Evolution

NOTES

For

NEET and AIIMS

Examinations

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By PLoS Biology Journal

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INDEX
1.0 Origin of the universe
1.1 Origin of solar system
1.2 Origin of life ( biopoiesis)
1.2.01 Theory of special creation
1.2.02 Theory of catastrophism
1.2.03 Theory of the cosmozoic origin
1.2.04 Theory of Panspermia
1.2.05 Theory of spontaneous generation
1.2.06 Biogenesis
1.2.07 Modern hypothesis of the origin of life

2.0 Biological evolution

3.0 Evidence of evolution

3.1 Evidence from paleontology
3.1.01 Types of fossils
3.1.02 Determination of age of fossils
3.2 Evidence from morphology and comparative anatomy
(a)Homology ( Divergent evolution)
(b) Analogy ( Convergent evolution)
(c) Adaptive radiation
3.3 Embryology
3.4 Evidences from Geographical distribution
3.5 Evidences from connecting links
3.6 Evidence from cytology
3.7 Evidence from genetics
4.0 Modern theories for the evolution
4.1 Lamarckism or Inheritance of acquired characters
4.1.01 Neo-Lamarckism

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4.2 Darwin’s theory of natural selection or Darwinism

4.2.01 Variations
4.2.02 Evidence in support of Darwinism
4.2.03 Neo-Darwinism
4.3 De Vries mutation theory
4.3.01 De Vries mutation theory criticism
5.0 Modern concept of evolution

6.0 Mechanism of evolution

6.1 Hardy – Weinberg Law
6.2 Significance

6.2 Significance

7.0 Human evolutionary trends

8.0 Different types of evolution
a) Parallel evolution
b) Divergent evolution ( Homologous organs)
c) Convergent evolution ( Analogous organs)
d) Retrogressive evolution
e) Progressive Evolution
9. Speciation
a) Allopatric speciation
b) Sympatric Speciation
c) Phyletic evolution
d) Quantum evolution

10. Isolations
a) Ecological Isolation
b) Temporal Isolation
c) Behavioral Isolation
d) Mechanical or Chemical Isolation
e) Geographical Isolation

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11. A brief account of the evolution

12. Distinguish
(i) convergent and divergent evolution
(ii) Adaptive radiation and divergent evolution
(iii) Darwinism and Lamarckism
(iv) Humans and Apes

• Evolution is unrolling or unfolding of nature that brings about an

orderly change from one form or condition to another resulting in
descendants becoming different from ancestors. Evolution is
rather a law of nature
• Evolutionary biology is the study of the history of the development
of
newer forms of life from the pre-existing ones in various periods
of time on earth

1.0 Origin of the universe

• Universe or cosmos is the whole existing space and matter which
is differentiated into several galaxies with each galaxy having
several stars and cloud of gas and dust
• Most accepted theory to explain the origin of the universe is the
Big Bang theory which was proposed by Abbe Lemaitre in 1931.
According to this theory, the universe has an explosive beginning.
The universe expanded and hence temperature came down

1.1 Origin of the solar system

• According to Nebular Hypothesis of Kent, our solar system was
probably created about 4.5 to 5 billion years ago when gaseous
cloud called solar nebula was formed

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• Our earth was supposed to have been formed about 4.5 billion
years back. There was on the atmosphere on the early earth

1.2 Origin of life ( biopoiesis)

• As far as we know life occurs only on earth though there is the
possibility of its presence elsewhere as well. Methane which has
helped develop life on earth occurs on Jupiter, Saturn and
interstellar space. Water has been detected on our moon, on mars

1.2.01 Theory of special creation

Life was created by God
(i) The genesis of Bible has proposed that God created the world in
six days
Day 1: Heaven and earth
Day 2: Sky and water
Day 3: Land and land plants
Day 4: Sun, moon and stars
Day 5: Birds and fishes
Day 6: Land animals and human
The first man was Adam. He was created from clay. The first
woman was Eve who developed from 12th rib of Adam
(ii) Hindu mythology – Hindu believed that the world was created
by Brahma. The humans were formed from his head, birds from the
chest, goats from mouth and plants from hair. The first man was
Manu and the first woman was Shradha
• Theory of eternity
Different living beings, plants, stars etc. existed as such from the
beginning and would continue

1.2.02 Theory of catastrophism

This theory was supported by Cuvier (1826), a French
paleontologist, who believed that the world has passed through
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many ages. A catastrophe occurred at the end of each age, which

killed most of the living beings and at the beginning of next new
age, a new creation evolved

1.2.03 Theory of the cosmozoic origin

Both living and non-living matters were formed simultaneously.
Early living objects were resistant spores call cosmozoa. Cosmozoa
gave rise to different types of living beings on earth
This theory was given by Richter in 1865.

1.2.04 Theory of Panspermia

Arrhenius (1908) proposed the theory of directed panspermia. The
salient features are
(i) They assumed the presence of advanced civilization on other
planets in our galaxy.
(ii) Life on earth and many other planets were infected from these
advanced civilized planets
(iii) Directed panspermia theory was supported by genetic code

1.2.05 Theory of spontaneous generation

It originated in Egyptian civilization. Greek philosophers believed in
it. Anaximander thought life to arise from much warmed by the
sun. Aristotle believed plants to developed from the soil while
worms and snails to be products of putrefaction. Frog was believed
to arise from moist soil
Van Helmont had claimed the origin of mice of both sexes from
human sweat and wheat bran kept in dark for 21 days

1.2.06 Biogenesis
• Theory of spontaneous generation was disapproved through the
finding that life comes from pre-existing life

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• Francesco Redi ( 1668) placed thoroughly cooked meat in three

jars (i) Uncovered (ii) covered with parchment (iii) covered with
muslin.
Maggots developed only in an uncovered jar. No maggot developed
in a jar covered with parchment. Flies visited the third jar and laid
an egg on muslin. Egg fallen in jar produced maggots.
• Spallanzani ( 1765) boiled nutrition in glass flasks, sealed the
flasks and kept them. The broth remained clear indefinitely with no
signs of living beings
• Pasteurs (1862) took broth in flasks straight and swan ( bent S-
shaped) necks, boiled and allowed the broth to cool. No germ
developed in the broth it was connected with the atmosphere
through the curved neck of the flask. The dirt particles could not
reach the broth because they got trapped in the bend of the neck.
When swan neck was broken, broth developed colonies of
microorganisms showing that the same have come from the air.
The same happened in straight necked flasks

1.2.07 Modern hypothesis of the origin of life

Chemical origin of life ( chemogeny)

• Oparin suggested that from the simple compound like nitrides,
oxides, ammonia, methane complex organic compounds were
formed gradually under the influence of electric charges, ultra-
violet rays
• First , were the formation of hydrocarbons, like acetylene,
ethylene etc. these then form oxy and hydroxyl derivatives forming
aldehydes, ketones and acids, sugar and starch were the main
products.
• Miller’s experiment – Stanley Miller (1953)a graduate student of
Harold C Urey designed an apparatus for stimulating condition

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prevalent on earth at the time of abiogenic evolution of organic

substances. The apparatus has a spark chamber with two
electrodes, a flask for boiling and a condenser. A control apparatus
was also prepared but without electrodes in the spark chamber
• Miller used a mixture of methane-ammonia, hydrogen and water.
The mixture was exposed to electric discharges, following by
condensation and then boiling. It was continued for 18 days.
• Miller was able to identify 15 amino acids, organic acid, ribose
sugar and purine, adenine.
• The formation of a protein molecule is considered a landmark in
the origin of life

2.0 Biological evolution

• Formation of proteinoids: Proteinoids are molecules which are
obtained by synthesizing polypeptides by heating a mixture of
amino acids at 160 – 210oC for several hours.
• Formation of coacervates
When macromolecules were formed they undergo aggregation and
precipitation in the sea, which led to the formation of organized
structures were distinct bodies, which did not mix with the
surrounding seawater. They contained proteins, nucleoproteins and
other organic and inorganic molecules in various reactions. The
surface layer of the coacervates had the ability for selective
absorption of substances from the medium. Oparin considered the
coacervates as the sole living molecules which gave rise to cells
• Formation of precells or protocells.: The protocells were spherical
in shape and a double-layered membrane was present around
them. They exhibited reproduction by binary fission. The protocells
were heterotrophs; they obtained the energy formed by the
fermentation of organic molecules which gave rise to cells

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• Formation of precells to cells: When DNA – RNA system developed

within protocells, they looked like a bacteria or virus. The DNA
acquired the ability for self-duplication and protein synthesis. Thus
life originated after a long process of molecular evolution. The
protocells in course of time differentiated into cells

3.0 Evidence of evolution

• The convincing evidence for the occurrence of descent with
modification come from
(i) Paleontology
(ii) Morphology and comparative anatomy
(iii) Embryology
(iv) Geographical distribution
(v) Taxonomy
(vi) Connecting links
(vii) Cytology
(viii) Biochemistry
(ix) Genetics

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3.1 Evidence from paleontology

• Paleontology is the study of past life based on fossil records. Their
study reveals the existence of life in past and illustrates the course
of evolution of plants and animal
• Leonardo da Vinci is considered the father of paleontology while
George Cuvier is called the father of modern paleontology

3.1.01 Types of fossils

(i) Body fossils: These are hard parts of an organism, which provide
details of shape and function of an actual organism such as bone,
tooth, skull etc.
(ii) Subfossils: These are the remains of plant and animals which
were formed during Holocene period after the last ice age and
found preserved in rocks formed after 10,000 years.
(iii) Microfossils : Microscopic fossil remains of animals and plants
usually less than 0.5 mm in size are known as microfossils.
(iv) Macrofossils: Fossils of larger than one cm size such as corals,
skeleton
(v) Pseudofossils: these are inorganic origin objects, which show
close resemblance with the forms of organic origin and are found in
sedimentary rocks.
(vi) Unusual fossils: Fossils formed as a result of a combination of
events and condition which results in all or most of the organism
getting preserved in rock.
(vii) Trace fossils: these are fossils of footprints and trail left in mud
by past living organisms such as dinosaur’s footprint
(viii) Coprolites : These are trace fossils of dropping of animals or
faecal matter, either very small like faecal pellets of sea snail or
large coprolites of dinosaurs, crocodiles and mammals

3.1.02 Determination of age of fossils

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Carbon dating – radioactive C-14 occurs naturally. It enters the

food chain and is therefore found in all living beings and their
remains. Half-life of C-14 is 5730 years. Carbon dating can
measure articles up to 25,000 years old

3.2 Evidence from morphology and comparative

anatomy
(a) Homology ( Divergent evolution)
Homology is the similarity between organs of different animals
based on common ancestry and built on the same fundamental
pattern, but perform the varied function
Examples
(1) The flipper of a seal, a wing of bat front leg of horse and arm of
man shows homology
(2) Thorns of Bougainvillea and tendrils of Passiflora are modified
branched but thorns of Bougainvillea are for protection while
tendrils of Passiflora are for climbing
Presence of homologous organ in different group confirms
• Common ancestry and relationship between different groups
• The difference in appearance due to divergent evolution

(b) Analogy ( Convergent evolution)

The analogy is the difference in basic structure and origin but is
adapted to perform similar functions Examples:
1. Fines of fishes and flippers of a whale. Similar appearance
and function but their structural designs are different
2. Wings of butterfly and bat serve the same purpose i.e. flight,
but wings of insect are formed of a thin flap of chitin and
stiffened by series of veins. Whereas in bat wing is formed of a

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fold of integument, supported by the elongated and outspread

phalanges.

(c) Adaptive radiation

• The process of evolution of different species in a given
geographical area starting from a point and literally radiating to
other areas of geography is called an adaptive radiation.
Example: Australian marsupials. A number of marsupials, each
different from other evolved from an ancestral stock, but all within
the Australian island continent

3.3 Embryology
Embryology is the study of formation and early development of an
individual from zygote to young ones
(1) Similar early development early embryo development is similar
in animals passing through morula ( solid ball), blastula ( two
layered) stages showing their common origin
(2) Resemblance amongst vertebrate embryos. Embryos of all
vertebrates pass through fish like state having somites, gill clefts /
slits behind neck, tail, notochord
(3) Development of vertebrate organs . Heart of a mammal or bird
is initially two chambered ( as in fishes), three-chambered ( as in
amphibians) and then four-chambered
(4) In seventh month of pregnancy human foetus resembles a baby
ape
(5) Recapitulation theory / Biogenetic law
Meckel ( 1810) proposed that developing animal embryo passes
through stages resembling adult forms of its ancestors

3.4 Evidences from Geographical distribution

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• The degree and period of separation of an area from another

correspond to species diversity
• Double coconut occurs only in Seychelles island. Kangaroo and
Koala are marsupials found in Australia
• Darwin observed that the finches on mainland of America were all
of one type, possessing short straight beaks for seed crushing.
These birds from Galapagos island differed in size and shape due to
different food types available. Some were vegetarian finches,
warbler finches while others were insectivorous finches
Evidences from taxonomy
Depending upon their resemblances and differences, living
organisms are divided into groups i.e. monera, protista, fungi,
plantal and Animalia. The common characters present in a species,
genus, family, class or phylum indicate common ancestry while the
difference indicate evolution.

3.5 Evidences from connecting links

While classifying animals one comes across certain animals or small
animal groups which exhibit characteristics of more than one group.
Such animals or animal group are called connecting links between
those two groups
Example: Euglena
A connecting link between animal and plant. Some animal character
of Euglena are
(1) Body is covered by a pellicle
(2) Reproduction is an animal like some plants character of Euglena
are
(a) It is having chlorophyll and chloroplasts
(b) Nutrition is autotrophic
(c) It synthesis their food through photosynthesis

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3.6 Evidence from cytology

(1) The protoplasm of all the organisms have carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen and nitrogen
(2) DNA and rarely RNA is the genetic material in all the organisms,
which show common ancestry and origin of all organisms.
(3) The same genetic code have triplet codons is found from the
viruses to man and all living beings have same amino acids for the
same codon.

3.6 Evidence from biochemistry

• Living being possess similar types of biochemicals, biochemical
reaction and body functions, Trypsin digest protein from amoeba to
man, Amylase digest starch from Porifera to mammalian
• Example, aerobic organisms perform Krebs cycle having similar
types of enzymes from Chlamydomonas and amoeba to human
being and peepal tree
• A - B blood grouping is present in apes as well as humans but not
in monkeys indicating a closer relationship between the former
• The chemical composition of Protoplasm is same in protozoa and
mammalia
• Hereditary material is DNA in all organism and its basic structure
is same in all animals
• Respiratory protein Cytochrome C are identical in all organism.

3.7 Evidence from genetics

Accumulation of mutation produces new verities and races, e.g. red
sunflower, dwarf wheat etc. Hybridisation and induction of
polyploidy has given rise to new plants

4.0 Modern theories for the evolution

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Four modern theories have been put forward to explain the mode of
evolution. These are
(i) Lamarck’s theory of inheritance of acquired characters or
Lamarckism
(ii) Darwin’s theory of natural selection or Darwinism
(iii) De Vries mutation theory
(iv) The modern concept of evolution

4.1 Lamarckism or Inheritance of acquired

characters
• Jean Baptiste de Lamarck was a French naturalist, well known for
his theory of evolution
• The central idea of Lamarckism is that the characteristics acquired
by an organism during a lifetime in response to environmental
conditions are passed on to their offspring. The main points include
(i) Organisms and their organs have a natural tendency to
continuously increase in size, generation after generation
(ii) Continuous changes in the environmental conditions directly
influence the natural habits, a way of living or organism and their
structural organism and their structural organization
(iii) The growth of less used parts decline, while that of better-used
parts progresses
(iv) The growth of organs either better or poor acquired during the
lifetime of an organism is heredity
• Examples of Lamarckism
(1) Giraffe – the ancestors of giraffe were bearing a small neck and
forelimbs and were like horses, but as they were living in places
with no surface vegetation, they have to stretch their necks and
forelimbs in order to eat leaves from trees

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(2) Flightless birds : The development of flightless birds like an

ostrich from flying ancestors is considered due to continued disuse
of wings as they were found in well-protected areas with plenty of
food
(3) Snakes: The present-day limbless snakes with long slender neck
were developed from the limbed ancestors. It is due to continued
disuse of limbs and stretching of their body to suit their creeping
mode of locomotion and fossorial mode of living
• Evidence in favour of the law of inheritance of acquired characters
are-
(1) During vegetative propagation of plants and regeneration in
animals somatic cells can produce the germ cells
(2) Sudden heritable variations or mutations were obtained by
Auerbach et. Al on exposure of Drosophila to high energy radiations
like UV – rays, X-ray, γ-ray and mustard gas etc.
• Lamarckism or theory of inheritance of acquired characters was
discarded due to following reasons
(1) Blind, deaf and lame parents do not produce abnormal offspring
(2) Despite use of iron shoes to keep their feet short by Chinese
women, their young ones at birth have normal feet size

4.1.01 Neo-Lamarckism
• These criticism lead to the foundation of Neo-Lamarckism
The postulates of Neo-Lamarckism are
(1) According to Neo-Lamarckism, there is a causal relationship
between the structure, function and environment
(2) Some of the variations acquired by an individual can be
transmitted to its offspring
(3) The role of internal vital forces in evolution has been discarded

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(4) Only those variations are inherited, which are associated with
the germ cells or where the somatic cells give rise to germ cells
(5) It has been realized now that the body character of organisms
are related to result of the interaction of genes and the
environmental conditions

4.2 Darwin’s theory of natural selection or

Darwinism
• Charles Darwin was born in 1809. In 1831, he accepted an unpaid
post of naturalist on the survey ship, i.e. HMS Beagle, in which he
spent five years in sea charting the East coast of South America
• Features of the theory of natural selection are
(1) Overproduction: Organisms have a very high reproductive
potential and capacity , multiply in geometric ratio.
(2) Limitations of food and space: The resources of the earth are
limited. Therefore, populations of different species cannot increase
beyond a certain limit.
(3) Struggle for existence: A struggle or competition occurs
amongst organisms to obtain the available resources. It is of three
types-
(a) Intra-specific struggle: This is the acutest type of struggle,
which occurs amongst individuals of the same species for
similar basic necessities like food, shelter, breeding place,
light, water etc
(b) Inter-specific struggle: the struggle occurs amongst
individuals of different species for similar requirements like
food, shelter
(c) Environmental struggle: The struggle is between organism
and restricting environmental factors like carrying capacity,

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drought, heavy rains, floods, famine, earthquake, volcano,

lightning, meteorite, etc.

4.2.01 Variations
• They are small morphological and behaviouristic differences
amongst the individuals. Variation can be continuous discontinuous,
harmful.
• Darwin believed that continuous and useful variation constitute
the raw material of evolution. Neutral and occasionally harmful
variations may also prove helpful with the change of environment.
Natural selection and survival of the fittest:
In the struggle of existence, only those individuals survive which
possess the most useful variations. This has been called natural
selection by Darwin and survival of the fittest by Spencer
• This theory was criticized because
(1) Darwin did not explain the mechanism of origin of variations
(2) He did not know the mode of transmission of variations to the
next generation.
(3) Continuous variation cannot go beyond the limit of species.
Mutation is actually the source of evolution
(4) Darwinism does not explain the origin of variation, new
characters
(5) It is unable to explain the persistence of degenerate organ and
over-specialization ( e.g. tusk of an elephant)
(6) There are certain organisms which have remained unchanged
for the past several million years

4.2.02 Evidence in support of Darwinism

(1) Evident facts: High rate of reproduction, limitation of resources,
an abundance of variation are quite evident

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(2) Entomophily: Many pollinating insects have proboscis length

exactly matching the position of nectary in flower. This may
develop due to natural selection.
(3) Mimicry: It is the resemblance of an organism to another or a
natural object so as to conceal itself for protection or some other
advantage like catching of prey. E.g. praying mantis, stick insect
(4) Extinct forms: Extinction of past plants and animals can be
explained only by the development of better organisms through
natural selection
(5) Adaptations: Variations present in the population help the
individuals in adapting themselves to changed environmental
conditions. Adaptations produce new ecotypes from which new
forms can develop
(6) Artificial selection : It is a selective breeding of plants and
animals so as to obtain varieties with desired traits.
(a) Agriculture perhaps originated with a selection of nonbrittle
ear in Triticum monococcum ( Einkorn wheat) This was later
replaced by naked and high yielding wheat
(b) Through artificial selection, wild cabbage has given rise to
several vegetables like Kale, kohlrabi, cabbage, Cauliflower,
Broccoli etc
(c) High milk yielding varieties of Buffalo have developed by
monitoring of animals producing more milk and breeding them
with bulls of high milk yielding lineage

4.2.03 Neo-Darwinism
• The theory of evolution as proposed by Darwin and Wallace has
been modified in the light of modern evidence from genetics,

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molecular biology, paleontology, ecology and is known as neo-

Darwinism
• Neo-Darwinism distinguishes the germplasm and somatoplasm
• It explained that adaptations result from the multiple forces and
natural selection is one of them
• As per Darwinism, characters are not inherited as such, instead
there are character determiners which control the development.
• The characters are the result of genes of organisms and the
environment during its development

4.3 De Vries mutation theory

• The term mutation was introduced by Hugo de Vries, a Dutch
botanist who independently rediscovered Mendel’s law of heredity
• Mutation theory was put forward by him in 1908
• Salient features of mutation theory are as follows
(a) Mutation acts as a raw material for evolution.
(b) Mutation is large heritable and subjected to natural
selection
(c) Mutation is large heritable changes in contrast to small, a
directional fluctuating variation of Darwin
(d) The mutation may occur in any direction and may be useful
or harm
(e) Sometimes, new species are produced by a single mutation

4.3.01 De Vries mutation theory criticism

1) D.M. Davis claimed that the Oenothera lamarckiana ( evening
primrose) was a hybrid plant, which could be obtained by the
hybridization of two wild species and is not a normal plant
2) Natural mutation are not the common phenomenon
3) Most of the mutation is recessive
4) Development of mimicry cannot be explained satisfactorily

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5) Theory failed to explain the role of nature

5.0 Modern concept of evolution

• The present concept of evolution is a modified form of Darwin’s
and Hugo de Vries theories. This is also called the synthetic theory
of evolution
• The main postulates of this theory are
(1) This theory recognizes four basic types of process. These are
(a) Migration of individuals from one population to another,
hybridization between races or closely related species both
increase the genetic variability
(b) Mutation, genetic recombination and natural selection are
equally important
(c) The effect of the change, acting on the small population may
alter the way in which natural selection guides the course of
evolution.
(2) All sexually reproducing organisms contain a large gene pool of
genetic variability, which maintain a dynamic equilibrium between
inflow and outflow of genes
(3) Genes may be added to the gene pool by immigration from
other gene pool and mutation.
(4) Genes are removed from the gene pool by natural selection and
chance elimination of alleles, which take place in small population
or during reduction of population size
(5) Genetic recombination following the principles of Mendelian
heredity is constantly reshuffling the genes in the gene pool.
(6) Natural selection, which results from the interaction between
populations and their environment, may either stabilize gene
composition by eliminating most immigrants and mutants or change
in a various way

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(7) Evolution takes place through alternations of the frequency of

genes and gene combination in the population brought about by
natural selection
(8) Reproductive isolation, includes all the barriers to gene
exchange between the populations has a canalizing effect
(9) The populations that are reproductively isolated from each
other are almost certain to evolve in different directions while those
that are not so isolated because of gene exchange will evolve in the
same direction

6.0 Mechanism of evolution

6.1 Hardy – Weinberg Law
• Hardy-Weinberg Law was proposed in 1908 by the independent
contributions of two scientists, Hardy ( England) and Weinberg (
Germany)
• Gene Pool
Gene pool is defined as “the sum total of genes present in a
population ”or “A gene pool comprises a diverse form of a gene
combination and recombination by the process of sexual
reproduction.”
• Gene frequency
The ratio of the gene in a gene pool or in a population is called
gene frequency
When the gene frequency of another allele in the population can be
calculated by applying a simple formula. If the gene frequency of A
– allele is p and a-allele is q, the p+q =1
The frequency of AA individual in the population is p2, of aa is q2 ,
of Aa is 2pq. Hence p2+q2 +2pq = 1

6.2 Significance

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- This law states that the gene frequencies in the large

population remain constant generation after generation where
there is no selection and mutation. In a small population, this
equilibrium cannot be maintained
- When the population is large and in equilibrium rate of
evolution is zero as there is no possibility of evolutionary change

• Gene flow
Animals are not static. They have a tendency to migrate and mate
with an inmate of the population. Thus the genes of one population
are transferred to another population. This is called gene flow and
are an important source of genetic variation
• Genetic drift

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Genetic drift is an evolutionary force operating in a small population

The change in the frequency of gene purely by chance is called
genetic drift

7 Human evolutionary trends

The gradual evolution of man from ape is fully supported by
available fossils
1. Propliopithecus: It was an ape-like a primate, but in the
possession of short arms, it resembled a man. It lived, about 30
million years ago
2. Aegyptopithecus: It is similar to propliopithecus. It is believed
that it was ancestral of Dryopithecus
3. Dryopithecus: It is a group of apes that lived about 20 million
years ago. Their forelimbs were shorter than hindlimbs. It is also an
ancestor of modern apes like Chimpanzee and Gorilla
4. Oreopithecus : In the structure of teeth and erect walking, it
resembles a man, but having long forelimbs, it resembles apes.
Straus and Simpson suggest that man and oreopithecus have
parallel evolution and hence are not ancestral to man.
5. Ramapithecus: It lived 12 to 12 million years ago. The dentition
is more identical to the dentition of man and their fossil was
collected from Africa and India
6. Kenyapithecus: It is closely related to Ramapithecus. Its fossil is
collected from East Africa.
7. Australopithecus: It is connecting link ape and man. It lived 2 to
5 million years ago. The characters of Australopithecus like man
and ape are as below
- A man like characters: Erect posture, bipedal locomotion and
dentition is like that of man

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- Ape-like characters: Teeth were larger than modern man, the

absence of chin, eyebrow ridges projected over the eyes
8. Homo habilis : It is first human being like, It is an erect ape-
man,chin absent, dental formula same as human,jaw ‘U’ shaped,
cranial capacity -650-800cc. the first man who made tools of stone
for protection
9. Homo erectus: It is an erect ape man. They are commonly called
Java man because their fossils were collected from Java. They lived
about 5,00,000 years ago. The main characters of Homo erectus
are
- They have upright bipedal locomotion
- They were slightly taller than Australopithecus.
- The face is chinless
- They used fire and variety of tools
- cranial capacity -800-1000cc
10. Peking man: Complete erect posture, Lived in caves, cranial
capacity -850-1300cc, jaws prognathous, used fire for protection
and cooking, Omnivorous, use sharp tools of stones and bones for
cutting and killing animals
11. Homo sapiens
(1) Neanderthal man: They existed about 75,000 years ago. The
main character is
- Their eyebrow ridges were heavy and protruding
- Their teeth were large
- They had no chin
- Their cranial capacity was about 1400 cc
(2) Rhodesian man: The fossils were collected from Rhodesia. The
cranial capacity was about 1300 cc

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(3) Cro-magnon man: These were the men who lived in Europe
during the last 30,000 years. They possessed all characteristics of
modern man
(4) Modern man: They were originated 8000 years ago. The cranial
capacity of modern man is 1450cc
The main human races are:
(a) Caucasoid race
(b) Negroid race
(c) Mongoloid race
(d) American race
(e) Australian race
(f) Indian race

8 Different types of evolution

a) Parallel evolution
An evolutionary process by which two or more separate species in
the same environment develop similar adaptation or characteristic
for survival.
Parallel evolution is similar to convergent evolution in a way that
two unrelated species evolved similar traits. However, in parallel
evolution, the two species evolved same traits while living in the
same type of environment whereas in convergent evolution the two
species evolved same traits in different types of environment.
Examples
1. North American cactus and the African euphorbia that developed
similar adaptation, which is their thick stems and sharp quills to
survive the hot, arid climates.
2. Internal fertilization has evolved independently in sharks, some
amphibians and amniotes.

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3. two groups of organisms living in similar habitats such as a

marsupial mammals distinctive characteristic of these species are
that most of the young are carried in a pouch in Australia and
placental mammals on another continent.
4. Colouration that serves as a warning to predators and for mating
displays has evolved in many different species.
5.The eye of the octopus has the same complicated structure as the
human eye.

b) Divergent evolution ( Homologous organs)

Also called as Adaptive Radiation
The process by which an interbreeding population or species
diverges into two or more descendant species, resulting in different
species developing new characteristics to enable them to survive to
their new habitats.
Homologous organs are examples of divergent evolution similar
structures but dissimilar function is in the state of homology and
such structures are referred to as homologous structures. Examples
The arm of a human, the wing of a bird. The leg of a dog and the
flipper of a dolphin or whale are homologous structures.

c) Convergent evolution ( Analogous organs)

A kind of evolution wherein organisms evolve structures that have
similar (analogous) structures or functions in spite of their
evolutionary ancestors being very dissimilar or unrelated.
convergent evolution is the process whereby organisms not closely
related (not monophyletic), independently evolve similar traits as a
result of having to adapt to similar environments or ecological
niches
example of convergent evolution is the similar nature of the
flight/wings of insects, birds, pterosaurs, and bats. All four serve
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the same function and are similar in structure, but each evolved
independently.

d) Retrogressive evolution
This is the process in which complex forms of organisms develop
towards the simpler structural and physiological organizations.
For eg - Monocot plants are considered as more advanced groups
of plants with a simple structure and herbaceous habit.
Several species of cave-dwelling animals, including fish, crabs, and
salamanders, have evolved blindness and deteriorated eye
structure.

e) Progressive Evolution : This is the type of evolution in

which simple forms of organisms develops towards the complex
forms and physiological organizations. For eg - evolution of
multicellular organisms from unicellular organisms.

9. Speciation
Speciation is a process of evolution that leads to the formation of
new, distinct species that are reproductively isolated from one
another.

a) Allopatric speciation
When a species split into two group or more geographically isolated
population, natural selection to cause genetic drift as mutations
arise within populations. Over time, the separate populations may
develop morphologically distinct features due to adaption to their
new environment. It is a divergent speciation
Examples are Finches of Darwin

b) Sympatric Speciation

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Sympatric speciation is the evolutionary process whereby species

are formed from a single ancestral species while inhabiting the
same geographic area or without geographical isolation. sympatry
occurs when members of one population make use of a new niche.
Mainly present in plants due to polyploidy. It is a divergent
speciation

c) Phyletic evolution
a type of evolution characterized by the gradual change, without
divergence, of an entire group of organisms. Phyletic evolution is
usually characterized by moderate or low evolution rates and is
detected when one studies the evolution of The evolution of the
horse over 50 million years of its evolution
Eohippus → Orohippus→ Mesohippus → Miohippus→ Merychippus→
Hipparion→ Pliohippus→ Dinohippus→ Equus

d) Quantum evolution
the comparatively rapid transition from one stable type of biological
adaptation to another distinctly different type under the influence of
some strong selection pressure. It is caused by a major mutation

10. Isolations
The field of biology describes "isolation" as a process by which two
species that could otherwise produce hybrid offspring are prevented
from doing so. There are five isolation processes that prevent two
species from interbreeding: ecological, temporal, behavioral,
mechanical/chemical and geographical.

a) Ecological Isolation

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Ecological isolation occurs when two species live in different

habitats and will not encounter one another, each is isolated from
the other species. For example line and tiger

b) Temporal Isolation
Temporal isolation is when species that could interbreed do not
because the different species breed at different times.. For
example, the field crickets Gryllus pennsylvanicus and Gveleti
becomes sexually mature at different seasons, one in the spring
and the other in the autumn.

c) Behavioral Isolation
Behavioral isolation refers to the fact that many species perform
different mating rituals. This is a common barrier between animals.
For example, certain species of crickets will only mate with males
that produce a particular mating song. Other species of rituals may
include a mating dance or emitting a scent. These clues are ignored
by species not accustomed to the ritual.

d) Mechanical or Chemical Isolation

Mechanical isolation is caused by structures or chemical barriers
that keep species isolated from one another. These chemical
barriers will only allow sperm from the correct species to fertilize
the egg.

e) Geographical Isolation
Geographical isolation refers to the physical barriers that exist that
keep two species from mating. For example, a species of monkey
that is located on an island cannot breed with another species of
monkey on the mainland. The water and distance between the two
species keep them isolated from one another and make it
impossible for them to breed.

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11. A brief account of the evolution

It is believed that first life form came into existence on earth
around 2000 million years ago (mya). The vast expanse of
geological time has been separated into eras
The vast expanse of geological time has been separated into eras,
Era Plant and Animal Development

Cenozoic Extinction of dinosaurs and many other

66 million years species. → "Age of mammals" → Humans
ago develop
Mesozoic "Age of Reptiles" First flowering plants , First
252 to 66 million birds, Dinosaurs dominant
years ago
"Age of Amphibians", Extinction of trilobites
and many other marine animals, First reptiles,
Large coal swamps
Paleozoic Large Amphibians abundant
541 to 251.902 "Age of Fishes" First insect fossils , Fishes
million years ago dominant ,First land plants
"Age of Invertebrates" First fishes, Trilobites
dominant,
First organisms with shells

Precambrian Origin of Earth , First one-celled organisms ,

4,600 million First multicelled organisms
years ago

12. Distinguish
i) Difference between convergent and divergent
evolution
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Convergent evolution divergent evolution

Different ancestor species are Common ancestor, shares

genetically different genetic homology
Convergent evolution is a Divergent evolution is a
process by which distantly process by which an
related species develop interbreeding species diverges
similar structures as into two or more descendant
adaptations to the species.
environment

Both species live in the same The divergence of two

environment. different species results in two
species becoming less like the
common ancestor.

developing analogous developing homologous

structures. structures.
Ostriches, rheas, and emus Dinosaurs, Darwin’s finches,
are examples of convergent and forelimb structures of
evolution. Wings of insects vertebrates are examples of
birds and bats divergent evolution.

ii) Difference between Adaptive radiation and

divergent evolution
Adaptive radiation divergent evolution

adaptive radiation is a The process by which an

process in which organisms interbreeding population or
diversify rapidly from an species diverges into two or

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ancestral species into a more descendant species,

multitude of new forms, resulting in once similar or
related species to become
more and more dissimilar

Adaptive radiation is a type Divergent evolution is a

of microevolution. type of macroevolution.
The outcome of the A new generation of species
adaptive radiation is is formed which are unable
different morphological, to interbreed with the
physiological and ecological original species.
changes in a particular
population.
Examples of adaptive Penta-dactyl limb structure
radiation include Darwin’s of mammals is an example
finches and Australian of divergent evolution.
marsupials.

iii) Difference between Darwinism and

Lamarckism
Darwinism Lamarckism
It does not believe in the This theory states that there
internal vital force is an internal vital force in all
organisms.
They do not form part of It considers new needs or
Darwin’s natural selection desire produce new
theory. structures and change habits
of the organism

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An organ can develop According to this theory if an

further or degenerate only organ is constantly used it
due to continuous would be better developed
variations. whereas disuse of organ
results in its degeneration.
Struggle for existence is It does not consider struggle
very important in this for existence.
theory
Only useful variations are All the acquired characters
transferred to the next are inherited to the next
generation generation.

Darwin’s natural selection Lamarckism does not believe

theory is based on survival in survival of the fittest.
of the fittest.

iv) Difference between Humans and Apes

Humans Apes

Walks fully erect after Walks semi-erect on outer

infancy on the soles of the edges of feet and knuckles
feet. of hands.

Head erect and balanced on Head balanced on heavy

the neck shoulders and is buried

Cranium rounded with a Cranium flattened with a

cranial capacity of about cranial capacity under
1450cm3 650cm3
Jaw small with a prominent Jaw strong without well-
chin marked chin.

Anterior premolar in the Anterior premolar in the

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lower jaw is small and lower jaw is strong and

bicuspid. pointed.
Canines are not projecting Canines are projecting.

Body covered with short Body covered with long and

and sparse hair. coarse hair.

That’s all folks

सर्वे भर्वन्तु सुखिनः सर्वे सन्तु ननरामयाः । सर्वे भद्राखि पश्यन्तु मा कश्श्िद्ःु िभाग्भर्वेत ्

All should/must be happy, be healthy, see good; may no one have

a share of sorrow.

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