MATH1081 Discrete Mathematics

Syllabus and Problem sets

School of Mathematics and Statistics

Faculty of Science
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Syllabus
References are to the textbook by Epp, unless marked otherwise. F indicates the textbook by Franklin
and Daoud and R indicates the book Discrete Mathematics with Applications by K.H. Rosen (6th
edition). The UNSW Library has multiple copies of Rosen numbered P510/482A,B,C, etc.

The references shown in the righthand column are not intended to be a definition of what you will be
expected to know. They are just intended as a guide to finding relevant material. Some parts of the
course are not covered in the textbooks and some parts of the textbooks (even in sections mentioned
in the references below) are not included in the course.

In the Reference column below, column A refers to Epp 3rd edition, and Rosen 2nd edition, while
column B to Epp 4th edition and Rosen 6th edition.

Within sections of the course, the topics may not be covered in exactly the order in which they are
listed below.

Topic References A References B

1: Sets functions and sequences

Sets, subsets, power sets. Equality, cardinality 5.1, 5.3 1.2, 6.1, 6.3

Set operations: union, intersection, difference, 5.1 6.1

Cartesian product.

Universal sets, complements. 5.2 6.2

Russell’s paradox. 5.4 6.4

Functions. Domain, codomain and range. Arrow 7.1, 3.5 1.3, 7.1, 4.5
diagrams.

Ceiling and floor functions. Images and inverse images 7.3 7.2
of sets. Injective (one-to-one), surjective (onto) and
bijective functions.

Composition of functions 7.4 7.3

Inverse functions. 7.2 7.2

Sequences, sums and products. Notation. 4.1 5.1

Change of variable in a sum. Telescoping sums

2: Integers, Modular Arithmetic and Relations

Prime numbers and divisibility 3.1, 3.3 4.1, 4.3

Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic 3.3 4.3

Euclidean Algorithm 3.8 4.8

Modular Arithmetic 3.4 4.4, 8.4

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Solving Linear Congruences R2.5 R3.7

General Relations 10.1 8.1

Reflexivity, symmetry and transitivity 10.2 8.2

Equivalence Relations 10.3 8.3

Partially ordered sets and Hasse diagrams 10.5 8.5

3: Logic and Proofs

Proof versus intuition. Direct proof. F1 F1

Propositions, connectives, compound propositions. 1.1 2.1

Truth tables. Tautology, contingency, logical 1.1 2.1

equivalence.

Implication, converse, inverse, biconditional. 1.2 2.2

Rules of inference 1.3 2.3

Contrapositive, indirect proof, proof by contradiction 1.2, 3.6, F6,3.7 2.2,4.6,4.7, F6

Quantifiers 2.1 3.1

Proof of universal statements, exhaustion, proof by 2.1, F2, F3 3.1, F2, F3

cases.

Proof of existential statements. Constructive and non- 2.1, 3.1, F4, F6 3.1,4.1,F4,F6
constructive proofs. Counterexamples.

Negation of quantified statements. 2.1 3.2

Statements with multiple quantifiers. 2.1 3.2

Common mistakes in reasoning. Converse and inverse 2.3, 3.1 3.3, 3.4, 4.1
fallacies. Begging the question, tacit assumption, etc.

Mathematical induction 4.2-4.4, F8 5.2-5.4, F8

Note: In addition to the sections of Epp mentioned

above, sections 4.2–4.5 and 4.7 (3.2–3.5,3.7 for edition
3) provide many useful worked examples of
constructing proofs in elementary number theory.

4: Enumeration and Probability

Counting and Probability 6.1 9.1

Multiplication Rule 6.2 9.2

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Addition Rule 6.3 9.3

Principle of Inclusion-Exclusion 6.3 9.3

Pigeonhole Principle 7.3 9.4

Permutations and Combinations 6.4, 6.5 9.5, 9.6

Binomial and Multinomial Theorem 6.7, R4.6 9.7, R5.4

Discrete Probability R4.4, 6.1 R6.1, 9.1

Recurrence Relations 8.2, 8.3 5.6, 5.7, 5.8

Recursively Defined Sets and Functions 8.1 5.9

5: Graphs

Basic terminology. simple graphs, 𝐾𝑛 .Directed graphs, 11.1 10.1

subgraphs, complementary graphs.

Degree, the Handshaking Theorem 11.1 10.1

(Epp Theorem 10.1.1 (11.1.1 in ed. 3))

Bipartite graphs, 𝐾𝑚,𝑛 . 11.1 10.1

Adjacency and incidence matrices. 11.3 10.3

Isomorphism, isomorphism invariants. 11.4 10.4

Walks, paths and circuits. Euler and Hamilton paths. 11.2 10.2
Connected graphs, connected components.

Planar graphs. Euler’s formula. Dual graphs. Necessary R7.7 R9.7

conditions for planarity. Kuratowski’s Theorem.

Trees, spanning trees. 11.5, 11.6 10.5, 10.7

Weighted graphs. Minimal spanning trees. Kruskal and 11.6 10.6, 10.7
Dijkstra algorithms.
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PROBLEM SETS
Recommended Problems: It is strongly recommended that you attempt all questions marked by †.
You should regard these questions as the minimum that you should attempt if you are to pass this
course. However, the more practice in solving problems you get the better you are likely to do in class
tests and exams, and so you should aim to solve as many of the problems on this sheet as possible.
Ask your tutor about any problems you cannot solve.
Problems marked by a star (∗) are more difficult, and should only be attempted after you are sure
you can do the unstarred problems.
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PROBLEM SET 0
Introductory Problems

The following eight problems will be addressed in your first tutorial in order to introduce just some
of the problems that you will learn how to solve during this course. You are not expected to be able
to solve them at this point but feel free to see them as challenges and try to solve them anyway. Your
tutor will provide some hints and might initiate class discussion on how to solve these problems but
will not necessarily provide any full answers in this full tutorial. Most of the answers, and all of the
methods required, will be given later throughout the course.

IP1. Without using a calculator, find a simple way to calculate the value of

(3 × 3 + 4)2 + (3 × 4 + 4)2 + · · · + (3 × 22 + 4)2 .

(Hint: See Topic 1 Problem 39)

IP2. Find the last two digits of 71001 .
(Hint: Use Topic 2 methods to calculate modulo 100.)
IP3. Prove that log2 7 is irrational.
(Hint: See Topic 3 Problem 19c)
IP4. Six points are pairwise connected by lines:

Each of the lines is now coloured either red or blue. Prove that it is possible to find three points that
are joined by three lines of the same colour, regardless of how the lines were coloured.
(Hint: See Topic 3 Problem 32)
IP5. Prove that it is possible to find two different sets A and B, each containing 10 distinct positive
integers no greater than 100, for which the sum of integers in A is equal the sum of integers in B.
(Hint: Use Topic 4 methods.)
IP6. We have a 2 × n rectangular board and some 1 × 2 tiles , some 2 × 1 tiles , and some some
2 × 2 tiles . Let an be the number of ways in which we can tile the board using these tiles. Prove
that, for n > 2, an = an−1 + 2an−2 , and use this identity to find a closed formula for an .
(Hint: See Topic 4 Problem 37.)
IP7. Is it possible to draw continuously from A to B along the lines, passing each of the 14 lines
exactly once?

A B

(Hint: Use Topic 5 methods.)

IP8. My partner and I recently attended a party at which there were four other couples. Various
handshakes took place. No-one shook hands with themselves, nor with their partner, and no-one
shook hands with the same person more than once. Afterwards, I asked each person, including my
partner, how many people they had shaken hands with. To my surprise they each gave a different
answer. How many hands did my partner shake?
(Hint: Use Topic 5 methods or otherwise.)
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PROBLEM SET 1
Basic Set Theory

1. Are any of the sets A = {1, 1, 2, 3}, B = {3, 1, 2, 2}, C = {1, 2, 1, 2, 4, 2, 3} equal?

†2. Show that

A = {x ∈ R | cos x = 1}
is a subset of
B = {x ∈ R | sin x = 0}.
Is the first a proper subset of the second? Give reasons.

3. a) List all the subsets of the set A = {a, b, c}.

b) List all the elements of A × B where A = {a, b, c} and B = {1, 2}.

4. Given the sets X = {24k + 7 | k ∈ Z}, Y = {4n + 3 | n ∈ Z}, Z = {6m + 1 | m ∈ Z}, prove that
X ⊆ Y and X ⊆ Z but Y * Z.

†5. If S = {0, 1}, find

a) |P (S)|,


b) P P (S)  ,
 

c) P P P (S)  .


†6. Determine whether the following are true or false

a) a ∈ {a},
b) {a} ∈ {a},
c) {a} ⊆ {a},
d) a ⊆ {a},
e) {a} = {a, {a}},
f) {a} ∈ {a, {a}},
g) {a} ⊆ {a, {a}},

7. If A, B, C are sets such that A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C, prove that A ⊆ C.

8. Is it true that if P (A) = P (B) for two sets A, B then A = B?

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Set Operations and Algebra

9. If A = { letters in the word mathematics } and

B = { letters in the words set theory }, list the elements of the sets

a) A ∪ B,
b) A ∩ B,
c) A − B,
d) B − A.

10. Define the sets R, S and T by

R = {x ∈ Z | x is divisible by 2}
S = {x ∈ Z | x is divisible by 3}
T = {x ∈ Z | x is divisible by 6}.

a) Is S = T ?
b) Is R ⊆ T ?
c) Is T ⊆ R?
d) Is T ⊆ S?
e) Find R ∩ S.

†11. In a class of 40 people studying music: 2 play violin, piano and recorder, 7 play at least violin
and piano, 6 play at least piano and recorder, 5 play at least recorder and violin, 17 play at
least violin, 19 play at least piano, and 14 play at least recorder. How many play none of these
instruments?

†12. Prove the following statements if they are true and give a counter-example if they are false.

a) For all sets A, B and C, if A ∩ C ⊆ B ∩ C and A ∪ C ⊆ B ∪ C then A ⊆ B.

b) For all sets A, B and C, (A ∪ B) ∩ C = A ∪ (B ∩ C).

†13. Let A and B be general sets. Determine the containment relation (⊆, ⊇, =, none) that holds
between

a) P (A ∪ B) and P (A) ∪ P (B),

b) P (A ∩ B) and P (A) ∩ P (B).

†14. Let A and B be general sets. Determine the containment relation (⊆, ⊇, =, none) that holds
between
P (A × B) and P (A) × P (B)

15. Show that A − B = A ∩ B c and hence simplify the following using the laws of set algebra.

a) A ∩ (A − B).
b) (A − B) ∪ (A ∩ B).
c) (A ∪ B) ∪ (C ∩ A) ∪ (A ∩ B)c .

†16. Use the laws of set algebra to simplify

(A − B c ) ∪ (B ∩ (A ∩ B)c ).
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†17. Simplify
[A ∩ (A ∩ B c )] ∪ [(A ∩ B) ∪ (B ∩ Ac )] ,
and hence simplify
[A ∪ (A ∪ B c )] ∩ [(A ∪ B) ∩ (B ∪ Ac )] .

18. Draw a Venn diagram for the general situation for three sets A, B and C. Use it to answer the
following:

a) If B − A = C − A, what subregions in your diagram must be empty?

b) Prove or produce a counter-example to the following statement:

If B − A = C − A then B = C.

19. Use the laws of set algebra to prove that

(R − P ) − Q = R − (P ∪ Q)

for any sets R, P and Q.

*20. Define the symmetric difference A ⊕ B of two sets A and B to be

A ⊕ B = (A − B) ∪ (B − A).

a) Draw a Venn diagram illustrating A ⊕ B.

b) If A = { even numbers strictly between 0 and 20 },

B = { multiples of 3 strictly between 0 and 20 }, write down the set A ⊕ B.

c) Explain why A ⊕ B can also be written as (A ∪ B) − (A ∩ B).
d) Suppose A, B and C are sets such that A ⊕ C = B ⊕ C. Prove that A = B.

(Hint: You may use a Venn diagram to assist your argument.)

†21. Prove if true or give a counter example if false:

For all sets A, B and C, A × (B ∪ C) = (A × B) ∪ (A × C).

†22. Let
Ak = {n ∈ N | k ≤ n ≤ k2 + 5}
for k = 1, 2, 3, .... Find
4
[
a) Ak ;
k=1
90
\
b) Ak ;
k=10
\∞
c) Ak
k=1

23. Repeat the previous question if

1
Ak = {x ∈ R | 1 − < x ≤ k}.
k
 11
Functions

24. Which of the following are functions?

√
a) f : R → R, f (x) = x2 − 1.
b) f : Z → Z, f (x) = 2x + 1.
c) f : R → R, f (x) = x1 .
d) f : Q → Q, f (x) = q where x = pq , p, q integers.
e) f : Q → Q, f (x) = q where x = pq , p, q integers with q > 0 and no common factor except
1.

25. Recall from lectures that ⌊x⌋ is the largest integer less than or equal to x, and that ⌈x⌉ is the
smallest integer greater than or equal to x. Evaluate
a) ⌊π⌋,
b) ⌈π⌉,
c) ⌊−π⌋,
d) ⌈−π⌉.

*26. Prove that if n is an integer, then    

1 2
n− n − n
3 3
equals either 0 or 1.

(Hint: Write n as 3k, 3k + 1 or 3k + 2, where k is an integer.)

†27. Determine which of the following functions are one-to-one, which are onto, and which are bijec-
tions.
a) f : Z → Z, f (x) = 2x.
b) f : Q → Q, f (x) = 2x + 3.
c) f : R → Z f (x) = ⌈x⌉.
*d) f : R → R f (x) = x − ⌊x⌋.

†28. a) Let S be the set { n ∈ N | 0 ≤ n ≤ 11 } and define f : S → S by letting f (n) be the

remainder when 5n + 2 is divided by 12. Is f one-to-one? Is f onto?
b) Repeat part (a) with 5n + 2 replaced by 4n + 2.

†29. Define f : R → R by
f (x) = x2 − 4x + 6.
a) What is the range of f ?
b) Is f onto? Explain.
c) Is f one-to-one? Explain.

30. Repeat the above question with g : R → R defined by

g(x) = x3 − x + 1
and h : R → R defined by
h(x) = x3 + x + 1
(Hint: You may use differentiation.)
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†31. Let Z+ be the set of all positive integers and f : Z+ × Z+ → Z+ be the function defined by
f (m, n) = mn for all (m, n) ∈ Z+ × Z+ . Determine whether f is one-to-one or onto.

32. Find g ◦ f for each of the following pairs of functions

√
a) f : R → R, f (x) = 2x − 3 g : R → R, g(x) = x2 + 2,
x−1
b) f : Z → Z, f (x) = 2x + 1 g : {odd integers} → Z, g(x) = 2 .

†33. Suppose that f : X → Y and g : Y → Z are functions.

a) Show that if f and g are both onto then g ◦ f is also onto.

b) Is it true that if f and g are both one-to-one then g ◦ f is also one-to-one?

*34. If f, g : N → N are functions defined by f (n) = 2n and

 n
2 if n is even
g(n) = n−1
2 if n is odd

show that g ◦ f = ι but f ◦ g 6= ι where ι is the identity function.

35. For each of the following bijections find the inverse and the domain and range of the inverse.

a) f : R → R, f (x) = 5x + 3.
b) * g : Z → N 
2|x| − 1 if x < 0
g(x) =
2x if x ≥ 0

†36. Suppose f : R → R is defined by f (x) = 2x2 − 1. Find

a) f (A) if A = {x | − 2 ≤ x ≤ 3},
b) f −1 (B) if B = {y | 1 ≤ y ≤ 17}.

†37. Let f : Z × Z → Z be the function given by

f (m, n) = m2 − n2 .

a) Show that f is not onto.

b) Find f −1 ({8}).

†38. Suppose f is a function from X to Y and A, B are subsets of X, and suppose that S, T are
subsets of Y .

a) What containment relation (if any) is there between

i) f (A) ∪ f (B) and f (A ∪ B),

ii) f (A) ∩ f (B) and f (A ∩ B)?

b) Show that f −1 (S) ∪ f −1 (T ) = f −1 (S ∪ T ).

c) Show that f −1 (S) ∩ f −1 (T ) = f −1 (S ∩ T ).
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Sequences and Summation

†39. Use the formulae

N N
X N X N
k = (N + 1) and k2 = (N + 1)(2N + 1)
2 6
k=1 k=1

to evaluate
22
X
(3k + 4)2 .
k=3

40. a) Make use of changes of summation index to show that

N
X N
X
(k + 1)3 − (k − 1)3 = (N + 1)3 + N 3 − 1.
k=1 k=1

b) Hence show that

N
X N
k2 = (N + 1)(2N + 1).
6
k=1

†41. Show that

2 1 1
= −
k(k + 2) k k+2
and hence, that for N ≥ 1
N
X 2 3 1 1
= − − .
k(k + 2) 2 N +1 N +2
k=1

†42. Show that

5k − 2 4 3 1
= − −
k(k − 1) (k − 2) k−2 k−1 k
and hence evaluate
n
X 5k − 2
.
k(k − 1) (k − 2)
k=3

43. By writing out the terms, show that for N > 0

N
Y k 2
= .
k+2 (N + 1)(N + 2)
k=1

44. Using the fact that

1 (k − 1)(k + 1)
1− =
k2 k2
N  
Y 1
find an expression for 1− in terms of N .
k2
k=2
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PROBLEM SET 2
Integers and Modular Arithmetic

†1. Find the quotient and (non-negative) remainder when

a) 19 is divided by 7,
b) −111 is divided by 11,
c) 1001 is divided by 13.

2. Are the following true or false?

7 | 161, 7 | 162, 17 | 68, 17 | 1001.

3. Which of the following are prime?

17, 27, 37, 111, 1111, 11111.

†4. Find the prime factorization of the following

117, 143, 3468, 75600.

†5. Find the gcd and lcm of the following pairs

a) 22 · 35 · 53 and 25 · 33 · 52 ,
b) 22 · 3 · 53 and 32 · 7,
c) 0 and 3.

†6. Evaluate 13 mod 3, 155 mod 19, (−97) mod 11.

†7. Prove for a, b, c, d ∈ Z, k, m ∈ Z+ that

a) if a | c and b | d then ab | cd,

b) if ab | bd and b 6= 0, then a | d,
c) if a | b and b | c then a | c,
d) if a ≡ c (mod m) and b ≡ d (mod m) then a − b ≡ c − d (mod m),
e) if k | m and a ≡ b (mod m) then a ≡ b (mod k),
 
a b
f) if d = gcd(a, b) then gcd , = 1,
d d
*g) if a ≡ b (mod m) then gcd(a, m) = gcd(b, m).

†8. a) Find the least positive integer n for which

3n ≡ 1 (mod 7).

Hence evaluate 3100 (mod 7).

b) Find the least positive integer n for which

5n ≡ 1 (mod 17) or 5n ≡ −1 (mod 17).

Hence evaluate 5243 (mod 17).

c) Evaluate 24 (mod 18) and hence evaluate 2300 (mod 18).
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†9. For each of the following, use the Euclidean Algorithm to find d = gcd(a, b) and x, y ∈ Z with
d = ax + by

a) gcd(12, 18),
b) gcd(111, 201),
c) gcd(13, 21),
d) gcd(83, 36),
e) gcd(22, 54),
f) gcd(112, 623).

†10. Solve, or prove there are no solutions. Give your answer in terms of the original modulus and
also, where possible, in terms of a smaller modulus.

a) 151x − 294 ≡ 44 (mod 7),

b) 45x + 113 ≡ 1 (mod 20),
c) 25x ≡ 7 (mod 11),
d) 2x ≡ 3 (mod 1001),
e) 111x ≡ 75 (mod 321),
f) 1215x ≡ 560 (mod 2755),
g) 182x ≡ 481 (mod 533).

*11. Let a, b be integers, not both zero, let S be the set of integers defined by

S = {ax + by | x, y ∈ Z},

and let d0 be the smallest positive integer in the set S.

The aim of this question is to use the Division Algorithm and the definition of greatest common
divisor (gcd) to show that d0 = gcd(a, b).

Prove the following

a) If s ∈ S, then d0 is a divisor of s. (Hint: Write s = d0 q + r and show r ∈ S).

b) d0 is a divisor of both a and b.
c) If d is a divisor of both a and b, then d is a divisor of d0 .
d) d0 = gcd(a, b), and hence there exist integers x, y such that ax + by = gcd(a, b).

12. a) Prove that if a, b and m are integers with the properties gcd(a, b) = 1 and a | m and b | m,
then ab | m. (Hint: use 11(d).)
b) Prove that if a and b are coprime integers and a | bc, then a | c. (Hint: use 11(d).)
16
Relations

†13. List the ordered pairs in the relations R , for i = 1, 2, 3, from A = {2, 3, 4, 5} to B = {2, 4, 6}
i
where

a) (m, n) ∈ R1 iff m − n = 1,
b) (m, n) ∈ R2 iff m | n,
c) (m, n) ∈ R3 iff gcd(m, n) = 1.

†14. Represent each relation R of Question 13 by:

i

a) an arrow diagram,
b) a matrix MRi .

15. Construct arrow diagrams representing relations on {a, b, c} that have the following properties.

a) Reflexive, but neither transitive nor symmetric.

b) Symmetric, but neither transitive nor reflexive.
c) Transitive, but neither symmetric nor reflexive.
d) Symmetric and transitive, but not reflexive.
e) Transitive and reflexive, but not symmetric.
f) Symmetric and antisymmetric and reflexive.

16. A relation R on A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} is defined by a R b iff a − b has either 2 or 3 as a

divisor. Show that R is reflexive and symmetric, but not transitive.

†17. Define an equivalence relation ∼ on the set S = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} by x ∼ y if and only if

x ≡ y (mod 3). Partition S into equivalence classes.

†18. Define a relation ∼ on the set S = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} by x ∼ y if and only if x2 ≡ y 2 (mod 5).

a) Prove that ∼ is an equivalence relation on S.

b) Partition S into equivalence classes.

19. a) Let A1 = {0}, A2 = {1, 2}, A3 = {3, 4} be subsets of S = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}. Define a relation
∼ on the set S by x ∼ y if and only if x, y ∈ Ai for some i ∈ {1, 2, 3}. Show that ∼ is an
equivalence relation on S.
b) Let B1 = {0}, B2 = {1, 2}, B3 = {3} be subsets of S = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}. Explain why the
relation ∼ on S defined by x ∼ y if and only if x, y ∈ Bi for some i ∈ {1, 2, 3} is not an
equivalence relation on S.
c) Let C1 = {0, 1}, C2 = {1, 2}, C3 = {3, 4} be subsets of S = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}. Explain why the
relation ∼ on S defined by x ∼ y if and only if x, y ∈ Ci for some i ∈ {1, 2, 3} is not an
equivalence relation on S.
 17
20. The following diagram represents a set V = {u, v, x, y, z} of six cities and direct flights between
them.

w x

v y

u z

a) Define a relation ∼ on V by a ∼ b if and only if it is possible to fly from a to b using an

even number of flights (including 0 flights).
i) Prove that ∼ is an equivalence relation on V .
ii) Partition the set V into equivalence classes.
b) Define a relation R on V by aRb if and only if it is possible to fly from a to b using an odd
number of flights. Prove that R is not an equivalence relation.

†21. Consider the set S = {0, 1, 2, . . . , 11} of integers modulo 12. Define the relation ∼ on S by x ∼ y
iff x2 ≡ y 2 mod 12. Given that ∼ is an equivalence relation, partition S into equivalence classes.

†22. Let a and b be two fixed real numbers. Define a relation ∼ on R2 by (x , y ) ∼ (x , y ) iff
1 1 2 2
ax1 + by1 = ax2 + by2 . Prove that ∼ is an equivalence relation and give a geometric description
of the equivalence class of (1, 1).

23. Answer the following questions for the Poset

({{1}, {2}, {4}, {1, 2}, {1, 4}, {3, 4}, {1, 3, 4}, {2, 3, 4}}, ⊆):

a) Draw a Hasse diagram for the Poset.

b) Find the maximal elements.
c) Find the minimal elements.
d) Is there a greatest element?
e) Is there a least element?
f) Find all upper bounds of {{2}, {4}}.
g) Find the least upper bound of {{2}, {4}}, if it exists.
h) Find all lower bounds of {{1, 3, 4}, {2, 3, 4}}.
i) Find the greatest lower bound of {{1, 3, 4}, {2, 3, 4}} if it exists.

24. Answer the following questions for the Poset ({2, 4, 6, 9, 12, 27, 36, 54, 60, 72}, |):

a) Draw a Hasse diagram for the Poset.

b) Find the maximal elements.
c) Find the minimal elements.
d) Is there a greatest element?
e) Is there a least element?
f) Find the set of upper bounds of {2, 9}.
g) Find the least upper bound of {2, 9}, if it exists.
h) Find the set of lower bounds of {60, 72}.
i) Find the greatest lower bound of {60, 72} if it exists.
18
25. Give an example of a poset that

a) Has a minimal element but no least element.

b) Has a maximal element but no greatest element.

†26. A relation | is defined on A = { 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 18, 36, 72, 108 } by a | b iff a divides b.

a) Show that (A, |) is a poset.

b) Construct its Hasse diagram.
c) Which members of A are minimal elements? Which are maximal elements? Which are
greatest elements? Which are least elements?

†27. Let S = {0, 1, 2, 3} and P (S) denote the power set of S.

Define the relation A  B for A, B ∈ P (S) by A  B iff A ⊆ B.

a) Show that  is a partial order.

b) Construct the Hasse diagram of P (S),  .
c) Which members of P (S) are minimal elements? Which are maximal elements? Which are
greatest elements? Which are least elements?
 19
PROBLEM SET 3
Note that the subject matter of this section of the course is mathematical proof itself, and not the
particular results proved in classes or posed in the following problem set. You should be prepared to
prove results from any area of school or first-year university mathematics.

In this problem set, F&D refers to the book by Franklin and Daoud, and the problems have been
printed here with the permission of the author. Note the solutions to some of the F&D questions are
available in the book “Introduction to Proofs in Mathematics” by J. Franklin and A. Daoud.

Basic Proofs

1 1 2
1. (F&D Chapter 1 Q1) Show that: − <
1, 000 1, 002 1, 000, 000

†2. (F&D Chapter 1 Q3) Show that: √1, 001 − √1, 000 < √ 1
√ √ 2 1, 000
√ √ 1, 001 + 1, 000
Hint: multiply 1, 001 − 1, 000 by √ √
1, 001 + 1, 000

†3. (F&D Chapter 1 Q9) Prove that: √

7 √
6
7! > 6!

†4. [V] (F&D Chapter 1 Q12) Show that:

p √ p √ √
2+ 2+ 2− 2<2 2

5. (F&D Chapter 1 Q14)

a) Prove that: cos 3θ = 4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ

2π
b) Hence show that cos is a root of the equation 4x3 − 3x − 1 = 0
3

6. a) Suppose that n is a positive integer. Use the Binomial theorem and appropriate inequalities
to prove that
1 n
 
0 < 1+ < 3.
n

b) (F&D Chapter 1 Q20) Prove that: 99100 > 10099

   
π 1 3
7. (F&D Chapter 1 Q21) Show that: = tan−1 + tan −1
4 4 5

Generalisation; “all” statements

†8. Prove by exhaustion of cases that for any real number x we have

|x(x − 2)| ≤ 2x2 + 1 .

†9. (F&D Chapter 2 Q3) Prove that the product of any two odd numbers is an odd number.

†10. (F&D Chapter 2 Q11) Prove that √

n
n! <
p
n+1
(n + 1)! for any whole number n (imitate the
proof in Chapter 1).

11. (F&D Chapter 2 Q12) Prove that the product of three consecutive whole numbers, of which the
middle one is odd, is divisible by 24.
20
12. (F&D Chapter 2 Q19) Find a generalisation of:
1 1 2
− <
1000 1002 (1000)2

and prove it.

13. (F&D Chapter 2 Q21) Prove that for all whole numbers n, (n + 1)(n + 2) . . . (2n − 1)(2n) =
2n .1.3.5 . . . (2n − 1)

†14. (F&D Chapter 5 Q9) Consider the following statement concerning a positive integer x ≥ 2.
√
“If x is not divisible by any positive integer n satisfying 2 ≤ n ≤ x then x is a prime
number.”

a) Show that the above statement is true.

√
b) Is the statement still true if the condition on n is replaced by 2 ≤ n < x?

*15. a) Let a and n be integers greater than 1. Prove that an − 1 is prime only if a = 2 and n is
prime. Is the converse of this statement true?
b) [V ] Show that 2n + 1 is prime only if n is a power of 2.

*16. Consider the following statement concerning a positive integer n:

“For all a, b ∈ Z, if n | ab then either n | a or n | b.”

a) Prove that if n is prime then the statement is true.
b) Prove that the statement is false when n = 30.
c) Prove that if n is composite then the statement is false.

17. a) Use the result of part (a) of the previous question to prove that if p is prime, a is an integer
and p | a2 , then p | a.
*b) Are there any integers n other than primes for which it is true that for all integers a, if
n | a2 then n | a? If so, describe all such n.
√
*c) Prove that if p is prime then p is irrational.

18. a) Show that 2 is a multiplicative inverse for 4 (mod 7) and 3 is a multiplicative inverse for
5 (mod 7). Hence determine the value of 5! (mod 7)
*b) [V] Prove that if p is prime then

(p − 2)! ≡ 1 (mod p).

Hint: What is the multiplicative inverse of p − 1 (mod p) when p is prime?

 21
Writing proofs

†19. In the following questions you are given a theorem, together with the basic ideas needed to
prove it. Write up a detailed proof of the theorem. Your answer must be written in complete
sentences, with correct spelling and grammar. It must include a suitable introduction and
conclusion; reasons for all statements made; correct logical flow; and any necessary algebraic
details.

a) Theorem. If x3 + x2 + x + 2 = 0 mod 5 then x = 1 mod 5.

Basic ideas: if x = 0, 2, 3, 4 mod 5 then x3 + x2 + x + 2 = 2, 1, 1, 1 mod 5.
b) Theorem. Let x, y and m be integers. If m | (4x + y) and m | (7x + 2y) then m | x and
m | y.
Basic ideas: 2(4x + y) − (7x + 2y) = x and m | LHS.
c) Theorem. log2 7 is irrational.
Basic ideas: if log2 7 = p/q then 2p = 7q , but then LHS is even and RHS is odd.
d) Theorem. If n is a non–negative integer then 11 is a factor of 24n+3 + 3 × 5n .
Basic ideas: if 24n+3 = 11k − 3 × 5n then 24n+7 = 11(16k − 3 × 5n ) − 3 × 5n+1 .

Converse; if and only if

†20. Prove the following statement, then write down its converse. Is the converse true or false? Prove
your answer.
“For all x ∈ Z, if x ≡ −1 (mod 7) then x3 ≡ −1 (mod 7).”

21. a) Prove that the following proposition is true.

If x ≡ 3 (mod 4) then x3 + 2x − 1 ≡ 0 (mod 4).

b) Write down the contrapositive of the proposition in part (a). Is it true? Explain.
c) Write down the converse of the proposition in part (a). Is it true? Explain.

†22. (F&D Chapter 3 Q6) Prove that a whole number is odd if and only if its square is odd.

†23. (F&D Chapter 3 Q10) Prove that a triangle is isosceles if and only if two of its angles are equal.
(An isosceles triangle is by definition a triangle with two equal sides.)

24. (F&D Chapter 3 Q13) Show that a number is divisible by 3 if and only if the sum of its digits
is divisible by 3.

25. (F&D Chapter 3 Q18) Prove that a real number is rational if and only if its decimal expansion
is terminating or (eventually) repeating.

*26. For integers x and y, show that 7|x2 + y 2 if and only if 7|x and 7|y.

27. A parallelogram is defined to be a quadrilateral with both pairs of opposite sides parallel. Use
properties of congruent and similar triangles to prove that a quadrilateral is a parallelogram if
and only if two opposite sides are equal and parallel.
22
“Some” statements

†28. (F&D Chapter 4 Q11) Show that there is a solution of, x100 + 5x − 2 = 0 between x = 0 and
x = 1.

29. [V] (F&D Chapter 4 Q4) A perfect number is one which equals the sum of its factors (counting
1 as a factor, but not the number itself). Show that there exists a perfect number.

†30. (F&D Chapter 4 Q13) Consider the infinite geometric progression,

 2  3  n
1 1 1 1
+ + + ··· + + ...
2 2 2 2
Prove that there exists an integer N such that the sum of the first N terms of the above series
differs from 1 by less than 10−6 .

31. (F&D Chapter 4 Q16) A formula for ex is,

x2 x3 xn
1+x+ + + ··· + + ...
2! 3! n!
Show that e3 = 20.1, correct to 1 decimal place, by showing:

a) For any n ≥ 4,
 n−3
3n 9 3
<
n! 2 4
b) Hence, that there exists N such that,

3N +1 3N +2 1
+ + ··· <
(N + 1)! (N + 2)! 20

c) Hence, that e3 = 20.1 correct to 1 decimal place.

*32. (F&D Chapter 5 Q11) Every one of six points is joined to every other one by either a red or a
blue line. Show that there exist three of the points joined by lines of the same colour.

Multiple quantifiers

*33. [V] (F&D Chapter 5 Q8) Prove that between any two irrational numbers there is a rational
number.

†34. Show that the sequence {u } given by

n

un = n 2 for all n ∈ N

diverges to infinity, by showing that

∀M ∈ N ∃N ∈ N ∀n > N un > M.
35. A function f (x) is called continuous at x = a iff:

∀ǫ > 0 ∃δ > 0 ∀x ∈ (a − δ, a + δ) |f (x) − f (a)| < ǫ.

a) Complete: “A function f (x) is not continuous at x = a iff: ......”

b) * Show that the function f (x) = ⌊x⌋ is not continuous at x = 3.
 23
†36. The definition of lim f (x) = ℓ is
x→∞

“∀ǫ > 0 ∃M ∈ R ∀x > M |f (x) − ℓ| < ǫ.” (∗∗)

a) Write down the negation of (∗∗) (that is, lim f (x) 6= ℓ) and simplify it so that the negation
x→∞
symbol does not appear.
2x2 + 1
b) By working directly from the definition prove that lim = 2.
x→∞ x2 + 2

Negation; proof by contradiction

†37. (F&D Chapter 6 Q16) Prove that each of the following is irrational:
√3
a) 4
√
b) 1 + 3
√ √
c) 3− 2

†38. Prove that log 3 is irrational.

10

39. Prove that log5 15 is irrational.

†40. (F&D Chapter 6 Q1) What is the common feature in showing:

a) a “not all” statement to be true?

b) an “all” statement to be false?
Give an example in each case.

41. (F&D Chapter 6 Q11) Are the following statements true or false? Prove your answers.

a) Let a, b, c be three integers. If a divides c and b divides c, then either a divides b or b divides
a.
b) If a, b, c, d are real numbers with a < b and c < d, then ac < bd.

42. (F&D Chapter 5 Q5)

a) Prove that if a and b are rational numbers with a 6= b then,

1
a + √ (b − a)
2
is irrational.
b) Hence prove that between any two rational numbers there is an irrational number.

43. (F&D Chapter 7 Q14) A set of real numbers is called bounded if it does not “go to infinity”.
More precisely, S is bounded if there exist real numbers M, N such that for all
s ∈ S, M < s < N .
(For example, the set of real numbers x such that 1 < x3 < 2 is bounded, since for all x ∈ S, 1 <
x < 1.5.)

a) Give an example of a set which is not bounded.

b) Prove that if S is bounded and T ⊂ S, then T is bounded.
c) Prove that any finite set of real numbers is bounded.
d) Prove that if T is not bounded and T ⊂ S, then S is not bounded.
24
e) Prove that if S and T are bounded, then S ∩ T is bounded.
f) If S and T are bounded, is S ∪ T always bounded? Prove your answer.
g) Let S and T be bounded, Let,

U = {u ∈ R : u = s + t for some s ∈ S, t ∈ T }

Show that U is bounded. It might help to calculate some examples first, say,

S = [0, 1], T = [2, 3]

(The set U is sometimes denotes S + T , since it is the set of all sums of something in S
with something in T .)

44. (F&D Chapter 7 Q15) A region in the plane is called convex if the line segment joining any
two points in the region lies wholly inside the region. For example, an ellipse, a parallelogram,
a triangle and a straight line are convex, but on annulus and a star-shaped region are not. In
symbols, R is convex if, for all (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) in R, (λx1 + (1 − λ)x2 , λy1 + (1 − λ)y2 ) ∈ R
for all λ ∈ [0, 1].

a) Prove that if R and S are convex, then R ∩ S is convex.

b) If R and S are convex, is R ∪ S always convex? Prove your answer.
c) Prove that if R is convex, then the reflection of R in the x-axis is convex.
d) If R is convex, is the set,

2R = {(x, y) : (x, y) = (2x′ , 2y ′ ) for some (x′ , y ′ ) ∈ R}

always convex? Prove your answer and illustrate with a diagram.

†45. (F&D Chapter 6 Q24) Show that there do not exist three consecutive whole numbers such that
the cube of the greatest equals the sum of the cubes of the other two.

Mathematical induction
1 1 1 1 1
46. (F&D Chapter 8 Q2) Show that, 1 − + − + + · · · + (−1)n−1 is always positive.
2 3 4 5 n

†47. (F&D Chapter 8 Q5)

a) Prove, by mathematical induction, that if n is a whole number then,

n3 + 3n2 + 2n is divisible by 6.

b) Prove the same result without mathematical induction by first factorising n3 + 3n2 + 2n.

†48. (F&D Chapter 8 Q7)

a) Calculate,
1 2 3 n
+ + + ··· +
2! 3! 4! (n + 1)!
for a few small values of n.
b) Make a conjecture about a formula for this expression.
c) Prove your conjecture by mathematical induction.
 25
49. (F&D Chapter 8 Q8) The following is a famous fallacy that uses the method of mathematical
induction. Explain what is wrong with it.
Theorem
Everything is the same colour.
Proof
Let P (n) be the statement, “In every set of n things, all the things have the same colour”.
We will show that P (n) is true for all n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , so that every set consists of things of the
same colour.
Now, P (1) is true, since in every set with only one thing in it, everything is obviously of the
same colour.
Now, suppose P (n) is true.
Consider any set of n + 1 things.
Take an element of the set, a. The n things other than a form a set of n things, so they are all
the same colour (since P (n) is true).
Now take a set of n things out of the n + 1 which does include a.
These are also all the same colour, so a is the same colour as the rest.
Therefore P (n + 1) is true.
 2
n(n+1)
50. Show that 13 + 23 + · · · + n3 = 2 whenever n ∈ Z+ .

51. Show that 12 + 32 + · · · + (2n + 1)2 = 31 (n + 1) (2n + 1) (2n + 3) whenever n ∈ N.

†52. Show that for all n ∈ N, 64  72n + 16n − 1.

53. Prove that for all n ∈ Z+ , 21 | 4n+1 + 52n−1 .

*54. Prove by induction that, for n ∈ Z+ ,

√ √ √ 2 √ √
1+ 2+ 3 + ··· +
n ≥ n n.
3
55. Prove by induction that if the sequence (un ) is defined by

 u0 = 0
u = 1
 1
un = un−1 + un−2 for all n ≥ 2

then √ !n √ !n !
1 1+ 5 1− 5
un = √ −
5 2 2
for all n ≥ 0.

†56. Prove, using induction, that if the sequence {un } is defined by:

 u1 = 12
u = 30
 2
un = 5un−1 − 6un−2 for n ≥ 3,

then un = 3 × 2n + 2 × 3n , for all n ≥ 1.

2 2
57. a) Prove by induction that for n ∈ N, the nth derivative of ex is a polynomial times ex . Can
you say anything about these polynomials?
(Note: By convention, the 0′ th derivative of f (x) is just f (x).)
26
b) Guess and prove a similar result concerning the derivatives of the function e1/x .

†58. [V] Prove that there exists N ∈ N such that for all n ∈ N with n ≥ N we have 3n < n!.

Logic and truth tables

59. Which of the following are propositions?

a) The moon is made of green cheese.

b) Read this carefully.
c) Two is a prime number.
d) Will the game be over soon?
e) Next year interest rates will rise.
f) Next year interest rates will fall.
g) x2 − 4 = 0

60. Using letters for the component propositions, translate the following compound statements into
symbolic notation:

a) If prices go up, then housing will be plentiful and expensive; but if housing is not expensive,
then it will still be plentiful.
b) Either going to bed or going swimming is a sufficient condition for changing clothes; how-
ever, changing clothes does not mean going swimming.
c) Either it will rain or it will snow but not both.
d) If Janet wins or if she loses, she will be tired.
e) Either Janet will win or, if she loses, she will be tired.

61. Write a statement that represents the negation of each of the following:

a) If the food is good, then the service is excellent.

b) Either the food is good or the service is excellent.
c) Either the food is good and the service is excellent, or else the price is high.
d) Neither the food is good nor the service excellent.
e) If the price is high, then the food is good and the service is excellent.
 27
†62. Construct a truth table for each of the following propositions.


a) ∼ (p ∧ q) → (p ∧ q) ;
b) p → (p → q);
c) ∼ p → (p → q);



d) p → (q → r) → (p → q) → (p → r) .

Which of the above propositions are tautologies? Are any contradictions?

†63. Show, by using truth tables, that the following pairs of propositions are logically equivalent.

a) ∼ (p ∨ q), ∼ p ∧ ∼ q;
b) ∼ p ∨ q, p → q;
c) ∼ p → (q ∨ r), ∼ q → (∼ r → p);
d) p ∨ (p ∧ q), p.

64. Use standard logical equivalences to simplify each of the following logical expressions.

a) (p∨ ∼ q)∧ ∼ (p ∧ q)
b) [p → (q ∨ ∼ p)] → (p ∧ q)
c) (p ∧ q) ∧ ∼ (∼ p ∧ q) ∧ (q ∧ r)
d) (p ↔ q) ∨ (∼ p ∧ q)

65. Use standard logical equivalences to show that ∼ (p ∨ ∼ q) → (q → r) is logically equivalent to

each of the following propositions

a) q → (p ∨ r);
b) (q → p) ∨ (q → r);
c) ∼ (q → p) → (∼ q ∨ r).

Valid and invalid arguments

66. Suppose that

“If I do not do my homework, I will not pass.

If I study hard, I will pass.
I passed.”

Did I do my homework or not? Did I study hard or not? Explain.

†67. “Watson, I have uncovered the following facts:

• If Mrs Smith is lying then Moriarty has not escaped.

• Either Moriarty is dead or he is really Jones.
• If Moriarty is really Jones then he has escaped.
• I am convinced Mrs Smith is lying.”

“Good Lord Holmes,”replied Dr Watson, “what can you make of all this?”
“Elementary my dear Watson, Moriarty is dead!”

Is Holmes correct? Justify your answer.

28
†68. Let e denote “Einstein is right”, b denote “Bohr is right” q denote “Quantum mechanics is right”,
w denote “The world is crazy” and consider the sentences:

(1) “Either Einstein or Bohr is right, but they are not both right”.
(2) “Einstein is right only if quantum mechanics is wrong, and the world is crazy if quantum
mechanics is right”.

a) Write the two sentences (1) and (2) as symbolic expressions involving e, b, q and w.
b) Suppose the world is not crazy. From the truth of (1) and (2) is it valid to deduce that
Einstein is right? Explain.

69. Consider the following two statements:

(1) “If either Peta or Queenie has passed then either Roger and Peta have both passed, or
Roger and Queenie have both passed”.

and

(2) “If either Peta has passed or Queenie has failed then Roger has passed.”

a) Write the two statements (1) and (2) in symbolic form by letting p stand for “Peta has
passed,” q stand for “Queenie has passed” and r stand for “Roger has passed”.
b) Suppose that the statement (1) is false. Deduce that Roger has failed.
c) Suppose that the statement (1) is false and that the statement (2) is true. Decide whether
or not Peta has passed.
 29
PROBLEM SET 4
Enumeration and Probability

†1. How many strings of six non-zero decimal digits

a) begin with two odd digits?

b) consist of one even digit, followed by two odd digits, followed by three digits less than 7?
c) have no digit occurring more than once?
d) contain exactly three nines?
e) contain fewer than three nines?
f) contain exactly three nines, with no other digit repeated?
g) have their last digit equal to twice their first digit?
 
†2. 321
a) Express in terms of factorials P (21, 8), C(21, 8), , C(2n, n).
123
 
7
b) Calculate explicitly P (7, 4), , P (6, 3), C(4, 2), C(201, 199).
4

†3. How many seven-letter words can be made from the English alphabet which contain

a) exactly one vowel,

b) exactly two vowels,
c) exactly three vowels,
d) at least three vowels?

4. Repeat the previous question if repeated letters are not permitted.

†5. a) A set of eight Scrabbler tiles can be arranged to form the word SATURDAY. How many
three-letter “words” can be formed with these tiles if no tile is to be used more than once?
b) How many ten-letter words can be formed from the letters of PARRAMATTA? How many
nine-letter words? ∗How many eight-letter words?
c) How many four-letter “words” come before “UNSW” if all four-letter words are listed in
alphabetical order?

†6. How many eight-letter words constructed from the English alphabet have

a) exactly two Ls?

b) at least two Ls?

7. Consider the following.

“Problem: How many eight-card hands chosen from a standard pack have at least one suit
missing?

Solution: Throw out one entire suit (4 possibilities), then select 8 of the remaining 39 cards.
The number of hands is 4C(39, 8).”

a) What is wrong with the given solution?

b) Solve the problem correctly.
30
†8. a) Find the number of positive integers less than or equal to 200 which are divisible neither
by 6 nor by 7.
b) Find the number of positive integers less than or equal to 200 which are divisible neither
by 6, nor by 7, nor by 8.

9. What is the probability that a hand of eight cards dealt from a shuffled pack contains:

a) exactly three cards of the same value and the remaining cards all from the remaining suit
(for example, ♥ 4, ♦ 4, ♠ 4 and five clubs not including the ♣ 4);
b) exactly three cards in at least one of the suits;
c) exactly three cards in exactly one of the suits. (Hint. First find the number of ways in
which five cards can be chosen from three specified suits, with none of the three represented
by three cards.)

10. For any positive integer n we define φ(n) to be the number of positive integers which are less
than or equal to n and relatively prime to n. Given that p, q, r are primes, all different, use the
inclusion/exclusion principle to find φ(pq), φ(p2 q) and φ(pqr).

†11. A hand of thirteen cards is dealt from a shuffled pack. Giving reasons for your answers, determine
which of the following statements are definitely true and which are possibly false.

a) The hand has at least four cards in the same suit.

b) The hand has exactly four cards in some suit.
c) The hand has at least five cards in some suit.
d) The hand has exactly one suit containing four or more cards.

†12. a) Prove that if nine rooks (castles) are placed on a chessboard in any position whatever, then
at least two of the rooks attack each other.
b) Prove that if fifteen bishops are placed on a chessboard then two of them attack each other.

†13. Let A be the set { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 }. Prove that if 5 integers are selected at random from A,
then at least one pair of these integers has sum 9.

14. In a square with sides of length 3cm, 10 points are chosen at random. Prove
√ that there must be
at least two of these points whose distance apart is less than or equal to 2 cm.

†15. If 31 cards are chosen from a pack, prove that there must be at least 3 of the same value, and
there must be at least 8 in the same suit.

†16. a) To each integer n we assign an ordered pair p(n) whose members are the remainders when
n is divided by 3 and 4 respectively. For example, p(5) and p(17) are both equal to (2, 1). If
ten thousand integers are chosen at random, how many can you say for certain must have
the same value for p?
*b) Repeat part (a) with the divisors 3 and 4 replaced by 4 and 6.

17. Let S and T be finite sets with |S| > |T |, and let f be a function from S to T . Show that f is
not one-to-one.

†18. Prove that there were two people in Australia yesterday who met exactly the same number of
other people in Australia yesterday.
 31
19. Twenty hotel management students all guess the answers on the final examination, so it can be
taken that all orders of students on the list of results are equally likely. The top student is given
a mark of 100, the next 95, and so on, down to 5 for the last student and no two students get
the same mark. Find the probability that Polly gets an HD, both Manuel and Sybil get a CR
or better, and Basil fails.

†20. A die is rolled 21 times. Find the probability of obtaining a 1, two 2s, . . . and six 6s.

†21. For this problem assume that the 365 dates of the year are equally likely as birthdays.

a) Find the probability that two people chosen at random have the same birthday.
b) Find the probability that in a group of n people, at least two have the same birthday.
c) How large does n have to be for the probability in (b) to be greater than 21 ?
d) Criticise the assumption made at the beginning of this question.

†22. Twenty cars to be bought by a company must be selected from up to four specific models. In
how many ways may the purchase be made if
a) no restrictions apply?
b) at least two of each model must be purchased?
c) at most three different models must be purchased?

23. How many outcomes are possible from the roll of four dice
a) if the dice are distinguishable (for example, they are of different colours)?
b) if the dice are not distinguishable?

†24. a) Find the coefficient of w2 x5 y 7 z 9 in (w + x + y + z)23 .

b) When (w + x + y + z)23 is expanded and terms collected, how many different terms will
there be?

†25. How many solutions are there to the equation

x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 + x6 = 40
if x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 , x6 are non-negative integers,
a) with no further assumptions?
b) with each xj ≥ 3?
c) with each xj ≤ 10?
*d) with each xj ≤ 8?
e) if each xj is even?
f) if at least one xj is odd?
*g) if every xj is odd?
*h) with x1 ≤ 9, 5 ≤ x2 ≤ 14 and 10 ≤ x3 ≤ 19?

*26. By counting in two ways the number of non-negative integer solutions of the inequality
x1 + x2 + · · · + xr ≤ n, prove that
n + r n + r − 1 n + r − 2  r  r − 1
= + + ··· + + .
r r−1 r−1 r−1 r−1
Interpret this result in Pascal’s triangle.
32
Recurrence Relations

27. Write down the first four terms of the sequences defined recursively by

a) an = 32 an−1 , a0 = 16;
b) an = 3an−1 − 2an−2 , a0 = 2, a1 = 5;
c) an = 2(an−1 + an−2 + · · · + a1 + a0 ), a0 = 1.

28. Write down a recurrence and initial conditions to describe each of the following sequences.

a) {2, 4, 8, 16, ...}

b) {1, 3, 5, 7, ....}
c) {3, −6, 12, −24, ...}
d) {1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, ...}
e) {2, 2, 2, 2, 2, ...}
f) {1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, ...}

†29. Let a be the number of ways to climb n steps, if the person climbing the stairs can only take
n
two steps or three steps at a time.

a) Write down a recurrence relation with initial conditions for an .

b) Find a4 and a8 .

†30. Let a denote the number of bit strings of length n where no two consecutive zeros are allowed.
n

a) Find a1 , a2 , a3 .
b) Show that an satisfies the recurrence an = an−1 + an−2 for n ≥ 3.

31. A bank lends me $50,000 at 18% per year interest, compounded monthly, and I pay

back $900
per month. (So at the end of each month the amount I owe is increased by 1812 % and then
reduced by $900.)

If $un is the amount still owing after n months, write down a recurrence relation for un .

†32. a) Find the general solution of the first order recurrence an = 5an−1 .
b) Find the solution of the first order recurrence an +4an−1 = 0 subject to the initial condition
a1 = −12.

33. Find the general solution of the following recurrence relations, each holding for n ≥ 2.

a) an + an−1 − 6an−2 = 0.
b) an = 3an−1 − 2an−2 .
c) an = 6an−1 − 9an−2 .
d) an − 2an−1 − 4an−2 = 0.

†34. Find the solution of the following recurrence relations (defined for n ≥ 2) subject to the given
initial conditions

a) an + 2an−1 − 15an−2 = 0, a0 = 7, a1 = −3.

b) an = 5an−1 − 6an−2 , a0 = 5, a1 = 13.
 33
c) an + 4an−1 + 4an−2 = 0, a0 = 2, a1 = 4.
d) an − 4an−1 − 6an−2 = 0, a0 = 2, a1 = 4.

†35. Find the general solution of the following recurrence relations (defined for n ≥ 2).

a) an + an−1 − 6an−2 = 4n
b) an = 3an−1 − 2an−2 + 2n
c) an = 6an−1 − 9an−2 + 8n + 4
d) an = 6an−1 − 9an−2 + 3n

36. Find the solution of the recurrence

an − 3an−1 − 4an−2 = 5(−1)n for n ≥ 2, given that a0 = 1, a1 = 8.

†37. Suppose we wish to tile a 2 × n rectangular board with smaller tiles of size 1 × 2 and 2 × 2.

Let an be the number of ways in which this can be done.

a) Show that, for n > 2, an = an−1 + 2an−2 and find a1 , a2 .

b) Solve the recurrence to find a closed formula for an .

*38. An n-digit quaternary sequence is a string of n digits chosen from the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3.

Let an be the number n–digit of quaternary sequences with an even number of 0’s.

a) Show that, for n ≥ 1,

an = 3an−1 + 4n−1 − an−1 = 2an−1 + 4n−1

and
a0 = 1, a1 = 3.

b) Find a closed formula for an .

†39. Define a set S of words on the alphabet {x, y, z} by

(B) x, y ∈ S

(R) If w ∈ S then wx, wy, wzx, wzy ∈ S.

Let an be the number of words of length n in S.

a) Find the first few values of an .

b) Find a recurrence relation for an .
c) Solve the recurrence to find a closed formula for an .

†40. We call a word on the alphabet {x, y, z} z-abundant if the letter z appears at least once in any
two successive letters. (So, for example, the empty word is z-abundant and so is xzzxzy but
xzyxzy is not.)

Let an be the number of z-abundant words of length n.

a) Show that a1 = 3 and that a2 = 5.

34
b) Explain carefully why, for n ≥ 2,

an = an−1 + 2an−2 .

(Hint: Consider the possible ways in which a z-abundant word can begin.)
c) Find an explicit formula for an .

*41. a) Show that the set {1, 2, 3, ...., n} can be partitioned into two non-empty sets in precisely
2n−1 − 1 ways.
b) Let sn be the number of ways in which the set {1, 2, 3, ..., n} can be partitioned into three
non-empty sets.

Show that s1 = 0, s2 = 0, s3 = 1 and write down the six such partitions for n = 4.
c) Show that, for n ≥ 2, the sequence sn defined above satisfies sn = 3sn−1 + 2n−2 − 1 and
find a closed formula for sn .
 35
PROBLEM SET 5
Graphs

1. Draw the graph G = (V, E, f ) with vertex set V = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 } and edge set
E = {e1 ,e2 , e3 , e4 , e5 , e6 , e
7 } and edge–endpoint or incidence function
f : E → {x, y} | x, y ∈ V

e f (e)
e1 {v3 , v4 }
e2 {v1 }
e3 {v1 , v5 }
e4 {v2 , v5 }
e5 {v2 }
e6 {v5 , v2 }
e7 {v4 , v2 }

2. For the graph

v4 e14
v9
e15 e16
v1 e1 v2
e3 v3
e2
e13
e4
e6 e9 e12
v5 e5 v6 e7 e11 v8

e8 v7
e10

Find

a) the edge–endpoint function (in a table),

b) the vertex degrees (in a table),
c) total vertex degree and total number of edges,
d) all loops,
e) all parallel edges,
f) edges incident on v3 ,
g) vertices adjacent to v8 ,
h) all isolated vertices.
36
†3. Determine with reasons which of the following graphs are simple.

G1 G2 G3 G4 G5

†4. How many edges does a graph have if it has vertices of degree 4, 3, 3, 2, 2? Draw a simple graph
with these vertex degrees. (Is it the only example?)

†5. Determine whether or not there is a graph or simple graph for each of the following sequences
of vertex degrees. Draw examples of those that exist. (Try to minimise the number of loops or
parallel edges in non–simple examples.)

i) 4, 4, 3, 2, 2, 1. ii) 4, 4, 3, 3, 2, 1. iii) 5, 5, 3, 2, 2, 1.

iv) 5, 4, 3, 2, 2. v) 6, 5, 4, 4, 2, 2, 1. vi) 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 1.

6. Draw the graphs

i) K6 . ii) K2,3 .

†7. Find the total number of vertices and edges for the special simple graphs

a) Kn
b) Km,n
c) Cn , (cyclic graph with n vertices)
d) Qn (n-cube graph)

†8. How many subgraphs are there of the graph G :

a b

G:
c d

9. Recall that two vertices in the complement G are neighbours iff they are not neighbours in G.
Find the following

i) Kn ii) Km,n iii) Cn for n = 5, 6

10. If a simple graph G has n vertices and m edges how many edges does G have?
 37
Bipartite Graphs

†11. Determine, with reasons, which of the following graphs is bipartite.

b)
a) B
C C
A A B
D E F
G E
D G
H F

c) B d) A B
A C
E
C D F G
I
D F
E H J K

e) f)
B C C

A D B D

H E A G
E

G F F

g) C

D
K
B E
H
F G

A I J

12. For what values of n are the following graphs bipartite?

i) Kn ii) Cn iii) Qn
38
Adjacency Matrices

†13. Represent the following graphs by adjacency matrices

a)

A e1 B A e2 B
e1
e5
e3 e4 e5
e2 C e3 e6 E
e4
e7
e6
e7
D E C D

(Order vertices alphabetically)

b) K4
c) K2,3 .

†14. Draw the graph with adjacency matrices

 
  1 2 0 1
0 1 2 2 0 2 1
iv) 1 1 0 v)  0 2 0 3

2 0 0
1 1 3 2

Isomorphism

†15. Determine, with reasons, whether or not the following pairs of graphs are isomorphic.

a) y
a b
x z
c

d e t u
G1 G2

a
b) c
x y u
b

d t
z
e
G1 f v
G2
 39
c)
a b c e f h x y t u v s

d g z w
G2
G1

r
c s
d) q
b d t
p u
a e

i f x v
h g w
G1 G2

b
y z
e)
a c d e
x t u

f g v w
G1 G2

b v
f)

a c u w
g t
f d z x

e y
G1 G2

16. A simple graph G is self–complementary if it is isomorphic to its complement G (see Q. 9).

a) Show if G is self–complementary then G has 4k or 4k + 1 vertices for some integer k. Is

the converse true?
*b) Find all self–complementary graphs with four or five vertices.
** c) (Challenge) Find a self–complementary graph with 8 vertices.
40
*17. Find all non–isomorphic simple graphs with

a) 2 vertices,
b) 3 vertices,
c) 4 vertices.

Connectivity

18. Find the connected components (draw separately) of the graph

A B
D E C
G
I F
J H

K
L M M

Adjacency Matrix and Paths

19. What is the number of walks of length n between any two adjacent vertices of K4 for
n = 2, 3, 4, 5?

†20. a) Find the adjacency matrix M of the graph G

e3

e2 C
e1
e4 e5
A B
e6
D

(ordering the vertices as A, B, C, D).

b) Find M 2 , M 3 .
c) How many walks of length 2 and 3 are there between B and C? Write them down.
d) Let N = I4 + M + M 2 + M 3 .
i) The (3, 4) entry of N is 20. What does this mean in terms of walks?
ii) No entries of N are zero. What does this mean?
 41
Euler and Hamilton Paths and Circuits.

†21. Determine, with reasons, whether or not there is

α) an Euler path, which is not a circuit,

β) an Euler circuit,
γ) a Hamilton path, which is not a circuit,
δ) a Hamilton circuit,

in the following graphs. Give an example, if one exists, in each case.

a) D b)
B B
F
C
A E C D
A H
G E F
H
I G
c) A
d)
B
F e1
e2 B C
A C D
G
D
E E F
e) C
f) D
B
A D
B C A E

E F G F

†22. For what values of n does K , C , Q have an Euler circuit?

n n n

23. For what values of n does Kn , Cn , Qn have an Euler path which is not a circuit?

†24. For what values of m, n does K

m,n have

a) an Euler circuit,
b) an Euler path which is not a circuit,
c) a Hamilton circuit.

*25. Show each Qn has a Hamilton circuit.

[Hint: Construct one recursively, constructing Hamiltonian paths between adjacent vertices of
Qn . Construct such a path for Qn+1 from one such path for Qn ].
42
*26. The Knight’s Tour Puzzle asks if it is possible to find a sequence of 64 knight’s moves so that
a knight on a chessboard visits all the different squares and ends up on the starting point.

a) Formulate the problem in terms of graphs.

b) Can the puzzle be solved?
c) Can you find an explicit solution?
d) What happens on a 3 × 3 chessboard?

Planar Graphs

†27. Show that the following graphs are planar by redrawing them as planar maps.

a) b) c)
B A B
A B
A C

D E D C C D E F
d)
B
B A B
A C e) ∗ f)

A C
A′ B′
D F
D F

E E C C′
 43
†28. For each of

⋆ ⋆
⋆ ⋆ ⋆ ⋆

a) Find the degree of each of the regions indicated by an asterisk in each map.
b) What is the sum of the degrees of the regions in each map?
c) Give the dual of each of the planar maps, drawing it on a separate diagram.
d) Verify Euler’s formula in the maps.

†29. A connected planar graph has 11 vertices; 5 have degree 1, 5 have degree 4, and 1 has degree 5.

a) How many edges are there?

b) How many regions are there?
c) Give an example of such a graph, drawing it as a planar map.

30. a) Show if G is a connected planar simple graph with v vertices and e edges with v ≥ 3 then
e ≤ 3v − 6.
b) Further show if G has no circuits of length 3 then e ≤ 2v − 4.

31. Apply the last question to show the following graphs are non–planar.

a) b)

32. Use the results of Q30 to decide which Qn are planar.

†33. Use Kuratowski’s Theorem to show that the following graphs are not planar.

a)
A B C b)

B C
D E

A D

E
F G H G F
44

c) d)
B
A B A

C
D G
C E
D

F
F G E

*e) B

G
A C
F H

J I

E D

34. Show the converses of Q30 a) and b) are false by considering the following examples. (Hint:
Kuratowski’s Theorem.)

a) C b)
F
G E
D
H D
F B
A C
E B

Trees

35. A tree T has 8 vertices, at least two of which have degree 3.

a) How many edges are there?

b) What are the possible vertex degrees for T in non–increasing order?
c) What are the possible forms for T up to isomorphism?

*36. Prove that a tree has at least one vertex of degree 1.

*37. Use Q36 to prove by induction that a tree with n vertices has n − 1 edges.
 45
†38. a) Use Kruskal’s algorithm to find a minimal spanning tree for the following weighted simple
graph.

A 3 B C
2
2 3
3 3 1
1 D 2 E 3
3 2
1 1

F 4 G 2 H

b) Use Dijkstra’s algorithm to construct a tree giving shortest paths from A to each of the
other vertices in the weighted graph in part (a).

39. a) Use Kruskal’s algorithm to find a minimal spanning tree for the following weighted graph.
Then find a second minimal spanning tree for the graph. How many other minimal spanning
trees are there?
A 1 B

1 1
4 5
D
C 4 5 E
2 3
4 2 5

F 2 G 3 H

b) Use Dijkstra’s algorithm to construct a tree giving shortest paths from A to each of the
other vertices in the weighted graph in part (a).

40. Use Dijkstra’s algorithm to find a shortest path from the vertex v0 to the vertex v1 in the
following weighted graph.

A 2 C 4 E 10 J

3 3
4 6 4
v0 2 v1
3 2 6
5 8

B 1 D 4 F 7 H
46
ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS
Important Note
Here are some answers (not solutions) and some hints to the problems. These are NOT intended as
complete solutions and rarely are any reasons given. To obtain full marks in test and examination
questions FULL reasoning must be given, and your work should be clearly and logically set out.

Problem Set 1.
1. A = B.

2. Yes.

5. a) 4; b) 16; c) 65536.

6. a) T; b) F ; c) T ; d) F ; e) F; f) T ; g) T

8. Yes.

10. a) No; b) No; c) Yes; d) Yes; e) T.

11. 6.

12. a) True; b) False.

13. a) P (A) ∪ P (B) ⊆ P (A ∪ B); b) The sets are equal.

14. There is no containment relation.

15. a) A − B; b) A; c) U.

16. B.

17. A ∪ B; A ∩ B.

20. b) {2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 10, 14, 15, 16}.

22. a) {1, 2, . . . , 21}; b) {90, . . . , 105}; c) ∅.

89
23. a) (0, 4]; b) ( 90 , 10]; c) {1}.

24. a) No; b) Yes; c) No; d) No; e) Yes.

25. a) 3; b) 4; c) −4; d) −3.

27. a) 1 − 1, not onto; b) bijection; c) onto, not 1 − 1; d) not 1 − 1 and not onto.

28. a) One-to-one and onto; b) Neither one-to-one nor onto.

29. a) f (x) ≥ 2; b) No; c) No, eg. f (0) = f (4) = 6.

31. f is not 1 − 1 but is onto.

√
32. a) 4x2 − 12x + 11; b) g ◦ f (x) = x.
 47
33. b) Yes.

x−3
35. a) f −1 (x) = 5 .

36. a) [−1, 17]; b) [−3, −1] ∪ [1, 3].

37. b) (m, n) = (±3, ±1).

38. a) i) The sets are equal. ii) f (A ∩ B) ⊆ f (A) ∩ f (B).

39. 40430.

9 4
42. 2 − n−1 − n1 .

N +1
44. 2N .

Problem Set 2.

1. a) 2, 5; b) −11, 10; c) 77, 0.

2. T, F, T, F.

3. T, F, T, F, F, F.

4. 32 · 13, 11 · 13, 22 · 3 · 172 , 24 · 33 · 52 · 7.

5. a) 22 · 33 · 52 , 25 · 35 · 53 ; b) 3, 22 · 32 · 53 · 7; c) 3, not defined.

6. 1, 3, 2.

8. a) n = 6, 4; b) 58 ≡ −1, 6; c) −2, 10.

9. a) 6 = −1 · 12 + 1 · 18; b) 3 = 29 · 11 − 16 · 201; c) 1 = −8 · 13 + 5 · 21;

d) 1 = −13 · 83 + 30 · 36; e) 2 = 5 · 22 − 2 · 54; f) 7 = 39 · 112 − 7 · 623.

10. a) x ≡ 4 (mod 7); b) no solution; c) x ≡ 6 (mod 11);

d) x ≡ 502 (mod 1001); e)x ≡ 99, 206, 313 (mod 321) or x ≡ 99(mod 107)

f) x ≡ 200, 751, 1302, 1853, 2404 (mod 2755) or x ≡ 200(mod 551)

g)x ≡ 29, 70, 111, 152, 193, 234, 275, 316, 357, 398, 439, 480, 521 (mod 533) or

x ≡ 29 (mod 41)

13. c) R3 = {(3, 2), (3, 4), (5, 2), (5, 4), (5, 6)}.
48
14. R3

a)
2
2
3
4
4
6
5

 
0 0 0
1 1 0
b) MR3 =
0

0 0
1 1 1

17. {{0, 3, 6}, {1, 4}, {2, 5}}

18. b) {{0, 5}, {1, 4, 6}, {2, 3, 7, 8}}

21. S = {0, 6} ∪ {1, 5, 7, 11} ∪ {2, 4, 8, 10} ∪ {3, 9}.

24. b) 54, 60, 72 c) 2, 9 d) no e) no

f) {36, 54, 72} g) none h) {2, 4, 6, 12} i) 12

Problem Set 3.

15. a) Converse is false. It is known that 2p − 1 is prime for the primes

p = 2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 31, 61, 89, 107, 127 and more than 20 other (larger) values of p. These
are called Mersenne primes.

20. Converse is false.

21. b) True.
c) True.

59. a, c, e and f

60. a) p =”prices go up”,

q =”housing will be plentiful”;
r =”housing will be expensive”
[p → q ∧ r] ∧ [∼ r → q]

e) p =”Janet wins”; q =”Janet loses”; r = ”Janet will be tired”

p ∨ (q → r).

61. a) The food is good but the service is poor.

b) The food is poor and so is the service.

62. a) Contradiction.
 49
b) Contingency.
c) Tautology.
d) Tautology

64. a) ∼ q
b) p
c) p ∧ q ∧ r
d) ∼ p ∨ q.

66. I did my homework, but there is no way of deciding whether or not I studied.

67. Holmes is correct.

68. We cannot deduce whether Einstein is right or wrong.

69. c) Peta must have failed.

Problem Set 4.

1. a) 52 × 94 ; b) 4 × 52 × 63 ; c) P (9, 6) = 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4; d) C(6, 3) × 83 ;
6 5 4
e) 8 + 6 × 8 + C(6, 2)8 ; f) C(6, 3)P (8, 3); g) 4 × 94 .

2. a) 21!/13!, 21!/8! 13!, 321!/123! 198!, (2n)!/(n!)2 ; b) 840, 35, 120, 6, 20100.

3. a) 7 × 5 × 216 ; b) C(7, 2) × 52 × 215 ; c) C(7, 3) × 53 × 214 ;

d) 26 − 21 − 7 × 5 × 216 − C(7, 2) × 52 × 215 .
7 7

4. a) C(7, 1)P (5, 1)P (21, 6); b) C(7, 2)P (5, 2)P (21, 5); c) C(7, 3)P (5, 3)P (21, 4);
d) C(7, 3)P (5, 3)P (21, 4) + C(7, 4)P (5, 4)P (21, 3) + C(7, 5)P (5, 5)P (21, 2).

5. a) 228; b) 37800; 37800; 22260; c) 20 × 263 + 13 × 262 + 18 × 26 + 22 = 360798.

6. a) C(8, 2) × 256 ; b) 268 − 258 − 8 × 257 .

7. b) 4C(39, 8) − 6C(26, 8) + 4C(13, 8).

8. a) 143; b) 128.

9. a) 13C(4, 3)C(12, 5)/C(52, 8);

b) (4C(13, 3)C(39, 5) − 6C(13, 3)2 C(26, 2))/C(52, 8);
c) 4C(13, 3) × (C(39, 5) − 3C(13, 3)C(26, 2))/C(52, 8).

10. φ(pq) = (p − 1)(q − 1), φ(p2 q) = p(p − 1)(q − 1), φ(pqr) = (p − 1)(q − 1)(r − 1);

16. a) 834; b) 834 again (NOT 417).

19. 4 × 7 × 6 × 9 × 16!/20!.

20. 21!/(1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 621 ).

1
21. a) 365 ; b) 1 − P (365, n)/365n ; c) n ≥ 23.
50
22. a) C(23, 3); b) C(15, 3); c) C(23, 3) − C(19, 3).

23. a) 64 ; b) C(9, 5).

24. a) 23!/2! 5! 7! 9!; b) C(26, 3).

25. a) C(45, 5); b) C(27, 5);

c) C(45, 5) − C(6, 1)C(34, 5) + C(6, 2)C(23, 5) − C(6, 3)C(12, 5) = C(25, 5) − 6C(14, 5)

d) C(13, 5); e) C(25, 5); f) C(45, 5) − C(25, 5);

g) C(22, 5); h) C(30, 5) − 3C(20, 5) + 3C(10, 5).

28. (There are other correct answers.)

a) an = 2an−1 , a0 = 2; b) an = an−1 + 2, a0 = 1; c) an = −2an−1 , a0 = 3;

d) an = an−1 +n, a1 = 1; e) an = an−1 , a0 = 2; f) an = an−1 +an−2 , a0 = 1, a1 = 2.

29. a) an = an−2 + an−3 for n ≥ 4, a1 = 0, a2 = 1, a3 = 1; b) 1, 4.

30. 2, 3, 5.

18


31. un = 1 + 1200 un−1 − 900, for n ≥ 1, u0 = 50000.

32. a) an = A(5n ); b) an = 3(−4)n .

33. a) an = A(2n ) +
√B(−3)
n; b) an = A + B(2n );
√ c) an = A(3n ) + Bn(3n );
d) an = A(1 + 5) + B(1 − 5)n .
n

34. a) an = 4(3n )√+ 3(−5)n ; √b) an = 2n+1 + 3n+1 ; c) an = 2(−2)n − 4n(−2)n ;

d) an = (2 + 10)n + (2 − 10)n .

35. a) an = A(2n ) + B(−3)n + 78 4n ; b) an = A + B(2n ) + n(2n+1 );

c) an = A(3n ) + Bn(3n ) + 2n + 7; d) an = A(3n ) + Bn(3n ) + 12 n2 3n .

36. an = 2(4n ) + (−1)n+1 + n(−1)n .

1
2n+1 + (−1)n .


37. a) a1 = 1, a2 = 3; b) an = 3

38. b) an = 2n−1 + 12 4n
√ √ n

39. a) 0, 2, 4, 12, 32, 88; b) an = 2an−1 + 2an−2 ; c) √1 (1 + 3)n − (1 − 3) .
3

1
2n+2 + (−1)n+1


40. c) an = 3

1
3n−1 + 1 − 2n


41. c) 2

Problem Set 5.

2. c) Total Vertex degree = 32, total number of edges = 16.

d) Loops are e10 , e14 .
e) Sets of parallel edges are {e7 , e8 }, {e9 , e12 }, {e15 , e16 }.
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f) Edges incident to v3 are e4 , e6 , e9 , e12 , e13 , e14 , e15 , e16 .
g) Vertices adjacent to v8 are v2 , v3 , v7 .
h) v9 is the only isolated vertex.

3. G1 , G3 , G4 are nonsimple. The rest are simple.

4. Number of edges = 7.

It is the only simple graph with these degrees. (The two degree 2 vertices cannot be adjacent.)

5. a) ∃ simple examples

b) There is no graph with these vertex degrees.

c) d) e) f) There is no simple graph with these vertex degrees.

7. |V (G)|, |E(G)| are respectively

 
n
a) n,
2
b) m + n, mn
c) n, n
d) 2n , n2n−1

8. 35 (= 15 + 12 + 6 + 1 + 1)

9. a) K n ∼
= En , ie, the graph with n vertices and no edges.
b) K m,n ∼
= Km ⊕ Kn (disjoint union)

n(n − 1)
10. −m
2
11. Y =Bipartite, N =Not Bipartite.

a) Y b) N c) Y d) N e) Y f) N g) N .

12. a) n=2 b) n ≥ 3 and even c) all n ≥ 0.

   
0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 2 0
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
   
13. a) 0
 1 0 1 1
1
 0 0 1 0

1 0 1 0 0 2 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
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 
  0 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 1 1 1
0 1 1  
b) 
1
 c) 
1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1

1 0 0 0
1 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 0

14. a)

A C

15. a) Isomorphic eg. f : V (G1 ) → V (G2 )

f: a b c d e
t u y x z

b) Isomorphic eg. f : V (G1 ) → V (G2 )

f: a b c d e f
v z y t u x

c) Not isomorphic.
d) Not isomorphic.
e) Isomorphic eg. f : V (G1 ) → V (G2 )

f: a b c d e f g
y t u v w x z

f) Not isomorphic.

16. b) Up to isomorphism there is/are

α) Only 1 self–complementary graph on 4 vertices

β) 2 self–complementary graphs on 5 vertices

17. a) n = 2 : 2 possible
b) n = 3 : 4 possible
c) n = 4 : 11 possible
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18. There are 4 components with vertex sets {A, B, H, L}, {C, F }, {D, G, I, M }, {E, J, K, N }.

19. a) 2 b) 7 c) 20 d) 61.
 
0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1
20. a) M = 0

1 1 2
0 1 2 0
   
1 0 1 1 0 3 3 2
0 3 3 2 3 5 10 9 
b) M 2 =  M3 = 

, 
1 3 6 3 3 10 15 15
1 2 3 5 2 9 15 8
c) 3 and 10 respectively.

Walks of length 2 B to C are

BDe4 C
BDe5 C
BCe3 C

Walks of length 3 B to C are

BABC
BDBC
BCBC
BCe4 De4 C
BCe4 De5 C
BCe5 De4 C
BCe5 De5 C
BDe4 Ce3 C
BDe5 Ce3 C
BCe3 Ce3 C

d) i) This means there are 20 walks of length ≤ 3 from C to D.

ii) This means G is connected.

21. a) α) N
β) Y eg. ABCDEF CGEICHA
γ) N
δ) N
b) α) N
β) N
γ) Y
δ) N
c) α) Y eg CBAECDEGe1 BF Ge2 BD.
β) N
γ) Y eg DCEABF G
δ) N
d) α) Y eg BAEBCADCF DEF
β) N
γ) Y eg ABCDF E
δ) Y eg ABCDF EA.
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e) α) Y eg BAEBCDF C
β) N
γ) Y eg EABCDF
δ) N
f) α) Y eg GBAEDBCGF CEG
β) N
γ) Y eg ABDECGF
δ) N .

22. a) n ≥ 1 and odd

b) All n ≥ 3
c) All n ≥ 0 and even.

23. a) n = 2
b) Never
c) n = 1.
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24. a) m, n both even
b) m = 2 and n odd or n = 2 and m odd
c) m = n ≥ 2.

28. i) a) 2 b) 8
ii) a) 1 b) 8
iii) a) 4 b) 12
iv) a) 3 b) 12
v) a) 6 b) 6
vi) a) 9 b) 12

29. a) 15 b) 6

32. Only for n = 0, 1, 2, 3.

36. a) 7 b) 3, 3, 3, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1 and 3, 3, 2, 2, 1, 1, 1, 1 c) There are six possible answers.