Chapter 2

INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS
Definition
 A Signal: is a function that specifies how a
specific variable changes versus an independent
variable such as time. Usually represented as an
X-Y plot.
Classification of Signals (1/4)
 Analog vs. Digital signals:
Analog signals are signals with magnitudes that
may take any value in a specific range.

Digital signals have amplitudes that take only a

finite number of values.
Classification of Signals (2/4)
 Continuous-time vs. discrete-time:
Continuous-time signals have their magnitudes
defined for all values of t. They may be analog
or digital.

Discrete-time signals have their magnitudes

defined at specific instants of time only. They
may be analog or digital.
Classification of Signals (3/4)
 Periodic vs. aperiodic signals:
Periodic signals are signals constructed from a
shape that repeats itself regularly after a
specific amount of time T0, that is:
f(t) = f(t+nT0) for all integer n

Aperiodic signals do not repeat regularly.

Energy and Power

2
Ef   | f (t ) | dt

T /2
1 2
Pf  lim  | f (t ) | dt
T  T
T / 2
T t0
1 2
PPeriodic f   | f (t ) | dt
T t0
Classification of Signals (4/4)
 Energy Signals: an energy signal is a signal
with finite energy and zero average power
(0 ≤ E < , P = 0)
 Power Signals: a power signal is a signal with
infinite energy but finite average power
(0 < P < , E  ).
More on Energy and Power Signals
 A signal cannot be both an energy and power signal.
 A signal may be neither energy nor power signal.
 All periodic signals are power signals (but not all non–
periodic signals are energy signals).
 Any signal f that has limited amplitude (|f| < ) and is time
limited (f = 0 for |t |> t0) is an energy signal.
 The square root of the average power of a power signal is
called the RMS value.
 Evaluate E and P and determine the type of the signal

a (t )  3sin(2p t ),   t  
1 1
1
  Pa   | a (t ) |2 dt   | 3sin(2p t ) |2 dt
Ea  2
p 2 10
 | a (t ) | dt 



| 3sin(2 t ) | dt
1
0

1

1
 9 1  cos(4p t )dt
2
9 1  cos(4p t )dt 0
01

2 1
1

 
 9  dt  9 cos(4p t )dt
1 0
2 20
 9  dt  9  cos(4p t )dt 1

2  9  9 
   sin(4p t ) 
 J 2  48p 0
9
It is a Power signal  W
2
 Evaluate E and P and determine the type of the signal

b (t )  5e 2|t | ,   t  
T /2 T /2
 
2|t | 2
1 1 2
Eb  2 Pb  lim  | b (t ) | 2
dt  lim  5e 2|t | dt
 | b (t ) |

dt   5e

dt T  T
T / 2
T  T
T / 2
0 T /2
0  1 4t 1
4t
 25  e dt  25 e dt 4t  25 lim  e dt  25 lim  e 4t dt
T  T T  T
T / 2 0
 0

25 4t 0 25 25 1 0 25 1 4t T / 2
 e   e 4t 

 lim e 4t   lim e 
4  4 0 4 T  T T / 2 4  T
T 0

25 25 50 25 1 25 1
   J  lim 1  e 2T   lim e 2T  1
4 4 4 4 T  T 4 T  T
 00  0

It is an energy signal
Basic Signal Operations (1/4)
 Time Shifting: given the signal f(t), the signal
f(t–t ) is a time-shifted version of f(t) that is
0

shifted to the left if t is positive and to the

0

right if t is negative.
0
Basic Signal Operations (2/4)
 Magnitude Shifting:
Given the signal f(t), the signal c +f(t) is a
magnitude-shifted version of f(t) that is shifted
up if c is positive and shifted down if c is
negative.
Basic Signal Operations (3/4)
 Time Scaling and Time Inversion: Given f(t),
the signal f(at) is a time-scaled version of f(t),
where a is a constant, such that f(at) is an
expanded version of f(t) if 0<|a|<1, and f(at) is
a compressed version of f(t) if |a|>1.
If a is negative, the signal f(at) is also a time-
inverted version of f(t).
Basic Signal Operations (4/4)
 Magnitude Scaling and Mag. Inversion:
Given f(t), the signal bf(t) is a magnitude-
scaled version of f(t), where b is a constant,
such that bf(t) is an attenuated version of f(t)
if 0<|b|<1, and bf(t) is an amplified version of
f(t) if |b|>1.
If b is negative, the signal bf(t) is also a
magnitude-flipped version of f(t).
 Given f(t), sketch 4–3f(–2t–6)
f(t)

-2 6
-1
Unit Impulse Function (Dirac delta function)
 Graphical Definition:
The rectangular pulse
shape approaches the unit
impulse function as 
approaches 0 (notice that
the area under the curve
is always equal to 1).
Unit Impulse Function (Dirac delta function)
 Mathematical Definition:
The unit impulse function d(t) satisfies the following
conditions:

1. d(t) = 0 if t  0,


2.
 d (t )dt  1

Properties of Delta Function
 f(t)d(t) = f(0)d(t)

 f (t )d (t  t 0 )  f (t 0 )d (t  t 0 )

  f (t ) d (t )dt  f (0)

  

  f (t ) d (t  T )dt   f (T ) d (t  t )dt  f (t )  d (t  t )dt  f (t )

0 0 0 0
  
t
0, t  0 du (t )
  d ( ) d    u (t ) therefore,  d (t )
 1, t  0 dt
Trigonometric Fourier Series
 A signal g(t) in the interval
t  t  t +T can be represented by
1 1 0


g (t )  a0   an cos( n0t )  bn sin( n0t ) t1  t  t1  T0
n 1
t1  T0 t1  T 0
1 2
a0 
T0  g (t )dt an 
T0  g (t ) cos(n t )dt
t1
0
t1
t1  T0
2
bn 
T0  g (t ) sin(n t )dt
t1
0 T0 = 2p / 0
 Or, in the compact form

g (t )  C0   Cn cos( n0t   n ) t1  t  t1  T0
n 1

2 2 1  bn 
C0 = a0 ; Cn  a  b ;
n n  n  tan  
 an 
 If g(t) is even then bn = 0 for all n
 If g(t) is odd then an=0 for all n.
Remarks on Fourier Series (FS) Representations
 The frequency 0= 2p/T0 is called the fundamental
frequency and the multiple of this frequency n0 is
called the nth harmonic.
 FS of g(t) is equal to g(t) over the interval t1  t 
t1+T0 only.
 The FS for all t is a periodic function of period T0
in which the segment of g(t) over the interval t1  t
 t1+T0 repeats periodically.
 If the function g(t) itself is periodic with period T0
then the FS represents g(t) for all t.
Exponential Fourier Series
 
jn 0 t jn 0 t
g (t )   Dne  D0   n
D e t1  t  t1  T0
n   n  
( n  0)
1
Dn   g (t )e  jn 0 t dt
T0 T0

Dn is related to Cn and n as
1
| Dn || D n | Cn  Dn   Dn  n
2
| Dn | is called the amplitude spectrum of the signal.
 Dn is called the phase spectrum of the signal.
They provide a frequency-domain representation of the signal.
Parseval’s Theorem
 Let g(t) be a periodic signal. The power of g(t) is
equal to the sum of the powers of its Fourier
Components.
 
2 1
g (t )  C0   Cn cos(n0t   n )  Pg  C0   C n2
n 1
2 n 1
 
jn 0t 2
g (t )  
n  
Dn e  Pg  D n
n  

2
For g(t) real, D n  Dn  Pg  D02  2  Dn
n 1