DEVELOPMENTAL READING

Compiled by:
JOHANN ANDREI A. LADERA
Master in Education –English
Master of Arts in English - CAR
Suarez Review Center
 History of Reading
• Spoken language is a natural, biological form of human
communication that is over 6 million years old. Reading is an
invention that is only 6000 years old.
• Over history, humans have found methods to represent their
spoken words with written symbols. The first writing - Sumerian
logographs from 4000 BC - were simply pictures of objects and
activities.
• The pictures began as representing what they were, pictographs,
and eventually, certain pictures represented an idea or concept,
ideographs, and finally to represent sounds.
• The pictographs were stylized, rotated and impressed in clay with a
wedge shaped stylus to become the script known as Cuneiform.
• In 2000 BC, the Phoenicians, a Semitic speaking
people, developed the first methods to represent
spoken language - an alphabet consisting entirely
of consonants.
• The Phoenician Alphabet was adopted by the
early Greeks who earned their place in alphabetic
history by symbolizing the vowels. Therefore,
the Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek scripts all came
from the Phoenician. The Greek alphabet led to
Latin and Cyrillic. Aramaic led to Arabic and most
of the scripts used in India.
What is reading?
What is Reading?
Reading is a very complex process in which
a reader intentionally and interactively engages
with the text to derive meaning from print.
(National Reading Panel)

Reading as a Physiological Process

Reading as a Cognitive Process
Reading as a Skill
Reading as a Communication Process
Reading as a Psycho-social Process
Reading as a Developmental Process
Reading as a Physiological Process

• The most basic step of reading is the eyes to see, identify

and recognize the printed word or images.
• The light patterns from the printed symbols hit the foveal
areas of the retina; then chemical changes create
currents into the optic nerve fiber. These currents travel
to the brain which interprets the symbols.
• The stage of reading revolves around the ability to
identify and recognize words which are the smallest unit
of visual identification and meaningful recognition. But
the act of reading does not take place if the letters are
perceived in isolation.
Eye Movements
• Fixation - the eyes stopping on a word or words
• Inter-fixation - the eyes moving from stopping
point to another
• Return Sweep - the eyes swinging back from the
end line to the beginning of the next line
• Saccades - the short quick hop and jump
movements done by literate people to move
ahead on a line of print.
• Regression - the backward movement of the
eye to check what is being read.
• Span of Recognition - the eye's recognition of
a group of words through thought groups or
chunk of phrases.
Reading as a Cognitive Process

• Reading is also a mental or cognitive process in the

perception of meaning known as comprehension.
• The process includes creation of stimulus on the visual
center of the brain. Then, the brain will do different
processes like fusion, interpretation and construction
of meaning.
• Moreover, the reader uses strategies to create meaning
from text.
Reading as a Communication
Process

• Human uses writing and reading for communication

purposes. Generally, communication refers to the
reciprocal exchange of information, ideas, facts,
opinions, beliefs, feelings & attitudes through verbal
or nonverbal means between two people or within a
group of people.
Reading as a Skill

Reading is a behavioral process that is

observable. It evolves various external events
on the individual, from a simple to complex
skills.
This process is illustrated in the Reading
Pyramid and the Reading Skills Ladder by
Grace Goodell.
 - able to
construct
Reading Pyramid meaning from
the words read -
Comprehension

Vocabulary
Fluency
Knowing what
Read text quickly
and accurately the words mean
-a combination of
Word Identification- Fluency and word
Ability to see a word identification
And know what it is

Decoding- is where children begin to sound out words

Phonics- ability to identify letters and their specific sounds

Phonemic Awareness- is the foundation of reading because it is the ability to

understand that words are made up of sounds
Skills Required for Proficient Reading

• Phonemic Awareness (the ability to distinguish and

manipulate individual sounds)
• Phonics (letter-sound correspondences in spelling
and reading)
• Fluency (reading with speed, accuracy and
expression leading to comprehension)
• Vocabulary
• Reading Comprehension

National Reading Panel (2000)

Reading as a Process of
Development

• There are stages of individual's development in

reading.
• The stages are interrelated; each stage is a
preparation for the next.
• Development proceeds sequentially in an
upward movement, starting with the simplest
to the increasing levels of complexity.
• Development is influenced by one's personal
maturation, social demands, values and
aspirations.
Developmental Reading Program
What is developmental reading
program?
• Developmental reading program is a
systematic instruction in reading skills and
strategies.
• It seeks to generate a positive attitude
towards the reading process to let students
become aware of learning techniques.
• It is a program in which students who are
able readers continue to be taught reading
skills in sequential program of instruction.
STAGES of READING DEVELOPMENT
(Jeanne Chall)
Stage 0: Pre-Reading Stage

• Also known as Reading Readiness or Pseudo Reading

Stage
• Preschool (ages 6 months to 6 years)
• Basically, this is the stage of oral language
development.
• Unsystematic accumulation of understandings
about reading between pre-school and
kindergarten.
• Learning to recognize the alphabet, imitation
reading, experimentation with letters and learning
sounds
• Understanding the world around them
Stage 0: Pre-Reading Stage

• Pretends reading
• Retells story from pictures
• Names alphabet letters
• Prints own name
• Plays with literacy objects like blocks, books,
pencils, crayons, paper, wrappers, etc.
Stage 0: Pre-Reading Stage
How the concept of reading is acquired

• Being read to by someone who responds to child’s

interest
• Being provided with books, paper, pencils, letters, and
other literacy objects where they can use their sensory
contact and direct manipulation.
• Given the opportunity to make connections between non-
visual and visual information of texts.
• Most can understand children’s picture books and stories
read to them.
• Most can understand thousands of the words they hear by
age 6, but can read few if any of them.
Stage 1: Initial Reading or
Decoding Stage
• Grades 1- Early 2; Ages 6-7 )
• Student's central task is learning arbitrary
letters and associating them with
corresponding parts of spoken words.
Learner acquires knowledge about reading.
• They learn phonics - sounding out words from
print, utilize consonants and vowels to blend
together simple words.
• Also known as Beginning Reading
Stage 1: Initial Reading or
Decoding Stage

• A child learns relation between letters and

sounds and between printed and spoken
words (sound-spelling relationship)
• Able to read simple text containing high-
frequency words and phonically regular
words
• Sounds out new one-syllable words
Stage 1: Initial Reading or
Decoding Stage
How the concept of reading is acquired

• Direct instruction and practice in letter-sound

relationships (phonics)
• Phonic Approach, Minimal Pairs
• Reading of simple stories using simple phonic
patterns and high frequency words.
• Being read to at a higher level to develop
advanced language patterns, new words, and
ideas
Stage 2: Confirmation and Fluency
• Confirmation, Fluency, Ungluing from Print,
Automaticity Stage, Grades 2-3; Ages 7-8
• Consolidation of what was learned in Stage 1.
Requires reading many easy and familiar books for
developmental reading, gradual increase in
functional and recreational reading, common use
of the basal readers.
• Functional reading is important - content area
texts. Range of possible recreational reading
increases. This is considered to be on the ‘real’
reading stage.
• Re-reading allows them to concentrate on meaning
and builds fluency.
Stage 2: Confirmation and Fluency

• "Real" Reading Stage

• Reads simple stories with increasing fluency

• Learns to consolidate decoding, sight vocabulary,

meaning and context to read stories and selections.

• They are fairly good at reading and spelling and are

ready to read without sounding everything out.
Stage 2: Confirmation and Fluency
How it is acquired

• The learners in this stage need the

opportunity to hone the skills in reading in
comfortable text and comfortable reading
situations
• Direct instruction in advanced decoding skills
• Wide reading w/ instructional and
independent materials
• Being read to at levels above their own to
develop language, vocabulary and concepts
Stage 3: Reading for Learning
the New Stage

• Grades 4-8; ages 9-13

• Readers need to bring prior knowledge to
their reading.
• Children read the study of subject matter
to acquire facts and new knowledge.
Stage 3: Reading for Learning
the New Stage
• For the first time, may be responsible for reading
independently to:
-learn new ideas,
-gain new knowledge,
-experience new feelings and attitudes

• Generally, at the start of the stage, children read

from one viewpoint.
• They expand vocabularies, build background and
world knowledge, and develop reading strategies.
Stage 3: Reading for Learning
the New Stage
How it is acquired

• Reading/studying textbooks, reference works, trade

books, newspapers, magazines
• Being exposed to unfamiliar vocabulary and syntax
• Systematic study of words
• Reacting to text through discussions and writing
• Reading of more complex fiction, non-fiction, etc.
Stage 3: Reading for Learning
the New Stage
Relationship of Reading to Listening

• At beginning, listening comprehension is still more

effective than reading.
• By the end, reading and listening are about equal.
• For good readers, reading is more efficient
Stage 4: Multiple Viewpoints Stage

• High School; Grade 9-12, Ages 14-18

• This should include instruction in
reading/study skills and reading strategies
for success.
• Readers are instructed in reading and study
skills.
• Learn to analyze what they read and react
critically. (Critical Analysis)
• Share multiple views and concepts.
Stage 4: Multiple Viewpoints
Stage
• Reading widely from a broad range of complex
materials--expository and narrative

• Able to deal with multiple viewpoints

• Analyze text critically

Stage 4: Multiple Viewpoints Stage
How it’s Acquired

• Wide reading and study of science and

humanities as well as newspapers and magazines

• Systematic study of words and word parts

• Formal and creative writing

Stage 4: Multiple Viewpoints
Stage
Relationship of Reading to Listening

• Reading comprehension is better than listening

comprehension of difficult material.

• For poorer readers, listening comprehension may be

equal to reading.
Stage 5:Construction &
Reconstruction Stage
• College; Ages 18 and beyond
• They construct understanding based on analysis and
synthesis.
• Adult literacy should stress acquisition of skills useful to
the participants and the ability to apply those skills.
• Readers read materials useful to them and apply those
skills in their field of work.
• Readers know what not to read, as well as what to read.
• They have the ability to synthesize critically the works
of others and able to defend their stand on specific
issues.
Stage 5:Construction &
Reconstruction Stage

• They know what not to read. as well as what to

read. Reading is rapid and efficient.
• Reading is used for one’s own needs and purposes.
• Serves to integrate one’s knowledge with that of
others to synthesize and create new knowledge.
• They construct knowledge on high level of
abstraction and generality and to create one's own
truth from the truth of others.
 Stage 5:Construction &
Reconstruction Stage
How it is Acquired

• Wide reading of ever more difficult materials

• Writing papers, tests, essays that call for

integration of varied knowledge and points of
view.
Stage 5:Construction &
Reconstruction Stage

Relationship of Reading to Listening

• Reading is more efficient than listening.

Literacy Development
(Teale and Sulzby)
 Emergent Literacy

• Reading and writing behaviors of children

that occur before and develop into
conventional literacy.
• These behaviors are shown by children from
all cultures and all socio-economic
backgrounds.
Characteristics of Emergent Literacy
Teale and Sulzby (1996)

1. Age 2-3 children recognize environmental

prints like signs, labels, and logos.
2. Reading and writing are used to reach a goal:
recipes to cook, TV guides to find shows, write
a check to pay.
3. Reading and writing developments happen
together and are related to each other.
Children who are read to and who write have
better understanding of print.
Children come to school with different literacy
experiences; Beach and Robinson (1992)

• Preschool children know about writing. They know logos,

write with scribbles (Tell you what they have written),
write the first letters of their name.
• Kindergartners know more logos, can write their name,
and write with letters.
• 1st graders attended more to actual print. They know
letters, words, and sounds. 2/3 were conventional
readers.
• 2nd and 3rd graders used conventional and invented
spelling in their writings and were reading in a
conventional manner.
 Early Emergent Literacy
(preschool)

• Learn that reading and writing are activities in which

people engage
• Show interest in books, print
• Handle books. Become aware that books have stories
• Listen to stories. Recites phrases and/or stories.
Begin to prefer certain stories
• Scribble, make letter-like shapes or imitate cursive
writing
Emergent Literacy / Early Reading
(early primary)
(Early Decoding Skills)
• Understand that text/pictures convey meaning
• Make the connection between signed or spoken
language and print
• Understand picture books
• Recognize and begin to read familiar
environmental print
• Begin to read some words, such as their name
• May write letters.
 Developing Literacy (primary)

• Awareness that words are made of different sounds

• Decode words (apply knowledge of letter-sound
relationships to correctly pronounce written words)
• Comprehend picture books, short chapter books,
information materials
• Beginning sight vocabulary
• Put words together to form simple sentences
• Learn to develop ideas in a logical progression
• Write about topics of personal interest in various modes
(e.g. letters, stories, notes, poems)
Early Independent Literacy
(early elementary)

• Begin to read for interest or information

• Write own ideas
• Answer questions about text
• Read independently for extended periods of
time
• Use detail and organization in writing
• Record observations; ask and answer open-
ended questions in writing
• Produce writing and artwork to reflect personal
response to/understanding of text
Independent Reading
(mid-elementary)

• Decreasing support for new tasks or contexts

• Experience new feelings/attitudes through reading
• Reading for information/acquisition of knowledge
• Increased comprehension
• Self-correct quickly
• Read confidently and independently in multiple
modes of text
• Written work is organized, coherent and easily
understood.
Expanding Literacy
(late elementary and secondary)
• Reading for information/acquisition of knowledge
• Analyze and think critically about ideas presented in
text
• Form own opinions based on facts, invent point of
view different from those read
• Read widely, critically and frequently
• Read for a variety of purposes and in a variety of
modes
• Can read analytically and thoughtfully
• Write for a variety of reasons and in diverse modes
Stages in Reading Development
(National Reading Panel)
Stages in Reading Development

1. Reading Readiness (Nursery and Kindergarten)

2. Beginning Reading (Grade 1 and 2)
3. Period of Rapid Growth (Grade 3 and 4)
4. Period of Refinement (Grade 6 - College)
 Stages in Reading Development

1. Reading Readiness (Nursery and Kindergarten)

The teacher:
• prepares the child for learning how to read.
• initiates activities using concrete objects for
sensory contact and manipulation.
• introduces fun activities like listening to stories,
reading rhymes
• imparts sight vocabulary
• introduces phonetic lessons
 Stages in Reading Development

2. Beginning Reading (Grade 1 and 2)

The child recognizes and remembers words, phrases,
and sentences as symbols for ideas that correspond
to early experiences.
The teacher should:
• introduce real-life words
• initiates both oral and silent reading
• engages the child in vocabulary building activities.
 Stages in Reading Development

3. Period of Rapid Growth (Grade 3 and 4)

The teacher guides the child in the mastery
of reading techniques:
• vocabulary, comprehension, critical
thinking
• free reading reading skills like scanning,
skimming
Stages in Reading Development

4. Period of Refinement (Grade 6 - College)

The teacher guides the student in the use of
reading as a tool for effective study of other
subjects.
• independent reading
• note-taking
• research
Early Literacy Theories
and
Views on Reading
Major Theories of Reading Process
 Behaviorist View

Behaviorism is the view that behavior should

be explained by observable experiences.
Behavior is everything that we do, both
verbal and nonverbal, that can be directly
seen or heard.
The Cognitive View

• Cognitively-based views of reading emphasize the

interactive nature of reading and the constructive
nature of comprehension.
• Dole et al. (1991) have stated that, besides
knowledge brought to bear on the reading
process, a set of flexible, adaptable strategies
are used to make sense of a text and to monitor
ongoing understanding.
• Constructivism- It emphasizes the active role of
the learner in building understanding and
making sense of information.
• Social Constructivism - It emphasizes the
importance of giving students opportunities for
engaging in meaningful activities in and for
reading. Social interaction, cultural tools, and
activities shape individual development and
learning.
Cognitive Processes of Reading

1. Decoding and Comprehension

- Decoding words is a key cognitive process in
learning to read. Metacognition is involved in
reading in the sense that good readers develop
control of their own reading skills and
understand how reading works. For example,
good readers know that it is important to
comprehend the “gist” of what an author is
saying.
2. Prior Knowledge
- Students’ prior knowledge about a topic is
related to what they will remember from
reading about the topic and their ability to
make correct inferences about the material they
read.
3. Developing Expert-Reading Strategies
- It is especially important to teach students
metacognitive strategies to monitor their
reading progress. Summarizing is also thought to
be an important reading strategy.
Cognitive Models of Reading

There are several cognitive theories of

reading, but these theories can be
classified as:
1. Bottom Up Model
2. Top Down Model
3. Interactive Model
1. Bottom-up Model

• Emphasizes a single direction

• Emphasizes the written or printed texts
• Reading is driven by a process that results in
meaning
• Part-centered or Linguistic approach
• Part to Whole Model
Features of Bottom-up model

Believes the reader needs to:

– Identify letter features
– Link these features to recognize letters
– Combine letter to recognize spelling patterns
– Link spelling patterns to recognize words
– Then proceed to sentence, paragraph, and text-
level processing
The Traditional View (Bottom Up Model)
• According to Dole et. al. (1991), in the
traditional view of reading, novice readers
acquire a set of hierarchically ordered sub-skills
that sequentially build toward comprehension
ability. Having mastered these skills, readers are
viewed as experts who comprehend what they
read.

• Readers are passive recipients of information in

the text. Meaning resides in the text and the
reader has to reproduce meaning.
• According to Nunan (1991), reading in this view
is basically a matter of decoding a series of
written symbols into their aural equivalents in
the quest for making sense of the text. He
referred to this process as the 'bottom-up' view
of reading.

• McCarthy (1999) has called this view 'outside-in'

processing, referring to the idea that meaning
exists in the printed page and is interpreted by
the reader then taken in. It relies on the formal
features of the language, mainly words and
structure.
Emerald Dechant:

– Bottom-up models operate on the principle

that the written text is hierarchically
organized and that the readers first
process smallest linguistic unit,
gradually compiling the smaller units to
decipher and comprehend the higher
units.
Charles Fries:
– The reader must learn to transfer from the
auditory signs for language signals to a set of
visual signs for the same signals.

– The reader must automatically respond to the

visual patterns.

– Learning to read means developing

considerable range of habitual responses to a
specific set of patterns of graphic shapes.
Philip B. Gough:

– Reading is strictly a serial process.

– Lexical, syntactic and semantic rules are applied

to the phonemic output which itself has been
decoded from print.
2.Top-down reading model
This model suggests that the processing of a
text begins in the mind of the readers. This
includes:
– Meaning- driven processes, or
– An assumption about the meaning of a text.
– Psycholinguistic Approach
Top-down reading model

– Emphasizes what the reader brings to the text

– Says reading is driven by meaning
– Proceeds from whole to part

Also known as:

• Inside Out Model
• Concept-driven Model
• Whole To Part Model
The proponents generally agree that:

– Comprehension is the basis for decoding skills,

not a singular result.

– Meaning is brought to print, not derived from

print.
The Top-Down Model View

Frank Smith
– Reading is not decoding written language to
spoken language
– Reading does not involve the processing of each
letter and each word.
– Reading is a matter of bringing meaning to print
Features of top-down approach:

• Readers can comprehend a selection even

though they do not recognize each word.
• Readers should use meaning and
grammatical cues to identify unrecognized
words. (Semantic Features)
• Reading for meaning is the primary
objective of reading, rather than mastery of
letters, letter/sound relationships and
words.
• Reading requires the use of meaning
activities than the mastery of series of word-
recognition skills.
• The primary focus of instruction should be
the reading of sentences , paragraphs, and
whole selections
• The most important aspect about reading is
the amount and kind of information
gained through reading.
INTERACTIVE READING MODEL

• A reading model that recognizes the

interaction of bottom-up and top-down
processes simultaneously throughout the
reading process.
• Reading, as an interactive, socio-cognitive
process, involves a text, a reader, and a
social context.
Views about the Interactive Reading Model:

Emerald Dechant
– The interactive model suggests that the reader
constructs meaning by the selective use of
information from all sources of meaning without
adherence to any set order.

– The reader simultaneously uses all levels of

processing even though one source of meaning
can be primary at a given time.
Kenneth S. Goodman

– "The goal of reading is constructing meaning in

response to text. It requires interactive use of
graphophonic, syntactic, and semantic cues to
construct meaning.”

– "It is one which uses print as input and has

meaning as output. But the reader provides input
too, and the reader, interacting with text, is
selective in using just as little of the cues from
text as necessary to construct meaning.”
The Metacognitive View

• According to Block (1992), there is now no

more debate on "whether reading is a bottom-
up, language-based process or a top-down,
knowledge-based process."
• It is also no more problematic to accept the
influence of background knowledge on both L1
and L2 readers.
• Research has gone even further to define the
control readers execute on their ability to
understand a text. This control is referred to as
metacognition.
Metacognition involves thinking about what
one is doing while reading. Klein et al. (1991)
stated that strategic readers attempt the
following while reading:

• Identifying the purpose of the reading

• Identifying the form or type of the text
• Thinking about the general character and
features of the form or type of the text. For
instance, they try to locate a topic sentence
and follow supporting details toward a
conclusion.
• Projecting the author's purpose for writing the
text (while reading it),
• Choosing, scanning, or reading in detail
• Making continuous predictions about what will
occur next, based on information obtained
earlier, prior knowledge, and conclusions
obtained within the previous stages.
These steps require the reader to be able to
classify, sequence, establish whole-part
relationships, compare and contrast, determine
cause-effect, summarize, hypothesize and
predict, infer, and conclude.
Schema Theory
• Schema theory is an explanation of how readers
use prior knowledge to comprehend and learn from
text (Rumelhart, 1980). The term "schema" was
first used in psychology by Barlett as "an active
organization of past reactions or experiences."

• The fundamental tenet of schema theory assumes

that written text does not carry meaning by itself.
Rather, a text only provides directions for readers
as to how they should retrieve or construct
meaning from their own previously acquired
knowledge. This previous knowledge is called the
readers' background knowledge (prior knowledge),
and the previously acquired knowledge structures
are called schemata.
Types of Schemata
1. Formal schema refers to the background knowledge
of the formal, rhetorical organizational structures of
different types of texts.
2. Content schema refers to background knowledge of
the content area of the text. It contains conceptual
knowledge or information about what usually happens
within a certain topic, and how these happenings
relate to each other to form a coherent whole.
3. Cultural Schema refers to cultural knowledge or
socio-cultural meaning - a meaning which springs from
shared experiences, values and attitudes.
4. Linguistic schema refers to the knowledge about
vocabulary and grammar. It plays a basic role in a
comprehensive understanding of the text.
EMERGING READING MODELS
 RUMELHART MODEL (1977)

• States that successful reading is both a

PERCEPTUAL and a COGNITIVE process.
Orthograhic knowledge
Lexical, Syntactic and Semantic knowledge
building blocks of knowledge
If our schemata are incomplete and do not
provide an understanding of the incoming
data from the text, we will have problems
processing and understanding the text.
 ANDERSON and PEARSON SCHEMA-
THEORETIC VIEW

• It focuses on the role of schemata (knowledge stored in

memory) in text comprehension.
• SCHEMA THEORY
a.relationships among the components of encoding (
attention, instantiation, and inference) and
retrieval (reconstructive processes)
b.role of inference
c.reliance on knowledge of the content
Comprehension is an interaction between old & new
information.
 STANOVICH MODEL (1980)

• Interactive-compensatory reading model.

• This theory assumes that readers are processing information
simultaneously.
It recognizes the interaction of both Bottom-up and Top-down
processes simultaneously, depending on:
reading purpose
motivation
schema
knowledge of the subject
PEARSON and TIERNEY R/W MODEL
• Negotiation of meaning between writer & reader
who both create meaning through the text as the
medium.
• Readers as composers:
“ the thoughtful reader …is the reader who reads
as if she were a writer composing a text yet for
another reader who lives within her”.
• Reader reads with the expectation that the writer
has provided sufficient clues about the meaning.
• The writer writes with the intention, the reader
will create meaning.
• Context is important. Knowing why is as crucial as
knowing what was said.
 MATHEWSON’s MODEL OF ATTITUDE
INFLUENCE

• This model addresses the role that attitude and

motivation play in reading.
• Attitude toward reading may be modified by a
change in reader’s goal.
• Attitude has tri-componential construct:
--cognitive component
--affective component
--conative component
• All these influence the intention to read, and the
intention to read affects reading behaviour.
• Maintains that feedback may affect attitude
and motivation during the reading process.
1. Satisfaction with affect developed
through reading
2. Satisfaction with ideas developed
through reading.
3. Feelings generated by ideas from the
reading process.
4. Ideas constructed from the information
read.
5. How the reading affects values, goals,
and self-concepts.
Other Literacy Theories
Jean Jacques Rousseau

Jean Jacques Rousseau believes that a

child's learning unfolds naturally. Goals of
education recognizes a progressive
education that respects that the child has
his own special needs as a being who exists
in his own right.
Maria Montessori

Maria Montessori was an Italian physician and

educator who developed the Montessori Method
of teaching.
The Montessori Method is generally based on the
idea that children learn best when the
environment supports their natural desire to
acquire skills and knowledge.
Children need early, orderly, systematic training.
John Dewey

• Teaching and learning must be a conscious

process of reconstruction of experience.
• Educative experiences must promote
manipulation, provoke change, and emphasize
the importance of the participation of the
learner in formation of purposes which direct his
activities in the learning process.
• Early childhood learning must be child-centered
allowing them to play and interact.
 Jean Piaget

Cognitive Development Theory.

• Cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of
mental processes as a result of biological maturation and
environmental experience. Children construct an
understanding of the world around them, then experience
discrepancies between what they already know and what
they discover in their environment. Piaget emphasized the
importance of schema in cognitive development.
• Children at certain stages are capable of only certain types
of intellectual endeavors; acquire knowledge by
interacting with the world; active participants in their own
learning.
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi

• Natural learning with informal instruction is

emphasized.
• Natural Potential of a child is developed
through senses.
• Learning is acquired through manipulative
experiences through the use of senses.
 Noam Chomsky

Universal Grammar Theory

• Noam Chomsky has developed the "universal grammar"
theory of language development. Chomsky's theory
proposes that the human brain contains a predefined
mechanism (universal grammar) that is the basis for
the acquisition of all language.
• He believed in the Language Acquisition Device
(LAD). The LAD is a hypothetical tool hardwired into
the brain that helps children rapidly learn and
understand language.
 Lev Vygotsky

Zone of Proximal Development

• The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) has been defined
as "the distance between the actual developmental level as
determined by independent problem solving and the level
of potential development as determined through problem
solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more
capable peers."
• These forms of guidance, activities, collaboration and other
learning supports are known as "scaffolds."
Don Holdaway

• Children learn to read naturally in the home

environment and interactions with the parents.

• Children emulate the reading model set up by

the parents.
 Kenneth S. Goodman

• Reading is a psycho-linguistic game, a process in

which readers sample the text, make hypotheses,
confirm or reject them, make new hypotheses, and
so forth. Here, the reader rather than the text is at
the heart of the reading process.
• A child attempts to construct his own knowledge,
capitalizing on his prior knowledge and past
experiences.
William H. Teale

• Reading is acquired through socially

interactive and emulative behavior.
• Social functions and conventions of reading
are acquired through interactive literacy
events.
Stephen Krashen

Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition

It consists of five main hypotheses:
• The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis,
• The Monitor hypothesis,
• The Input hypothesis,
• The Natural Order hypothesis,
• The Affective Filter hypothesis.
• Acquisition vs Learning
The acquired system' is subconscious process,
while 'the learned system' is the product of
formal instruction and it comprises a conscious
process.

• Monitor Hypothesis:
The acquisition system is the utterance initiator,
while the learning system performs the role of
the 'monitor' or the 'editor'. The 'monitor' acts in
a planning, editing and correcting function.
• Input Hypothesis
The learner improves and progresses when he/she
receives second language 'input' that is one step
beyond his/her current stage of linguistic
competence. (i+1)

• Natural Order Hypothesis

The acquisition of grammatical structures follows a
'natural order' which is predictable.

• Affective Filter Hypothesis

A number of 'affective variables' play a facilitative,
but non-causal, role in second language acquisition.
These variables include motivation, self-confidence
and anxiety.
Reader-Response Theory
Reader-Response theorists actually think that readers are
active participants who create a work of literature in the
process of reading it.
The meaning of a text, according to Reader-Response
theorists, (Rossenblatt) exists somewhere between the
words on the page and the reader's mind.
It calls attention to the importance of the reader in the
making of literary meaning.
Reader-Response theorists like to ask questions like: How do
we feel when we read a certain poem, or a passage from a
novel? Why do we feel that way? How does our psychology
affect the way we read literary texts? Only when we ask
those questions, these theorists argue, can we truly begin to
understand literature.
Comprehension
 What is Reading Comprehension?

• According to Webster's Dictionary, comprehension

is "the capacity for understanding fully; the act or
action of grasping with the intellect."
• Webster also tells us that reading is "to receive or
take in the sense of (as letters or symbols) by
scanning; to understand the meaning of written or
printed matter; to learn from what one has seen
or found in writing or printing.
Bloom’s Taxonomy

create

evaluate

analyze

apply

understand

remember
Barrett’s Taxonomy of
comprehension skills

Appreciation
critique, appraise,
comment, appreciate

Evaluation analyze,
appraise, evaluate, justify,
reason, criticize, judge

Inferential comprehension
predict, infer, guess

Reorganization
classify, regroup, rearrange, assemble, collect, categorize

Literal comprehension
label, list, name, relate, recall, repeat, state
Levels of Comprehension

1. Literal Comprehension
2. Interpretative Comprehension
3. Critical - Evaluative Comprehension
4. Applied or Creative Comprehension
5. Appreciative Comprehension
Level One
LITERAL - what is actually stated.
• Facts and details
• Rote learning and memorization
• Surface understanding only

Tests in this category are objective tests dealing

with true / false, multiple choice and fill-in-the
blank questions.
Common questions used to illicit this type of
thinking are who, what, when, and where
questions.
Level One - Literal

Some sources cited another level from this category,

called:

Reorganization
- requires to analyze, synthesize and/or organize ideas or
information explicitly stated in the selection.
Level Two
INTERPRETIVE (Inferential) - what is implied or meant, rather
than what is actually stated.
• Drawing inferences
• Tapping into prior knowledge / experience
• Attaching new learning to old information
• Making logical leaps and educated guesses
• Interpreting figurative language

Reading between the lines to determine what is meant by what

is stated.
TESTS in this category are subjective, and the types of
questions asked are open-ended, thought-provoking questions
like why, what if, and how.
Level Three
Critical Analysis or Critical Evaluation

This level requires readers to evaluate or weigh the facts,

events, character's viewpoints, then make judgments about
the worth of these and the effectiveness of the way they
are presented in the selection.

Judgment of Text based on

Fact or Opinion, Validity, Appropriateness, Worth
(acceptable, desirable ideas), Comparison

Evaluation requires responses by the student which indicate

that he has made an evaluating judgment by comparing
ideas presented in the selection with external criteria.
Level Four

Applied or Creative - taking what was said

(literal) and then what was meant by what was
said (interpretive) and then extend (apply) the
concepts or ideas beyond the situation.
• Analyzing
• Synthesizing
• Applying

In this level we are analyzing or synthesizing

information and applying it to other
information.
Level Five (Affective)

Appreciative Comprehension (for Literary texts)

This refers to the responses of the readers to the
text based on:
• Author's use of language
• Reaction to Authors ideas, language, values, imagery,
and style of text
• Author's purpose
Appreciation involves all the previously sited
cognitive dimensions of reading for it deals with
the psychological and aesthetic impact of the
selection on the reader.
A guide to question setting based on Bloom’s
Taxonomy
A guide to question setting (Barrett’s Taxonomy)
Levels of Sample questions
comprehension
Literal What is the character’s name?
comprehension Who was taller?
What is the tallest animal?
Reorganization Can you make a map of where the character traveled in the
story?
Summarize the story read.
Inferential What else might the writer have included to make the story
comprehension more interesting?
What kind of a place is Sta. Rosa?
What do you think will happen next?
What is the writer’s purpose
Evaluation Does this make sense?
Is the information accurate? Could this really happen?
Appreciation How did the story make you feel?
Is the argument clearly stated?
Is the sequence of events logical?
Which words were most effective?
Reading Comprehension Skills

1. Skimming –quickly identifying main ideas,

speed 3x faster than normal reading.
Finding main ideas and supporting
details/evidence

2. Scanning- finding a particular piece of

information, running your eyes over the text
looking for specific information.
Reading Comprehension
Strategies

3. Extensive Reading- used to obtain

general understanding of a subject and
includes reading longer text for
pleasure, also business books
4. Intensive reading-used on shorter text in
order to obtain specific information
Reading Comprehension
Strategies

5. Visualizing- used to be able to create

sensory images in the readers’ minds so
they will be more engaged with the
content of the text
6. Synthesizing- involves evaluating, sorting
and sifting through information that is new
and reorganizing it into larger concept
Reading Comprehension
Strategies

7. Inferring- drawing upon reader’s

background knowledge and connecting
this with new information.
8. Questioning- ability to generate
questions that demonstrate that’s
students are synthesizing, evaluating,
and attempting to clarify what they
read
Reading Comprehension
Strategies

9. Summarizing
The MEANING is the same.
The summary keeps the degree of certainty of
the writer.
This is a much shorter version of the original
writing.
The source/s of information is/are clearly
attributed.
 Reading Comprehension
Strategies

10. Paraphrasing

The MEANING is the same.

Most of the words have been changed.
The sentences have been significantly
restructured.
This is about the same length as the original
writing
The information is correctly attributed.
 Reading Comprehension
Strategies

11. Analyzing - studying elements, structure,

dissecting
12. Interpreting ( e.g. non-prose forms like
graphs, tables, charts, diagrams)
13. Recognizing a text's patterns of
organization (Text Structure)
14. Evaluating (e.g. Understanding opinions
and detecting biases)
Approaches to Teaching Reading
• An approach to language teaching is
something that reflects a certain model or
research paradigm - a theory.
• A method is a set of procedures, i.e., a
system that spells out rather precisely
how to teach a second or foreign
language.
• A technique is a classroom device o
activity.
1. Phonics Approach

• It emphasizes that reading instruction should

focus on phonics and basic rules for translating
written symbols into sounds.
• Early reading instruction in this approach
involves simplified materials.
• Only after children have learned the
correspondence rules that relate spoken
phonemes to the alphabet letters that
represent them are they given complex
reading materials, such as books and poems.
2. Audiolingual Approach

• Lessons begin with dialogue.

• Mimicry and memorization are used, based on
the assumption that language is habit formation.
• Pronunciation is stressed from the beginning.
• Language is often manipulated without regard to
meaning or context.
3. Grammar-Translation Approach

• Instruction is given in the native language

of the students.
• There is early reading of difficult texts.
• A typical exercise is to translate sentences
from the target language into the mother
tongue.
4. Direct Approach

• Lessons begin with dialogues and anecdotes in

modern conversational style.
• Actions and pictures are used to make
meanings clear.
• Grammar is learned inductively.
• Literary texts are read for pleasure and are not
analyzed grammatically.
5. Reading Approach

• Reading is viewed as the most usable skill to have

in a foreign language since not many people
traveled abroad.
• Vocabulary is controlled first (based on frequency
and usefulness) then expanded.
• Translation is once more a classroom procedure.
• Reading comprehension is the only language skill
emphasized.
6. Oral-Situational Approach

• The spoken language is primary.

• All language material is practiced orally before
being presented in written form. Reading and
writing are taught only after an oral base in
lexical and grammatical forms have been
established.
 7. Cognitive Approach

• A reaction to Audiolingual Approach

• Language learning is viewed as rule acquisition,
not habit formation.
• Learners are responsible for their own learning.
• Reading and writing are as important as listening
and speaking.
• Errors are inevitable.
• Grammar is taught deductively.
• Information (like grammar rule, etc.) is left for
the readers to process on their own.
8. Affective-Humanistic Approach

• A reaction to the lack of affective considerations

in both audiolingualism and Cognitive Approach.
• Respect is emphasized for the individual and for
his feelings.
• Learning a language is a self-realization
experience.
• Communication (or any material) that is
meaningful to the learner is emphasized.
9. Comprehension-Based Approach

• Listening comprehension will allow speaking,

reading and writing to develop.
• Language acquisition occurs if and only if the
learner comprehends meaningful input.
10. Communicative Approach

• The goal of language teaching is learners'

ability to communicate.
• Classroom materials, texts and activities are
authentic to reflect real-life situations and
demands.
• All skills are integrated.
• Semantic notions and social functions are
emphasized.
 11. Content-Based Instruction
(CBI)

• The focus is not only in the language. Content

subjects, like history, science, music, are
integrated through the use of the language.
• The learners acquire language skills by doing
other content or informative things.
• One can assume that reading multiple sources of
information will be the norm and that there will
be many opportunities for meaningful extensive
reading.
12. Language Experience Approach (LEA)

• It uses children's experience as stimulus.

• Experience can be done in the classroom.
• Learning should move from the familiar to the unknown.
• If children are given material to read that are already
familiar with, it will help them learn to read.
 13. Whole Language Approach

• Language serves personal, social, and academic aspects of

children's lives.
• Children become more literate as they grapple with the
meaning and uses of print in their environment.
• Reading instruction should parallel children’s natural
language learning.
• Reading materials should be whole and meaningful. That is,
children should be given material in its complete form, such
as stories and poems, so that they learn to understand
language’s communicative function.
• In some whole-language classes, beginning readers are
taught to recognize whole words or even entire sentences,
and to use the context of what they are reading to guess at
unfamiliar words.
 13. The Four-Pronged Approach

The four-pronged approach was first developed by

Professor Basilisa Manhit of the College of Education at the
University of the Philippines, Diliman.

I. Genuine Love for Reading (GLR)

II. Critical Thinking (CT)
III. Grammar and Oral Language Development (GOLD)
IV. Transfer Stage (TS)
Reading Strategies
Reading Strategies

• Reading strategies are purposeful, cognitive

actions that students take when they are
reading to help them construct and maintain
meaning.

• Reading strategies are often categorized as

those behaviors designed to help students
before, during, and after they read.

• It is important for teachers and parents to be

aware of the strategies used by the children to
make meaning and to build upon those
strategies over time and as text becomes more
complex.
Comprehensive Reading Plan

• Before  During  After

Reading Reading Reading
Strategies Strategies
Strategies  Self-Monitor  Summarize
– Activate Prior  Visualize  Review
Knowledge  Take Notes  Discuss
– Consider Text  Make Connections  Seek Clarification
Readability
– Set A
Purpose
– Scan the Text
Edizon Angeles Fermin, PhD. April 2018

PRE-READING AFTER READING

–Look ahead!
–Consolidate
•Preview the selection. information.
•Pose questions. •Review your notes.
•Highlight important
DURING READING ideas.
–Make comments. •Organize your
•Underline. questions.
•Write notes. •Reflect on your
•Write section headings. experience.
•Highlight difficult items.
The Concept of Text

Text (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 1-2)

• [A term] used in linguistics to refer to any
passage - spoken or written, of whatever length,
that does form a unified whole.
• A text is a unit of language in use. It is not a
grammatical unit, like a clause or a sentence;
and it is not defined by its size.
• A text is best regarded as a semantic unit; a
unit not of form but of meaning.
 Intertextuality

• Intertextuality is the shaping of a text meaning

by another text. Intertextual figures include:
allusion, quotation, calque, translation, pastiche
and parody.
• An example of intertextuality is an author’s
borrowing and transformation of a prior text or to
a reader’s referencing of one text in reading
another.
• A literary work, then, is not simply the product of
a single author, but of its relationship to other
texts and to the structures of language itself.
 Hypertext

• Hypertext presents a new way to read on-line text that

differs from reading standard linear text.
• In hypertext, information can be represented in a
semantic network in which multiple related sections of
the text are connected to each other.
• A user may then browse through the sections of the text,
jumping from one text section to another. This permits a
reader to choose a path through the text that will be
most relevant to his or her interests.
Components of a
Balanced Literacy Program

• Reading Aloud
• Shared Reading
• Guided Reading
• Independent Reading
Reading Aloud

• It promotes active listening, enhances

vocabulary, facilitates comprehension, and still
a love for reading.
• It models fluency and voice.
• It excites learners and captures attention.
• It may be used individually, in a small group, or
in a total group.
Shared Reading

• Routman (1991) defines shared reading as any

rewarding reading situation where the learner
sees text and observes a more expert reader
with fluency and expression.
• It provides support for learners, and each
session is relaxed and has opportunity for
enjoyment and appreciation.
• It offers struggling readers a way to be involved
in reading in a non-threatening situation.
• It immerses readers in rich language without
concern about their performance, helps
strengthen skills and proves enjoyment.
Guided Reading
• Students are given a passage to read at or just
beyond their reading level.
• The teacher divides the texts into chunks.
• The teacher asks engaging questions before,
while, after reading.
• This strategy calls for the readers' prior
knowledge, predictions, reflections and
comprehension.
Independent Reading

• It gives students an individual choice of book to

read.
• To chronicle reading and choices, children are
sometimes asked to keep a reading log or a
journal.
• Traditionally, students are asked to create a
simple report, a summary or analysis of their
chosen reading material.
• E.g. DRTA
Other Specific Reading Strategies
1. Anticipation Guides
Background
• An Anticipation Guide is a strategy that is used before
reading to activate students’ prior knowledge and build
curiosity about a new topic. Before reading a selection,
students respond to several statements that
challenge or support their preconceived ideas about
key concepts in the text. This stimulates students’
interest in a topic and sets a purpose for reading.
Benefits
• It engages all students in the exploration of new
information by challenging them to critically think about
what they know or think they know about a topic. In doing
so, anticipation guides set a purpose to the reading, even
for those students who initially may not be engaged by
the topic.
2. Reading Guides

Background
• Students respond to a teacher-created written guide
of prompts as they read an assigned text. Reading
Guides help students to comprehend the main points of
the reading and understand the organizational structure
of a text.

Benefits
• The strategy is especially helpful when used with text
that is more difficult than students could comprehend
through independent reading.
3. First Lines
Background
• First Lines is a strategy in which students read the beginning
sentences from assigned readings and make predictions
about the content of what they’re about to read. This pre-
reading technique helps students focus their attention on
what they can tell from the first lines of a story, play,
poem, or other text. As students read the text in its entirety
they discuss, revisit and/or revise their original predictions.
Benefits
• It requires students to 1) anticipate what the text is about
before they begin reading, and 2) activate prior knowledge.
First Lines helps students become active participants in
learning and can include writing as a way of organizing
predictions and/or thoughts generated from discussions.
Monitoring each student’s predictions provides teachers with
information about how much the students already know
about the topic. This allows teachers to tailor instruction
accordingly.
4. Reciprocal Teaching
Background
• Reciprocal Teaching is a strategy that asks students and
teachers to share the role of teacher by allowing both to
lead the discussion about a given reading. Reciprocal
Teaching involves four strategies that guide the discussion:
predicting, question generating, summarizing and clarifying.

Benefits
• Reciprocal Teaching is a great way to teach students how to
determine important ideas from a reading while discussing
vocabulary, developing ideas and questions, and
summarizing information. It can be used across several
content areas; it works particularly well with textbooks and
non-fiction text.
5. K - W – L (Before/After)

Background
The K-W-L is a 3-column chart that helps capture the
Before, During, and After components of reading a text
selection.

• K stands for Know (What I Know)

This is the prior knowledge activation question.
• W stands for Will or Want (What I Will or Want to Know)
What do I think I will learn about this topic? (Predictive)
What do I want to know about this topic? (Purpose)
• L stands for Learned (What I Learned)
What have I learned about this topic? (Summary)
Benefits (K-W-L)
• The K-W-L is suitable for all kind of students.
For example, the reason to do the K column of the K-W-L
is to have students bring to mind something they already
know, as a hook to which new information can be
attached.

• Please “know” this: ALL students have background or prior

knowledge. As teachers, we have to know our content
well enough that we know something that would be
familiar to our students. That should determine what we
ask in the K column. It may OR MAY NOT be the topic.
Children may suggest all kinds of questions for what they
want to know. And with older kids, maybe they say,
“Nothing!”. Use the W to ask what they think they WILL
learn. Then, it’s predictive.
6. Seed Discussion

Background
A Seed Discussion is a two-part strategy. In the first part,
students read selected text and identify “seeds” or
key concepts of a passage which may need additional
explanation. In the second part, students work in
small groups to present their “seeds” to one another.
Each “seed” should be thoroughly discussed before
moving on to the next.

Benefits
This strategy encourages students to have in-depth
discussions of reading selections. Seed Discussions rely
upon the use of higher order thinking as students
identify and articulate the “seeds.” This technique helps
to build communication skills as the students discuss the
“seeds” within the group.
Seed Discussions usually include the following four
roles
played by students:

• Leader: responsible for calling on each person to

share his/her discussion seeds
• Manager: ensures that everyone has all materials
for the discussion (books, journals, seeds, etc.)
• Checker: ensures that every group member has a
chance to talk about his/her seed and that each
group member comments on each seed before the
next person presents a new seed for discussion
• Communicator: the only person to leave the group;
notifies the teacher when the discussion is complete
7. Selective Highlighting

Background
• Selective Highlighting/Underlining is used to help students
organize what they have read by selecting what is important.
This strategy teaches students to highlight/underline ONLY
the key words, phrases, vocabulary, and ideas that are
central to understanding the reading.

Benefits
• You can employ the selective highlighting/underlining for
many different instructional purposes (i.e., key vocabulary;
main ideas). As students study, selective
highlighting/underlining helps them learn to pay attention to
the essential information within a text.
Teacher should ask students to:
1. Read through the selection first.
2. Reread and begin to highlight main ideas and
their supporting details.
3. Highlight only the facts which are important or
the key vocabulary not the entire sentence.
4. After highlighting, look at what they have
highlighted and summarize what they read.
8. Semantic Feature Analysis
Background
• The Semantic Feature Analysis strategy engages students in
reading assignments by asking them to relate selected
vocabulary to key features of the text. This technique uses
a matrix to help students discover how one set of things
is related to one another.
• Use this strategy to help students:
- understand the meaning of selected vocabulary words
- group vocabulary words into logical categories
- analyze the completed matrix
Benefits
• A Semantic Feature Analysis improves students’
comprehension, vocabulary, and content
retention. This strategy helps students to
examine related features or concepts and make
distinctions among them. By analyzing the
completed matrix, students are able to visualize
connections, make predictions, and better
understand important concepts.
9. Story Maps
Background
• Story Maps are used for teaching students to work with story
structure for better comprehension. This technique uses visual
representations to help students organize important
elements of a story like the main ideas, characters, setting,
and plot of an assigned reading.

Benefits
• This strategy helps students examine the different components
of an assigned text or story. The use of Story Maps as a
comprehension strategy can be beneficial for all students, and
are especially helpful for students needing the additional
support of a graphic organizer.
• This harnesses students' analyzing skills in reading literary
texts, especially narratives.
10. Structured Notetaking
Background
• Using graphic organizers to a particular text, structured
notes assist students in understanding the content of their
reading.
• Initially teachers create the graphic organizers, but as
students become more comfortable with using structured
notes they are able to construct their own, matching the
structure of their graphic organizer to the structure of the
texts they read.
Benefits
• Structured notes are really helpful when students are
faced with interpreting complex text structures. The notes
give students a reading guide to use as they navigate
through difficult text, and act as a model of how students
should organize their ideas as they are reading.
11. SQ3R: Survey-Question-Read-
Recite-Review (Survey, Question, Read, Write, Recite

Background
• Often categorized as a study strategy, SQ3R helps students
“get it” the first time they read a text by teaching
students how to read and think like an effective reader.
• SQ3R is a comprehension strategy that helps students think
about the text while they’re reading.
Benefits
• It requires students to activate their thinking and review
their understanding throughout their reading.
• It also dissuades students from waiting and then cramming
for tests since the five steps requires them to review
information and create notes during their initial reading.
Their notes from the initial reading become their study
guides.
This strategy includes the following five steps (Robinson,
1946):

• Survey: Students review the text to gain initial meaning

from the headings, bolded text, and charts.
• Question: Students begin to generate questions about
their reading from previewing it.
• Read: As students read, they need to look for answers to
the questions they formulated during their preview of
the text. These questions, based on the structure of the
text, help focus students’ reading.
• Recite: As students move through the text they should
recite or rehearse the answers to their questions and
make notes about their answer for later studying.
• Review: After reading, students should review the text
to answer lingering questions and recite the questions
they previously answered.
12. Text Structure

Background
• Text structure refers to how the information within a written
text is organized. This strategy helps students understand
main idea and details of a text; a cause and then its effects;
Comparison and contrast, Problem-solution, etc. Teaching
students to recognize common text structures can help
students monitor their comprehension.

Benefits
• Students learn to identify and analyze text structures which
helps students navigate the various structures presented
within nonfiction and fiction text. As a follow up, having
students write paragraphs that follow common text structures
helps students recognize these text structures when they are
reading.
To create the text structure strategy teachers should:
1. Choose the assigned reading and introduce the text to the students.
2. Introduce the idea that texts have organizational patterns called text
structures.
3. Introduce the following common text structures
-description,
-sequence,
-problem and solution,
-cause and effect, and
-compare and contrast.
4. Introduce and model using a graphic organizer to chart the text
structure.
fishbone (cause and effect)
Venn diagram (comarison and contrast)
cycle, flowchart (sequence)
cluster map (description)
Histogram (statistics, graphs, table)
Sequence

Event 1 Event 2 Event 3

Event 4 Event 5
Comparison

Differences
Differences
Similarities
Description
Cause and Effect
Problem and Solution
David Paul Ausubel's Advance organizers

An advance organizer is information presented by an instructor that

helps the student organize new incoming information.This is achieved
by directing attention to what is important in the coming material,
highlighting relationships, and providing a reminder about relevant
prior knowledge.

Advance organizers make it easier to learn new material of a complex or

otherwise difficult nature, provided the following two conditions are
met:

1. The student must process and understand the information presented

in the organizer—this increases the effectiveness of the organizer
itself.

2. The organizer must indicate the relations among the basic concepts
and terms that will be used.
13. Word Hunts
Background
• Word Hunts are used to enhance students’ vocabulary
growth. Teachers ask students to look for words and
patterns in reading materials based upon selected features.
Word Hunts focus on the structure and meaning of words
by turning students’ attention to spelling patterns and
root words. (Structural Analysis)
Benefits
• Opportunities for students to work with words are
important to enhancing students’ vocabularies, as well as
increasing their comprehension. The Word Hunt strategy is
a fun, versatile, and simple technique to improve students’
vocabulary.
• Word Hunts help students learn how words are used in
different contexts.
14. Exit Slips
Background
The Exit-Slip strategy requires students to write responses
toquestions you pose at the end of class. Exit Slips help
students reflect on what they have learned and express
what or how they are thinking about the new
information. Exit Slips easily incorporate writing into your
content area classroom and require students to think
critically. (Writing Prompts)
There are three categories of exit slips (Fisher & Frey, 2004):
• Prompts that document learning,
o Ex. Write one thing you learned today.
• Prompts that emphasize the process of learning,
o Ex. I didn’t understand…
• Prompts to evaluate the effectiveness of instruction
Ex. Did you enjoy working in small groups today?

Other exit prompts include:

• I learned that...
• I would like to learn more about…
• Please explain more about…

Benefits
Exit Slips are great because they take just a few minutes
and provide you with an informal measure of how well
your students have understood a topic or lesson.
15. Frame Routine
Background
• The Frame Routine is a strategy designed to assist students as
they organize topics, main ideas and details about reading
assignments. This technique includes a basic hierarchic graphic
organizer called a “Frame” that can be used to help students
think and talk about the key topic and essential related
information.
Benefits
• Frames allow students to identify the main ideas and supporting
details while reading texts. As they list them on a Frame graphic,
comprehension of the written material tends to increase. The
Frame Routine is flexible and can be used with all content areas.
The Frame Routine can be particularly beneficial to many
students with learning disabilities because it depicts the
organization of the concepts that students are expected to learn.
There are five basic steps for using the Frame Routine:
1. Select the topic
The teacher introduces the lesson topic and provides students with a blank
Frame. Students note the topic in the appropriate spaces on the graphic.
This would most likely be the title of the reading selection.
2. Determine the main ideas
Students record brief statements or words that summarize key ideas
relating to the topic.
3. Discuss the details
The details that are important for students to learn and remember are
written on the Frame graphic in the essential details boxes. These
essential details can later be ranked on the graphic according to level of
importance.
4. Develop the “Big Idea”
The teacher, small groups, or the whole class develop the Big Idea
statement or the “So what?” idea.
5. Evaluate the information
The teacher facilitates evaluation of the new information when it is clearly
organized. Several follow-up activities can then be employed.
16. Question the Author (QtA)
Background
• Question the Author (QtA) is a comprehension strategy that
requires students to pose queries while reading the text in
order to challenge their understanding and solidify their
knowledge (Beck et al., 1997).

• Primarily used with nonfiction text, QtA lets students critique the
author’s writing and in doing so engage with the text to create a
deeper meaning.

Benefits
• QtA aims to engage all students with the text. Although it requires
a bit of prep work, you will reap the rewards of your labor through
the student interactions and discussions in your classroom.
17. Question-Answer Relationship (QAR)
Background
Question-Answer relationship (QAR) is a strategy to be used
after students have read. QAR teaches students how to
decipher what types of questions they are being asked
and where to find the answers to them.

They include:
• Right There Questions: Literal questions whose answers can
be found in the text. Often the words used in the question
are the same words found in the text.
• Author and You: These questions are based on information
provided in the text but the student is required to relate it
to their own experience. Although the answer does not lie
directly in the text, the student must have read it in order
to answer the question.

• On My Own: These questions do not require the student to

have read the passage but he/she must use their
background or prior knowledge to answer the question.

Benefits
QAR empowers students to think about the text they are
reading and beyond it, too. It inspires them to think
creatively and work cooperatively while challenging them
to use literal and higher-level thinking skills.
18. Summarizing
Background
• Summarizing teaches students how to take a large selection
of text and reduce it to the main points for more concise
understanding. Upon reading a passage, summarizing helps
students learn to determine essential ideas and consolidate
important details that support them. It is a technique that
enables students to focus on key words and phrases of an
assigned text that are worth noting and remembering.
Benefits
• Summarizing builds comprehension by helping to reduce
confusion. Teachers train students to process the
information they read with the goal of breaking down content
into succinct pieces. Summarizing text by using writing
activities builds on prior knowledge, helps improve writing,
and strengthens vocabulary skills.
19. RAFT Writing
Background
• RAFT is a writing strategy that helps students understand their role as a
writer, the audience they will address, the varied formats for writing, and
the topic they’ll be writing about. By using this strategy, teachers
encourage students to write creatively, to consider a topic from a
different perspective, and to gain practice writing for different
audiences.
• Students learn to respond to a writing prompt that requires them to think
about various perspectives (Santa & Havens,1995):
- Role of the Writer: Who are you as the writer? A pilgrim? A soldier?
The President?
- Audience: To whom are you writing? A political rally? A potential
employer?
- Format: In what format are you writing? A letter? An advertisement? A
speech?
- Topic: What are you writing about?
Benefits
• Students must think creatively and critically in order to
respond to prompts, making RAFT a unique way for students
to apply critical thinking skills about new information they
are learning. RAFT writing is applicable in every content area
thereby providing a universal writing approach for content
area teachers.

Example 1:
R: Citizen
A: Congress
F: Letter
T: Taxation
20. GRASPS

RAFT strategy is quite similar to GRASPS strategy

G - Goal (Real world task, problem, challenge)
R - Role ( in real world) assumed by the student
A - Audience (Real world target audience within
the scenario)
S - Situation (context of the scenario)
P - Product / Performance (what students should
create or do)
S - Standards and Criteria for Success (rubrics)
21. Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR)
Background
• This is a technique that teaches students to work
cooperatively on a reading assignment to promote better
comprehension. CSR learning logs are used to help
students keep track of learning during the collaboration
process. Students think about what they are reading and
write down questions/reflections about their learning. The
completed logs then provide a guide for follow-up activities
and evaluation methods.
Benefits
• CSR learning logs provide written documentation of
learning, encourage all students to participate actively in
their groups, and become excellent study guides.
22. Concept Sorts

Background
• A concept sort is a strategy used to introduce students to
the vocabulary of a new topic or book. Teachers provide
students with a list of terms or concepts from reading
material. Students place words into different categories based
on each word’s meaning. Categories can be defined by the
teacher or by the students. When used before reading,
concept sorts provide an opportunity for a teacher to see
what his or her students already know about the given
content. When used after reading, teachers can assess their
students’ understanding of the concepts presented.
Benefits
• This technique is beneficial when there is a lot of
specialized vocabulary to introduce. Concept sorts
enhance reading skills by providing the content to which
students can attach new oral vocabulary.

• Teachers can use this strategy with the whole class,

small groups, individually. Monitoring each student’s
sorting process provides teachers with information about
how much the students already know about the topic.
This allows teachers to tailor instruction accordingly.
23. Frayer Model
Background
• The Frayer Model is a strategy that uses a graphic organizer
for vocabulary building and concept teaching. This
technique requires students to (1) define the target
vocabulary words or concepts, and (2) apply this information
by generating examples and nonexamples.
• This information is placed on a chart that is divided into four
sections to provide a visual representation for students.
Benefits
This instructional strategy promotes critical thinking and helps
students to identify and understand unfamiliar vocabulary.
The Frayer Model draws on a student’s prior knowledge to
build connections among new concepts and creates a visual
reference by which students learn to compare attributes and
examples.
(or Characteristics)
24. List-Group-Label
Background
• List-Group-Label is a vocabulary strategy that engages students
in a three-step process to actively organize their
understanding of content area vocabulary and concepts.
• It provides students with a way to recognize the relationships
between words and concepts using their prior knowledge about
a topic. The list-group-label strategy can be used before and
after students read.

Benefits
• List-Group-Label makes words come alive for students through
their conversations and reflections on the “meaning
connections” between words. It actively engages students in
learning new vocabulary and content by activating their critical
thinking skills.
After selecting a main concept in a reading passage:
1. List: Have students brainstorm all the words they think relate
to the topic.
a. Visually display student responses.
b. At this point do not critique student responses. Some words
may not reflect the main concept, but hopefully students will
realize this as they begin grouping the words in the next step.

2. Group: Divide your class into small groups. Each group will
work to cluster the class list of words into subcategories.
As groups of words emerge, challenge your students to explain
their reasoning for placing words together or discarding them.

3. Label: Invite students to suggest a title or label for the groups

of words they have formed. These labels should relate to their
reasoning for the grouping.
25. Listen-Read-Discuss (LRD)
Background
• Listen-Read-Discuss (LRD) (Manzo & Casale, 1985) is a
comprehension strategy that builds students’ prior knowledge
before they read a text. During the first stage, students listen as
the teacher presents the content of their reading through a
lecture, often paired with a graphic organizer.

• Next, students read the text and compare what they learned
during the lecture to their understanding of reading the text on
their own.

• Finally, students discuss their understanding of the text with other

students in their small group or large group.
Benefits
• LRD is a powerful tool for engaging struggling readers in
classroom discussions. Since the content is initially covered
orally, students unable to read the entire text on their own
are able to gain at least a surface level of understanding
about the reading.
• Those students lacking prior knowledge about the content
gain it during the listening stage, allowing them to more
easily comprehend the text during the reading stage.

Create and use the strategy

1. Listen: You present a lecture on the content of the reading.
Include a graphic organizer of the information you discuss.
2. Read: Students read the selection, guided by the idea that
the reading may provide another understanding or
interpretation of the content.
3. Discuss: Lead a classroom discussion of the material.
Encourage students to reflect on the differences between
their reading of the content and your presentation.
26. Mnemonics
Background
• A mnemonic is an instructional strategy designed to help
students improve their memory of important information.
• This technique connects new learning to prior knowledge
through the use of visual and/or acoustic cues. The basic
types of mnemonic strategies rely on the use of key words,
rhyming words, or acronyms. Teachers may develop
mnemonic strategies or have students come up with their
own.
Benefits
• This method enhances memory of complex words or ideas
and promotes better retention of material to be learned. It is
especially beneficial to students who may have difficulty with
information recall.
Create and use the strategy
• Mnemonics may be introduced to students when a set of
new information is presented. Discuss the topic to be
learned and pre-select a mnemonic strategy such as those
listed below (or have students create their own:
Keyword — A keyword is a familiar word that sounds similar to
the word or idea being taught. The teacher creates an
illustration that links the prior and new information in the
student’s memory. Example: The scientific term for common
frogs is ranidae. A helpful keyword for ranidae might be rain
and a teacher could show a picture of frogs hopping in the
rain.
Pegword — Pegwords refer to a set of rhyming words that are
used to stand for numbers. For example, the pegword for
“one” is “bun.” Pegwords include the following:

one is bun six is sticks

two is shoe seven is heaven
Letter — Letter strategies include acronyms, initials and
acrostics (or sentence mnemonics). For example:

Coordinating Conjunctions
F
A
N
B
O
Y
S

Teachers then may wish to use verbal cues such as “A

good way to remember this is…” for an introduction to
the technique.
27. Peer-Assisted Learning Strategy (PALS)

Background
• Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS) is a classwide peer
tutoring program. Teachers carefully partner a student with
a classmate. The pair works on various activities that address
the academic needs of both students. Pairs change over time.
PALS can be used across content areas.
Benefits
• PALS does not require special reading materials and
consequently enables teachers to use the reading material of
their choice. This offers teachers flexibility for incorporating
PALS into various content areas.
• The strategy provides direct opportunities for a teacher to
circulate in the class, observe students, and offer individual
remediation. PALS therefore allows for differentiated
instruction via having partners work simultaneously on various
teacher-directed activities.
Create pairs within the classroom by identifying which children
require help on specific skills and who the most appropriate
children are to help other children learn those skills. Each
member of the teacher-assigned pair takes turns being Coach
and Reader. These pairs are changed regularly, and over a
period of time as students work on a variety of skills. Thus,
all students have the opportunity to be “coaches” and
“players.”

Teachers train students to use the PALS procedures. As the

reader reads aloud, the coach listens and provides corrective
feedback. The PALS technique is designed to be a 25 to 35
minute activity. It should be implemented 2-4 times a week
for effectiveness. Award students points for good reading and
coaching.
28. Possible Sentences

Background
• Possible Sentences is a pre-reading vocabulary strategy that
activates students’ prior knowledge about content area
vocabulary and concepts.
• Before reading, students are provided a short list of vocabulary
words from their reading, which they group and eventually use to
create meaningful sentences. (Synthesis)
• After reading, students check to see if their “possible sentences”
were accurate or need revising.
Benefits
• Possible Sentences are great because they spark students’
curiosity about their content area words and reading. By asking
your students to guess how the words may be used in the text,
you are hoping they are as equally enticed to read the selection
and determine if their sentences were accurate.
29. Think Alouds
Background
• Think Alouds help students learn to monitor their
thinking as they read an assigned passage. Students
are directed by a series of questions which they think about
and answer aloud while reading. This process reveals how
much they understand a text. As students become more
adept at this technique they learn to generate their own
questions to guide comprehension.

Benefits
• Think Alouds are practical and relatively easy for teachers
to use within the classroom. Teachers are able to model the
Think Aloud technique and discuss how good readers often
re-read a sentence, read ahead to clarify, and/or look for
context clues to make sense of what they read. Think
alouds slow down the reading process and allow students
to monitor their understanding of a text.
30. Think-Pair-Share
Background
• Think-Pair-Share (TPS) is a collaborative learning strategy in which
students work together to solve a problem or answer a question about
an assigned reading. This technique requires students to (1) think
individually about a topic or answer to a question; and (2) share
ideas with classmates. Discussing an answer with a partner serves to
maximize participation, focus attention and engage students in
comprehending the reading material.
Benefits
• The Think-Pair-Share strategy is a versatile and simple technique for
improving students’ reading comprehension.
• It gives students time to think about an answer and activates prior
knowledge. TPS enhances students’ oral communication skills as they
discuss their ideas with one another. This strategy helps students
become active participants in learning and can include writing as a
way of organizing thoughts generated from discussions.
 Variation of TPS (Reading)

Teachers can modify this strategy and include various

writing components within the Think-Pair-Share strategy.
This provides teachers with the opportunity to see
whether there are problems in comprehension. Teachers
can create a Read-Write-Pair-Share strategy in which
students:
1. R: Read the assigned material;
2. W: Write down their thoughts about the topic prior to
the discussions;
3. P: Pair up with a partner
4. S: Share their ideas with a partner and/or the whole
class.
31. Concept Maps
Background
• A concept maps help students visualize various connections
between words or phrases and a main idea. There are several
types of concept maps; some are hierarchical, while others
connect information without categorizing ideas. Most are
comprised of words or phrases surrounded by a circle or square
that connect to one another and ultimately back to the main
idea through graphic lines. These lines help students to
“negotiate meaning” (Hyerle, 1996) as they read and make the
meaning connections between the main idea and other
information.
Benefits
• Concept maps have been shown to support struggling readers
(Lovitt & Horton, 1994) by building off of students’ prior
knowledge and asking them to reflect on their understanding
while reading. They are easy to construct and can be used across
all content areas.
Create and use the strategy
There are several ways to construct concept maps for
middle and high school students. Most include the
following steps:
1. Model for your students how you identify the major
ideas presented in a reading as you read.
2. Organize your ideas into categories if applicable to the
type of concept map you chose. Remind students that
your organization may change as you continue to read
and add more information.
3. Use lines or arrows to represent how ideas are
connected to one another, a particular category, and/or
the main concept.
32. Directed Reading Thinking
Activity (DRTA)
Background
• The Directed Reading Thinking Activity (DRTA) is a strategy
that guides students by asking them questions about a
text, letting them make predictions, and then read to
confirm or refute their predictions. The DRTA process
encourages students to be active and thoughtful readers,
enhancing their comprehension.
Benefits
• A DRTA may be used with an individual, a small group, or a
whole class. This activity can be easily adapted for a
variety of subjects and reading levels. This strategy helps
strengthen reading and critical thinking skills. As the
teacher guides the process, the DRTA teaches students to
determine the purpose for reading and make adjustments
to what they think will come next based on the text.
The reading should be broken into small sections so that the
students have time to think about and process information.
Introduce the text, the purpose of the DRTA and gives
examples of how to make predictions.
D - DIRECT - Teachers direct and stimulate students’ thinking
prior to reading a passage by scanning the title, chapter
headings, illustrations, and other explanatory materials. Then
teachers should use open-ended questions to direct students
as they make predictions. Students should be encouraged to
justify their responses and activate prior knowledge.
R - READING - Teachers should have students read up to the
first pre-selected stopping point in the text. The teacher then
prompts the students with questions about specific
information and asks them to evaluate their predictions and
refine them if necessary. This process should be continued
until students have read each section of the passage.
T - THINKING - At the end of the reading, teachers should have
students go back through the text and think about their
predictions. Students should verify or modify the accuracy of
their predictions by finding supporting statements in the text.
33. Double-Entry Journals
Background
• The Double-Entry Journal strategy enables students to record
their responses to text as they read. Students write down
phrases or sentences from their assigned reading and then
write their own reaction to that passage. The purpose of this
strategy is to give students the opportunity to express their
thoughts and become actively involved with the material they
read.
Benefits
• Double-Entry Journaling improves students’ comprehension,
vocabulary, and content retention. This interactive strategy
activates prior knowledge and present feelings, and promotes
collaborative learning. It fosters the connection between
reading and writing as students are able to “reply” to the author
or speaker as they write their responses. The technique offers
flexibility in that teachers can use any form of written text, read
alouds, or listenings that are assigned in class.
Create and use the strategy

Have students read the selected text making journal entries

whenever a
natural pause in the reading occurs, so that the flow is not
interrupted constantly.
1. Students fold a piece of paper in half, lengthwise.
2. In the left hand column, the students write a phrase or
sentence from the selection that was particularly meaningful
to them, along with the page number.
3. In the right hand column, the students react to the passage
by writing personal responses to the quotes on the left.
The entry may include a comment, a question, a connection
made, or an analysis.
4. Students can share their responses with the class or
literature discussion group.
34. Inferential Reading
Background
• Teaching students to “read inferentially” helps them learn how
to read more strategically. This technique is derived from
the teaching model that learners develop knowledge via
the process of interpreting new information in light of past
experiences and rethinking past knowledge based on new
information.
Benefits
• Inferences are the conclusions we draw based on what one
already knows and judgments we make based on given
information. This strategy helps students make connections
between their personal experiences and their
comprehension of a text. Rather than stopping students
during the reading process to comment on specific points, this
strategy focuses on their thinking and how new information
reshapes their prior knowledge.
Inferential reading can be taught using a variety of reading
material beyond assigned textbooks (i.e. cartoons and
bumper stickers can be used as a way to help students think
about what authors imply). As students develop inferential
reading skills they learn to:

• understand the intonation of characters’ words and

relationships to one another (identifying tone)
• provide explanations for ideas that are presented in the text
• offer details for events or their own explanations of the
events
• recognize the author’s view of the world including the
author’s biases
• offer conclusions from facts presented in the text
• relate what is happening in the text to their own knowledge
of the world
35. Inquiry Charts (I-Charts)
Background
• The Inquiry Chart (I-Chart) is a strategy that enables students to
generate meaningful questions about a topic and organize
their writing. Students integrate prior knowledge or thoughts about
the topic with additional information found in several sources. The I-
Chart procedure is organized into three phases: (1) Planning, (2)
Interacting, and (3) Integrating/Evaluating. Each phase consists of
activities designed to engage students in evaluating a topic.

Benefits
• This instructional strategy fosters critical thinking and strengthens
reading skills. Teachers can guide each student’s chart
development which allows for differentiated instruction as well as
targeting the zone of proximal development. In addition, I-Charts
can serve as an evaluation tool for how much a student has learned
about a topic.
The teacher directs students as they begin with the planning phase of this
activity. This phase includes:
1. identifying the topic,
2. forming questions,
3. constructing the I-Chart, and
4. collecting materials
The next step is to engage students in the interacting phase which involves:
1. exploring prior knowledge,
2. sharing of interesting facts, and
3. reading and rereading
Finally, teacher guides the students through the integrating and evaluation
phase by:
1. summarizing
2. comparing
3. researching, and
4. reporting
36. Jigsaw
Background
• Jigsaw is a strategy that emphasizes cooperative learning by
providing students an opportunity to actively help each other
build comprehension. Use this technique to assign students to
reading groups composed of varying skill levels. Each group
member is responsible for becoming an “expert” on one section
of the assigned material and then “teaching” it to the other
members of the team.
Benefits
• Jigsaw is a well-established method for encouraging group
sharing and learning of specific content. This technique is best
to use when there is a large amount of content to teach.
• Jigsaw helps students learn cooperation as group members share
responsibility for each other’s learning by using critical thinking
and social skills to complete an assignment. Subsequently, this
strategy helps to improve listening, communication, and
problem-solving skills.
37. Monitoring/Clarifying
Background
• The Monitoring/Clarifying strategy teaches students to
recognize when they don’t understand parts of a text
and to take necessary steps to restore meaning. This
technique is a component of the Reciprocal Teaching
model in which teachers encourage students to think
about their own thought process during reading.
• Monitoring/Clarifying helps students learn to be actively
involved and monitor their comprehension as they read.
Benefits
• Monitoring/Clarifying helps students to focus their
attention on the fact that there may be reasons why the
text is difficult to understand. Students can be taught to
ask questions, reread, restate, and visualize making the
text more comprehensible.
Ask students to begin reading the assigned text and use
the following steps as they encounter difficulties:
• Stop and think about what you have already read.
• Reread.
• Adjust your reading rate: slow down or speed up.
• Try to connect the text to something you read in
another book, what you know about the world, or to
something you have experienced.
• Visualize.
• Reflect on what you have read.
• Use print conventions (key words, bold print, italicized
words, and punctuation).
• Notice patterns in the text structure.
38. Paired Reading

Background
The Paired Reading strategy encourages peer teaching and
learning. Students are divided into pairs and read along
together or take turns reading aloud to each other. Pairs can
have the same reading ability or can include a more fluent
reader with a less fluent reader. Each student reads and
provides feedback about their own and their partner’s reading
behaviors.
Benefits
Paired Reading can be used with many types of reading materials
including student produced stories, and poetry. Reading with
someone encourages students to try reading materials that
may be just above their normal reading level. Paired Reading
can also be used to build oral skills so that reluctant readers
can work toward reading in front of a large group.
39. Paragraph Shrinking
Background
• Paragraph Shrinking is an activity developed as part of the Peer-
Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS). The Paragraph Shrinking
strategy allows each student to take turns in reading,
pausing, and summarizing the main points of each
paragraph. Students provide each other with feedback as a way
to monitor comprehension.
Benefits
• Paragraph Shrinking does not require special reading materials
and consequently enables teachers to use the reading material of
their choice. This offers teachers flexibility for incorporating the
strategy into various content areas. Paragraph Shrinking provides
direct opportunities for a teacher to circulate in the class, observe
students, and offer individual remediation.
Create and use the strategy
• Choose the assigned reading and introduce the text to the students.
Then create pairs within the classroom by identifying which
children require help on specific skills and who the most
appropriate children are to help other children learn those skills.
Model the activity to ensure that students understand how to use
the strategy.

• During this process teachers should:

1. Each member of the teacher-assigned pair takes turns being
“Coach” and “Player.” These pairs are changed regularly. All
students have the opportunity to be “coaches” and “players.”
2. Each student reads aloud for five minutes without rereading a text.
After each paragraph, students stop to summarize the main points
of the reading. Students are asked to summarize the following
information:
- the who or what of the paragraph;
- the most important thing about who or what; and
- the main idea
40. Partner Reading
Background
• Partner Reading is a cooperative learning strategy in which two
students work together to read an assigned text. This strategy is
often used as part of the Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies
(PALS). The Partner Reading strategy allows students to take
turns reading and provide each other with feedback as a way to
monitor comprehension.

Benefits
• Partner Reading does not require special reading materials and
consequently enables teachers to use the reading material of
their choice. This offers teachers flexibility for incorporating the
strategy into various content areas. Partner Reading provides
direct opportunities for a teacher to circulate in the class,
observe students, and offer individual remediation.
Create pairs within the classroom by identifying which children
require help on specific skills and who the most appropriate
children are to help other children learn those skills. Model
the procedure to ensure that students understand how to use
the strategy.
1. Each member of the teacher-assigned pair takes turns being
“Coach” and “Player.” These pairs are changed regularly, and
over a period of time as students work. Thus, all students
have the opportunity to be “coaches” and “players.”
2. The stronger reader begins this activity as the “Player” and
reads orally for 5 minutes. The “Coach” follows along and
corrects any mistakes when necessary.
3. The pair switch roles and the weaker reader becomes the
“Player.” The “Player” rereads the same passage for the next
5 minutes and the “Coach” provides corrective feedback. One
point is earned for each correct sentence read.
4. After each partner has read the selection, teachers may wish
to include additional activities like story retelling,
summarization, writing, etc.
41. Power Notes
Background
• Power Notes is a strategy that teaches students an efficient form of
organizing information from assigned text. This technique provides
students a systematic way to look for relationships within material
they are reading. Power Notes help visually display the differences
between main ideas and supportive information in outline form. Main
ideas or categories are assigned a power 1 rating. Details and
examples are assigned power 2s, 3s, or 4s.

Benefits
• Power Notes offer an easy-to-follow activity for categorizing
information. This procedure helps students prioritize information and
separate main ideas from supportive details. Power Notes gives
students an opportunity to organize ideas and evaluate their writing.
Power Notes can be integrated into a number of activities to help
students perceive how information is related.
42. Prediction Relay
Background
• The Prediction Relay strategy allows each student to (1)
make predictions about the assigned text, (2) take turns
reading for 5 minutes, (3) check their predictions, and
(4) summarize the main points. The students provide each
other with feedback as a way to monitor comprehension.
Benefits
• Prediction Relay does not require special reading materials
and consequently enables teachers to use the reading
material of their choice. This offers teachers flexibility for
incorporating the strategy into various content areas.
Prediction Relay provides direct opportunities for a teacher
to circulate in the class, observe students, and offer
individual remediation.
43. ReQuest Procedure
• Purpose
This reciprocal questioning procedure helps
students set their own goals for reading, and to
teach students to raise questions independently.
• Procedure
The students will read a part of the text. Then
the students are encouraged to ask questions. The
teacher will further ask questions to enhance
understanding. This process is continued so that
the students can make reasonable predictions
until they can discuss whether the initial purpose
was the best for the selection.
44. Six Thinking Hats
Six Thinking Hats is a system designed by Edward de Bono which
describes a tool for group discussion and individual thinking
involving six colored hats. "Six Thinking Hats" and the associated
idea parallel thinking provide a means for groups to plan thinking
processes in a detailed and cohesive way, and in doing so to think
together more effectively.

• Managing Blue - (Process) Planning. What thinking is needed?

• Information White - (Facts) What do I know? What do I need to
know?
• Emotions Red - (Feeling) intuitive or instinctive gut reactions or
statements of emotional feeling (but not any justification)
• Discernment Black - (Cautions) Difficulties, dangers and
weaknesses
• Optimistic response Yellow - (Benefits) identifying benefits
• Creativity Green - (Creativity) Ideas, solutions to black problems.
Six Thinking Hats
45. Mind Map

• Sometimes called as spider diagram, idea sun

bursting, or sun gram. It is a diagram used to
visually organize information. It is often
created around a single concept, drawn as an
image in the center of a blank page to which
associated ideas such as images, words are
added.
• It is used to generate, visualize, structure and
classify information. It has many applications
including notetaking and brainstorming.
Problems in Reading
Reading Problems

Cause No. 1- Inadequate Instruction

Cause No. 2- Lack of Appropriate Materials
Cause No. 3- Big Unmanageable Classes
Cause No. 4- Poor Attitude Towards Reading
Cause No. 5- Conflict with Interests
(National Reading Panel)
Factors Affecting Reading
Development

1. Physical and Clinical Problem

2. Predictors of School Entry
3. Acquired Knowledge Literacy
4. Family-based Risk Factors
5. Environment (Neighborhood, Community
and School-based) Factors
Remedial Reading
Remedial Reading

Remedial reading is a change in instruction that

helps remedy a weakness in the area of
reading.
Also known as:
Corrective Reading
Early Reading Intervention
Reading for At-Risk Children
 Philippine Informal Reading
Inventory

• The Philippine Informal Reading Inventory (PIRI or Phil-IRI)

is an initiative of the Bureau of Elementary Education –
Department of Education that directly addresses its thrust
to make every Filipino child a reader.

• It is anchored on the flagship program of the DepEd “Every

Child A Reader Program” (ECARP), its goal is to enable
every Filipino child to communicate both in English and
Filipino through effective reading instruction.
• PIRI or Phil-IRI is an assessment tool that
evaluates the reading proficiency level of
elementary school pupils.

• It is the first validated instrument that intends to

measure the pupils’ reading comprehension level.

• The pupil’s word recognition and comprehension

ability as well as his reading speed are informally
assessed quantitatively and qualitatively through
stories and passages.
Thank you.