intercepted arcs. An angle formed by a tangent and
equidistant from a point within, called the center. a chord, with the apex at the point of tangency, has half as
The distance around a circle is called the circumfer- many degrees as the arc it intercepts. A common tangent
ence. Technically the length of this line is the perimeter, is one tangent to more than one circle. Two circles are tan-
although the term “circumference” is often used. An arc is gent to each other if they touch at one point only. If of
part of a circumference. A major arc is more than a semicir- different sizes, the smaller circle may be either inside or
cle (180°), a minor are is less than a semicircle (180°). A outside the larger one.
semi–circle is half a circle (180°), a quadrant is a quarter Parallel lines intersecting a circle intercept equal arcs.
of a circle (90°), a quintant is a fifth of a circle (72°), a sex-
tant is a sixth of a circle (60°), an octant is an eighth of a If A = area; r = radius; d = diameter; C = circumfer-
circle (45°). Some of these names have been applied to in- ence; s = linear length of an arc; a = angular length of an arc,
struments used by navigators for measuring altitudes of or the angle it subtends at the center of a circle, in degrees;
celestial bodies because of the part of a circle used for the b = angular length of an arc, or the angle it subtends at the
length of the arc of the instrument. center of a circle, in radians:
Concentric circles have a common center. A radius
(plural radii) or semidiameter is a straight line connecting πd 2
the center of a circle with any point on its circumference. Area of circle A = πr 2 = ---------
4
A diameter of a circle is a straight line passing through
its center and terminating at opposite sides of the circumfer- Circumference of a circle C = 2πr = πd = 2π rad
ence. It divides a circle into two equal parts. The ratio of the
length of the circumference of any circle to the length of its πr 2 a r2 b rs
Area of sector = ----------- = -------- = ----
diameter is 3.14159+, or π (the Greek letter pi), a relation- 360 2 2
ship that has many useful applications. r 2 ( b – sin a )
A sector is that part of a circle bounded by two radii Area of segment = ------------------------------
2
and an arc. The angle formed by two radii is called a cen-
tral angle. Any pair of radii divides a circle into sectors, 2104. Spheres
one less than a semicircle (180°) and the other greater than
a semicircle (unless the two radii form a diameter). A sphere is a solid bounded by a surface every point of
A chord is a straight line connecting any two points on which is equidistant from a point within called the center. It
the circumference of a circle. Chords equidistant from the may also be formed by rotating a circle about any diameter.
center of a circle are equal in length. A radius or semidiameter of a sphere is a straight line
A segment is the part of a circle bounded by a chord connecting its center with any point on its surface. A diam-
and the intercepted arc. A chord divides a circle into two eter of a sphere is a straight line through its center and
segments, one less than a semicircle (180°), and the other terminated at both ends by the surface of the sphere.
greater than a semicircle (unless the chord is a diameter). A The intersection of a plane and the surface of a sphere
diameter perpendicular to a chord bisects it, its arc, and its is a circle, a great circle if the plane passes through the cen-
segments. Either pair of vertical angles formed by intersect- ter of the sphere, and a small circle if it does not. The shorter
ing chords has a combined number of degrees equal to the arc of the great circle between two points on the surface of a
sum of the number of degrees in the two arcs intercepted by sphere is the shortest distance, on the surface of the sphere,
the two angles. between the points. Every great circle of a sphere bisects ev-
An inscribed angle is one whose vertex is on the cir- ery other great circle of that sphere. The poles of a circle on
cumference of a circle and whose sides are chords. It has a sphere are the extremities of the sphere’s diameter which
half as many degrees as the arc it intercepts. Hence, an angle is perpendicular to the plane of the circle. All points on the
inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle if its sides terminate circumference of the circle are equidistant from either of its
at the ends of the diameter forming the semicircle. poles. In the ease of a great circle, both poles are 90° from
A secant of a circle is a line intersecting the circle, or any point on the circumference of the circle. Any great circle
a chord extended beyond the circumference. may be considered a primary, particularly when it serves as
A tangent to a circle is a straight line, in the plane of the origin of measurement of a coordinate. The great circles
330 NAVIGATIONAL MATHEMATICS

through its poles are called secondary. Secondaries are per- (called the pole). A line extending in the direction indicated
pendicular to their primary. is called a radius vector. Direction and distance from a
A spherical triangle is the figure formed on the sur- fixed point constitute polar coordinates, sometimes called
face of a sphere by the intersection of three great circles. the rho–theta (the Greek ρ, to indicate distance, and the
The lengths of the sides of a spherical triangle are measured Greek θ, to indicate direction) system. An example of its
in degrees, minutes, and seconds, as the angular lengths of use is the radar scope.
the arcs forming them. The sum of the three sides is always Spherical coordinates are used to define a position on
less than 360°. The sum of the three angles is always more the surface of a sphere or spheroid by indicating angular
than 180° and less than 540°. distance from a primary great circle and a reference second-
A lune is the part of the surface of a sphere bounded by ary great circle. Examples used in navigation are latitude
halves of two great circles. and longitude, altitude and azimuth, and declination and
hour angle.
2105. Coordinates

Coordinates are magnitudes used to define a position.

Many different types of coordinates are used. Important
navigational ones are described below.
If a position is known to be on a given line, only one
magnitude (coordinate) is needed to identify the position if
an origin is stated or understood.
If a position is known to be on a given surface, two
magnitudes (coordinates) are needed to define the position.
If nothing is known regarding a position other than that
it exists in space, three magnitudes (coordinates) are needed
to define its position.
Each coordinate requires an origin, either stated or im-
plied. If a position is known to be on a given plane, it might
be defined by means of its distance from each of two inter-
secting lines, called axes. These are called rectangular
coordinates. In Figure 2105, OY is called the ordinate,
and OX is called the abscissa. Point O is the origin, and
lines OX and OY the axes (called the X and Y axes, respec-
tively). Point A is at position x,y. If the axes are not
perpendicular but the lines x and y are drawn parallel to the
axes, oblique coordinates result. Either type are called
Cartesian coordinates. A three–dimensional system of
Cartesian coordinates, with X Y, and Z axes, is called space
coordinates.
Another system of plane coordinates in common usage
consists of the direction and distance from the origin Figure 2105. Rectangular coordinates.

TRIGONOMETRY

2106. Definitions 2107. Angular Measure

Trigonometry deals with the relations among the an- A circle may be divided into 360 degrees (°), which is
gles and sides of triangles. Plane trigonometry deals with the angular length of its circumference. Each degree may
plane triangles, those on a plane surface. Spherical trigo- be divided into 60 minutes ('), and each minute into 60 sec-
nometry deals with spherical triangles, which are drawn on onds ("). The angular length of an arc is usually expressed
the surface of a sphere. In navigation, the common methods in these units. By this system a right angle or quadrant has
of celestial sight reduction use spherical triangles on the sur- 90° and a straight angle or semicircle 180°. In marine nav-
face of the earth. For most navigational purposes, the earth igation, altitudes, latitudes, and longitudes are usually
is assumed to be a sphere, though it is somewhat flattened. expressed in degrees, minutes, and tenths (27°14.4'). Azi-
 NAVIGATIONAL MATHEMATICS 331

muths are usually expressed in degrees and tenths (164.7°). ciprocals of the first three; therefore
The system of degrees, minutes, and seconds indicated
above is the sexagesimal system. In the centesimal system
used chiefly in France, the circle is divided into 400 centes-
imal degrees (sometimes called grades) each of which is
divided into 100 centesimal minutes of 100 centesimal sec-
onds each.
A radian is the angle subtended at the center of a circle
by an arc having a linear length equal to the radius of the
circle. A circle (360°) = 2π radians, a semicircle (180°) = π
radians, a right angle (90°) = π/2 radians. The length of the
arc of a circle is equal to the radius multiplied by the angle
subtended in radians.

2108. Trigonometric Functions Figure 2108a. Similar right triangles.

Trigonometric functions are the various proportions

or ratios of the sides of a plane right triangle, defined in re- 1 1
lation to one of the acute angles. In Figure 2108a, let θ be sin θ = ----------- csc θ = -----------
csc θ sin θ
any acute angle. From any point R on line OA, draw a line
1 1
perpendicular to OB at F. From any other point R’ on OA, cos θ = ----------- sec θ = ------------
sec θ cos θ
draw a line perpendicular to OB at F’. Then triangles OFR
1 1
and OF’R’ are similar right triangles because all their corre- tan θ = ----------- cot θ = -----------
sponding angles are equal. Since in any pair of similar cot θ tan θ
triangles the ratio of any two sides of one triangle is equal to
In Figure 2108b, A, B, and C are the angles of a plane
the ratio of the corresponding two sides of the other triangle,
right triangle, with the right angle at C. The sides are la-
’F ’ RF R’F ’ OF OF ’
(RF,OF ) = R
----------- = -------- = ----------- and -------- = ---------
OR OR ’
beled a, b, c, opposite angles A, B, and C respectively. The
OF ’ OR OR ’ six principal trigonometric functions of angle B are:
No matter where the point R is located on OA, the ratio b
sin B = --- = cos A = cos ( 90° – B )
between the lengths of any two sides in the triangle OFR c
has a constant value. Hence, for any value of the acute angle a
θ, there is a fixed set of values for the ratios of the various cos B = -- = sin A = sin ( 90° – B )
c
sides of the triangle. These ratios are defined as follows:
b
tan B = --- = cot A = cot ( 90° – B )
a
side opposite
sine θ = sin θ = ------------------------------- a
hypotenuse cot B = --- = tan A = tan ( 90° – B )
b
side adjacent
cosine θ = cos θ = ------------------------------- c
hypotenuse sec B = -- = csc A = csc ( 90° – B )
a
side opposite
tangent θ = tan θ = ------------------------------- c
side adjacent csc B = --- = sec A = sec ( 90° – B )
b
hypotenuse
cosecant θ = csc θ = -------------------------------
side opposite
hypotenuse
secant θ = sec θ = -------------------------------
side adjacent
side adjacent
cotangent θ = cot θ = -------------------------------
side opposite

Of these six principal functions, the second three are the re-

Figure 2108b. A right triangle.

332 NAVIGATIONAL MATHEMATICS

Since A and B are complementary, these relations sometimes called the natural function to distinguish it from
show that the sine of an angle is the cosine of its comple- the logarithm of the function, called the logarithmic func-
ment, the tangent of an angle is the cotangent of its tion. Numerical values of the six principal functions are
complement, and the secant of an angle is the cosecant of given at 1' intervals in the table of natural trigonometric
its complement. Thus, the co–function of an angle is the functions. Logarithms are given at the same intervals in an-
function of its complement. other table.
Since the relationships of 30°, 60°, and 45° right trian-
sin ( 90° – A ) = cos A gles are as shown in Figure 2108c, certain values of the basic
cos ( 90° – A ) = sin A functions can be stated exactly, as shown in Table 2108.
tan ( 90° – A ) = cot A
csc ( 90° – A ) = sec A 2109. Functions In Various Quadrants
sec ( 90° – A ) = csc A
cot ( 90° – A ) = tan A To make the definitions of the trigonometric functions
The numerical value of a trigonometric function is more general to include those angles greater than 90°, the

Figure 2108c. Numerical relationship of sides of 30°, 60°, and 45° triangles.

Function 30° 45° 60°

1 1 1 3 1
sine --- ------- = --- 2 ------- = --- 3
2 2 2 2 2

3 1 1 1 1
cosine ------- = --- 3 ------- = --- 2 ---
2 2 2 2 2

1 1 1 3
tangent ------- = --- 3 --- = 1 ------- = 3
3 3 1 1

3 1 1 1
cotangent ------- = 3 --- = 1 ------- = --- 3
1 1 3 3

2 2 2 2
secant ------- = --- 3 ------- = 2 --- = 2
3 3 1 1

2 2 2 2
cosecant --- = 2 ------- = 2 ------- = --- 3
1 1 3 3

Table 2108. Values of various trigonometric functions for angles 30°, 45°, and 60°.
 NAVIGATIONAL MATHEMATICS 333

functions are defined in terms of the rectangular Cartesian sin (180° +θ) = –y = –sin θ
coordinates of point R of Figure 2108a, due regard being sin (360° −θ) = –y = sin (–θ) = –sin θ
given to the sign of the function. In Figure 2109a, OR is as-
sumed to be a unit radius. By convention the sign of OR is The numerical value of the cosine of an angle is equal
always positive. This radius is imagined to rotate in a coun- to the projection of the unit radius on the X axis. In Figure
terclockwise direction through 360° from the horizontal 2109a,
position at 0°, the positive direction along the X axis. Nine-
ty degrees (90°) is the positive direction along the Y axis. cos θ = +x
The angle between the original position of the radius and its cos (180°−θ) = –x = –cos θ
position at any time increases from 0° to 90° in the first cos (180°+θ) = –x = –cos θ
quadrant (I), 90° to 180° in the second quadrant (II), 180° cos (360°−θ) = +x = cos (–θ) = cos θ .
to 270° in the third quadrant (III), and 270° to 360° in the
fourth quadrant (IV). The numerical value of the tangent of an angle is equal
The numerical value of the sine of an angle is equal to to the ratio of the projections of the unit radius on the Y and
the projection of the unit radius on the Y–axis. According X axes. In Figure 2109a
to the definition given in article 2108, the sine of angle in
+y +y
the first quadrant of Figure 2109a is ----------- . If the radius OR
+OR tan θ = ------
+x
is equal to one, sin θ=+y. Since +y is equal to the projection +y
of the unit radius OR on the Y axis, the sine function of an tan (180° −θ) = ------ = –tan θ
–x
angle in the first quadrant defined in terms of rectangular
Cartesian coordinates does not contradict the definition in –y
tan (180° +θ) = ------ = tan θ
article 2108. In Figure 2109a, –x
sin θ –y
= +y tan (360° −θ) = ------ = tan (–θ) = –tan θ .
sin (180°−θ) = +y = sin θ +x

Figure 2109a. The functions in various quadrants, mathematical convention.

334 NAVIGATIONAL MATHEMATICS

The cosecant, secant, and cotangent functions of angles in The numerical values vary by quadrant as shown above:
the various quadrants are similarly determined.
I II III IV
1 sin 0 to +1 +1 to 0 0 to –1 –1 to 0
csc θ = ------
+y csc +∞ to +1 +1 to 0 –∞ to –1 –1 to –∞
cos +1 to 0 0 to –1 –1 to 0 0 to +1
1 sec +1 to +∞ –∞ to –1 –1 to –∞ +∞ to +1
csc ( 180 ° – θ ) = ------ = csc θ
+y tan 0 to +∞ –∞ to 0 0 to +∞ –∞ to 0
cot +∞ to 0 –∞ to 0 +∞ to 0 0 to –∞

1
csc ( 180 °+θ ) = ----- = – csc θ These relationships are shown graphically in Figure
-y 2109b.

1 2110. Trigonometric Identities

csc ( 360 ° – θ ) = ----- = csc ( –θ ) = – csc θ
-y
A trigonometric identity is an equality involving trig-
onometric functions of θ which is true for all values of θ,
1
sec θ = ------ except those values for which one of the functions is not de-
+x fined or for which a denominator in the equality is equal to
zero. The fundamental identities are those identities from
1 which other identities can be derived.
sec ( 180 ° – θ ) = ------ = – sec θ
–x
1 1
sin θ = ----------- csc θ = -----------
1 csc θ sin θ
sec ( 180 °+θ ) = ------ = – sec θ
–x
1 1
cos θ = ----------- sec θ = ------------
sec θ cos θ
1
sec ( 360 ° – θ ) = ------ = sec ( – θ ) = sec θ
+x 1 1
tan θ = ----------- cot θ = -----------
cot θ tan θ
+x
cot θ = ------ sin θ cos θ
+y tan θ = ------------ cot θ = ------------
cos θ sin θ
–x
cot ( 180 ° – θ ) = ------ = – cot θ sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ = 1 tan 2 θ + 1 = sec 2 θ
+y
sin ( 90° – θ ) = cos θ csc ( 90° – θ ) = sec θ
–x cos ( 90° – θ ) = sin θ sec ( 90° – θ ) = csc θ
cot ( 180 °+θ ) = ------ = cot θ
–y tan ( 90° – θ ) = cot θ cot ( 90° – θ ) = tan θ

+x sin ( – θ ) = – sin θ csc ( – θ ) = – csc θ

cot ( 360 ° – θ ) = ------ = cot ( – θ ) = – cot θ
-y cos ( – θ ) = cos θ sec ( – θ ) = sec θ
tan ( – θ ) = – tan θ cot ( – θ ) = – cot θ

The signs of the functions in the four different quadrants are sin ( 90+θ ) = cos θ csc ( 90+θ ) = sin θ
shown below: cos( 90+θ ) = – sin θ sec ( 90+θ ) = – csc θ
tan ( 90+θ ) = – cot θ cot ( 90+θ ) = – tan θ
I II III IV
sin ( 180° – θ ) = sin θ csc ( 180° – θ ) = csc θ
sine and cosecant + + - -
cosine and secant + - - + cos ( 180° – θ ) = – cos θ sec ( 180° – θ ) = – sec θ
tangent and cotangent + - + - tan ( 180° – θ ) = – tan θ cot ( 180° – θ ) = – cot θ
 NAVIGATIONAL MATHEMATICS 335

Figure 2109b. Graphic representation of values of trionometric functions in various quadrants.

sin ( 180°+θ ) = – sin θ csc ( 180°+θ ) = – csc θ 2111. Inverse Trigonometric Functions
cos ( 180°+θ ) = cos θ sec ( 180°+θ ) = sec θ
tan ( 180°+θ ) = tan θ cot ( 180°+θ ) = cot θ An angle having a given trigonometric function may be
indicated in any of several ways. Thus, sin y = x, y = arc sin
sin ( 360° – θ ) = – sin θ csc ( 360° – θ ) = – csc θ x, and y = sin–1 x have the same meaning. The superior “–1”
is not an exponent in this case. In each case, y is “the angle
cos ( 360° – θ ) = cos θ sec ( 360° – θ ) = sec θ whose sine is x.” In this case, y is the inverse sine of x. Sim-
tan ( 360° – θ ) = – tan θ cot ( 360° – θ ) = – cot θ ilar relationships hold for all trigonometric functions.

SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES

A triangle is composed of six parts: three angles and In general, when any three parts are known, the other three
three sides. The angles may be designated A, B, and C; and parts can be found, unless the known parts are the three
the sides opposite these angles as a, b, and c, respectively. angles.
336 NAVIGATIONAL MATHEMATICS

2112. Right Plane Triangles a b c

Law of sines: ------------- = ------------ = ------------
sin A sin B sin C
In a right plane triangle it is only necessary to substitute
numerical values in the appropriate formulas representing 2 2 2
Law of cosines: a = b + c – 2bc cos A .
the basic trigonometric functions and solve. Thus, if a and b
are known, The unknown parts of oblique plane triangles can be
computed by the formulas in Table 2113, among others. By
a
tan A = --- reassignment of letters to sides and angles, these formulas
b can be used to solve for all unknown parts of oblique plane
B = 90° – A triangles.
c = a csc A
Similarly, if c and B are given,

A = 90° – B
a = c sin A
b = c cos A

2113. Oblique Plane Triangles

When solving an oblique plane triangle, it is often de-

sirable to draw a rough sketch of the triangle approximately
to scale, as shown in Figure 2113. The following laws are
helpful in solving such triangles: Figure 2113. A plane oblique triangle.

Known To find Formula Comments

2 2 2
a, b, c A c +b –a Cosine law
cos A = -----------------------------
2bc

a, b, A B b sin A Sine law. Two solutions if b>a

sin B = --------------
a
C
A + B + C = 180°
c a sin C Sine law
c = ---------------
sin A

a, b, C A a sin C
tan A = -------------------------
b – a cos C
B A+B+C=180°
B = 180° – ( A – C )
c a sin C Sine law
cos A = ---------------
sin A
a, A, B b a sin C Sine law
c = ---------------
sin A
C C = 180° – ( A + B ) A + B + C=180°

c a sin C Sine law

c = ---------------
sin A
Table 2113. Formulas for solving oblique plane triangles.
 NAVIGATIONAL MATHEMATICS 337

SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY

2114. Napier’s Rules 2. Side c (the hypotenuse) is less then 90° when a and
b are in the same quadrant, and more than 90° when a and b
Right spherical triangles can be solved with the aid of are in different quadrants.
Napier’s Rules of Circular Parts. If the right angle is If the known parts are an angle and its opposite side,
omitted, the triangle has five parts: two angles and three two solutions are possible.
sides, as shown in Figure 2114a. Since the right angle is al- A quadrantal spherical triangle is one having one
ready known, the triangle can be solved if any two other side of 90°. A biquadrantal spherical triangle has two
parts are known. If the two sides forming the right angle, sides of 90°. A triquadrantal spherical triangle has three
and the complements of the other three parts are used, these sides of 90°. A biquadrantal spherical triangle is isosceles
elements (called “parts” in the rules) can be arranged in five and has two right angles opposite the 90° sides. A triqua-
sectors of a circle in the same order in which they occur in drantal spherical triangle is equilateral, has three right
the triangle, as shown in Figure 2114b. Considering any angles, and bounds an octant (one–eighth) of the surface of
part as the middle part, the two parts nearest it in the dia- the sphere. A quadrantal spherical triangle can be solved by
gram are considered the adjacent parts, and the two farthest Napier’s rules provided any two elements in addition to the
from it the opposite parts. 90° side are known. The 90° side is omitted and the other
Napier’s Rules state: The sine of a middle part equals parts are arranged in order in a five–sectored circle, using
the product of (1) the tangents of the adjacent parts or (2) the complements of the three parts farthest from the 90°
the cosines of the opposite parts. side. In the case of a quadrantal triangle, rule 1 above is
In the use of these rules, the co–function of a comple- used, and rule 2 restated: angle C (the angle opposite the side
ment can be given as the function of the element. Thus, the of 90°) is more than 90° when A and B are in the same quad-
cosine of co–A is the same as the sine of A. From these rules rant, and less than 90° when A and B are in different
the following formulas can be derived: quadrants. If the rule requires an angle of more than 90° and
sin a = tan b cot B = sin c sin A the solution produces an angle of less than 90°, subtract the
solved angle from 180°.
sin b = tan a cot A = sin c sin B
cos c = cot A cot B = cos a cos b 2115. Oblique Spherical Triangles
cos A = tan b cot c = cos a sin B
An oblique spherical triangle can be solved by drop-
cos B = tan a cot c = cos b sin A
ping a perpendicular from one of the apexes to the opposite
The following rules apply: side, subtended if necessary, to form two right spherical tri-
1. An oblique angle and the side opposite are in the angles. It can also be solved by the following formulas in
same quadrant. Table 2115, reassigning the letters as necessary.

Figure 2114a. Parts of a right spherical triangle as used in Figure 2114b. Diagram for Napier’s Rules of
Napier’s rules. Circular Parts.
338 NAVIGATIONAL MATHEMATICS

Known To find Formula Comments

a, b, C A sin D tan C tan D = tan a cos C

tan A = --------------------------
sin ( b – D )

sin C sin b
B sin B = -----------------------
sin c

c, A, B C cos C = sinA sin B cos c – cos A cos B

tan c sin E
a tan a = --------------------------
sin ( B + E )
tan E = tan A cos c

tan c sin F
b tan b = -------------------------- tan F = tan B cos c
sin ( A + F )

cos a sin G cot G = cos A tan b

a, b, A c sin ( c + G ) = ------------------------
cos b Two solutions

sin A sin b
B sin B = ---------------------- Two solutions
sin a

tan H = tan A cos b

C sin ( C + H ) = sin H tan b cot a
Two solutions

cos A sin K cot K = tan B cos a

a, A, B C sin ( C – K ) = ------------------------ Two solutions
cos B

b
sin a sin B Two solutions
sin b = ---------------------------
sin A

sin ( c – M ) = cot A tan B sin M tan M = cos B tan a

c Two solutions

Table 2115. Formulas for solving oblique spherical triangles.