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̂ P Macroscopic Scales Microscopic Scales

This document discusses fluid mechanics concepts at both the microscopic and macroscopic scales. It introduces microscopic descriptions of solids, liquids, and gases based on intermolecular forces and molecular arrangement. At the macroscopic scale, continuum descriptions are used involving quantities like density, pressure, and velocity. Governing equations are developed from conservation laws and constitutive relations to describe material behavior under forces. Vectors, tensors, and index notation are also introduced to represent concepts mathematically. Coordinate transformations are discussed for changing between reference frames.

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Jai Prakash Nain
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44 views

̂ P Macroscopic Scales Microscopic Scales

This document discusses fluid mechanics concepts at both the microscopic and macroscopic scales. It introduces microscopic descriptions of solids, liquids, and gases based on intermolecular forces and molecular arrangement. At the macroscopic scale, continuum descriptions are used involving quantities like density, pressure, and velocity. Governing equations are developed from conservation laws and constitutive relations to describe material behavior under forces. Vectors, tensors, and index notation are also introduced to represent concepts mathematically. Coordinate transformations are discussed for changing between reference frames.

Uploaded by

Jai Prakash Nain
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Microscopic and Macroscopic scales

Macroscopic scales Microscopic scales


𝑒̂

P0
Statistical
averaging

𝑒̂

𝑒̂
Source: Fluid Mechanics by Fox, McDonald and Pritchard
Microscopic description
Intermolecular Ratio of amplitude Molecular
forces of random thermal arrangement
movement of
molecules to 𝒅𝟎
Solid Strong <<1 Ordered
Liquid Medium Of order unity Partially ordered
Gases Weak >>1 Disordered
𝑑 : mean molecular distance
Source: An introduction to fluid dynamics, by G. K. Batchelor
Continuum description
• Description at macroscopic scales in terms of quantities such as
density, pressure and velocity as continuous functions of space and
time
• Independent of the microscopic structure of materials
• Constitutive equation for behaviour of materials
Mechanics
• Relationship between force and motion
• Kinematic variables describe motion: displacement, velocity,
acceleration…

• Mechanics of rigid bodies (non-deforming)


• Mechanics of deformable bodies (solids and fluids)
Governing equations
• Conservation laws (mass, momentum, energy, angular momentum)
• Constitutive equations (mechanical behaviour of materials)

• Formulation of constitutive relations for different materials


• Solving conservation equations (with the constitutive relation) to
describe the behaviour of materials under the influence of different
forces
Vectors and tensors
• Examples:
• Scalar or a zeroth order tensor: speed of a moving particle
• Vector or a first order tensor (both magnitude and direction): Force or
velocity
• Second order tensor: stress tensor. To specify a surface force at a point in
three dimensions, force components in three directions on three
independent surface orientations are needed. Thus, there are 9 components
in a second order stress tensor.
Representation in index notation
• Velocity vector as or or 𝒊
• Repeated indices denote summation
• A second order tensor has two free indices, for example,
and components
• A second order tensor is also expressed as linear combination of dyadic
products, 𝒊 𝒋
• Index notation helps in writing equations or deriving identities concisely
• Special functions:
• Kronecker delta function: 𝛿 = 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗 and 1 (𝑖𝑓 𝑖 = 𝑗)
• Alternating symbol: 𝜖 = 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑐 , −1 𝑖𝑓 𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑐 and
0 (𝑖𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥)
Representation in index notation
• Vector magnitude squared as or
• .
• Gradient of a scalar function as or

• Curl of a vector is or

• Divergence of a vector is or
Coordinate transformation
• Coordinate system is
𝑒̂
obtained by rotating
about the axis by an angle θ
P

𝑒̂ ′ • The projections of the position


vector OP along and axes
𝑒̂ ′ 𝑒̂ are the same
O

θ • The projections of the position


vector OP along and
𝑒̂ 𝑒̂ ′
axes are different
Transformation of vectors
• Suppose the new coordinate system, , is obtained by
rotation
• M is a proper orthogonal matrix
•
• If a vector has components and in the two coordinate systems
• or
• or 𝑻

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