Caribbean Examination Council

Four Factors Which Influenced the Success

A paper presented in partial fulfillment of the subject

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 Table of Contents

Chapter Page

Acknowledgements 3

Statement of Aims & Information Collection 4

Rationale 5

1. Haiti - The Revolution 1791-1804, and 4 Factors Which Influenced Its Success 6

Conclusion 11

Bibliography 12

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Acknowledgements

I would like to thank those individuals who assisted me in the compilation of this SBA. First and

foremost, I would like to express my deep gratitude to Mr. William Clarke for his valuable and

constructive suggestions during the planning and development of this research work. His

willingness to give of his time so generously is very much appreciated. Finally, I wish to thank my

parents for their support and encouragement throughout this project.

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 Statement of Aims

The aim of this School Based Assignment (SBA), is to: Identify and discuss four of the primary

factors which were responsible for the success of the Haitian Revolution.

Information Collection

Information for this research project was collected using the following methods:

1. Research was done via the internet during the month of February 2019. This included the

reading of several articles on the Haitian Revolution and the review of several

documentaries about the Haitian Revolution on YouTube.

2. Books on the Haitian Revolution were read or reviewed over the period January 2019 to

February 2019

The resultant information using the research methods above, has been collated and presented

in the enclosed chapters for the attention of the CXC examiners.

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 Rationale

In his seminal work ‘Beyond a Boundary’, CLR James referred to the Haitian revolt and the

establishment of the independent state of Haiti as ‘the most outstanding event in the history of

the West Indies’. Other prominent historians such as Sir Hilary Beckles have also highlighted the

Haitian Revolution as one of the most extraordinary events in the history of the West Indies. I

have chosen to pursue this topic for my SBA as I would like to understand what is so unique about

the Haitian Revolution that gives it such a prominent place in West Indian History. I am especially

interested as to why this revolution led by black slaves succeeded, whereas others failed.

I have no doubt that this research will enhance my knowledge and understanding of slave revolts

within the Caribbean, and how this history has shaped and influenced our development.

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CHAPTER ONE

The Haitian Revolution (1791-1804) and 4 Factors Which Influenced Its Success

INTRODUCTION

On the 21st of August 1791, the slaves on the Island of San Domingue engaged in a well-

coordinated uprising against their French colonial masters. This revolt continued for thirteen

years until the first of January 1804, when San Domingue (herein after called Haiti), was declared

an Independent nation by Jacques Dessalines, and renamed Haiti. The Haitian Revolution is the

first and only successful black slave revolt. There is an old cliché which states that ‘Success has a

thousand fathers, but failure is an orphan’. Undoubtedly there are many factors which influenced

the successful outcome of this revolution. However, for this SBA, I will limit my analysis to four

of these factors. The factors which I shall examine are:

1. Divisions within the Haitian Society

2. The presence of African soldiers within the Haitian society

3. Tropical Diseases.

4. Leadership of Toussaint L’Ouverture.

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1. Divisions Within the Haitian Society Based on Class and Race

Whites (Grand &Petit Blancs)

3Affranchis (Mulattoes & Free

Slaves – 500k

Source- www.britannica.com/topic/Haitian-Revolution

By the late 18th century there were four distinct social classes on the island of Haiti. There were:

1. The ‘grand blancs’. These were the wealthy white French plantation owners.

2. The ‘petit blancs’. These were the less wealthy whites who were merchants, tradesmen,

etc.

3. The ‘affranchis’ which consisted of two groups. The ‘gens de couleur’, who were the free

coloreds, and African slaves who had earned or purchased their freedom.

4. Slaves, who made up most of the population.

The grand blancs were disgruntled with the authorities in France. They felt France had imposed

unreasonable restrictions with respect to trade, and too many rules and regulations with respect

to the management of their slaves. There was also tension between the grand blancs and the

petit blancs, both vying for power in the colony. The petit blancs were also at variance with the

coloreds who were usually better off financially than the petit blancs. The coloreds on the other

hand wanted certain civil rights which they were being denied. For example, coloreds could not

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enter certain professions or marry white persons. The free blacks also wanted certain civil rights,

and the slaves wanted their freedom. These divisions within the society were deeply entrenched,

and by the end of the 18th century, all the ingredients for internal conflict and upheaval within

the Haitian society were present and simmering, just waiting for ignition. The spark came in 1790

when the coloreds and the whites engaged in armed conflicts as the coloreds asserted their claim

for certain civil and legal rights. This warring between these two factions continued into 1791.

This period presented the perfect opportunity for the slaves to launch their revolt. Browne and

Carter opined that these divisions within the Haitian society ensured an adequate period of

gestation for the revolt.

2. African Soldiers Among the Slave Population

According to Browne and Carter (2008) and ‘Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia’, the African

people of Haiti derived from various areas of Africa including Angola and the Congo, two regions

often involved in warfare. As a result, many of the slaves who arrived in Haiti were prisoners of

war sold into slavery. It is easy to understand how some of these slaves became run-aways and

established themselves as maroons within the mountainous regions of Haiti. Bob Corbett in “A

Historical Essay on The Haitian Revolution” states that two of the generals in the early stage of

the revolt were maroons. According to Professor Bayyinah Bello, Jacques Dessalines had a special

fondness for these African soldiers who became some of Dessalines’ closest troops. The fact that

many of these African soldiers became maroons also meant they had a significant advantage in

the guerilla warfare raged by Toussaint as they were already living in the mountains and it would

be equivalent to fighting from their own back yards, (a clear case of home court advantage if

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there was ever one.) It is well documented that these men and women were highly influential in

the success of the Haitian Revolution at all stages of the revolt.

3. Diseases

Many Historians have concluded that disease more than any other factor was primarily

responsible for the ultimate demised of the European armies during their wars with Haiti in the

period of 1791 to 1804. According to Ott, T. 1987. The Haitian Revolution, 1789-1804, Europeans

lacked immunity to tropical diseases. Ott further opines that these diseases resulted in high levels

of morbidity and mortality among all invading Europeans forces, including Le Clerc and his troops.

Beckles and Shepherd (2004), concur with Ott, asserting that yellow fever and malaria were

responsible for the deaths of many British soldiers between 1795 and 1798. They further assert

that these two diseases were also a significant factor in the demise of the French, during their

final and futile effort between 1802 and 1803, to defeat the revolting slaves, and restore French

rule to Haiti. The fact that the leaders of the French revolt such as Boukman, Toussaint, Dessalines

and Christophe engaged the French in guerrilla warfare during the rainy season, only added salt

to festering wounds, as this would have been the main breeding season for mosquitoes, the

carriers of both the malaria and yellow fever viruses.

4. Toussaint L’Ouverture (1743-1803)

According to ‘Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia’, Toussaint’s original name was Francois

Dominique Breda. Professor Bayyinah Bell has opined that once Toussaint grew in awareness of

himself and his mission with respect to the Haitian people, he changed his name to ‘Toussaint

L’Ouverture. ‘Toussaint’, which means the one who has the power of all the saints, and

‘L’Ouverture’, the one who opens the way. In 1792 when France declared war on Spain, Toussaint

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joined the Spanish forces fighting against the French in order to support the slaves in their quest

for freedom. Once France declared the abolition of slavery in 1794, Toussaint shifted his

allegiance from the Spanish to the French. He joined the French army and fought against the

British who at this stage, were still pro slavery. According to Dyde, Greenwood and Hammer

(Emancipation to Emigration 3rd Edition), by 1795 Toussaint had a formidable army of 20,000

black soldiers. His leadership and military skills soon became very evident to all and he became

the leader of the revolting slaves.

Toussaint’s military tactics were brilliant. He engaged the French in guerrilla warfare

knowing that this would give his forces a distinct advantage. He understood the Europeans

vulnerability to tropical diseases such as malaria and yellow fever and therefore engaged them

more during the rainy season, when the spread of these diseases was most rampant. The rainy

season also presented difficulty for the French with respect to the movement of their heavier

artillery. He also used tactics such as poisoning the water supply of the French and their horses.

He was also able to build alliances with the United States of America from whom he obtained

weaponry for his army. According to Dyde, Greenwood and Hammer, the revolt was no longer

black rabble roaming the north, but a well-disciplined, well-armed force thanks to Toussaint’s

leadership. In 1802 Toussaint L’Ouverture was arrested by French troops and taken to France

where he died in jail in 1803. On being arrested Toussaint is reported to have told his captors, “In

overthrowing me you have cut down in Saint Domingue only the trunk of the tree of liberty; it will

spring up again from the roots, for they are numerous, and they are deep.” C.L.R James in his

book ‘The Black Jacobins’, identifies Toussaint’s leadership as the single most important factor

which ensured the success of the Haitian revolution.

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Conclusion

There were many factors which influenced the successful outcome of the Haitian Revolution.

There were environmental factors such as tropical diseases like Malaria and yellow fever to which

the Europeans had little or no immunity. The Presence of African trained soldiers within the ranks

of the slaves also proved a significant advantage. Further, the divisions across all strata of the

Haitian society precluded a timely united spontaneous response to the slave uprising. This

therefore allowed for the ‘seeding’ of the revolt. Lastly, the leadership of Toussaint L’Ouverture

transformed the slave insurgency into a revolutionary movement, which charted the way for

Haiti’s independence. These are four of the main factors which combined to positively skew the

outcome of the revolt in favor of the slaves.

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 Bibliography

Books

Dyde, Brian and Greenwood, Robert and Hamber, Shirley. Emancipation to Emigration 3rd

Edition. Macmillan.

Ott, T. 1987. The Haitian Revolution, 1789-1804. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press.

James, CLR.1963. The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L’Oventure and the San Domingo Revolution, New

York Vintage Press.

Browne, David and Henderson Carter. 2008. Atlantic Interactions. Ian Randle Publishers.

Kingston.

Websites

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispaniola

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Haiti#French_Saint-Domingue_(1625–1789)

https://15minutehistory.org/2013/02/06/episode-11-the-haitian-revolution/

http://faculty.webster.edu/corbetre/haiti/history/revolution/revolution1.htm

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Haitian-Revolution

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XRX6QbqWcgk

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