Welding Metallurgy

- .

Arc Physics and Weld

Pool Behaviour

Lecture 7 pt
 Lecture Topics (

• Heat sources for welding

• Welding arcs as heat sources
- The cathode, arc column and anode
- Heat transfer from arcs, arc efficiency

• Weld pool behaviour

- Heat input for melting, melting efficiency
- Forces motion and temperatures in the weld pool

7 p2
 Heat Sources for Welding
• Heat sources for welding include:
- exothermic reactions (flames and thermit)
-arcs
- electrical resistance heating
- radiant energy (electron beam, laser)

• Transferred power is the rate at which energy is delivered

per unit time
• Energy density is the transferred power per unit area of
contact between the heat source and work
• Energy density is a measure of the "hotness" of the source
• The development of welding processes has largely
depended on availability of high energy density heat
sources

Lecture 7 p3
 Welding Arcs as Heat Sources (

• The welding arc is a high current, low-voltage

discharge
• In the arc:
- electrons are evaporated from the cathode
- transferred through a region of hot, ionized gas
- and condensed at the anode.

• The arc may be divided into five parts

- the cathode spot
- the cathode drop zone
- the arc column
- the anode drop zone
- the anode spot

Ire 7 p4
__________________ ~--~~_ ......_II_ _- - -_ _..._
"."..,........................,..."""".

The Welding Arc

Cathode spot V Cathode drop

r==:::::::~--=~= -10"--5 m
-1
AIcColumn
AIcColumn

Anode Drop

-10"-5 m
Anode Spot + Potential CV)

Lecture 7 p!
Electron Interactions (
• The energy required to evaporate one electron from a metal
surface is known as the work function
• Conversely when an electron condenses in the surface_it.
releases this energy
Metal Work First
Function ionization
(eV) potential
(V)
Aluminum 4.0 5.96
Barium 2.1 5.19
Calcium 2.2 6.09
Copper 4.3 7.68
Iron 4.5 7.83
Nickel 5 7.61
Potassium 2.2 4.3
Tungsten 4.5 8.1

p6
 The Cathode
• Thermionic cathodes operate at high temperatures such that
(e.g. GTAW) electrons are evaporated from the cathode.
• The energy required is derived from incoming positive ions
that are accelerated through the cathode drop region.
• The cathode loses heat through the electron work function,
electron thermal energy, and by conduction through the
electrode and
• The energy balance is:
3kT
Vc =Cathode drop potential
V C I =(<I>e+ )I + qe I =Arc current
2 e <I>e= Cathode work function
k = Bolztmann's constant
T =Temperature (I<)
e =Electron charge
qe = Heat loss to electrode

Lecture 7
Non-Thermionic Cathodes (

• Non-thermionic cathodes are those in which the

temperature is too low for thermionic emission of electrons,
Le. on non-refractory metals.
• Where oxide films exist, the cathode appears to operate by
positive ions collecting on the surface, setting up a strong
electric field through the oxide, and causing electron
emission through the oxide
• The general effect is to strip oxides from the surface
(exploited in AC welding of Aluminum)
• Little is known about slag-covered cathodes that exist in
flux-shielded processes

p8
 ... 77 ,-1"9 - r - -s s: - - on

The Arc Column

• The gas in the space between the cathode and anode is at
high temperature (101\4 K), sufficient for it to be highly
ionized and electrically conductive
• The arc column is electrically neutral, Le. the number of
positive and negative charges in a given volume balance
• Most of the current is carried by electrons, since they are
smaller and more mobile
• The axial potential gradient in the arc column is relatively
low, 101\2 to 101\3 VIm.
• The energy generated in the arc column is qP = Vpl
• Heat losses in the column are mostly due to convection in
the "plasma jet"

Lecture 7 p!
 GTAW Arc Plasma Temperatures (

Cathode

- - - Solid anode
----- Molten anode

mm
I
I

,,,
3 I

,,,
4
,
,,
Anode L._-~--+---+---T----,:--""",~-"""
2 3 4 5 6
Radius (rnml

J.F. Lancaster (Ed) The Physics of Welding, Pergamon, 1986

're7 p10
 Arc Column Plasma Jet
• In a static conducting cylinder, the interaction
between the current and its self-induced
magnetic field produces a radial pressure..
J
! ! ! !
p
V~
r
I I I

Lecture 7 P 11
 Arc Column Plasma Jet (

• The radius of the arc column usually

varies along the length
• The greater current density J in the
constricted region produces an axial
pressure gradient
• The pressure gradient causes net flow
through the arc.
• Maecker suggested that the jet
_.k-~
J2,
stagnation pressure is approximately
equal to the pressure in the P2
constricted region
• The strength of the jet depends on
------+
current and electrode vertex angle
• Flow velocities and stagnation
pressures can reach 10"2 m/s and 1
kPa, respectively

7 p12
~_
_~_ _ _ _
# 'W:!t'· ·w :il -
_ _.................- Rlitii;S1
-....- ....- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -... z:iil~'i"

GTAW Plasma Jet Pressure

nO_Welding
lllLof o...nt
W.loctrod. :DCSP 200A
:3.2mm
Cone Anglo
: 30'
Are L.: 3mm
I\r .'' ' d

0.1

J.F. Lancaster (Ed) The Physics ofWeldj~, Pergemon,

1986

-;lure 7 p13
Arc "Blow" ( ,

Arc blow results from interaction with magnetic fields

in the workpiece. J x8

P 14

- - - - ~~---- - -
 The Anode
• At the anode, electrons are accelerated across the anode
fall potential and condense in the metal surface, thereby
releasing energy
• The anode loses energy by radiation but also gains energy
by radiation and convection from the plasma
• The energy balance at the anode is:
3 kT
(1...m)QA =(ifJA - _ _ + V II +nq
2 e A' P
qa = heat input to ""'rkpiece (anode)
m = fracllonal heat loss by radiation
~ = anode ""'rk Junellon
k = Boltzmann's constant
T = electron temperature
e = electron chaille
VA = anode fall potential
1 = arc current
nqp = heat transfer from arc column

Lecture 7 p
 Arc Heat Generation (

• The heat generated by the arc may be divided into three parts:
- the heat generated at the cathode qc = Vc' (-200/0)
- the heat generated in the arc column qP = Vp , (-20%) -
-the heat generated althe anode qa = Va' (-60%)

• The total arc energy is VI =(VC + V p +Va)1

• Arc efficiency, assuming the work is the anode, is:
qe + (1-n)qp + mqa
f] =1 - -..;..--~-.-.;;..
II
With consumable electrodes, qc is transferred to the workpiece,
increasing arc efficiency

ure 7 p16
 -
GTAW V-I & Heat Transfer
Characteristics
~ 20

~ 18 M
Clllhode
l- ~ Spot Mode
ii 16 ;
• Normal
Ii
IL
u
14 ~ ./'~NTIAl Mode

~ 12
~.,-~~

100
'ANODE HEAT •
.. -
1:;;'-

~
CATHODE
HEAT
L

100 200 300 400

o
ARC CURRENT (AI

Lecture 7 p1
Arc Efficiency of Various Processes (
"'...

...-.. .....
~
-
.......
:J
a.
c:
sooo

ni
Q)
J: ....

... S<I to so
Arc Energy kW)

p18
 Forces Acting on the Weld Pool
v-
2
1. Gravity
2. Arc Pressure
3. Surface Tension 1

4. Lorenz (electromagnetic) forces

ecture 7 p19
 Motion in the weld pool (

Q.2. 6.4 0.& 0.8 1

Theoretical MHD flow

streamlines for various
current source and sink
distributions
ta) lbl

The Lorenz (JxB) C).2. OA 0.8 C.&

magnetohydrodynamic
0.2
forces vary as the square
of current.
.
J.F. Lancaster (Ed) The Physics of Welding, Pergamon, 1986

Ire 7 p20

-------
_ _ilII',..,'_ ...... • •_"._,. _

Surface Tension Flows

• Certain elements in the weld pool such as sulphur and

oxygen are "surface active" and affect surface tension (like
e>n".1'\)

• Surface tension gradients can drive flows in the liquid metal

(MoronO"'"; """""'Minn)

• Thus weld penetration can depend on base metal

composition. This has been a particular problem in GTAW
welding of stainless steels. e.g. tubing, where a precise weld
bead shape is desired.

Lecture 7 p2'
 Effects of Weld Pool Motion (

• Weld pool composition tend to be homogenized py fluid

motion
• The weld pool is relatively transparent to heat flow
• However, the exact cross-section of the weld bead is
difficult to predict and may vary even if welding conditions
are nominally constant.

I
I
.1

ra 7 p22