Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR)

Vol-3, Issue-3, 2017

ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in

Study of Temperature Load on Structure’s

Dr. Amit Bijon Dutta1 & Er. Tapas Sarkar 2
1&2
Mecgale Pneumatics Pvt. Ltd.,
Hingna MIDC Nagpur 440016

Abstract: Thermal load is defined as the high which is helpful in understanding the behaviour of
temperature that causes the effect on any structure, mechanical structure.
such as outdoor air temperature, solar radiation, Largely situations in real structures under
underground temperature, indoor air temperature temperature variation have a complex mix of
and the heat source equipment inside the building or mechanical strains due to applied loading and
material storage tanks with variation in temperature. mechanical strains due to restrained thermal
The basic thermal load is the 100-year-return period expansion developed. All methodical analytical
of transform in outdoor air temperature, solar expressions developed using concepts in
radiation, underground temperature or equivalent fundamental structural mechanics. The mainly
value. fundamental relationship that governs the behaviour
of structures while subjected to thermal effects is
Performance of any structure as soon as ex- posed to governed by relationship
fire depends on the material properties and in- Є Total =Є Thermal +Є Mechanical ………….(1)
barriers to withstand or to confine fire, Concrete Sum of strain in structural member is the
structures be capable to have enormous performance summing up of thermal strain and mechanical strain.
for the duration of fire event if the concrete has The stress in structure depends only on mechanical
lower thermal conductivity which leads to slower strain. Thermal stress will be developed only when
increase of the concrete temperature. For steel thermal strains are fully restrained. Mechanical stress
structures, strength, ductility, consistency of the steel will depend upon the cross sectional area of the
material, shape of the structure and the applied load member.
are significant factors which should be observed for The initial temperature is defined as the
fire resistance calculation. The critical/essential temperature which causes no thermal effect on a
temperature depends on the load ratio and steel building. The temperature variation Δ T has two
composition. parts, mean cross-section temperature Δ Td and the
temperature gradient in the cross-section Δ Tg / t.
Keywords: Thermal Load, Thermal Expansion, .
Thermal bowing, Fire, Steel Concrete, Solar,
temperature 2. Consideration of thermal load
Thermal loads must be considered for the
1. Introduction following construction types: building constructed in
Thermal load is defined as the high temperature an area where there is a considerable transformation
that causes the effect on any structure, such as in outdoor air temperature, building with huge
outdoor air temperature, solar radiation, underground length, building with huge space inside, building
temperature, indoor air temperature and the heat with straight influence of solar emission like a
source equipment inside the building or material building with glass roof, building or structure with
storage tanks with variation in temperature. The heat resource such as a chimney, silo containing hot
change of the temperature in the structural and non- or warm material, heat storage tank, refrigerated
structural member causes thermal stress and is warehouse and electric power plant. When the
defined as the effect of thermal load. Sustainability building is divided into smaller parts with expansion
of structures is a main concern in the construction joints to diminish the movement in each part, or the
industry. Exposure to snow or fire or elevated temperature change in the structural member is
temperature is an extreme condition that leads to reduced by thermal filling, thermal load may not be
change in material properties, consequently, change considered.
in overall behaviour is expected. If member
expansion is restrained then thermal stresses are 3. Thermal Load
developed. High temperature causes loss of strength
The basic thermal load is the 100-year-return
and stiffness which weaken the structure. Response
period of transform in outdoor air temperature, solar
of member to combined thermal and mechanical
loading for different types of restrains is studied

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Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR)
Vol-3, Issue-3, 2017
ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in

radiation, underground temperature or equivalent once it is not air-conditioned be calculated bearing in

value. mind the thermal insulating properties of the
The fundamental thermal load of outdoor air building, but it is also possible to regard as the
temperature is based on the 100-year-return period temperature of the structural members of the building
value of the twelve-monthly highest and lowest to be the equivalent as the outdoor air temperature.
temperature. The temperature in a member must be 3.5 Other temperatures:
designed using the outdoor air temperature and/or A number of data from the actual measurement of
solar radiation, in consideration of the category of a variety of building structures are introduced.
the structure, reinforced concrete structure or steel
structure, solar radiation incorporation factor,
thermal inertia, heat transfer coefficient, and the 4. Thermal Expansion
annual and daily variations of temperature and solar
effect. Heating induces thermal expansion strains (say
It is suggested that the temperature in the member eT) in the majority portions of the structural
be designed using time-history analysis considering materials. These are given by
the change of outdoor air temperature and solar Є T = ∆ T ……………………… 3
radiation. It is also feasible to calculate the If a consistent temperature rise, ∆T; is applied to
temperature in member with steady state of highest a simply supported beam devoid of axial restraint,
or lowest temperature, ignoring the everyday change, the effect will simply be an expansion or increase in
but the consequence of the calculation may be too distance end to end of l∆T as shown in Figure 1. As
conservative when the member has large thermal a result the total strain (say Є T) is equal to the
inertia, like a reinforced concrete member. thermal strain and there is no mechanical strain (say
3.1 Outdoor air temperature: Є M) which means that no stresses develop in the
(1) 100-year-reccurence value of uppermost and beam.
lowest outdoor air temperature: The 100-year-
reccurence value of peak and lowest outdoor air
temperature is calculated using fitting of acute value
distribution on data obtained from Meteorological
Office.
(2) Time history data of outdoor air temperature 4.1 Thermal Expansion Against Rigid
and solar radiation: The time history statistics based Lateral Restraints
on the 100-year-reccurence value is still not Evidently, beams in actual structure do not have
available. the freedom to elongate in the method explained
3.2 Solar radiation: above. As a result, a more rational case to consider,
The consequence of solar radiation on a building an axially restrained beam subjected to a
should be considered using Sol-Air Temperature homogeneous temperature increase, ∆ T (as shown in
TSAT Figure 2). It is apparent to perceive that in this case
TSAT = T0 + J a/0 …………………. 2 the totality of strain Є T is zero (i.e. no
Where displacements). This is for the reason that the
T0: Outdoor air temperature thermal expansion is annulled out by equal and
J: Solar radiation opposite contraction caused by the restraining force
a: solar absorptive P (i.e. Є T = Є T + Є M = 0 therefore Є T = - Є M).
α0: total heat transfer coefficient of outer surface There at present exists a consistent axial stresses in
3.3 Underground temperature : the beam equal to E Є M: The magnitude of the
The underground temperatures have to be restraining force P is,
considered to settle on the thermal effects on P = EA Є M = - EA Є T = - EA∆ T
basement structures and foundations. A day by day ………………….. 4
change of temperature reduces to only 0.5 meter
below grade. Where it is deeper than 10 meters from
the ground surface, it is considered that the
temperature do not vary and is equal to the twelve-
monthly mean air temperature.
3.4 Indoor temperature:
The interior temperatures have to be determined
by evaluating the planned air-conditioning If the temperature is allowed to increase for an
environment. It is as well significant to mull over the indefinite period, then there will be two basic
indoor temperature for the stipulation when the responses, depending upon the slenderness of the
building’s air-conditioning does not function as beam:
expected. It is perfect that the indoor temperature

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Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR)
Vol-3, Issue-3, 2017
ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in

4.1.1 If the beam is adequately stocky, after that

the axial stress will sooner or later reach the yield …………………..7
stress y of the material and if the material have an and critical buckling temperature is now given by
elastic–plastic stress–strain association, then the
beam will persist to yield without any additional …………..8
increase in stress, however it will also store an From Eq. (8) it be capable of, be seen that buckling
increasing magnitude of plastic strains. The yield and post-buckling phenomena have to be observable
temperature increase ∆Ty is, at reasonable fire temperatures in structures with
∆Ty = /E translational restraint stiffness’s ‘kt’ which are
4.1.2 If the beam is slender after that it will relatively comparable by means of the axial
buckle earlier than the material reaches its yield stiffness’s of the member ‘EA/L’ Figure 5 shows a
stress. The Euler buckling load Pcr for a plot derived from Eq. (8), where critical buckling
beam/column, as in Figure 2 is temperatures be plotted in opposition to slenderness
ratio for different restraint stiffness’s. The results
undoubtedly demonstrate that the amount of restraint
Equating this to the restraining force P; we have, required is not large intended for slender sections to
reach buckling temperature. Bearing in mind with the
intention of the axial stiffness’s of the member
‘EA/L’ is reduced by heating through the reduction
This leads to a critical buckling temperature of, in ‘E’; these post- buckling phenomena are very
probable to be observed in beams in typical fires.
…………………..5
OR

………………………6
Where ‘r’ is the radius of gyration and ‘λ’ is the
slenderness ratio (l/r) This expression is applicable
for other end-restraint conditions if ‘l’ is interpreted
as the effective length.
In this case, if the temperature is allowed to increase
further, after that the totality of restraining force will
stay steady (assuming an elastic material and no
thermal dilapidation of properties) and the thermal
expansion strains will carry on to be accommodated
by the outward deflection of the beam d as revealed 4.3 Thermal bowing
in Figure 3. In real fires the temperature distributions are
no matter what, but uniform. In a small to moderate
size compartment of a regular shape one may
perhaps assume that the compartment temperature
will be approximately uniform at a given time. The
temperature of the structural members in the
compartment depends in the lead the material they
The above cases characterize the two elementary
are made of and other information of geometry,
responses in beams subjected to controlled thermal
construction and design (such as insulation).
expansion. Either of the two (yielding or buckling)
Concrete beams and slabs on the ceiling of the
can occur on its own (based upon the slenderness of
compartment can be subjected to very towering
the beam) or an extra complex response consisting of
temperature gradients due to the very slow rates of
a grouping of yielding and buckling may possibly
heat transfer to concrete. As a result, the surfaces
also occur [1].
exposed to fire will be at a great deal of higher
4.2 Thermal Expansion against Finite
temperature than the surfaces on the exterior of the
Lateral Restraints
compartment. This causes the inner surfaces to
In the preceding discussion it was assumed the axial
increase a great deal more than the outer surfaces
restraints to be flawlessly rigid. This is an upper limit
inducing bending in the member. This effect is called
and virtually impossible to accomplish in real
thermal bowing is one of the main reasons of the
structures which offer merely finite restraints. Figure
deformations of concrete slabs and masonry walls in
4 describes such a beam restrained axially by a
fire. Another very significant source of thermal
translational spring of stiffness ‘kt’. The compressive
bowing in composite beams/slabs is the great
axial stress developed by thermal expansion is
difference between the temperatures of the steel joist

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Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR)
Vol-3, Issue-3, 2017
ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in

and the slab. This effect is much more significant in

the early stages of the fire when steel retains for the
most part of its strength [4].
Relationships are able to be derived for
thermal bowing analogous to the one derived earlier
for thermal expansion. Figure 6 shows a beam
subjected to a consistent temperature gradient all the
way through its depth‘d’ along its whole length ‘l’. 4.4 Defections
Assuming the beam is simply supported (as shown in One interesting aspect of structural response
Figure 6), it can derive the subsequent relationships. to fire is huge deflections that are found in structural
members like beams and slabs. Large deflections are
normally connected with the loss of strength in
structures under ambient conditions. In case of fire,
such a simple interpretation can be exceedingly
misleading. The main or chief reason for large
deflections is that the structural member tries to
accommodate the extra length generated by thermal
expansion, known that it is not possible for it to
expand longitudinally owing to end restraints.
Consider a slender beam (very low buckling
temperature) subjected to uniform heating alongside
rigid lateral restraints (as in Figure 3). Buckling will
1. The thermal gradient ‘T,y’ over the depth is, occur incredibly early (at very low elastic strains),
following which any further expansion will make the
beam deflect outwards. The resulting deflection at
mid-span ‘d’ can be approximated pretty accurately
2. A uniform curvature ‘f’ is induced all along the by
length as a result of the thermal gradient
√( ε T+ε²T/2)……………………10
3. Due to the curvature of the beam, the horizontal
distance between the ends of the beam will decrease. 5. Structural Performance and Design
If this reduction is interpreted as a contraction strain
Requirements
(not literally) ‘ef ‘ (analogous to the thermal
expansion strain Є T; earlier), then the assessment of Performance of any structure as soon as ex-
this strain can be calculated from analysing Figure 6 posed to fire depends on the material properties and
as: in- barriers to withstand or to confine fire.
Nevertheless, fire resistance rating is an indicator
concerning the expected fire resistance of a structure
……………………………..9 in half-hour or hourly increments [2].
Considering laterally restrained beam as depicted in Thermal expansion, structure end conditions
Figure 3, if a uniform thermal gradient ‘T,y’ (without (re- strained or unrestrained), and loss of materials’
any average rise in temperature) is applied to this strength and stiffness have an effect on the overall
beam (as shown in Figure 7), subsequently the result performance of an explicit structure.
is a thermally induced tension in the beam and Concrete structures are capable to have
corresponding reactions at the holdup points enormous performance during fire event if the
(opposite to the pure thermal expansion case concrete has lesser thermal conductivity which leads
discussed earlier). This is clearly caused by the to slower increase of the concrete temperature.
restraint to end translation against the contraction Spalling of concrete during high temperature could
strain ( ) induced by the thermal gradient. Figure affect the mechanical properties of concrete due to
8 depicts a fixed ended beam (by adding end the rise of vapour pressure. This pressure leads to
rotational restraints to the beam of Figure 7) internal cracks and stress which exceeds the tensile
subjected to a homogeneous temperature gradient strength of the concrete. Hertz and Sorensen
throughout its depth. established that concrete does not spall if the
moisture content was kept less than 3% per weight,
however, if the moisture content is more than 3%,
spalling /explosive spalling may possibly be avoided
by means of cementations materials such as silica
fume or fiber concrete.

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Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR)
Vol-3, Issue-3, 2017
ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in

For steel structures, strength, ductility, [2.] Sherif Yehia, Ghanim Kashwani, Performance
consistency of the steel material, shape of the of Structures Exposed to Extreme High
structure and the applied load are significant factors Temperature—An Overview, Open Journal of
which should be observed for fire resistance Civil Engineering
calculation. The critical/essential temperature Vol. 3 No. 3 (2013) , Article ID: 36202 , 8
depends on the weight ratio and steel composition. pages DOI:10.4236/ojce.2013.33018
The weight ratio value is the ratio of the applied [3.] Darshan1, Sanjith J2, Ranjith A3, Chethan G4,
design load to that would generate a stress equal to A Critical Review On Fire Resistance
yield stress at room temperature [1,2]. It is essential Structures, International Journal Of Current
to apply padding material such as magnesia, Engineering And Scientific Research (IJCESR),
vermiculite, sprayed mineral and ablative coatings to ISSN (PRINT): 2393-8374, (ONLINE): 2394-
shield the steel structure from high temperature [2]. 0697, VOLUME-3, ISSUE-3, 2016.
In composite structures, stresses and [4.] 1Manish Nigam, 2Awadhesh Kumar Singh
displacements caused by thermal expansion direct ,3Abhishek Dixit, Fire Load Calculation on
the structural behavior in fire, until just earlier than Hospital Buildings in India, International
the failure reduction in material strength and stiffness Journal of Engineering Development and
control the behavior again. Research (www.ijedr.org), 2016 IJEDR |
Volume 4, Issue 2 | ISSN: 2321-9939.
6. Conclusion [5.] Konstantinos Miamis, A Study Of The Effects
Of High Temperature On Structural Steel
Thermal loads must be considered for the Framing, December 2007 ,Purdue University
following construction types: building constructed in ,West Lafayette, Indiana.
an area where there is a considerable transformation [6.] A.S. Usmani*, J.M. Rotter, S. Lamont, A.M.
in outdoor air temperature, building with huge Sanad, M. Gillie, Fundamental Principles Of
length, building with huge space inside, building Structural Behavior Under Thermal Effects,
with straight influence of solar emission like a Fire Safety Journal 36 (2001) 721–744
building with glass roof, building or structure with [7.] Hongbo Liu 1 , Zhihua Chen 1,2,* and Ting
heat resource such as a chimney, silo containing hot Zhou 1, Investigation On Temperature
or warm material, heat storage tank, refrigerated Distribution And Thermal Behavior Of Large
warehouse and electric power plant. Span Steel Structures Considering Solar
For steel structures, strength, ductility, Radiation, Advanced Steel Construction Vol. 9,
consistency of the steel material, shape of the No. 1, pp. 41-58 (2013).
structure and the applied load are significant factors [8.] H. Saito, H. Uesugi, And M. Yamaguchi, A.
which should be observed for fire resistance Kodaira, Thermal Stress and Deformation of
calculation. The critical/essential temperature Steel Structures of High Rise Buildings in Fire,
depends on the load proportion and steel Fire Safety Science-Proceedings of The Second
composition. International Symposium, pp. 719-728.
Concrete’s outstanding fire resistance has
been proven by numerous tests performed for more
than 60 years. Various building codes have
developed prescriptive and systematic analytical
methods based on the fire tests on concrete
components of structures. These methods present
architects and engineer a relatively easy way to select
member proportions and reinforcement necessities
for all, but the very unusual structures.[1,2] For the
very unusual structures, alternate methods are
available to satisfactorily model or to test the
complex behavior of reinforced concrete components
subject to fire.

7. References
[1.] A.S.Usmani and J.M. Rotter, Fundamental
Principles Of Structural Behaviour Under
Thermal Effects, School of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, University of
Edinburgh

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