COMPREHENSIVE STUDY NOTES FOR UNIT- I, ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT

FUNDAMENTALS OF ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT

Environmental management refers to those activities which enhance beneficial links and
minimize adverse links among resources systems and their environments, and which seek to
attain desirable environmental system states, in response to community perceptions and desires,
under prevailing socioeconomic and technological conditions.

In particular, the goals of resources management are often single purpose, whereas those of
environmental management are invariably multi-purpose’ this is because resources management
focuses only on its resource system while environmental management deals with both resource
system and their environments. Further, community needs and value are fundamental to
environmental management goal setting.

Environmental management is not easy to define. As Barrow (2005) has acknowledged, it can
refer to a goal or vision, to attempts to steer a process, to the application of a set of tools, to a
philosophical exercise seeking to establish new perspectives towards the environment and human
societies, and to much more besides. Environmental managers are a diverse group of people
including academics, policy-makers, non-governmental organization (NGO) workers, company
employees, civil servants and a wide range of individuals or groups who make decisions about
the use of natural resources (such as fishers, farmers and pastoralists). Indeed, environmental
management involves all people to some extent because all human activities ultimately have
some sort of environmental impact. However, some individuals are more directly involved with
resource use, and some special interest groups are particularly concerned with resource
exploitation and with issues related to pollution. Environmental management therefore involves
many stakeholders and requires a multidisciplinary perspective. It involves many spatial scales,
ranging from the local to the global. It also involves many, diverse goals, including the desires to
control the direction and pace of development, to optimize resource use, to minimize
environmental degradation and to avoid environmental disaster. Environmental management may
be practiced by individuals and groups holding conflicting - and even directly opposing - views,
as may be the case when environmental managers employed by large multinational corporations
come into conflict with environmental managers representing voluntary organizations.

In general, however, environmental management is concerned with the understanding of the

structure and function of the earth system, as well as of the ways in which humans relate to their
environment. Environmental management is therefore concerned with the description and
monitoring of environmental changes, with predicting future changes and with attempts to
maximize human benefit and to minimize environmental degradation due to human activities.
Yet, characteristically, environmental management is about decision-making - and it is especially
concerned with the process of decision-making in relation to the use of natural resources, the
pollution of habitats and the modification of ecosystems. Fundamentally, then, environmental
management is a political activity because those decisions - about resources, pollution and
ecosystems - are never neutral or objective; on the contrary, they are value laden and they reflect
the exercise of power by particular groups over others. Moreover, in general, it is naïve to
conceive of environmental management as being about simply 'the management of the
environment' in the sense of humans manipulating and controlling the components and processes
of the earth system. Of course, humans do exert such influences on the earth system; but it is a
fallacy to think that humans 'manage', for instance, populations of humpback whales. Instead, it
is more accurate to suggest that humans may be able to make some progress towards managing
human impacts on humpback whales. Ultimately, then, environmental management is more
concerned with the management of human activities and their impacts than with the management
of the natural environment per se.

Nevertheless, some types of activity are common to environmental managers. Environmental

managers attempt deliberately to steer the process of development in order to take advantage of
opportunities; they attempt to ensure that critical environmental limits are not exceeded; they
work to reduce and mitigate environmental issues; and they are concerned with increasing the
adaptability and resilience of human societies in the face of environmental change, variability,
unpredictability and hazards. From this point of view, environmental management may be
defined as the system that anticipates and avoids, or solves, environmental and resource
conservation issues. From another point of view, environmental management may be defined as
a process concerned with human-environment interactions which seeks to identify:

 what are environmentally desirable outcomes

 what are the physical, economic, social, cultural, political and technological constraints to
achieving those outcomes

 what are the most feasible options for achieving those outcomes

Indeed, in many parts of the world (and arguably worldwide), environmental management is
intimately linked with pressing issues of justice and even of survival. A further definition might
suggest that environmental management is concerned with meeting and improving provision for
human needs and demands on a sustainable basis with minimal damage to natural habitats and
ecosystems. Thus the concept of environmental management is closely related to another
important (and problematic) concept: that of sustainable development.
Environmental Management: Concept, Scope and Aspects of
Environmental Management

Concept of Environmental Management:

The ecological balance and ecosystem stability are duly maintained by the nature itself but the
emergence of modern industrial era has disturbed the ecological balance through heavy
industrialization, technological revolution, faster growth of means of transportation, rapacious
exploitation of resources, unplanned urbanization etc..

In other words, the anthropogenic activities of modern ‘economic and technological’ man have
disturbed the harmonious relationships between the environment and human beings.
Environmental management is thus, the process to improve the relationship between the human
beings and environment which may be achieved through check on destructive activities of man,
conservation, protection, regulation and regeneration of nature.

The process, environmental management is related to the rational adjustment of man with nature
involving judicious exploitation and utilization of natural resources without disturbing the
ecosystem balance and ecosystem equilibrium.

If the natural resources are overexploited, it will affect socio-economic development of a nation.
Thus, environmental management must take into consideration the ecological principles and
socioeconomic needs of the society i.e., it involves socio economic developments on one hand
and maintenance of environmental quality on other hand.

From the above discussion, it is clear that environmental managements has

two major aspects:

(i) Socio-economic development and

(ii) Stability of biosphere in general and stability of individual ecosystems in

particular
Scope and Aspects of Environmental Management:

Environmental management is very wide in scope and includes all the technical,
economical and other aspects of environment.

The broader objectives of environmental management includes:

(i) To identify the environmental problem and to find its solution.

(ii) To restrict and regulate the exploitation and utilization of natural resources.

(iii) To regenerate degraded environment and to renew natural resources

(renewable)

(iv) To control environmental pollution and gradation.

(v) To reduce the impacts of extreme events and natural disaster.

Need for Environment Management

Need to study environment management is an important perspective in the current scenario.

Environmental stress is becoming severe day by day. Degradation of environment poses a serious
threat to humanity.

Need to study environment management is depicted in the following image.

Environmental management needs are given below:
 For use of resources
 To overcome environment and ecology crisis
 For sustainable development
 For economic need and values
 To reduce disasters
 To decide the limiting line between environment and development

Need for environmental management vis-a-vis development are follows:

1. For use of resources

Resources are limited, if we don't use them properly they will get exhausted very soon.
For appropriate and reasonable use of resources, environment management is
necessary. It is our basic responsibly to create an accurate coordination and equilibrium
between our needs and procedure of environment.

2. To overcome environment and ecology crisis

Environment management is the need of the hour. The present development has
reached a point where environment and ecology are in crucial crisis, if the same has to
continue, then it will create a disastrous effect on the environment. The whole earth will
be destroyed.

3. For sustainable development

Environmental management is required for development without destruction or overuse

of natural resources and to reduce pollution and degradation of nature. Considering the
welfare of future generations, proper decisions regarding use of environment are
necessary.

4. For economic need and values

Environmental Management is required to give new directions to our economic needs

and values, at the same time to maintain clean environment.

5. To reduce disasters

Environmental Management reduces the risk of disasters like flooding, forest fire,
earthquakes, desertification, transport accidents, Global warming, etc. We need to
explore the link between environmental system and disasters and also the synergies
between man-made and natural disasters.

6. To decide the limiting line between environment and development

Environmental Management is essential to draw a line of limit for development and

environment. For E.g. If our development needs to lead to global warming or depletion
of the ozone layer, then we must not use the materials, and modify our way of
development. We may adopt the policy of afforestation.

Thus environmental management is necessary.

The Principles of Environmental Management:

These are some guiding principles of environmental management. These principles are helpful
in environmental decision making.
1. Polluter Pays Principle (PPP):

For the last two decades, many economists have suggested that firms discharging polluting
effluents to the environment should somehow be made to pay a price for such discharges
related to the amount of environmental damage caused.

OECD has suggested the Polluter Pays principles (PPP) as a general basis for the environmental
policy. It states that if measures are adopted to reduce pollution, the costs should be borne by
the polluters. According to the OECD Council, “The principle to be used for allocating costs of
pollution prevention and control measures to encourage rational use of scarce environmental
resources and to avoid distortions in international trade and investment is the so-called Polluter
Pays Principle.” The essential concern of this principle is that polluters should bear the costs of
abatement without subsidy.

The Polluter Pays Principle, as interpreted by the Supreme Court of India, means that the
absolute liability for harm to the environment extends not only to compensate the victims of
pollution but also the cost of restoring the environmental degradation. Thus, it includes
environmental costs as well as direct costs to people or property. Remediation of the damaged
environment is part of the process of sustainable development and as such the polluter is liable
to pay the cost to the individual sufferers as well as the costs of reversing the damaged ecology.

The application of this principle depends upon the interpretations, particular cases and
situations. This principle has brought more controversial discussions during the Rio Earth
Summit 1992. The South has demanded more financial assistance from the North in combating
the environmental degradation in the South.

There are practical implications on the allocation of economic obligations in relation to

environmentally damaging activities, particularly in relation to liability and the use of economic
instruments.

2. The User Pays Principle (UPP):

It is considered as a part of the PPP. The principle states that all resource users should pay for
the full long-run marginal cost of the use of a resource and related services, including any
associated treatment costs. It is applied when resources are being used and consumed.
3. The Precautionary Principle (PP):

The main objective of the precautionary principle is to ensure that a substance or activity posing
a threat to the environment is prevented from adversely affecting the environment, even if
there is no conclusive scientific proof of linking that particular substance or activity to
environmental damage. The words ‘substance’ and ‘activity’ are the result of human
intervention.

The Rio Declaration in its Principle 15 emphasizes on this principle, wherein it is provided that
where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage. Lack of full scientific certainty shall
not be used as a reason for postponing cost effective measures to prevent environmental
degradation. Therefore, the principle is essential for the protection of environment and human
health by implementing in the field of production and distribution of energy resources.

4. Principle of Effectiveness and Efficiency:

It is essential that efficiency of resources use may also be accomplished by the use of policy
instruments that create incentive to minimize wasteful use. It also applies to various issues of
environmental governance by streaming processes and procedures in order to minimize
environmental costs.

5. The Principle of Responsibility:

It is the responsibility of all persons, corporations and states to maintain the ecological
processes. Further, access to environmental resources carries attendant responsibilities to use
them in an ecological sustainable economically efficient and socially fair manner.

6. The Principle of Participation:

It is the duty of all the persons to participate in collectively environmental decision making
activities. Some participation areas are related to the use of trees and other plants, minerals,
soils, fish and wildlife for purposes such as materials and food as well as for consumptive and
non-consumptive recreation. The second issue concerns solid waste i.e. garbage, construction
and demolition materials and chemically hazardous waste etc. The third issue of participation is
related to pollution generating activities.
7. The Principle of Proportionality:

The principle of proportionality is based on the concept of balance. A balance is to maintain

between the economic development on the one hand and environmental protection on the
other hand. It cannot be disputed that no development is possible without some adverse effects
on ecology. Therefore, it is essential to adjust the interest of the people as well as the necessity
to maintain the environment. Moreover, comparative hardships have to be balanced and
benefits to a larger section of the people have to be maintained.

ECOSYSTEM
Ecosystem, the complex of living organisms, their physical environment, and all their
interrelationships in a particular unit of space.

An ecosystem can be categorized into its abiotic constituents, including minerals, climate, soil,
water, sunlight, and all other nonliving elements, and its biotic constituents, consisting of all its
living members.

Linking these constituents together are two major forces:

 the flow of energy through the ecosystem (Energy Flow), and

 the cycling of nutrients within the ecosystem (Nutrient Cycle)

An ecosystem is a community of living organisms in conjunction with the nonliving components

of their environment, interacting as a system. These biotic and abiotic components are linked
together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. Energy enters the system through
photosynthesis and is incorporated into plant tissue. By feeding on plants and on one-another,
animals play an important role in the movement of matter and energy through the system. They
also influence the quantity of plant and microbial biomass present. By breaking down dead
organic matter, decomposers release carbon back to the atmosphere and facilitate nutrient
cycling by converting nutrients stored in dead biomass back to a form that can be readily used
by plants and other microbes.

Ecosystems are controlled by external and internal factors. External factors such as climate,
parent material which forms the soil and topography, control the overall structure of an
ecosystem but are not themselves influenced by the ecosystem. Unlike external factors, internal
factors are controlled, for example, decomposition, root competition, shading, disturbance,
succession, and the types of species present.
Ecosystems are dynamic entities—they are subject to periodic disturbances and are in the
process of recovering from some past disturbance. Ecosystems in similar environments that are
located in different parts of the world can end up doing things very differently simply because
they have different pools of species present. Internal factors not only control ecosystem
processes but are also controlled by them and are often subject to feedback loops.

Resource inputs are generally controlled by external processes like climate and parent material.
Resource availability within the ecosystem is controlled by internal factors like decomposition,
root competition or shading. Although humans operate within ecosystems, their cumulative
effects are large enough to influence external factors like climate.

Biodiversity affects ecosystem functioning, as do the processes of disturbance and succession.

Ecosystems provide a variety of goods and services upon which people depend. There is a flow
of energy and material through the ecosystem.

Energy flow

Energy and carbon enter ecosystems through photosynthesis, are incorporated into living tissue,
transferred to other organisms that feed on the living and dead plant matter, and eventually
released through respiration.
The carbon and energy incorporated into plant tissues (net primary production) is either
consumed by animals while the plant is alive, or it remains uneaten when the plant tissue dies
and becomes detritus. In terrestrial ecosystems, roughly 90% of the net primary production ends
up being broken down by decomposers. The remainder is either consumed by animals while still
alive and enters the plant-based trophic system, or it is consumed after it has died, and enters the
detritus-based trophic system.
In aquatic systems, the proportion of plant biomass that gets consumed by herbivores is much
higher. In trophic systems photosynthetic organisms are the primary producers. The organisms
that consume their tissues are called primary consumers or secondary producers—herbivores.
Organisms which feed on microbes(bacteria and fungi) are termed microbivores. Animals that
feed on primary consumers—carnivores—are secondary consumers. Each of these constitutes
a trophic level.
The sequence of consumption—from plant to herbivore, to carnivore—forms a food chain. Real
systems are much more complex than this—organisms will generally feed on more than one
form of food, and may feed at more than one trophic level. Carnivores may capture some prey
which are part of a plant-based trophic system and others that are part of a detritus-based trophic
system (a bird that feeds both on herbivorous grasshoppers and earthworms, which consume
detritus). Real systems, with all these complexities, form food webs rather than food chains. The
food chain usually consist of four level of consumption which are producers, primary consumers,
secondary consumers, and tertiary consumers.
If there is only one thing you learn about ecosystems, it should be that all of the living residents
of an ecosystem are dependent upon one another for their survival. But what does that
dependence look like?

Each organism living in an ecosystem plays an important role in the flow of energy within
the food web. The role of a bird is very different from that of a flower. But both are equally
necessary to the overall survival of the ecosystem, and all of the other living creatures within it.

Ecologists have defined three ways that living creatures use energy and interact with one another.
Organisms are defined as producers, consumers, or decomposers. Here is a look at each of these
roles and their place within an ecosystem.

Producers
The main role of producers is to capture the energy from the sun and convert it into food. Plants,
algae, and some bacteria are producers. Using a process called photosynthesis, producers use the
sun's energy to turn water and carbon dioxide into food energy. They earn their name, because—
unlike the other organisms in an ecosystem—they can actually produce their own food. Produces
are the original source of all food within an ecosystem.

In most ecosystems, the sun is the source of energy that producers use to create energy. But in a
few rare cases—such as ecosystems found in rocks deep beneath the ground—bacterial
producers can use the energy found in a gas called hydrogen sulfide, that is found within the
environment, to create food even in the absence of sunlight!

Consumers
Most organisms in an ecosystem cannot make their own food. They depend upon other
organisms to meet their food needs. They are called consumers—because that is what they do—
consume. Consumers can be broken down into three classifications: herbivores, carnivores, and
omnivores.

 Herbivores are consumers that only eat plants. Deer and caterpillars are herbivores found
commonly in a number of environments.
 Carnivores are consumers that only eat other animals. Lions and spiders are examples of
carnivores. There is a special category of carnivore called scavengers. Scavengers are
animals that eat only dead animals. Catfish and vultures are examples of scavengers.
 Omnivores are consumers that eat both plants and animals depending upon the season
and availability of food. Bears, most birds, and humans are omnivores.

Decomposers
Consumers and producers can live together nicely, but after some time, even the vultures and
catfish would not be able to keep up with all of the dead bodies that would pile up of the years.
That's where decomposers come in. Decomposers are organisms that break down and feed off of
the waste and dead organisms within an ecosystem.

Decomposers are nature's built-in recycling system. By breaking down materials—from dead
trees to the waste from other animals, decomposers return nutrients to the soil and create another
food source for herbivores and omnivores within the ecosystem. Mushrooms and bacteria are
common decomposers.

Every living creature in an ecosystem has a role to play. Without producers, consumers and
decomposers would not survive because they would have no food to eat. Without consumers, the
populations of producers and decomposers would grow out of control. And without
decomposers, producers and consumers would soon become buried in their own waste.

Classifying organisms by their role within an ecosystem helps ecologists understand how food
and energy ebb and flows in the environment. This movement of energy is usually diagrammed
using food chains or food webs. While a food chain shows one path along which energy can
move through an ecosystem, food webs show all of the overlapping ways that organisms live
with and depend upon one another.

Energy Pyramids
Energy pyramids are another tool that ecologists use to understand the role of organisms within
an ecosystem and how much energy is available at each stage of a food web. Most of the energy
in an ecosystem is available at the producer level. As you move up on the pyramid, the amount of
available energy decreases significantly. In general, only about 10 percent of the available energy
from one level of the energy pyramid transfers to the next level. the remaining 90 percent of
energy is either utilized by the organisms within that level or lost to the environment as heat.

The energy pyramid shows how ecosystems naturally limit the number of each type of organism
it can sustain. Organisms that occupy the top level of the pyramid—tertiary consumers—have
the least amount of available energy. Therefore their numbers are limited by the number of
producers within an ecosystem.

Nutrient cycling

Ecosystems continually exchange energy and carbon with the wider environment. Mineral
nutrients, on the other hand, are mostly cycled back and forth between plants, animals, microbes
and the soil. Most nitrogen enters ecosystems through biological nitrogen fixation, is deposited
through precipitation, dust, gases or is applied as fertilizer.

Since most terrestrial ecosystems are nitrogen-limited, nitrogen cycling is an important control
on ecosystem production.
Until modern times, nitrogen fixation was the major source of nitrogen for ecosystems. Nitrogen-
fixing bacteria either live symbiotically with plants or live freely in the soil. The energetic cost is
high for plants which support nitrogen-fixing symbionts—as much as 25% of gross primary
production when measured in controlled conditions. Many members of the legume plant family
support nitrogen-fixing symbionts. Some cyanobacteria are also capable of nitrogen fixation.
These are phototrophs, which carry out photosynthesis. Like other nitrogen-fixing bacteria, they
can either be free-living or have symbiotic relationships with plants.[20] Other sources of
nitrogen include acid deposition produced through the combustion of fossil fuels, ammonia gas
which evaporates from agricultural fields which have had fertilizers applied to them, and dust.
Anthropogenic nitrogen inputs account for about 80% of all nitrogen fluxes in ecosystems.
When plant tissues are shed or are eaten, the nitrogen in those tissues becomes available to
animals and microbes. Microbial decomposition releases nitrogen compounds from dead organic
matter in the soil, where plants, fungi, and bacteria compete for it. Some soil bacteria use organic
nitrogen-containing compounds as a source of carbon, and release ammonium ions into the soil.
This process is known as nitrogen mineralization. Others convert ammonium to nitrite and nitrate
ions, a process known as nitrification. Nitric oxide and nitrous oxide are also produced during
nitrification.Under nitrogen-rich and oxygen-poor conditions, nitrates and nitrites are converted
to nitrogen gas, a process known as denitrification.

Other important nutrients include phosphorus, sulfur, calcium, potassium, magnesium and
manganese. Phosphorus enters ecosystems through weathering. As ecosystems age this supply
diminishes, making phosphorus-limitation more common in older landscapes (especially in the
tropics). Calcium and sulfur are also produced by weathering, but acid deposition is an important
source of sulfur in many ecosystems. Although magnesium and manganese are produced by
weathering, exchanges between soil organic matter and living cells account for a significant
portion of ecosystem fluxes. Potassium is primarily cycled between living cells and soil organic
matter.

Let’s discuss three important types of nutrient cycles:

 Hydrological (Water) Cycle

 Nitrogen Cycle, and

 Carbon Cycle.

HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE:

Water cycle, also called hydrologic cycle, cycle that involves the continuous circulation of
water in the Earth-atmosphere system. Of the many processes involved in the water
cycle, the most important are evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation,
and runoff. Although the total amount of water within the cycle remains essentially
constant, its distribution among the various processes is continually changing.

Evaporation, one of the major processes in the cycle, is the transfer of water from the
surface of the Earth to the atmosphere. By evaporation, water in the liquid state is
transferred to the gaseous, or vapour, state. This transfer occurs when some molecules
in a water mass have attained sufficient kinetic energy to eject themselves from the
water surface. The main factors affecting evaporation are temperature, humidity, wind
speed, and solar radiation. The direct measurement of evaporation, though desirable, is
difficult and possible only at point locations. The principal source of water vapour is the
oceans, but evaporation also occurs in soils, snow, and ice. Evaporation from snow and
ice, the direct conversion from solid to vapour, is known as sublimation. Transpiration is
the evaporation of water through minute pores, or stomata, in the leaves of plants. For
practical purposes, transpiration and the evaporation from all water, soils, snow, ice,
vegetation, and other surfaces are lumped together and called evapotranspiration, or
total evaporation.

Water vapour is the primary form of atmospheric moisture. Although its storage in the
atmosphere is comparatively small, water vapour is extremely important in forming the
moisture supply for dew, frost, fog, clouds, and precipitation. Practically all water vapour
in the atmosphere is confined to the troposphere (the region below 6 to 8 miles [10 to
13 km] altitude).

The transition process from the vapour state to the liquid state is called condensation.
Condensation may take place as soon as the air contains more water vapour than it can
receive from a free water surface through evaporation at the prevailing temperature.
This condition occurs as the consequence of either cooling or the mixing of air masses of
different temperatures. By condensation, water vapour in the atmosphere is released to
form precipitation.

Precipitation that falls to the Earth is distributed in four main ways: some is returned to
the atmosphere by evaporation, some may be intercepted by vegetation and then
evaporated from the surface of leaves, some percolates into the soil by infiltration, and
the remainder flows directly as surface runoff into the sea. Some of the infiltrated
precipitation may later percolate into streams as groundwater runoff. Direct
measurement of runoff is made by stream gauges and plotted against time on
hydrographs.
 Most groundwater is derived from precipitation that has percolated through the soil.
Groundwater flow rates, compared with those of surface water, are very slow and
variable, ranging from a few millimetres to a few metres a day. Groundwater movement
is studied by tracer techniques and remote sensing.

Ice also plays a role in the water cycle. Ice and snow on the Earth’s surface occur in
various forms such as frost, sea ice, and glacier ice. When soil moisture freezes, ice also
occurs beneath the Earth’s surface, forming permafrost in tundra climates. About 18,000
years ago glaciers and ice caps covered approximately one-third of the Earth’s land
surface. Today about 12 percent of the land surface remains covered by ice masses.

NITROGEN CYCLE:

 Nitrogen is a key component of the bodies of living organisms. Nitrogen atoms are found
in all proteins and DNA.
 Nitrogen exists in the atmosphere as N2 gas. In nitrogen fixation, bacteria convert N2
into ammonia, a form of nitrogen usable by plants. When animals eat the plants, they acquire
usable nitrogen compounds.
 Nitrogen is a common limiting nutrient in nature, and agriculture. A limiting nutrient is
the nutrient that's in shortest supply and limits growth.
 When fertilizers containing nitrogen and phosphorus are carried in runoff to lakes and
rivers, they can result in blooms of algae—this is called eutrophication.

Introduction

Nitrogen is everywhere. In fact N2 gas makes up about 78% of the earth’s atmosphere by
volume, far surpassing the O2 we often think of as “air”.
Nitrogen (N) is an essential component of DNA, RNA, and proteins, the building blocks of life.
All organisms require nitrogen to live and grow. Although the majority of the air we breathe is
N2, most of the nitrogen in the atmosphere is unavailable for use by organisms. This is because
the strong triple bond between the N atoms in N2 molecules makes it relatively inert, or
unreactive, whereas organisms need reactive nitrogen to be able to incorporate it into cells. In
order for plants and animals to be able to use nitrogen, N2 gas must first be converted to more a
chemically available form such as ammonium (NH4+), nitrate (NO3-), or organic nitrogen (e.g.,
urea, which has the formula (NH2)2CO). The inert nature of N2 means that biologically
available nitrogen is often in short supply in natural ecosystems, limiting plant growth.

Nitrogen is an incredibly versatile element, existing in both inorganic and organic forms as well
as many different oxidation states. The movement of nitrogen between the atmosphere,
biosphere, and geosphere in different forms is called the nitrogen cycle (Figure 1), one of the
major biogeochemical cycles. Similar to the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle consists of various
reservoirs of nitrogen and processes by which those reservoirs exchange nitrogen.

Processes in the nitrogen cycle

Five main processes cycle nitrogen through the biosphere, atmosphere, and geosphere: nitrogen
fixation, nitrogen uptake through organismal growth, nitrogen mineralization through decay,
nitrification, and denitrification. Microorganisms, particularly bacteria, play major roles in all of
the principal nitrogen transformations. Because these processes are microbially mediated, or
controlled by microorganisms, these nitrogen transformations tend to occur faster than geological
processes like plate motion, a very slow, purely physical process that is a part of the carbon
cycle. Instead, rates are affected by environmental factors that influence microbial activity, such
as temperature, moisture, and resource availability.

Nitrogen fixation

Nitrogen fixation is the process wherein N2 is converted to ammonium, or NH4+. This is the
only way that organisms can attain nitrogen directly from the atmosphere; the few that can do
this are called nitrogen-fixing organisms. Certain bacteria, including those among the genus
Rhizobium, are able to fix nitrogen (or convert it to ammonium) through metabolic processes,
analogous to the way mammals convert oxygen to CO2 when they breathe. Nitrogen-fixing
bacteria often form symbiotic relationships with host plants. This symbiosis is well-known to
occur in the legume family of plants (e.g., beans, peas, and clover). In this relationship, nitrogen-
fixing bacteria inhabit legume root nodules (Figure 2) and receive carbohydrates and a favorable
environment from their host plant in exchange for some of the nitrogen they fix. There are also
nitrogen-fixing bacteria that exist without plant hosts, known as free-living nitrogen fixers. In
aquatic environments, blue-green algae (really a bacteria called cyanobacteria) are an important
free-living nitrogen fixer.

In addition to nitrogen-fixing bacteria, high-energy natural events such as lightning, forest fires,
and even hot lava flows can cause the fixation of smaller, but significant, amounts of nitrogen.
The high energy of these natural phenomena can break the triple bonds of N2 molecules, thereby
making individual N atoms available for chemical transformation.
Within the last century, humans have become as important a source of fixed nitrogen as all
natural sources combined. Burning fossil fuels, using synthetic nitrogen fertilizers, and
cultivating legumes all fix nitrogen. Through these activities, humans have more than doubled
the amount of fixed nitrogen that is pumped into the biosphere every year.

Nitrogen uptake

NH4+ → Organic N

The ammonium (NH4+) produced by nitrogen-fixing bacteria is usually quickly taken up by a

host plant, the bacteria itself, or another soil organism and incorporated into proteins and other
organic nitrogen compounds, like DNA. When organisms nearer the top of the food chain (like
us!) eat, we are taking up nitrogen that has been fixed initially by nitrogen-fixing bacteria.

Nitrogen mineralization

Organic N → NH4+

After nitrogen is incorporated into organic matter, it is often converted back into inorganic
nitrogen by a process called nitrogen mineralization, otherwise known as decay. When organisms
die, decomposers (such as bacteria and fungi) consume the organic matter and lead to the process
of decomposition. During this process, a significant amount of the nitrogen contained within the
dead organism is converted to ammonium. Once in the form of ammonium, nitrogen is available
for use by plants or for further transformation into nitrate (NO3-) through the process called
nitrification.

Nitrification

NH4+ → NO3-

Some of the ammonium produced by decomposition is converted to nitrate (NO3-) via a process
called nitrification. The bacteria that carry out this reaction gain energy from it. Nitrification
requires the presence of oxygen, so nitrification can happen only in oxygen-rich environments
like circulating or flowing waters and the surface layers of soils and sediments. The process of
nitrification has some important consequences. Ammonium ions (NH4+) are positively charged
and therefore stick (are sorbed) to negatively charged clay particles and soil organic matter. The
positive charge prevents ammonium nitrogen from being washed out of the soil (or leached) by
rainfall. In contrast, the negatively charged nitrate ion is not held by soil particles and so can be
washed out of the soil, leading to decreased soil fertility and nitrate enrichment of downstream
surface and groundwater.

Denitrification

NO3- → N2+ N2O

Through denitrification, oxidized forms of nitrogen such as nitrate (NO3-) and nitrite (NO2-) are
converted to dinitrogen (N2) and, to a lesser extent, nitrous oxide gas (NO2). Denitrification is
an anaerobic process that is carried out by denitrifying bacteria, which convert nitrate to
dinitrogen in the following sequence:

NO3- → NO2- → NO → N2O → N2.

Nitric oxide and nitrous oxide are gases that have environmental impacts. Nitric oxide (NO)
contributes to smog, and nitrous oxide (N2O) is an important greenhouse gas, thereby
contributing to global climate change.

Once converted to dinitrogen, nitrogen is unlikely to be reconverted to a biologically available

form because it is a gas and is rapidly lost to the atmosphere. Denitrification is the only nitrogen
transformation that removes nitrogen from ecosystems (essentially irreversibly), and it roughly
balances the amount of nitrogen fixed by the nitrogen fixers.

CARBON CYCLE

All living things are made of carbon. Carbon is also a part of the ocean, air, and even rocks.
Because the Earth is a dynamic place, carbon does not stay still. It is on the move!

In the atmosphere, carbon is attached to some oxygen in a gas called carbon dioxide.

Plants use carbon dioxide and sunlight to make their own food and grow. The carbon becomes
part of the plant. Plants that die and are buried may turn into fossil fuels made of carbon like coal
and oil over millions of years. When humans burn fossil fuels, most of the carbon quickly enters
the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.

Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and traps heat in the atmosphere. Without it and other
greenhouse gases, Earth would be a frozen world. But humans have burned so much fuel that
there is about 30% more carbon dioxide in the air today than there was about 150 years ago, and
Earth is becoming a warmer place. In fact, ice cores show us that there is now more carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere than there has been in the last 420,000 years.

The carbon cycle is the cycle by which carbon moves through our Earth’s various systems. The
carbon cycle is influenced by living things, atmospheric changes, ocean chemistry, and geologic
activity are all part of this cycle. The levels of carbon are at an all-time high, largely due to
human activities.

As a gas, carbon largely takes the form of carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is released by
organisms as they break down by glucose. Autotrophic organisms like plants use carbon dioxide
and sunlight to create glucose. However, carbon dioxide is also released by decaying organic
matter, geological processes, and the burning of fossil fuels. Excess carbon dioxide is largely
absorbed by the ocean, which leads to ocean acidification and may have been responsible for
several mass extinctions.

Carbon Cycle Steps

Carbon in the Atmosphere

To become part of the carbon cycle, carbon atoms start out in a gaseous form. Carbon dioxide
gas – CO2 – can be produced by inorganic processes, or by the metabolisms of living things.

Before Earth had life on it, carbon dioxide gas likely came from volcanic activity and asteroid
impacts. Today, carbon is also released into the atmosphere through the activities of living things,
such as the exhalations of animals, the actions of decomposer organisms, and the burning of
wood and fossil fuels by humans.

However carbon dioxide gets into the atmosphere, CO2 gas is the starting point of the carbon
cycle. The next step is…

Producers Absorb Carbon

“Producers” – organisms that produce food from sunlight, such as plants – absorb carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere and use it to build sugars, lipids, proteins, and other essential building
blocks of life.

For plants, CO2 is absorbed through pores in their leaves called “stomata.” Carbon dioxide
enters the plant through the stomata and is incorporated into containing carbon compounds with
the help of energy from sunlight. Plants and other producer organisms such as cyanobacteria are
crucial to life on Earth because they can turn atmospheric carbon into living matter. Next…

Producers are Eaten

“Consumers” are organisms that eat other living things. Animals are the most visible type of
consumer in our ecosystems, though many types of microbes also fall into this category.

Consumers incorporate carbon compounds from plants and other food sources when they eat
them. They use some of these carbon compounds from food to build their own bodies – but much
of the food they eat is broken down to release energy, in a process that is almost the reverse of
what producers do.

While producers use energy from sunlight to make bonds between carbon atoms – animals break
these bonds to release the energy they contain, ultimately turning sugars, lipids, and other carbon
compounds into single-carbon units. These are ultimately released into the atmosphere in the
form of CO2.

But, what about the carbon compounds that don’t get eaten, or broken down by animals?

Decomposers Release Carbon

Plants and animals that die without being eaten by other animals are broken down by other
organisms, called “decomposers.” Decomposers include many bacteria and some fungi. They
usually only break down matter that is already dead, rather than catching and eating a living
animal or plant.

Just like animals, decomposers break down the chemical bonds in their food molecules. They
create many chemical products, including in some cases CO2.

Human Activities

Recently, humans have made some big changes to the Earth’s carbon cycle. By burning huge
amounts of fossil fuels and cutting down roughly half of the Earth’s forests, humans have
decreased the Earth’s ability to take carbon out of the atmosphere, while releasing large amounts
of carbon into the atmosphere that had been stored in solid form as plant matter and fossil fuels.

This means more carbon dioxide in Earth’s atmosphere – which is particularly dangerous since
carbon dioxide is a “greenhouse gas” that plays a role in regulating the Earth’s temperature and
weather patterns.

The scientific community has raised alarms that by making significant changes to the Earth’s
carbon cycle, we may end up changing our climate or other important aspects of the ecosystem
we rely upon to survive. As a result, many scientists advocate decreasing the amount of carbon
burned by humans by reducing car use and electricity consumption, and advocate for investing in
non-burning sources of energy such as solar power and wind power.

GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

Environmental issues are defined as problems with the planet's systems
(air, water, soil, etc.) that have developed as a result of human
interference or mistreatment of the planet.
Environmental issues are harmful effects of human activity on the biophysical environment.
Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual,
organizational or governmental levels, for the benefit of both the environment and humans.
Environmentalism, a social and environmental movement, addresses environmental issues
through advocacy, education and activism.

Together with the widening realization of the problem of poverty, there has been an increasing
awareness of the existence of a second global crisis: that of environmental degradation.
Concerns about the state of the environment have deep historical roots, but those concerns
came to prominence during the 1960s following the publication (in 1962) of a seminal book by
Rachel Carson, Silent Spring, and the emergence of the modern environmentalist movement in
some countries (Carson 1962). Since then, and particularly since the 1980s, considerable
scientific efforts have been made to investigate and to document the state of the global
environment and the nature of global environmental change. Those efforts have been prompted
by widespread concerns that the pace and extent of development in many parts of the world
have far outstripped the capacity of natural ecosystems to absorb the impacts of human
activities.

Numerous environmental changes have been identified as issues of global concern:

desertification; the depletion of fuel wood; the destruction of tropical rainforest and rapid
declines in forest cover; the modification of coastal ecosystems; the reduced availability and
quality of drinking water; the depletion of soil resources; the over-exploitation of fisheries; food
shortages; species extinction and the loss of biodiversity; stratospheric ozone depletion; rapidly
rising levels of fossil fuel and demand for energy supplies; and climate change. The sheer
number, magnitude and complexity of these issues can seem overwhelming and some
commentators have argued that they amount to a cumulative, sustained human impact on the
environment that has profoundly transformed the surface of the Earth.

Many assessments of global environmental change have been produced since the 1980s. Those
assessments have painted a consistently negative picture of the state of the global environment
and of the impacts of human activities. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, published in
2005, reported that, over the previous 50 years, humans have changed ecosystems more rapidly
and extensively than in any comparable period of time. This rapid environmental change has
been wrought primarily to meet rapidly growing human demands for food, fresh water, timber,
construction materials and fuel. The pace and magnitude of human impacts have resulted in a
substantial and largely irreversible loss in the diversity of life on Earth. In addition, the
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment found that approximately 60% of the ecosystem services it
examined were being degraded or used unsustainably - including fresh water, capture fisheries,
air and water purification, and the regulation of regional and local climate, natural hazards and
pests.

The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the atmosphere has already
exceeded over 9000 parts per million (NOAA) (with total "long-term" GHG exceeding 455 parts
per million) (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Report). The amount of greenhouse gas in the
atmosphere is possibly above the threshold that can potentially cause climate change. The UN
Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) has stated "Climate change is not
just a distant future threat. It is the main driver behind rising humanitarian needs and we are
seeing its impact. The number of people affected and the damages inflicted by extreme weather
have been unprecedented." Further, OCHA has stated:

Climate disasters are on the rise. Around 70 percent of disasters are now climate related – up
from around 50 percent from two decades ago.

These disasters take a heavier human toll and come with a higher price tag. In the last decade,
2.4 billion people were affected by climate related disasters, compared to 1.7 billion in the
previous decade. The cost of responding to disasters has risen tenfold between 1992 and 2008.

Destructive sudden heavy rains, intense tropical storms, repeated flooding and droughts are
likely to increase, as will the vulnerability of local communities in the absence of strong
concerted action.

Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem, and this is a problem that is on
going every day. By year 2050, the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion
people, thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people. The human effects on Earth can be seen in
many different ways. A main one is the temperature rise, and according to the report ”Our
Changing Climate”, the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily
due to human activities (Walsh, et al. 20). Since 1895, the U.S. average temperature has
increased from 1.3 °F to 1.9 °F, with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970.

Global environmental issues include ozone layer depletion, global warming, acid deposition,
tropical deforestation, desertification, pollution problems in developing countries, endangered
species, marine pollution, and trans boundary movement of hazardous wastes. It’s because
their impacts and damages affect not only the countries that caused the problems, but go
beyond their national boundaries and can reach a global scale. It’s also because these are
problems which require international efforts for solution.
Major Current Global Environmental Issues

1. Pollution: Pollution of air, water and soil require millions of years to recoup. Industry and
motor vehicle exhaust are the number one pollutants. Heavy metals, nitrates and plastic are
toxins responsible for pollution. While water pollution is caused by oil spill, acid rain, urban
runoff; air pollution is caused by various gases and toxins released by industries and factories
and combustion of fossil fuels; soil pollution is majorly caused by industrial waste that deprives
soil from essential nutrients.

2. Global Warming: Climate changes like global warming is the result of human practices like
emission of Greenhouse gases. Global warming leads to rising temperatures of the oceans and
the earth’ surface causing melting of polar ice caps, rise in sea levels and also unnatural patterns
of precipitation such as flash floods, excessive snow or desertification.

3. Overpopulation: The population of the planet is reaching unsustainable levels as it faces

shortage of resources like water, fuel and food. Population explosion in less developed and
developing countries is straining the already scarce resources. Intensive agriculture practiced to
produce food damages the environment through use of chemical fertilizer, pesticides and
insecticides. Overpopulation is one of the crucial current environmental problem.

4. Natural Resource Depletion: Natural resource depletion is another crucial current

environmental problems. Fossil fuel consumption results in emission of Greenhouse gases,
which is responsible for global warming and climate change. Globally, people are taking efforts
to shift to renewable sources of energy like solar, wind, biogas and geothermal energy. The cost
of installing the infrastructure and maintaining these sources has plummeted in the recent
years.

5. Waste Disposal: The over consumption of resources and creation of plastics are creating a
global crisis of waste disposal. Developed countries are notorious for producing an excessive
amount of waste or garbage and dumping their waste in the oceans and, less developed
countries. Nuclear waste disposal has tremendous health hazards associated with it. Plastic, fast
food, packaging and cheap electronic wastes threaten the well being of humans. Waste disposal
is one of urgent current environmental problem.

6. Climate Change: Climate change is yet another environmental problem that has surfaced in
last couple of decades. It occurs due to rise in global warming which occurs due to increase in
temperature of atmosphere by burning of fossil fuels and release of harmful gases by industries.
Climate change has various harmful effects but not limited to melting of polar ice, change in
seasons, occurrence of new diseases, frequent occurrence of floods and change in overall
weather scenario.

7. Loss of Biodiversity: Human activity is leading to the extinction of species and habitats and
and loss of bio-diversity. Eco systems, which took millions of years to perfect, are in danger
when any species population is decimating. Balance of natural processes like pollination is
crucial to the survival of the eco-system and human activity threatens the same. Another
example is the destruction of coral reefs in the various oceans, which support the rich marine
life.

8. Deforestation: Our forests are natural sinks of carbon dioxide and produce fresh oxygen as
well as helps in regulating temperature and rainfall. At present forests cover 30% of the land but
every year tree cover is lost amounting to the country of Panama due to growing population
demand for more food, shelter and cloth. Deforestation simply means clearing of green cover
and make that land available for residential, industrial or commercial purpose.

9. Ocean Acidification: It is a direct impact of excessive production of CO2. 25% of CO2

produced by humans. The ocean acidity has increased by the last 250 years but by 2100, it may
shoot up by 150%. The main impact is on shellfish and plankton in the same way as human
osteoporosis.

10. Ozone Layer Depletion: The ozone layer is an invisible layer of protection around the
planet that protects us from the sun’s harmful rays. Depletion of the crucial Ozone layer of the
atmosphere is attributed to pollution caused by Chlorine and Bromide found in Chloro-floro
carbons (CFC’s). Once these toxic gases reach the upper atmosphere, they cause a hole in the
ozone layer, the biggest of which is above the Antarctic. The CFC’s are banned in many
industries and consumer products. Ozone layer is valuable because it prevents harmful UV
radiation from reaching the earth. This is one of the most important current environmental
problem.

11. Acid Rain: Acid rain occurs due to the presence of certain pollutants in the atmosphere.
Acid rain can be caused due to combustion of fossil fuels or erupting volcanoes or rotting
vegetation which release sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere. Acid rain is a
known environmental problem that can have serious effect on human health, wildlife and
aquatic species.
12. Water Pollution: Clean drinking water is becoming a rare commodity. Water is becoming
an economic and political issue as the human population fights for this resource. One of the
options suggested is using the process of desalinization. Industrial development is filling our
rivers seas and oceans with toxic pollutants which are a major threat to human health.

13. Urban Sprawl: Urban sprawl refers to migration of population from high density urban
areas to low density rural areas which results in spreading of city over more and more rural
land. Urban sprawl results in land degradation, increased traffic, environmental issues and
health issues. The ever growing demand of land displaces natural environment consisting of
flora and fauna instead of being replaced.

14: Public Health Issues: The current environmental problems pose a lot of risk to health of
humans, and animals. Dirty water is the biggest health risk of the world and poses threat to the
quality of life and public health. Run-off to rivers carries along toxins, chemicals and disease
carrying organisms. Pollutants cause respiratory disease like Asthma and cardiac-vascular
problems. High temperatures encourage the spread of infectious diseases like Dengue.

15. Genetic Engineering: Genetic modification of food using biotechnology is called genetic
engineering. Genetic modification of food results in increased toxins and diseases as genes from
an allergic plant can transfer to target plant. Genetically modified crops can cause serious
environmental problems as an engineered gene may prove toxic to wildlife. Another drawback
is that increased use of toxins to make insect resistant plant can cause resultant organisms to
become resistant to antibiotics.

The need for change in our daily lives and the movements of our government is growing.
Because so many different factors come into play; voting, governmental issues, the desire to
stick to routine, many people don’t consider that what they do will affect future generations. If
humans continue moving forward in such a harmful way towards the future, then there will be
no future to consider. Although it’s true that we cannot physically stop our ozone layer from
thinning (and scientists are still having trouble figuring out what is causing it exactly,) there are
still so many things we can do to try and put a dent in what we already know. By raising
awareness in your local community and within your families about these issues, you can help
contribute to a more environmentally conscious and friendly place for you to live.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Ecological succession, a fundamental concept in ecology, refers to more-or-less predictable and
orderly changes in the composition or structure of an ecological community.

As you develop and grow there are certain predictable changes that will occur, and they usually
happen in a specific order. As a baby, you first learn to roll over, then crawl, then walk. You also
learn new skills such as how to feed yourself and how to talk, but each skill you learn builds on
those learned before it. Your body also changes as you grow taller, your muscles and bones
develop, your hair grows longer, etc.

Ecological succession is the same idea. It is the observed changes in an ecological community
over time. These changes are fairly predictable and orderly. Within an ecological community,
the species composition will change over time as some species become more prominent while
others may fade out of existence. As the community develops over time, vegetation grows taller,
and the community becomes more established.

Have you ever looked at a landscape with a complex, diverse community of plants and animals
—such as a forest—and wondered how it came to be? Once upon a time, that land must have
been empty rock, yet today, it supports a rich ecological community consisting of populations of
different species that live together and interact with one another. Odds are, that didn't happen
overnight!

Ecologists have a strong interest in understanding how communities form and change over time.
In fact, they have spent a lot of time observing how complex communities, like forests, arise
from empty land or bare rock. They study, for example, sites where volcanic eruptions, glacier
retreats, or wildfires have taken place, clearing land or exposing rock.

In studying these sites over time, ecologists have seen gradual processes of change in ecological
communities. In many cases, a community arising in a disturbed area goes through a series of
shifts in composition, often over the course of many years. This series of changes is called
ecological succession.

Ecological succession is a series of progressive changes in the species that make up a community
over time. Ecologists usually identify two types of succession, which differ in their starting
points:

 In primary succession, newly exposed or newly formed rock is colonized by living things
for the first time.

 In secondary succession, an area that was previously occupied by living things is

disturbed, then re-colonized following the disturbance.
Succession often involves a progression from communities with lower species diversity—which
may be less stable—to communities with higher species diversity—which may be more
stable^11start superscript, 1, end superscript—though this is not a universal rule.

Primary succession and pioneer species

Primary succession occurs when new land is formed or bare rock is exposed, providing a habitat
that can be colonized for the first time.

For example, primary succession may take place following the eruption of volcanoes, such as
those on the Big Island of Hawaii. As lava flows into the ocean, new rock is formed. On the Big
Island, approximately 32 acres of land are added each year. What happens to this land during
primary succession?

First, weathering and other natural forces break down the substrate, rock, enough for the
establishment of certain hearty plants and lichens with few soil requirements, known
as pioneer species, see image below. These species help to further break down the mineral-rich
lava into soil where other, less hardy species can grow and eventually replace the pioneer
species. In addition, as these early species grow and die, they add to an ever-growing layer of
decomposing organic material and contribute to soil formation.

Photograph of succulent plants colonizing lava during primary succession on Maui.

During primary succession on lava in Maui, Hawaii, succulent plants are pioneer species.

This process repeats multiple times during succession. At each stage, new species move into an
area, often due to changes to the environment made by the preceding species, and may replace
their predecessors. At some point, the community may reach a relatively stable state and stop
changing in composition. However, it's unclear if there is always—or even usually—a stable
endpoint to succession, as we'll discuss later in the article.

Secondary succession

In secondary succession, a previously occupied area is re-colonized following a disturbance that

kills much or all of its community.

A classic example of secondary succession occurs in oak and hickory forests cleared by wildfire.
Wildfires will burn most vegetation and kill animals unable to flee the area. Their nutrients,
however, are returned to the ground in the form of ash. Since a disturbed area already has
nutrient-rich soil, it can be recolonized much more quickly than the bare rock of primary
succession.

Before a fire, the vegetation of an oak and hickory forest would have been dominated by tall
trees. Their height would have helped them acquire solar energy, while also shading the ground
and other low-lying species. After the fire, however, these trees do not spring right back up.
Instead, the first plants to grow back are usually annual plants—plants that live a single year—
followed within a few years by quickly growing and spreading grasses. The early colonizers can
be classified as pioneer species, as they are in primary succession.

Over many years, due at least in part to changes in the environment caused by the growth of
grasses and other species, shrubs will emerge, followed by small pine, oak, and hickory trees.
Eventually, barring further disturbances, the oak and hickory trees will become dominant and
form a dense canopy, returning the community to its original state—its pre-fire composition.
This process of succession takes about 150 years.

The path and endpoint of succession

The early ecologists who first studied succession thought of it as a predictable process in which
a community always went through the same series of stages. They also thought that the end
result of succession was a stable, unchanging final state called a climax community, largely
determined by an area's climate. For instance, in the example above, the mature oak and
hickory forest would be the climax community.
Today, the idea of a set path for succession and a stable climax community have been called into
question. Rather than taking a predetermined path, it appears that succession can follow
different routes depending on the specifics of the situation.^11start superscript, 1, end
superscript Also, although stable climax communities can form in some cases, this may be
uncommon in many environments. Ecosystems may experience frequent disturbances that
prevent a community from reaching an equilibrium state—or knock it quickly out of this state if
it manages to get there.