Vegetable Oils: Dietary Importance

SC Savva, Research and Education Institute of Child Health, Cyprus

A Kafatos, University of Crete, Greece
ã 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction higher amount of oleic acid. Similarly, b-carotene was present

in cold-pressed vegetable oils but is absent in the refined ones.
Vegetable oils are obtained from plants, such as seeds, nuts, Hydrogenation of vegetable oils is a process used in order to
fruits, and vegetables, and are the major source of monounsat- produce semisolid or solid fats from vegetable oils. During the
urated fatty acid (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acid process of partial hydrogenation, trans-fatty acids (TFAs) are
(PUFA) in the diet. Three of them are rich sources of saturated produced that have adverse health effects, and therefore, alter-
fatty acids: coconut oil, cocoa oil, and palm oil. Cocoa oil is the native methods of converting vegetable oils to solid fats have
first ingredient in ice cream produced by the industry, and been introduced. Interesterification, that is, rearrangement of
palm oil is the usual oil in fast-food preparation. They are fatty acids within a triacylglycerol, is a process now widely
also a dietary source of fat-soluble vitamins and antioxidants. used, although there are conflicting data regarding possible
Oils made from walnuts, almonds, olives, sesame seeds, and adverse health effects on lipoprotein and serum glucose
flax seeds have been used for 5000–6000 years for several metabolism and hemostasis parameters. More recently, con-
purposes. Olive oil is known as the oldest vegetable oil as cerns have been raised, as it has been shown that the substitu-
this is concluded from residues of olive oil found in huge tion of interesterified fat for partially hydrogenated fat in the
clay pots in the Minoan palaces in Crete and from excavations maternal diet of mice poses an increased risk for offspring
in Tunis. in adult life. There is also evidence that interesterification
The worldwide per capita total supply of vegetable oils and may affect obese and nonobese adults’ metabolic state in a
certain specific ones during the past 50 years is shown in different way.
Figure 1. This figure clearly shows that the worldwide supply Vegetable oils should be stored in dark, cool, and dry places
of vegetable oils (kcal capita
1 day
1) has more than doubled since they are sensitive to heat, light, and exposure to oxygen.
during this period, and this is mainly due to the increased Vitamin E is particularly sensitive to sunlight. Storing edible oils
supply of sunflower oil, soybean oil, palm oil, and rape and in refrigerator may cause them to thicken or become cloudy,
mustard oil. On the contrary, the per capita consumption of although this is reversed when left in room temperature.
olive oil has remained relatively stable at the international One important property of vegetable oils is the smoke
level over this period. Figure 2 presents the food supply point, that is, the temperature that a given oil begins to
(kcal capita
1 day
1) of the five most commonly used vegetable smoke. In general, olive oil – similarly to butter and lard –
oils in 2011 in different parts of the world, expressed as percent- has a lower smoke point. The smoke point of vegetable oils is
age of total per capita daily supply of vegetable oils. Obviously, affected by the degree of refinement; more refined vegetable
the supply of vegetable oils varies substantially in different parts oils have a higher smoke point. On the other hand, the longer a
of the world; the supply of soybean oil predominates in the vegetable oil has been exposed to heat, the lower its smoke
Americas, in Northern and Southern Africa, and in Eastern point, and therefore, the use of the same vegetable oil repeat-
Asia. The supply of sunflower oil predominates in Southern edly should be avoided in cooking.
Africa, Central and Western Asia, and Eastern Europe. Rape and
mustard oil is mainly used in Northern Europe and Oceania.
Palm oil is mainly used in Eastern, Central, and Western Africa Nutrient Composition of Vegetable Oils
and Southeastern Asia. Olive oil remains the most widely used
vegetable oil in Southern Europe, whereas it is also supplied in Vegetable oils are mainly composed of triacylglycerols, that is,
Northern Africa and Western Asia in lower amounts. esters of fatty acids with glycerol, but they also contain free
Vegetable oils are extracted from oilseeds by pressing using fatty acids, monoacylglycerols, diacylglycerols, and non-
an expeller or cold press, centrifugation, or solvent extraction. glyceridic nutrients. The fatty acid composition of vegetable
Some oils, such as virgin olive oil, are extracted and used with oils varies, and most edible oils are high in MUFA or PUFA,
mechanical pressure under controlled temperatures without whereas three of them are high in SFA. Nevertheless, the rapid
any further treatment. Most vegetable oils, however, are refined increase in vegetable oils consumption observed during the
to some extent in order to remove undesirable contents such as past 100–150 years represents the most important factor that
free acids and oxidized materials and alter their properties such contributed to the elevation of dietary omega-6-to-omega-3
as color and odor. Refinement enables the production of edi- ratio to its current value of 20–30 compared with a ratio of 2
ble oils improved in terms of taste, smell, appearance, and in the hunter-gatherer diets.
stability enabling a longer shelf life. Refinement, however, The composition of vegetable oils in fatty acids varies
alters the fatty acid composition of vegetable oils. Cold-pressed depending on several factors including climate, soil, fruit,
olive oil and other vegetable oils such as sunflower have been seed or plant maturity, genetic variation of the plant, and
reported to have a lower linoleic acid (LA)/alpha-linolenic acid degree of refinement. It should also be stressed that processed
ratio (ALA) as compared with refined vegetable oils and a vegetable oils, particularly the partially hydrogenated ones,

Encyclopedia of Food and Health http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384947-2.00709-1 365

366 Vegetable Oils: Dietary Importance

Vegetable Oils Soyabean Oil Sunflowerseed Oil

Rape and Mustard Oil Palm Oil Olive Oil
300

250

200
kcal/capita/day

150

100

50

0
1961
1963
1965
1967
1969
1971
1973
1975
1977
1979
1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
2009
2011
Figure 1 Food supply (kcal capita
1 day
1) of vegetable oils in the world between the years 1961 and 2011. Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations. Statistics Division (FAOSTAT). http://faostat3.fao.org/home/E. Accessed on 20/12/2014.

also contain considerable amounts of TFA. In Table 1, the the most palatable ones. Dietary fat has a direct impact on taste
composition of certain vegetable oils in total saturated fatty perception activating a large network of brain areas including
acids (SFAs), PUFA and MUFA, and the essential LA and ALA is the somatosensory cortices and thalamus that control taste.
presented. The USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Although most fatty acids may be synthesized in the body,
Reference was used as a reference for this table. Blends of two are unable to synthesize and are thus called essential fatty
vegetable oils and those processed for industrial use were not acids, which are the omega-6 LA and the omega-3 ALA poly-
included in this table. It is obvious from Table 1 that SFAs are unsaturated fatty acids. A balanced diet is necessary in order to
the predominant fatty acids in certain vegetable oils (coconut, achieve sufficient intake of energy and nutrients for optimal
palm, babassu, and cupu assu) ranging from 49–86%, which is growth, health, and well-being. Fatty acids are important nutri-
higher than the SFAs in lard (pork fat) and beef tallow. Olive ents because they represent a major source of energy; after
oil, avocado oil, and hazelnut oil are richer in MUFA along absorption, fatty acids are converted to energy via b-oxidation
with the high-oleic sunflower and safflower oils. The compo- or are stored in adipose tissue for later use. Fats and oils enable
sition of vegetable oils in PUFA varies considerably, but the food digestion and facilitate the absorption of vitamins and
more favorable ones in terms of LA/ALA ratio are cold-pressed phenols.
flaxseed oil (LA/ALA ratio of 0.3, with ALA content of 53.4 g/ Fatty acids are important structural molecules in cell
100 g), canola oil (LA/ALA ratio of 2.1), and mustard oil (LA/ membranes, and neural tissues such as the brain are particu-
ALA ratio of 2.6). larly rich in long-chain PUFA (LCPUFA). LCPUFA are also
Other minor constituents present in vegetable oils include precursors of eicosanoids, that is, inflammatory mediators,
pigments, flavor compounds, hydrocarbons, sterols, phenols, mediating platelet aggregation, leukocyte migration, vasocon-
and vitamins. Some of these constituents are present in crude striction, vasodilation, blood pressure, bronchial constriction,
oils, whereas in refined ones, constituents such as phenols may apoptosis, and oxidative damage. Fatty acids play an important
be removed. Table 2 presents the nonglyceridic nutrients most role in cholesterol metabolism, even from an early age, and
consistently present in the selected vegetable oils derived from thus may be associated with cardiovascular disease later in life.
the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference. Certain fatty acids and drugs affecting lipid metabolism
It should be underlined that minor differences exist between activate peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs),
both the glyceridic and nonglyceridic nutrients presented here which in turn control the expression of genes implicated in
from USDA database and other locally produced vegetable oils. intra- and extracellular lipid metabolism, implicating, thus, a
role of these fatty acids in the regulation of energy partitioning,
insulin sensitivity, adipocyte development, and neural func-
Nutritional Value of Vegetable Oils tion throughout the life span.
It is now widely accepted that dietary SFAs increase serum
Dietary fat contributes to the texture, flavor, and aroma of a LDL-cholesterol levels and thus increase the risk for CHD.
wide variety of foods. Foods high in fat content are considered Controlled trials and observational studies provide robust
 Vegetable Oils: Dietary Importance 367

Soyabean Oil Sunflowerseed Oil Rape and Mustard Oil Palm Oil Olive Oil

Eastern Africa
Middle Africa
Northern Africa
Southern Africa
Western Africa
Northern America
Central America
Caribbean
South America
Central Asia
Eastern Asia
Southern Asia
South-Eastern Asia
Western Asia
Eastern Europe
Northern Europe
Southern Europe
Western Europe
Oceania
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

1
1
Figure 2 Food supply (kcal capita day ) of five most commonly used vegetable oils expressed as percentage of total daily supply
of vegetable oils in different parts of the world in 2011. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Statistics Division (FAOSTAT).
http://faostat3.fao.org/home/E. Accessed on 20/12/2014.

evidence that consumption of TFA from partially hydrogenated humans failed to show any association of the LA/ALA ratio in
oils adversely affects cardiovascular disease risk factors and predicting cardiovascular disease morbidity and mortality.
increases the risk for cardiovascular disease, perhaps because Sterols comprise an important fraction of the nonglyceridic
TFAs act as proinflammatory mediators and induce endothelial part of vegetable oils, and they are essential components of cell
dysfunction. A substantial body of evidence suggests that the membranes. When present in foods, sterols efficiently reduce
consumption of diets rich in the long-chain omega-3 PUFA the absorption of dietary and biliary cholesterol, thus enabling
(eicosapentaenoic acid or EPA and docosahexaenoic acid or reducing serum LDL-cholesterol levels by up to 10%. It should
DHA) or supplements containing these fatty acids is beneficial be noted, however, that oil refinement may substantially result
in inflammatory diseases, cardiovascular disease, and autoim- in sterol loss by 10–70% depending on the oil and refinement
mune diseases. A recent meta-analysis has shown an inverse method. Interestingly, beta-sitosterol is thought to have some
association between marine omega-3 LCPUFA intake and risk anticarcinogenic properties, an issue that is still unclear.
for breast cancer. Particular attention is given upon the intake Vegetable oils are also a rich source of vitamin E, with
of LA and the ratio of LA/ALA. It has been shown that sun- known antioxidant properties. The human diet contains eight
flower oil rich in LA and high in LA/ALA ratio may predispose different vitamin E-related molecules synthesized by plants,
to metabolic syndrome. Substantial debate exists in relation to but vitamin E is usually expressed as alpha-tocopherol, which
LA intake and cardiovascular disease risk. Nevertheless, it is the most active form. Again, processing of vegetable oils,
appears that the benefit of LA intake is with substituting LA particularly heat-treated oils, results in reduction of tocopherol
for SFA in the diet in significantly reducing the risk for CVD. content. Alpha-tocopherol serves as a peroxyl radical scavenger
Experimentally, it has been shown that in Wistar rats, a diet that protects polyunsaturated fatty acids in membranes and
supplemented with garden cress oil and its blended oils lipoproteins.
enriched with ALA significantly modulated fatty acid profile Phenols are important natural antioxidants, which are
in various tissues increasing content in EPA, DHA, and ALA mainly present in olive oil. They bind free radicals, forming
and decreasing LA and arachidonic acid (AA). At the same phenol radicals, thus preventing lipid tissues from oxidation.
time, this diet significantly decreased serum total cholesterol, More specifically, phenols prevent LDL-cholesterol oxidation
LDL cholesterol, and triglycerides. However, other studies in and thus prevent atherosclerotic plaque formation. Thus,
368 Vegetable Oils: Dietary Importance

Table 1 Fatty acid composition of vegetable oils (g/100 g of populations consuming this traditional Mediterranean diet
vegetable oils) experienced low coronary heart disease (CHD) and cancer
mortality compared with populations consuming a “Western
Total Total Total
diet.” The Mediterranean diet has been shown to reduce the
Oil SFA MUFA PUFA LA ALA
secondary complications, recurrence, and even death after first
Grams/100 g myocardial infection. The typical Mediterranean diet was rich
Almond oil 8.2 69.9 17.4 17.4 0.0 in fruits, vegetables, legumes, whole-wheat bread, nuts, fish,
Apricot kernel oil 6.3 60.0 29.3 29.3 0.0 and extra virgin olive oil as the main source of dietary fat. The
Avocado oil 11.6 70.6 13.5 12.5 1.0 consumption of olive oil in the traditional diet of the island of
Babassu oil 81.2 11.4 1.6 1.6 0.0 Crete was over 90 g per person per day, which was around one-
Canola oil 7.4 63.3 28.1 19.0 9.1 third of the total daily energy intake.
Coconut oil 86.5 5.8 1.8 1.8 0.0
The fatty acid composition of olive oil depends on several
Cottonseed oil 25.9 17.8 51.9 51.5 0.2
factors such as latitude of production, climate, variety, and
Cupu assu oil 53.2 38.7 3.8 3.8 0.0
Flaxseed oil 9.0 18.4 67.8 14.3 53.4 maturity of the fruit. It has been shown, for instance, that
Grapeseed oil 9.6 16.1 69.9 69.6 0.1 olive oil from Tunisia has a lower content in MUFA and higher
Hazelnut oil 7.4 78.0 10.2 10.1 0.0 content in palmitic acid compared with olive oil from Medi-
Mustard oil 11.6 59.2 21.2 15.3 5.9 terranean countries of Europe. The fatty acid composition of
Oat oil 19.6 35.1 40.9 39.1 1.8 olive oil is SFA 14 g/100 g, MUFA 73 g/100 g, and PUFA 11 g/
Olive oil 13.8 73.0 10.5 9.8 0.8 100 g mainly as LA. Olive oil has also important nonglyceridic
Palm oil 49.3 37.0 9.3 9.1 0.2 content. Olive oil is the only edible oil with squalene, which is
Peanut oil 16.9 46.2 32.0 32.0 0.0 the precursor of sterols. It also contains sterols, tocopherols,
Poppyseed oil 13.5 19.7 62.4 62.4 0.0
and carotenoids. It should be noted that processing of olive oil
Rice bran oil 19.7 39.3 35.0 33.4 1.6
may reduce tocopherol content. The high concentration of
Safflower oil, high oleic 7.5 75.2 12.8 12.7 0.1
Safflower oil, linoleic 6.2 14.3 74.6 74.6 0.0 oleic acid in olive oil renders it resistant to lipid peroxidation.
over 70% Moreover, the high content of alpha-tocopherol along with the
Sesame oil 14.2 39.7 41.7 41.3 0.3 low PUFA content preserves oxidation of olive oil.
Shea-nut oil 46.6 44.0 5.2 4.9 0.3 The unique composition of olive oil, which is rich in MUFA
Soybean oil 15.7 22.8 57.7 51.0 6.8 and antioxidants, leads to a reduction of serum LDL choles-
Sunflower oil, high 9.9 83.7 3.8 3.6 0.2 terol and the preservation or even increase of HDL-cholesterol
oleic levels. A recent meta-analysis documented the beneficial health
Sunflower oil, linoleic 10.1 45.4 40.1 39.8 0.2 effect of MUFA and particularly oleic acid on health status. This
less than 60%
meta-analysis showed an overall risk reduction of all-cause
Tomato-seed oil 19.7 22.8 53.1 50.8 2.3
mortality (11%), cardiovascular mortality (12%), cardiovascu-
Walnut oil 9.1 22.8 63.3 52.9 10.4
Wheat germ oil 18.8 15.1 61.7 54.8 6.9 lar events (9%), and stroke (17%) in the highest compared
with the lowest third in MUFA, oleic acid, and olive oil
Note: Blends of vegetable oils and those processed for industrial use were not included consumption.
in this table. Minor constituents of olive oil are also suggested to play an
US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Nutrient Data Laboratory. important role in cardiovascular disease prevention indepen-
USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 27. Version Current: dent of olive oil’s fatty acid content. It has been shown that
August 2014. (Available from http://www.ars.usda.gov/Services/docs.htm?
phenolic-enriched virgin olive oil helps to decrease LDL cho-
docid¼24912.)
lesterol and, moreover, olive oil phenolic compounds appear
to protect LDL against peroxyl radical-dependent and metal-
phenols have been acknowledged for their benefits in cardio- induced oxidation in vitro, an effect that is more pronounced in
vascular health and aging and their anti-inflammatory and virgin olive oil than refined olive oil. The higher phenolic
anticancer activities. Vitamin K, an important component of content of extra virgin oil appears to reduce postprandial
four coagulation factors, is present in some vegetable oils in inflammatory markers such as TXB(2) and LTB(4) 2 and 6 h
varying amounts. after the meal compared with refined olive oil.
It is argued that a substantial proportion of cancers such as
colorectal, breast, pancreas, prostate, and endometrial cancers
The Role of Selected Edible Vegetable Oils in the may be prevented with the adoption the Mediterranean diet. A
Prevention of Chronic Diseases relatively recent meta-analysis of 19 case–control studies
concluded that higher intake of olive oil is associated with
Olive Oil
lower odds of having any type of cancer irrespective of the
Olive oil as already mentioned is the oldest known edible oil. country of origin. On the other hand, an older meta-analysis
Extra virgin olive oil has been routinely used in the traditional examining the association of breast cancer risk with bio-
Mediterranean diet and is mainly produced and used in markers of fatty acids intake showed a positive association of
Mediterranean countries of Europe and Northern Africa, breast cancer risk with oleic acid in cohort studies but failed to
although recently, it is increasingly used in Northern Europe show any association in case–control studies although a pro-
and North America. It is mainly used as a salad dressing and in tective role of ALA for breast cancer risk was identified. It
cooking. The pioneer Seven Countries Study concluded that should be stressed that the latter meta-analysis was based on
 Vegetable Oils: Dietary Importance 369

Table 2 Nonglyceridic composition of vegetable oils

Choline, total Phytosterols Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) Vitamin K (phylloquinone)

Oil (mg/100 g) (mg/100 g) (mg/100 g) (mg/100 g)

Almond oil 0.4 266 39.2 7.0

Apricot kernel oil 266 4.0
Avocado oil
Babassu oil 95 19.1
Canola oil 0.2 17.5 71.3
Coconut oil 0.3 86 0.1 0.5
Cottonseed oil 0.2 324 35.3 24.7
Cupu assu oil 95 0.6
Flaxseed oil 0.2 0.5 9.3
Grapeseed oil 180 28.8
Hazelnut oil 120 47.2
Mustard oil
Oat oil 14.4 24.7
Olive oil 0.3 221 14.4 60.2
Palm oil 0.3 15.9 8.0
Peanut oil 0.1 207 15.7 0.7
Poppyseed oil 276 11.4
Rice bran oil 1190 32.3 24.7
Safflower oil, high oleic 0.2 444 34.1 7.1
Safflower oil, linoleic 444 34.1 7.1
over 70%
Sesame oil 0.2 865 1.4 13.6
Shea-nut oil 357
Soybean oil 0.2 8.2 183.9
Sunflower oil, high oleic 0.2 41.1 5.4
Sunflower oil, linoleic less 100 41.1 5.4
than 60%
Tomato-seed oil 100 3.8
Walnut oil 0.4 176 0.4 15.0
Wheat germ oil 20.0 553 149.4 24.7

US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Nutrient Data Laboratory. USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 27. Version Current: August
2014. (Available from http://www.ars.usda.gov/Services/docs.htm?docid¼24912.)

biomarkers of fatty acids intake and, therefore, dietary sources Canola oil is currently thought of as one of the healthiest
of MUFA other than olive oil may account for this association. edible vegetable oils. A recent review has concluded that canola
These data raise the question of whether olive oil’s monoun- oil decreases serum total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol and,
saturated fatty acid content or its antioxidant components are thus, the risk for CHD, although the modulation of HDL
responsible for its beneficial effects. Many studies have shown cholesterol and triacylglycerols remains controversial. There
that vitamin E protects against a number of cancers, which may was also evidence that canola oil-based diets have a positive
be a result of its antioxidant action, stimulation of the immune effect in glucose homeostasis compared with SFA-based diets.
system, and other actions. This review, also, concluded that canola oil may offer some
anticancer activity for some forms of cancer.

Canola Oil/Rapeseed Oil Flaxseed Oil

Canola oil is produced from rapeseed using plant breeding Flaxseed (or linseed) oil is produced from flaxseed and is now
techniques. These techniques introduced in the early 1970s increasingly used in nutrition. It contains 9.0 g SFA/100 g,
assured the production of canola oil safe for human consump- 18.4 g MUFA/100 g, and 67.8 g PUFA/100 g of which 53.4 g
tion because it made it possible to reduce erucic acid to less is ALA. This unusually high content of ALA makes this oil
than 5% from previously 50%, which is potentially harmful for oxidize rapidly, and therefore, this oil is not supplied as a
health. The breeding techniques also meant that levels of glu- pure oil, but it is supplied with a suitable antioxidant prepara-
cosinolates were also reduced. tion. Flaxseed oil is also rich in alpha- and gamma-tocopherol,
Canola oil has lower contents of SFA (7.4 g/100 g), whereas vitamin K, and phytosterols.
it is high in MUFA content (63.3 g/100 g) and has a balanced The presumed health benefits associated with omega-3
ratio of LA/ALA (19.0/9.1 g/100 g). Among the nonglyceridic PUFA has made flaxseed oil a good dietary source of achieving
content, canola oil contains vitamin E (as alpha- and gamma- the nutritional adequacy in ALA. This is supported by a recent
tocopherol), vitamin K, and beta-sitosterol. review that collectively shows that increased ALA consumption
370 Vegetable Oils: Dietary Importance

is associated with a lower risk for coronary heart disease mor- improvements in lipid profiles including serum total choles-
bidity and mortality, lower odds for carotid plaques, and terol and LDL cholesterol and triglyceride levels, thus reducing
thinner segment-specific carotid intimal/media thickness, cardiovascular disease risk. A diet prepared with corn oil (or
whereas increased phospholipid ALA content is associated palm olein) reduces not only total cholesterol and LDL
with a lower risk for stroke. Although most studies have cholesterol but also HDL cholesterol compared with a diet
reported modest effects of flaxseed oil on blood total choles- prepared with coconut oil. The corn oil diet also reduced the
terol, LDL cholesterol, and HDL cholesterol, ALA from flaxseed serum triglyceride levels.
oil tends to increase the concentrations of the large, less ath-
erogenic LDL-cholesterol subfractions. The modulation of
Soybean Oil
serum triglyceride levels by ALA and flaxseed oil consumption
remains obscure. Evidence also suggests that dietary ALA is Soybean is mainly used for cooking, but it is also used in
associated with lower blood pressure, but the association of margarine and spread production and mayonnaise. According
flaxseed oil intake with blood pressure levels is inconclusive. to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Ingestion of flaxseed oil or ALA may help in preventing or Nations (FAOSTAT), soybean oil is the most widely used veg-
treating a variety of diabetic complications and modulates etable oil worldwide, which experienced a more than fourfold
coagulation in diabetic patients but not in healthy individuals. increase in food supply between 1961 and 2011. Most of the
soybeans used today in producing vegetable oils are genetically
modified crops, which have been used to modify the fatty acid
Sunflower Oil
composition.
Sunflower oil is used in cooking, salad dressings, and The composition of soybean oil is mainly of PUFA (LA
manufacture of fat spreads. Plant breeding produced varieties 51.0 g/100 g and ALA 6.8 g/100 g), with MUFAs at
with improved fatty acid profile, such as the high-oleic 22.8 g/100 g and SFA 15.7 g/100 g. Soybean oil is the richest
sunflower oil, and at the same time resistant to insects. The vegetable oil in vitamin K and contains tocopherols (mainly
traditional sunflower oil is high in PUFA content (mainly LA) gamma and delta and less alpha). Soybean oil essentially lacks
and low in SFA. Currently, however, there are varieties with phytosterols but has a considerable amount of beta-sitosterol.
high oleic and mid oleic content. Sunflower has also non-
glyceridic content, consisting of tocopherols and plant sterols.
Palm Oil
The demand for the sunflower oil has declined since 2000,
and most research regarding health effects was done much Palm oil is an edible oil derived from the flesh of the fruit of the
earlier. Studies had shown that substituting sunflower oil for palm tree, which should be distinguished from palm kernel oil
SFA in the diet may result in decreasing total cholesterol and obtained from the kernel of the fruit, which has limited food
LDL cholesterol, which is thought to be favorable with respect interest. Palm oil is separated into liquid (olein) and solid
to decreasing risk of cardiovascular disease. However, those (stearin) fractions, from which several types of palm oil are
studies raised concerns because of a parallel decrease in HDL produced for use as a cooking oil, for manufacture of
cholesterol. A more recent study comparing intake of mid-oleic margarines and shortenings, and for bakery use such as the
sunflower oil with the typical American diet has shown a production of biscuits, cookies, and ice creams. Palm oil is
decrease in both total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol with the least expensive among the most common edible oils, and
no effect of the experimental diets on triglyceride levels, rate the low price justifies the wider use of palm oil in less devel-
of oxidation, or lipid hydroperoxides. A newer study, however, oped parts of the world (see Figure 2). Equally important, the
has shown that sunflower oil rich in LA and high in LA/ALA oxidative stability of the oil because of its fatty acid composi-
ratio may predispose to metabolic syndrome. tion enables its use in high temperatures and ensures a
prolonged shelf life of products made of palm oil, thus making
it a popular edible oil.
Corn Oil
Palm oil has a balanced fatty acid composition between
Corn oil is mainly produced and consumed in the United SFAs (approximately 50%) and unsaturated fatty acids
States where it is mainly traded in blends of vegetable oils (MUFA 39% and PUFA 10% mostly as LA). The major fraction
and also in China and Brazil. Most corn plants in the United of SFA consists of palmitic acid (44%). Palm oil contains non-
States are genetically modified to yield more hardy crops. In glyceridic contents including carotenes, tocopherols, tocotrie-
the United States, it has been shown that corn oil is mainly nols, sterols, and squalene, which diminish after refinement.
used in fast-food restaurants, whereas meat used in fast foods, Most of the studies on health effects of palm oil focussed on
such as beef and chicken, is from animals fed with corn. It its effects on serum lipid levels. Despite the relatively high SFA
should be noted that US corn agriculture has been criticized as content of the oil, its structure is thought to account for the
environmentally unsustainable. Refined corn oil is composed beneficial effects described in numerous nutritional studies;
of PUFA 59%, MUFA 24%, and SFA 13% with a ratio of LA/ oleic acid is predominantly attached at the sn-2 position in
ALA of 83. Corn oil contains also gamma- and alpha- triacylglycerols, whereas SFAs are attached on the sn-1 and sn-3
tocopherols and beta-sitosterol. positions. Dietary palm oil was found to reduce serum total
There is only scarce research in the last two decades regard- cholesterol and LDL cholesterol and triglycerides and increases
ing consumption of corn oil and health. A study that examined HDL cholesterol. Improved lipoprotein(a) and apo-A1 levels
the effect of high-fat diet rich in PUFA and low in SFA or TFA were also demonstrated from palm oil diets. Virgin palm oil
compared with a diet high in SFA or TFA leads to also provides carotenes apart from tocotrienols and
 Vegetable Oils: Dietary Importance 371

tocopherols that have been shown to be powerful antioxidants Current dietary recommendations suggest replacing SFA in
and potential mediators of cellular functions. These com- the diet with MUFA or PUFA. For example, solid fats in home-
pounds can be antithrombotic, cause an increase of the pros- prepared food such as butter and lard could be replaced with
tacyclin/thromboxane ratio, reduce restenosis, and inhibit vegetable oils that are rich in MUFA and PUFA. All vegetable
HMG-CoA reductase (thus reducing cholesterol biosynthesis). oils, however, are more than 99% fat, and therefore, the
consumption of vegetable oils or products prepared from veg-
Coconut Oil etable oils should be used in moderation. Thus, modern
dietary recommendations suggest the use of a small amount
Coconut oil is extracted from the kernel of matured coconuts of vegetable oils
30–45 ml each day – in cooking, salad
harvested from the coconut palm and is high in saturated fats. dressings, margarine, and mayonnaise. PREDIMED study has
Coconut oil is a common edible oil in certain countries, and recently demonstrated that the daily use of 45 g of olive oil
there is a controversy regarding its effects on lipid profiles and resulted in a 30% reduction in the risk of major cardiovascular
cardiovascular disease risk. The high content of SFA raised events among high-risk persons.
concerns that it could lead to more artherogenic lipid profiles, The nutritional value of edible oils is based not only on the
and thus, health professionals in the 1980s recommended that fatty acid composition but also on the minor components with
coconut oil should not be used. This has changed however, as antioxidant activity. Processing and storage of edible oils may
it was noted that countries with high intake of tropical oils had alter the composition of oils in nonglyceridic contents; refine-
some of the lowest rates of cardiovascular heart disease, and ment and exposure to sunlight may destroy the vitamin E and
recently, the use of coconut oil has become more popular other nonglyceridic contents in vegetable oils. Partial hydroge-
because of the potential cardiovascular benefits. nation of edible oils, which may be responsible for TFA forma-
SFAs in coconut oil increase serum HDL cholesterol more tion, is now less commonly used, and other methods are
than LDL cholesterol to give a more favorable lipid profile utilized in order to provide edible oils with functional and
relative to dietary carbohydrates. Recently, it has been shown desired organoleptic properties. Interesterification is now one
that replacing high-PUFA vegetable oils by 75% with coconut of the methods used. The use of interesterified fat produced
oil in the diet of broilers is associated with a reduced fat depo- from vegetable oils needs further research to determine if its
sition and increases lipoprotein lipase, hepatic lipase, and total use is safe to human health. As further research is still war-
lipase activities, thus affecting favorably lipid profile. In pigs, ranted in order to evaluate currently used vegetable oils, it is
replacement of standard diet with coconut oil modulates the likely that a wider variety of edible oils will be available
adipose tissue gene expression and fatty acid composition, with through conventional plant breeding techniques or plant
minimal effect on serum lipid profile. Interestingly, in mice breeding using genetically modified technology. It is therefore
with stress-induced injury, coconut oil was recently shown to safer to use only olive oil, which has been used for thousands
improve lipid profile and restore oxidative stress. of years mainly by the Mediterranean populations having
Other potential outcomes have also been described with health-promoting effects and disease prevention.
use of coconut oil. In breast cancer patients, virgin coconut oil The lack of studies comparing health effects of different
consumption during chemotherapy helped improve the qual- vegetable oils is further complicated by the fact that in most
ity of life and reduced symptoms related to side effects of societies, a different combination of vegetable oils is currently
chemotherapy. consumed. Before the introduction of most vegetable oils in
modern diets, olive oil was the main vegetable oil used in
nutrition for many millennia. Olive oil has been an important
Conclusions and Recommendations constituent of the Mediterranean diet, which proved beneficial
in preventing disease and prolonging life expectancy. The Med-
The balance of fatty acids in humans’ diet is one much debated iterranean diet has been even proved as cost-effective com-
issue. Research has mainly focussed on certain components of pared to a prudent Western diet in patients with previous
the vegetable oils rather than employing supplementation of CHD. Therefore, the use of olive oil as an unsaturated edible
whole oil to the diet and estimate a number of specific end oil should be encouraged when and where possible. However,
points. Moreover, there is mostly a lack of studies comparing the current international epidemic of obesity in both children
health end points between diets consisting of different vegetable and adults should lead to a restriction of fat and oil intakes
oils. Therefore, studies have concluded that many individual specifically for those who are overweight or obese. Oils are
vegetable oils may be part of a balanced diet, but we are able to high-energy dense foods providing 9 kcal g
1 as compared to
recommend the use of virgin olive oil as the only edible oil with carbohydrates and proteins providing 4 kcal g
1. A balanced
ideal fatty acid composition and many micronutrients with anti- diet, selecting appropriate portions from all five food groups,
oxidant properties reducing the risk for all chronic diseases. and daily moderate to vigorous physical activity almost daily
Current dietary recommendations propose that SFAs are internationally accepted recommendations.
should be lowered to less than 10% of total energy intake. A
relatively recent meta-analysis showed that substituting PUFA
for SFA helps to reduce CHD events. An interesting study
showed that in diabetic patients, a healthy diet, rich in vegeta-
See also: Antioxidants: Role on Health and Prevention; Fats:
bles and a vegetable oil with a considerable amount of PUFA
Classification and Analysis; Olive Oil: Its Role in the Diet; Vegetable
and antioxidants, replacing SFA for 8 weeks, decreases DNA
Oils: Composition and Analysis; Vegetable Oils: Oil Production and
oxidation expressed as DNA strand breaks.
Processing; Vegetable Oils: Types and Properties; Vitamins: Overview.
372 Vegetable Oils: Dietary Importance

Further Reading meta-analysis of 13,800 patients and 23,340 controls in 19 observational studies.
Lipids in Health and Disease 10: 127.
Cardeno A, Sanchez-Hidalgo M, and Alarcon-de-la-Lastra C (2013) An up-date of olive Saadatian-Elahi M, Norat T, Goudable J, and Riboli E (2004) Biomarkers of dietary fatty
oil phenols in inflammation and cancer: molecular mechanisms and clinical acid intake and the risk of breast cancer: a meta-analysis. International Journal of
implications. Current Medicinal Chemistry 20: 4758–4776. Cancer 111: 584–591.
de Lorgeril M, Salen P, Martin J-L, et al. (1999) Mediterranean Diet, traditional risk Schwingshackl L and Hoffmann G (2014) Monounsaturated fatty acids, olive oil and
factors, and the rate of cardiovascular complications after myocardial infarction: health status: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Lipids in
Final report of the Lyon Diet Heart Study. Circulation 99: 779–785. Health and Disease 13: 154.
Estruch R, Ros E, Salas-Salvadó J, et al. (2013) Primary prevention of cardiovascular Sotiroudis TG and Kyrtopoulos SA (2008) Anticarcinogenic compounds of olive oil and
disease with a Mediterranean diet. New England Journal of Medicine related biomarkers. European Journal of Nutrition 47(Suppl 2): 69–72.
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FAO Food and Nutrition Paper. Fats and fatty acids in human nutrition. Report of an trans fatty acids: a review. Journal of AOAC International 92: 1250–1257.
expert consultation. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Trichopoulou A, Lagiou P, Kuper H, and Trichopoulos D (2000) Cancer and
Nations, Rome 2010. Available online: http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1953e/ Mediterranean dietary traditions. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention
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health effects. Nutrition Bulletin 34: 4–47.
Grattan Jr. BJ Jr. (2013) Plant sterols as anticancer nutrients: evidence for their role in
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Gunstone F (2002) Vegetable oils in food technology: composition, properties and Relevant Websites
uses. Blackwell Publishing.
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and disease prevention. School of Health Sciences, University of Crete. Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Nutrient Data Laboratory. USDA National
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Olive oil intake is inversely related to cancer prevalence: a systematic review and a 2014.