Oakland Schools Chemistry Resource Unit

Nuclear Chemistry 
Scott Doty
Berkley High School
Berkley School District

1
 Nuclear Chemistry
Content Statements:
C2.5x Nuclear Stability:
Nuclear stability is related to a decrease in potential energy when the nucleus
forms from protons and neutrons. If the neutron/proton ratio is unstable, the
element will undergo radioactive decay. The rate of decay is characteristic of
each isotope: the time for half of the parent nuclei to decays is called the half-
life. Comparison of the parent/daughter nuclei can be used to determine the age
of the sample. Heavier elements are formed from the fusion of lighter elements
in stars.
C3.5x Mass Defect:
Nuclear reactions involve energy changes many times the magnitude of chemical
changes. In chemical reactions matter is conserved, but in nuclear reactions a
small loss of matter (mass defect) will account for the tremendous release of
energy. The energy released in nuclear reactions can be calculated from the
mass defect: E=mc2.
Content Expectations:
C2.5a Determine the age of materials using the ratio of stable and unstable
isotopes of a particular type.
C2.r5b Illustrate how elements can change in nuclear reactions using balanced
equations.
C2.r5c Describe the potential energy changes as two protons approach each
other.
C2.r5d Describe how and where all the elements on earth were formed.
C3.5a Explain why matter is not conserved in nuclear reactions.

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 Instructional Background Information:
Half-Life:
Radioactive decay proceeds according to a principal called the half-life. The
half-life (T½) is the amount of time necessary for one-half of the radioactive
material to decay. For example, the radioactive element bismuth (Bi-210) can
undergo alpha decay to form the element thallium (Tl-206) with a reaction
half-life equal to five days. If we begin an experiment starting with 100 g of
bismuth in a sealed lead container, after five days we will have 50 g of bismuth
and 50 g of thallium in the jar. After another five days (ten from the starting
point), one-half of the remaining bismuth will decay and we will be left with 25
g of bismuth and 75 g of thallium in the jar. As illustrated, the reaction
proceeds in halves, with half of whatever is left of the radioactive element
decaying every half-life period.

Radioactive Decay of Bismuth-210 (T½ = 5

days)

The fraction of parent material that remains after radioactive decay can be
calculated using the equation:
1
Fraction remaining = (where n = # half-lives elapsed)
2n

The amount of a radioactive material that remains after a given number of

half-lives is therefore:
Amount remaining = Original amount * Fraction remaining

3
The decay reaction and T½ of a substance are specific to the isotope of the
element undergoing radioactive decay. For example, Bi-210 can undergo decay
to Tl-206 with a T½ of five days. Bi-215, by comparison, undergoes b decay to
Po-215 with a T½ of 7.6 minutes, and Bi-208 undergoes yet another mode of
radioactive decay (called electron capture) with a T½ of 368,000 years!
visionlearning.com
http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?mid=59

Radiometric Dating:
Radioactive elements such as uranium (U) and thorium (Th) decay naturally to
form different elements or isotopes of the same element. (Isotopes are atoms of
any elements that differ in mass from that element, but possess the same
general chemical and optical properties.) This decay is accompanied by the
emission of radiation or particles (alpha, beta, or gamma rays) from the nucleus,
by nuclear capture, or by ejection of orbital electrons. A number of isotopes
decay to a stable product, a so-called daughter isotope, in a single step (for
example, carbon-14), whereas other series involve many steps before a stable
isotope is formed. Multistep radioactive decay series include, for example, the
uranium-235, uranium-238, and thorium-232 families. If a daughter isotope is
stable, it accumulates until the parent isotope has completely decayed. If a
daughter isotope is also radioactive, however, equilibrium is reached when the
daughter decays as fast as it is formed.
cartage.org
http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/sciences/chemistry/NuclearChemistry/Nucl
earReactions/Radiometricdating/RadiometricDating%20.html

Alpha, Beta, Gamma particles:

What is radioactivity?
Atoms are not all stable. The excess energy contained in an unstable atom is
released in one of a few basic particles and energetic waves. The Greek alphabet
is used to name the particles (in the order of their discovery).

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ALPHA PARTICLES
The alpha particle is the heaviest. It is produced when the heaviest elements
decay. Alpha and beta rays are not waves. They are high-energy particles that
are expelled from unstable nuclei. In the case of alpha radiation, the high energy
particles leave the nucleus. The alpha particle is a helium atom and contains two
neutrons and two protons. It leaves the nucleus of an unstable atom at a speed
of 16,000 kilometers per second, around a tenth the speed of light. The alpha
particles are relatively large and heavy. As a result, alpha rays are not very
penetrating and are easily absorbed. A sheet of paper or a 3-cm layer of air is
sufficient to stop them. Its energy is transferred within a short distance to the
surrounding media. However, its short flight knocks about 450,000 electrons out
of the surrounding atoms. The alpha particle emitter will not penetrate the outer
layer of our skin, but is dangerous if inhaled or swallowed. The delicate internal
workings of the living cell forming the lining of the lungs or internal organs, most
certainly will be changed (mutated) or killed outright by the energetic alpha
particle. The number of lung cancer cases among uranium miners from inhaled
and ingested alpha sources is much higher than those of the public at large.
Radon, the gas produced by the decay of radium-226, also emits alpha particles,
which poses a hazard to lungs and airways when inhaled. Homes built in areas
with high ground radioactivity should be tested for radon buildup in enclosed
basement spaces.
1. An example of an a transmutation takes place when uranium decays into
the element thorium (Th) by emitting an alpha particle, as depicted in the
following equation:
238 4 234
U He+ Th
92 2 90

BETA PARTICLES
Beta rays are much lighter energy particles. The beta particle is an energetic
electron given off by the nucleus of unstable isotopes to restore an energy
balance. They leave the nucleus at a speed of 270,000 kilometers per second.
They can be stopped, for instance, by an aluminum sheet a few millimeters thick
or by 3 meters of air. The RS-500 can detect most energetic beta particles
through the case. Weaker beta particles can be detected through the tube
window. Although the beta particle is around 8000 times smaller than the alpha
particle, it is capable of penetrating much deeper into living matter. Each
encounter with a living cell, and there may be many before the beta energy is
dissipated, is likely to dam age some of the chemical links between the living
molecules of the cell or cause some permanent genetic change in the cell
nucleus. If the damage occurs within the generative cells of the ovaries or testes,
the damage may be passed to new generations. The normal background
radiation level must contribute to the mutation of the gene pool. Most mutations
are undesirable with a very few leading to "improvements". Any increase in the
background level of radiation should be considered harmful.

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 1. An example of this is the decay of the isotope of carbon named carbon-14
into the element nitrogen:

14 0 14
C e+ N
6 -1 7

GAMMA RAYS
The next "particle" is the very high energy "X-ray" called the gamma ray. It is an
energetic photon or light wave in the same electromagnetic family as light and x-
rays, but is much more energetic and harmful. It is capable of damaging living
cells as it slows down by transferring its energy to surrounding cell components.
The RS-500 detects energetic gamma rays through the case walls. Gamma ray
sources are used to find flaws in pipes and vessels and to check the integrity of
welds in steel.
oasisllc.com
http://www.oasisllc.com/abgx/radioactivity.htm

Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson,

(30 August 1871 – 19 October 1937) was a physicist who became known as the
"father" of nuclear physics. He pioneered the orbital theory of the atom through
his discovery of Rutherford scattering off the nucleus with his gold foil
experiment. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1908.

wikipedia.org
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford

Balancing Nuclear Reactions:

Fission:
Stimulated Nuclear Reactions
While many elements undergo radioactive decay naturally, nuclear reactions can also
be stimulated artificially. Although these reactions also occur naturally, we are most
familiar with them as stimulated reactions. There are two such types of nuclear
reactions:
1. Nuclear fission: reactions in which an atom's nucleus splits into smaller parts,
releasing a large amount of energy in the process. Most commonly this is done by

6
"firing" a neutron at the nucleus of an atom. The energy of the neutron "bullet" causes
the target element to split into two (or more) elements that are lighter than the parent
atom.

The Fission Reaction of Uranium-235

During the fission of U235, three neutrons are released in addition to the two daughter
atoms. If these released neutrons collide with nearby U235 nuclei, they can stimulate
the fission of these atoms and start a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction. This chain
reaction is the basis of nuclear power. As uranium atoms continue to split, a significant
amount of energy is released from the reaction. The heat released during this reaction is
harvested and used to generate electrical energy.
visionlearning.com
http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?mid=59

Nuclear fission---controlled reaction

Nuclear power stations use the heat released by nuclear reactions to boil water
to make steam. The type of nuclear reaction used is called nuclear fission. In
nuclear fission:

• a neutron collides with an uranium nucleus (which is large and unstable)

• the uranium nucleus splits into two similar-sized smaller nuclei
• more neutrons are released
• these neutrons can then collide with more uranium nuclei.

These processes are repeated continuously, forming a chain reaction.

In a nuclear explosion, the chain reaction is allowed to run out of control,

releasing large amounts of energy very quickly. In a nuclear reactor, the reaction
is controlled so that energy is released at a steady rate.

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 Outline of
a nuclear
reactor

The nuclear fuel (usually uranium oxide) is held in metal containers called fuel
rods. These are lowered into the reactor core. A coolant - usually water or
carbon dioxide - is circulated through the reactor core to remove the heat.
Control rods are also lowered into the core. These absorb neutrons and control
the rate of the chain reaction. They are raised to speed it up, or lowered to slow
it down.

Fusion:
2. Nuclear fusion: reactions in which two or more elements "fuse" together
to form one larger element, releasing energy in the process. A good example is
the fusion of two "heavy" isotopes of hydrogen (deuterium: H2 and tritium:
H3) into the element helium.

Nuclear Fusion of Two Hydrogen

Isotopes

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Fusion reactions release tremendous amounts of energy and are commonly
referred to as thermonuclear reactions. Although many people think of the sun
as a large fireball, the sun (and all stars) is actually enormous fusion reactors.
Stars are primarily gigantic balls of hydrogen gas under tremendous pressure
due to gravitational forces. Hydrogen molecules are fused into helium and
heavier elements inside of stars, releasing energy that we receive as light and
heat.
visionlearning.com
http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?mid=59

Isotope:
The number of neutrons in an atom can also vary. Two atoms of the same
element that contain different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. For
example, normally hydrogen contains no neutrons. An isotope of hydrogen does
exist that contains one neutron (commonly called deuterium). The atomic
number (z) is the same in both isotopes; however the atomic mass increases by
one in deuterium as the atom is made heavier by the extra neutron.

Nuclear Transmutation: A nucleus which undergoes alpha decay transforms

into a new element. This process is called transmutation.

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 Band of stability:

Chemistry Graphs: The Band of Stability

Most elements have isotopes. For stable isotopes, an interesting plot arises when the number of
neutrons is plotted versus the number of protons. Because the plot shows only the stable isotopes, this
graph is often called the Nuclear Belt of Stability. The plot indicates that lighter nuclides (isotopes) are
most stable when the neutron/proton ratio is 1/1. This is the case with any nucleus that has up to 20
protons. As the atomic number increases beyond 20, a different trend becomes apparent. In this
range, it appears that a stable nucleus is able to accommodate more neutrons. Stable isotopes have a
higher neutron to proton ratio, rising to 1.5/1 for elements having atomic numbers between 20 and 83.
algebralab.org
http://www.algebralab.org/practice/practice.aspx?file=Reading_The
BandOfStability.xml

Potential energy changes as protons approach each-other: As they

approach each other the potential energy increases because they are both
negatively charged.

How and where elements are formed:

The lightest elements (hydrogen, helium, deuterium, lithium) were produced in
the Big Bang nucleosynthesis. According to the Big Bang theory, the
temperatures in the early universe were so high that fusion reactions could take

10
place. This resulted in the formation of light elements: hydrogen, deuterium,
helium (two isotopes), lithium and trace amounts of beryllium.
Nuclear fusion in stars converts hydrogen into helium in all stars. In stars less
massive than the Sun, this is the only reaction that takes place. In stars more
massive than the Sun (but less massive than about 8 solar masses), further
reactions that convert helium to carbon and oxygen take place in successive
stages of stellar evolution. In the very massive stars, the reaction chain
continues to produce elements like silicon up to iron.
Elements higher than iron cannot be formed through fusion as one has to supply
energy for the reaction to take place. However, we do see elements higher than
iron around us. So how did these elements form? The answer is supernovae. In
a supernova explosion, neutron capture reactions take place (this is not fusion),
leading to the formation of heavy elements. This is the reason why it is said that
most of the stuff that we see around us come from stars and supernovae (the
heavy elements part). If you go into technical details, then there are two
processes of neutron capture called rapid process (r-process) and the slow
process (s-process), and these lead to formation of different elements.
Curious.astro.cornell.edu

http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/question.php?number=345

Lack of matter conservation in nuclear reactions:

With nuclear reactions, the energies involved are so great that the changes in
mass become easily measurable. One no longer can assume that mass and
energy are conserved separately, but must take into account their
interconversion via Einstein's relationship, E = mc . If mass is in grams and the
velocity of light is expressed as c = 3 x 10 cm sec , then the energy is in units
of g cm sec , or ergs. A useful conversion is from mass in amu to energy in
million electron volts (MeV):

1 amu = 931.4 MeV

What holds a nucleus together? If we attempt to bring two protons and two
neutrons together to form a helium nucleus, we might reasonably expect the
positively charged protons to repel one another violently. Then what keeps them
together in the nucleus? The answer, as we mentioned in Chapter 2, is that a
helium atom is lighter than the sum of two protons, two neutrons, and two
electrons. Some of the mass of the separated particles is converted into energy
and dissipated when the nucleus is formed. Before the helium nucleus can be
torn apart into its component particles, this dissipated energy must be restored
and turned back into mass. Unless this energy is provided, the nucleus cannot be
taken apart. This energy is termed the binding energy of the helium nucleus.

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Theory of Relativity:
Theory of Relativity - The Basics
The Theory of Relativity, proposed by the Jewish physicist Albert Einstein (1879-
1955) in the early part of the 20th century, is one of the most significant scientific
advances of our time. Although the concept of relativity was not introduced by
Einstein, his major contribution was the recognition that the speed of light in a
vacuum is constant and an absolute physical boundary for motion. This does not
have a major impact on a person's day to day life since we travel at speeds
much slower than light speed. For objects traveling near light speed, however,
the theory of relativity states that objects will move slower and shorten in length
from the point of view of an observer on Earth. Einstein also derived the famous
equation, E = mc2, which reveals the equivalence of mass and energy. When
Einstein applied his theory to gravitational fields, he derived the "curved space-
time continuum" which depicts the dimensions of space and time as a two-
dimensional surface where massive objects create valleys and dips in the
surface. This aspect of relativity explained the phenomena of light bending
around the sun, predicted black holes as well as the background radiation left
from the Big Bang. For his work on relativity, the photoelectric effect and
blackbody radiation, Einstein received the Nobel Prize in 1921.

Theory of Relativity - Inherent Limitations

For the past century, scientists have conducted a variety of experiments to verify
the implications of the Theory of Relativity as well as advance fields such as
cosmology and particle physics. However, there is some question as to the ability
of Einstein's Theory of Relativity to describe as many physical phenomena as has
been claimed - with some scientists arguing against it entirely. Regardless, as
with any other scientific theory, it is not the absolute, entire and final description
of the universe. Because it is a scientific theory, it contains certain assumptions
and approximations of nature and ultimately, fails to describe several
phenomena altogether (i.e. electromagnetism). Unfortunately, Einstein's Theory
of Relativity, much like Darwin's Theory of Evolution, has become popularized as
a "scientific truth" because it offers a simplified explanation to the complexity
observed in the natural universe. In fact, Einstein himself spent the rest of his

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life attempting to develop a Unified Theory of Physics which would combine
electromagnetism with relativity. He was unsuccessful and to date, this task has
not been accomplished.

Theory of Relativity - Abused and Misused

In addition to being misrepresented as an undeniable fact, the Theory of
Relativity has been misapplied to areas beyond gravitational phenomena even in
the scientific community. Concerning the origin of the universe, Einstein's Theory
of Relativity is the basis for the Big Bang Theory, a theory postulating on the
origin of the universe. Likewise, Darwin's Theory of Evolution is a theory focused
on the origin of species and, ultimately, the origin of man. Yet, these two
theories are often discussed as though they are two ends of a larger unified
theory. In reality, they are not theories on a continuum, but separate theories
describing two completely different physical phenomena.
allaboutscience.org
http://www.allaboutscience.org/theory-of-relativity.htm

Nuclear Weapons:
Fission bomb: In a nuclear bomb there is a globe made of plutonium-239 or
uranium-235. In this globe there is a neutron source which only effective when
the TNT (trinitrotoluene) explodes. Because of the compression of the explosion
the critical mass of the split material is overstepped. There are nuclear bomb
which are build otherwise, but the principle is always the same. This both
materials are very expensive, because on earth we find very little plutonium so it
means that we must produce plutonium. To produce plutonium it is necessary to
bombard the natural and very cheap uranium-238 with neutrons to make
uranium-239. Uranium-239 decays to neptunium-239 and neptunium-239 decays
after a certain time to plutonium-239. You can find uranium-235 in nature, but
only in uranium-238. To split this uranium-235 from uranium-238 is very
expensive, because their chemical properties are the same so it is not possible to
split them in a chemical way. A nuclear bomb like this can have an explosion
force of 20 kilotons (20000 tons). This means that an explosion of such a bomb
is as effective as the explosion of 20 kilotons of TNT.
homepageofscientifictopics
http://www.hpwt.de/Kern2e.htm

Fusion bomb: Hydrogen bombs can reach an explosion force of 20 megatons

(20 million tons). This bombs are also knows as three-phase fuses. The fission
like in a nuclear bomb is only the first phase. In the second phase there is a
fusion between deuterium and tritium. The temperature in the second phase is
200 to 300 million degrees Celsius (much hotter than the core of the sun). The
third phase is the fission of uranium-238 which is of the outer side of the bomb.
Under these conditions the fission of uranium-238 is possible. The principle of
power plants is the same like in nuclear bombs, but without using TNT. The

13
reason why nuclear power plants do not explodes is that there are control rods
to control the number of the neutrons in the reactor. This is a controlled nuclear
chain reaction opposed to the uncontrolled nuclear chain reaction in nuclear
bombs. The nuclear power plants in the future will be fusion reactors which do
not crack heavy atomic nucleus, but fuses light atomic nucleus. Fusion is possible
today but the energy which you need for a fusion reaction is higher than the
energy you get out and this is not the sense of nuclear fusions. With fusions the
last elements of the "Periodic table of the elements" have been created, because
they not on earth. In 1999 a few physicists thought that they have discovered
the element 118 but two years later in 2001 they said that it was a mistake, so
element 114 is the last know element. In stars there are also fusions. In our sun
it is the proton cycle which you can find on the website of astronomy and
astrophysics. Now I will give an answer why we get energy from these nuclear
reactions. We must begin which Einstein's famous formula: E=mc2 (E stands for
energy, m stands for mass and c stands for the speed of light in the vacuum).
This formula makes it possible to transform mass into energy. Atomic nuclei have
different binding energies. The binding energy is the energy which holds the
nucleons together. Because of this fact there is in every atomic nucleus a mass
defect. A free proton and a free neutrons weighs more than deutrium (heavy
hydrogen, consists of one proton and one neutron). Iron has got the highest
binding energy and stands in the middle of the "Periodic table of the elements".
When somebody goes closer to this middle with fissions or fusions a part will be
transformed into energy.
homepageofscientifictopics
http://www.hpwt.de/Kern2e.htm

Atomic Energy:

Nuclear energy is energy in the nucleus (core) of an atom. Atoms are tiny
particles that make up every object in the universe. There is enormous energy in
the bonds that hold atoms together.
Nuclear energy can be used to make electricity. But first the energy must be
released. It can be released from atoms in two ways: nuclear fusion and nuclear
fission.
In nuclear fusion, energy is released when atoms are
combined or fused together to form a larger atom. This is
how the sun produces energy.
In nuclear fission, atoms are split apart to form smaller
atoms, releasing energy. Nuclear power plants use nuclear
fission to produce electricity.

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Nuclear Fuel - Uranium

The fuel most widely used by nuclear plants for nuclear fission is uranium.
Uranium is nonrenewable, though it is a common metal found in rocks all over
the world. Nuclear plants use a certain kind of uranium, U-235, as fuel because
its atoms are easily split apart. Though uranium is quite common, about 100
times more common than silver, U-235 is relatively rare. Most U.S. uranium is
mined, in the Western United States. Once uranium is mined the U-235 must be
extracted and processed before it can be used as a fuel.

During nuclear fission, a small particle called a neutron hits the uranium atom
and splits it, releasing a great amount of energy as heat and radiation. More
neutrons are also released. These neutrons go on to bombard other uranium
atoms, and the process repeats itself over and over again. This is called a chain
reaction.

Nuclear Power Plants Generate Electricity

Nuclear power accounts for about 19 percent of the total net electricity
generated in the United States, about as much as the electricity used in
California, Texas and New York, the three states with the most people. In 2006,
there were 66 nuclear power plants (composed of 104 licensed nuclear reactors)
throughout the United States.

Most power plants burn fuel to produce electricity, but not nuclear power plants.
Instead, nuclear plants use the heat given off during fission as fuel. Fission takes
place inside the reactor of a nuclear power plant. At the center of the reactor is
the core, which contains the uranium fuel.

The uranium fuel is formed into ceramic pellets. The pellets are about the size of
your fingertip, but each one produces the same amount of energy as 150 gallons
of oil. These energy-rich pellets are stacked end-to-end in 12-foot metal fuel
rods. A bundle of fuel rods is called a fuel assembly.

Fission generates heat in a reactor just as coal generates heat in a boiler. The
heat is used to boil water into steam. The steam turns huge turbine blades. As
they turn, they drive generators that make electricity. Afterward, the steam is
changed back into water and cooled in a separate structure at the power plant
called a cooling tower. The water can be used again and again.

Nuclear Power and the Environment

Compared to electricity generated by burning fossil fuels, nuclear energy is clean.
Nuclear power plants produce no air pollution or carbon dioxide but a small

15
amount of emissions result from processing the uranium that is used in nuclear
reactors.
Like all industrial processes, nuclear power generation has by-product wastes:
spent (used) fuels, other radioactive waste, and heat. Spent fuels and other
radioactive wastes are the principal environmental concern for nuclear power.
Most nuclear waste is low-level radioactive waste. It consists of ordinary tools,
protective clothing, wiping cloths and disposable items that have been
contaminated with small amounts of radioactive dust or particles. These
materials are subject to special regulations that govern their disposal so they will
not come in contact with the outside environment.
On the other hand, the spent fuel assemblies are highly radioactive and must
initially be stored in specially designed pools resembling large swimming pools
(water cools the fuel and acts as a radiation shield) or in specially designed dry
storage containers. An increasing number of reactor operators now store their
older and less spent fuel in dry storage facilities using special outdoor concrete
or steel containers with air cooling. The United States Department of Energy's
long range plan is for this spent fuel to be stored deep in the earth in a geologic
repository, at Yucca Mountain, Nevada.

eia.doe.gov
http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/non-
renewable/nuclear.html

Natural vs. man-made elements (synthetic elements):

Synthetic elements, in chemistry, radioactive elements that were not discovered
occurring in nature but as artificially produced isotopes. They are technetium (at.
no. 43), which was the first element to be synthesized, promethium (at. no. 61),
astatine (at. no. 85), francium (at. no. 87), and the transuranium elements (at.
no. 93 and beyond in the periodic table). Some of these elements have since
been shown to exist in minute amounts in nature, usually as short-lived members
of natural radioactive decay series (see radioactivity).

16
The synthetic elements through atomic number 100 (fermium) are created by
bombarding a heavy element, such as uranium or plutonium, with neutrons or
alpha particles. The synthesis of the transfermium elements (elements with
atomic number 101 or greater) is accomplished by the fusion of the nuclei of two
lighter elements. Elements 101 through 106 were first produced by fusing the
nuclei of slightly lighter elements, such as californium, with those of light
elements, such as carbon. Elements 107 through 112 were first produced by
fusing the nuclei of medium-weight elements, such as bismuth or lead, with
those of other medium-weight elements, such as iron, nickel, or zinc. Element
114 was first produced by fusing the nuclei of plutonium and calcium and
subsequently by fusing the nuclei of lead and krypton, as was element 116.
Element 115 was produced by bombarding americium with calcium, and element
113 resulted from the radioactive decay of element 115. The claim by Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory to have created element 118 has been retracted.)
The transfermium elements are produced in very small quantities (one atom at a
time), and identification is therefore very difficult because of half-lives ranging
from minutes to milliseconds and the need to identify the products by methods
other than known chemical separations. This has led to controversy over
reported discoveries and over the naming of the elements. It has been predicted
that one isotope of element 114—containing 114 protons and 184 neutrons—
would be very stable because its nucleus would have a full complement of
protons and neutrons. Termed an “island of stability,” its half-life might be
measured in years. However, none of the three isotopes of element 114
synthesized as yet have as many as 184 neutrons, and their half-lives are still in
the millisecond range.
infoplease.com
http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0847507.html

17
 Terms and Concepts
Atomic Number Atomic Mass Decay Rate
Electron Element Isotope
Neutron Neutron Mass to Energy Nuclear Reaction
Conversion
Nucleus Photon Proton
Radioactive Dating Radioactive Isotope Strong Force

18
 Nuclear Chemistry
Activity #1 - Fission: Breaking Up is Hard to Do
Fusion: Why Can't We Just Get Together?
Questions:
Motivation for Learning

What is the difference between fission and fusion? What type of reaction is
currently used in nuclear power plants? What type of reaction is used by a star?
Are all nuclear reactions dangerous?

Objectives:

Students will

• visualize the process of nuclear fusion;

• visualize the process of nuclear fission;
• identify the products of fusion and fission;
• relate nuclear reactions to the Law of Conservation of
Matter and Energy.

Teacher Notes:
Background Information

Isotopes of elements having atomic numbers greater than 80 are capable of

undergoing fission. In nuclear fission, the nucleus splits apart generating
enormous amounts of energy. When uranium 235 absorbs a neutron, fission can
occur and it breaks apart to produce two smaller nuclei, several neutrons, and a
great amount of energy. A chain reaction is produced as fission continues and
the neutrons emitted bombard more uranium 235 nuclei. Fission is utilized in
nuclear power plants and weapons.

19
Fusion is the joining of two light nuclei to produce a heavier one. Fusion is the
process that powers the sun and the stars. To make fusion occur, the atoms
must be heated to very high temperatures to have sufficient energy to fuse.
Scientists are trying to develop practical ways to use fusion for electric power
generation. If successful, the energy source would be environmentally friendly,
producing no combustion products or greenhouse gases. While fusion is a
nuclear process, the main products of the fusion reaction (helium and a neutron)
are not radioactive.

20
Student Activity
Materials
• Chocolate flavored cereal puffs
• Corn flavored cereal puffs
• Small paper cups to hold cereal
• Paper plates to place cereal pieces on during fusion/fission process

Source:
http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/outreach/8thGradeSOL/NuclearReacti
onsST.htm

Procedure
Fusion Model
1. Take 2 protons (chocolate puffs), and bring them together. In the process
of fusing, one proton decays into a neutron and gives off energy. Take 1
proton away and change it into a neutron and energy by eating the
chocolate puff (energy for you!) and placing a corn puff neutron next to
the chocolate puff proton. This is an isotope of hydrogen called
deuterium.
2. Make another atom of deuterium by the fusion process in step 1.
3. Each deuterium nucleus now fuses with another proton (add a chocolate
puff to each nuclei). The result is an isotope of Helium called He-3.
4. Now fuse the two He-3 nuclei together (you should have 4 protons and 2
neutrons in your model). This is beryllium-6, but it is unstable and
disintegrates into two individual protons and a He-4 nucleus which has 2
protons and 2 neutrons and is known as an alpha particle (represented by
the Greek letter alpha: α). Energy in the form of gamma rays
(represented by the Greek letter gamma: γ) is also given off in the
process.
5. See if you can demonstrate the whole fusion process to a classmate.

21
Fission Model
1. Begin by making a model of a Uranium-235 nucleus. You will need 92
protons and 143 neutrons. Compare the size of this nucleus to the size of
the nuclei used in the fusion process. Only very large atoms are able to
undergo fission.
2. Take an additional neutron and allow it to be absorbed by the U-235
nucleus. Now the nucleus will split apart. The result of this fission is
Krypton-92 and Barium-141and 3 neutrons and lots of energy. Split your
U-235 into a nucleus with 36 protons and 56 neutrons to form the Kr-92
and a nucleus with 56 protons and 85 neutrons to form the Ba-141. You
should have 3 neutrons left. In a nuclear reaction, the remaining 3
neutrons would trigger 3 more fission events, setting off a chain reaction.

Extensions

1. A poster can be made to illustrate the fusion process modeled in this

activity.
2. A poster can be made to illustrate the fission process modeled in this
activity.
3. Research nuclear reactors and their use of the fission process.
4. Research some of the scientists who developed using nuclear fission.

Assessment:

1. Write out a step by step explanation of the process of fission.

2. Write out a step by step explanation of the process of fusion.

3. What are the products of the fission of U-235?

4. Where does fusion naturally occur?

5. Where does the energy that is released come from in a nuclear reaction?

6. How does the Law of Conservation of Matter and Energy apply to nuclear
reactions?

22
 Nuclear Chemistry
Activity #2 - Conceptual Fission/Fusion Activity:

Questions:
Motivation for Learning
What is the difference between fission and fusion?

Objectives

Students will
• visualize the process of nuclear fusion;
• visualize the process of nuclear fission.

Teacher Notes:
Background Information
Nuclear fusion is the combining of light elements into heavier ones. Nuclear
fission is the splitting of a heavy element into smaller, lighter elements. In both of
these processes energy can be released. This demonstration with soap bubbles
is limited as a model for fission or fusion because it illustrates only the overall
concept. The elements that are missing from the soap bubble model are the
neutrons and the energy released during fission, and the protons and energy
released during fusion. A nuclear source of energy in nature is the sun. Stars
fuse hydrogen atoms into helium atoms and in this process of fusion release
energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation.

23
Student Activity
Materials
• 2 mL dish detergent (Joy or Dawn work well)
• 5 mL glycerin
• 6 mL water
• 10 mL Graduated cylinder
• Small plastic tray (approximate capacity of 100 mL, approximately 8 cm in
diameter)
• 2 pieces of wire (able to be easily bent), 25 cm in length
• Wood splint

Source:
http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/education/outreach/8thgradesol/FissionFusion.htm

Procedure
1. Use the graduated cylinder to carefully measure 2 mL dish detergent, 5
mL glycerin, and 6 mL water into the tray. Use the wood splint to stir the
liquid until it is of a uniform consistency.
2. Make two bubble wands from the wire pieces. Take each piece of wire
and form a 3-4 cm circle at the center of the length, twist the two ends
together to form the handle (see diagram).
3. Hold one wire frame in each hand. Dip the two circular wire frames in the
solution.
4. Gently blow through each wire frame to create a bubble with a diameter a
little larger than the frame, and catch the bubble on the frame.
5. Bring the frames and the bubbles together. Let the bubbles press against
each other until they form one large bubble. This illustrates the fusion
process.
6. Stretch the bubble by pulling the two frames farther apart until the bubble
separates into two bubbles, one in each frame. This demonstrates the
fission process. When this is done a little faster a small bubble may be
released, illustrating the released neutron.

24
Assessment
1. What is the name of the nuclear reaction where small elements combine to
make larger elements?

2. What is the name of the nuclear reaction where a large element splits into
smaller elements?

25
 Nuclear Chemistry
Activity #3 - Personal Exposure to Radiation

Motivation for Learning

List the answers as given by students to the following questions on the board or
a transparency:
How many useful uses of radiation can you name? (x-rays, food irradiation to
eliminate bacteria, smoke alarms, oil discovery, radio waves, TV waves,
microwaves, light, etc.).
Can radiation exposure be totally avoided? (no, there is radiation coming from
outer space and from material all around us. Our radiation exposure is higher
when we fly in airplanes.)
What are some unusual sources of radiation? (smoke alarms, concrete walls,
microwaves, TVs)
When is radiation exposure a risk worth taking? (for health reasons: x-rays for
teeth and tuberculosis, food irradiation)

Objectives
Students will
• differentiate between naturally occurring and manmade
radiation;
• identify different sources of radiation;
• compare amounts of radiation exposure from a variety of
common sources;
• identify the three forms of basic radiation protection: time,
distance, and shielding.

Teacher Notes:
Background Information
Every day we are exposed to radiation. Radiation is the process of emitting
energy in the form of particles or waves. Some forms of radiation are more
energetic (and therefore more potentially harmful) than others. The only
difference between different waves of the electromagnetic spectrum is the
frequency (or amount of energy) of each wave. X-rays are much more energetic
than radio waves. Exposure to energetic waves like x-rays should be limited.
However, people permit x-ray radiation exposure in order to locate a broken bone
or identify medical problems. Some forms of radiation exposure are unavoidable,
such as cosmic radiation from outer space.
The basic unit for measuring radiation received is the rad (roentgen absorbed
dose). One rad equals the absorption of 100 ergs (erg--a small but measurable
amount of energy) in every gram of tissue exposed to radiation. To show
biological risk, rads are converted to rems. The rem (roentgen equivalent man) is
adjusted to take into account the type of radiation absorbed and the likelihood of
damage from the different types of radiation. Exposures are normally in fractions
of a rem, so the commonly used unit of exposure is the millirem (mrem). 1 rem =

26
1000 millirem. Most scientists estimate that the average person in the United
States receives a dose of about 360 millirem of radiation per year.
See the two sites given in the Extensions for considerable additional information
about nuclear radiation, reactors, radioactive waste, etc. They have lesson plans
for teachers.

27
Student Activity

Materials
• Ionizing Radiation Exposure to the Public Chart
• Student Activity Sheet: Average Personal Radiation Dose

Source:
http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/outreach/8thgradesol/RadiationExposureFrm.htm
http://www.nrc.gov/

Procedure
1. Have students list 3 sources of radiation that they think have the most
potential danger.
2. Explain that naturally occurring radiation has always been present. Show
the chart that lists types of naturally occurring radiation.
3. Describe sources of manmade radiation.
4. Explain the units for radiation exposure: rem and millirem.
5. Have each student fill in their own activity sheet.
6. Allow students to compare sources of radiation that they thought were
most dangerous to the chart of radiation exposure doses. How does
nuclear energy risk compare to other forms of exposure?

28
29
Activity Sheet

Average Personal Radiation Dose

Every day each of us is exposed to radiation: ultraviolet light from the sun, x-rays,
warmth from other people, and a vast spectrum of electromagnetic waves. Some
of these are very high energy and potentially dangerous. Exposure to these
should be limited. Some radiation exposure is unavoidable, such as the cosmic
radiation from space. Some radiation is permitted for medical or health benefits.
Use the information below to calculate your exposure to radiation for the past
calendar year. This is only an estimated value.
Type of Radiation Amount of Radiation in mrem
From Space
Cosmic radiation at sea level - 26 26
For your elevation (in feet) add:
1000 feet add 2
2000 feet add 5
3000 feet add 9
4000 feet add 15
From the Ground 16
(for the Atlantic Gulf Coastal
Plain)
From Food, Water and Air 24
From Building Materials
If you live in a wooden structure -
5
If you live in a brick structure -7
From Jet Plane Travel
For each 2500 miles add 1
From Nuclear Fuel Plants
Average dose is .1 mrem if there
are one or more plants in your
state.
Virginia has two nuclear plants.
From Radioactive Waste
Disposal
Average US dose is 1.0

30
From Medical Diagnosis
x-rays: chest - 6
pelvis and hips - 65
arms, hands, legs, feet - 1
skull, head, neck - 20
mammogram - 400
From Cigarette Smoke
If you are exposed to cigarette
smoke on a regular basis add
100-500
(Add 500 if you are exposed
every day for 8 hours or more)
If you smoke one pack of
cigarettes or more a day add
1500

TOTAL

Extensions

The United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission has a teacher lesson site that
can be downloaded. It contains the figure that we have in this site.

http://www.nrc.gov/

Assessment
1. Each student should complete a Personal Radiation Dose worksheet.
2. Students can report out on their personal radiation worksheets in front of
the class.

31
 Nuclear Chemistry
Activity #4 - Alpha Particle Lab
Question:
What is an alpha particle and how are they emitted?
Objective:
The purpose of this experiment is to find the range of alpha particles and
determine if the inverse square law applies.
Teacher/student notes:
Introduction
An alpha particle is a nucleus of a helium-4 atom. It has two protons and
two neutrons with an atomic mass of 4. The new nucleus that results from alpha
decay will have a mass and charge different from those of the parent nucleus. A
nucleus which undergoes alpha decay transforms into a new element. This
process is called transmutation.
The atomic number changes from 106 to 104. Measurements show that the sum
of the masses of the daughter nucleus and the alpha particle is less than the
mass of the parent isotope. Recalling Einstein's formula E=mc2, this loss of mass
is converted into energy. This form of energy is a positively charged particle
moving at high speed. It is easily stopped by paper or your hand.
In this experiment the distances are 0.5 cm, 1.0 cm, 1.5 cm, and 2.0 cm.
Data point one equals 0.5 cm. Thus data point two equals 1.0 cm and so on.

Materials:
• Geiger counter
• rail tracker
• Po-210 (alpha source)
• stop watch/beeper
• counting paper or hand counter
Sources:
C:\Documents and Settings\osmtech4\Desktop\Experiment #2 Alpha Please
Leave Home.htm
Real world Connection: Radiation is everywhere and it is a natural process.

32
Procedure:
1. Place alpha radiation source into hole on wooden block of rail tracker.
2. Set digital Geiger counter to one minute intervals and turn power on.
Allow the instrument to warm up for a few minutes.
3. Record background activity.
4. Place the instrument on the slider, 0.5 cm from the source.
5. Record counts per minute (cpm) in Table 2.1 for each trial and calculate
the average.
6. Move Geiger counter and slider to 1.0 cm from source. Repeat step 5.
7. Move Geiger counter to 1.5 cm and repeat step 5.
8. Move Geiger counter to 2.0 cm and again repeat step 5.
9. Calculate the uncertainty *. Record the calculation in column 8 of Table
2.1. The number following the plus or minus will indicate the error of the
measurement.

*Formula for the uncertainty of the number of counts

Uncertainty (counts / time) =

Data

(1/r2) average
Distance Data 2 Trial Trial Trial Average Uncertainty
r count of first
(cm) Points 1 2 3 (cpm) (cpm)
data point
0.5 1 1
1.0 2 4
1.5 3 9
2.0 4 16

1. Graph the activity readings (cpm) vs. distance.

2. Graph the activity readings (cpm) vs. 1/r2.

33
Assessment:
Questions
1. At what distance did the alpha radiation count equal that of the
background count?
2. What is the charge of the alpha particle? How do you know this?
3. List several reasons why the alpha particle does not travel more than
several centimeters.
Going Further
1. What is the mass of an alpha particle compared to an electron?
2. Using "Chart of Nuclides," what distinguishes the daughter isotopes and
the particles emitted from each other?

34
 Nuclear Chemistry
Activity # 5 - The Radioactive Decay of "Pennium"
Question:
What is the half-life of the fictitious radioisotope "pennium"?

Objectives:
To understand the concept of isotopes and radioactive decay.

Sources:
Adapted from Glencoe’s Chemistry: Concepts and Applications

Materials:
100 pennies per group
Plastic cups
1 box per group

Procedure
1. Count 100 pennies. Put them back into the plastic cup.
2. Pour the pennies into the box.
3. Cover the box and shake up and down 20 times while timing this decay
process. Record your time in seconds. Assume each decay process takes
this same amount of time, so keep adding on this number of seconds to
the last time in the table.
4. Uncover the box. Remove all the pennies that are tails up. They
represent atoms that have under gone radioactive decay.
5. Count the heads up pennies as you put them back into the plastic cup.
These are the undecayed atoms. Record your data in the data table.
6. Repeat steps 4-5 until you have no pennies left.
Data
Time Number of Undecayed Atoms
(seconds) (heads up pennies)
0 100

35
Graph your data. Place the time on the X-axis and the number of undecayed
atoms on the Y-axis. Be sure to label the X and Y-axis. Give your graph a title.
Use the entire graph.

36
Assessment:
Analyze and Conclude

1. Define half-life.

2. What is the half-life of pennium in your experiment?

3. Explain how you arrived at the number in question 2.

Apply and Assess

1. a. Does exactly the same fraction of pennium atoms decay during each
half-life?

b. What does this suggest about half-life?

2. Why are such variations not likely to be obvious when actual atoms are
involved?

37
 Nuclear Chemistry
Activity #6 - Candy Half Life
Questions:
Motivation for Learning
How fast does a radioactive isotope decay? How long will it take for a sample
to completely transmutate (change) into a new element?

Objectives
Students will
• define the terms isotope and radioactive isotope;
• understand the concept of half-life;
• use the following skills: observing and recording data (observations),
inferring from observations, graphing.

Teacher Notes:
Background Information
Most elements have atoms that come in two or more forms called isotopes.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element, but with different atomic masses.
This occurs because different isotopes have different numbers of neutrons.
For example, hydrogen has three isotopes that are listed in the table below.
Isotope:
Hydrogen Deuterium Tritium
Atomic Number 1 1 1
Atomic Mass 1 2 3
# Protons 1 1 1
# Neutrons 0 1 2
Some isotopes are unstable or radioactive. For instance, in the example
above, tritium is an unstable isotope of hydrogen. Radioactive isotopes slowly
decompose by discarding part of the nucleus. This nuclear decomposing
process is called nuclear decay. The length of time required for half of the
isotope to decay is the substance's half-life. Each radioactive isotope takes
its own particular amount of time to decay. However, when the amount of
remaining isotope is plotted against time, the resulting curve for every
radioisotope has the same general appearance.

38
Teacher Preparation
1. Purchase a box of resealable plastic bags.
2. Purchase large bags of candy that have one side labeled (Plain M&Ms and
Skittles work well).
3. M&Ms and Skittles will work as is, but you could also buy those M&Ms that
are sold around a certain major winter holiday - the one closest to New
Year's. These M&Ms come in only two colors (red and green) which could
signify atoms of different elements. The idea here is to get more than one
variety of flat candy that is labeled on one side.
4. This lab requires that the students have some knowledge of atomic
structure.

Materials
• 100 candy pieces (The amount of pieces of candy can be adjusted based
on the size of the lab group. Give each lab group a distinct kind of candy.)
• Resealable bag
• Stop watch or visible clock that displays seconds
• Graph paper

Sources:
http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/outreach/8thgradesol/CandyHalfLifeFrm.htm

39
Student Activity
Procedure
1. Place atoms (candy pieces) in the bag.
2. Seal the bag and gently shake for the specific amount of time that
corresponds to the half-life of your candy.
Half-life of M&Mium (M&Ms) is 1 minute.
Half-life of Skittlium (Skittles) is 2 minutes.
3. Gently pour out candy.
4. Count the number of pieces with the print side up. These atoms have
"decayed."
5. Return only the pieces with the print side down to the bag. Reseal the
bag.
6. Record the time. (For M&Ms it would be 10 seconds on the first trial. On
the second trial it would be 20 seconds (10 + 10). On the third trial it
would be 30 seconds (10 + 10 + 10) and so on).
7. Consume the "decayed" atoms.
8. Gently shake the sealed bag again for the prescribed amount of time.
9. Continue shaking, counting, and consuming until all the atoms have
decayed.
10. Graph the number of undecayed atoms vs. time.

40
 Half- # of Undecayed # of Decayed
Total Time
Life Atoms Atoms
0 0
0

10

Using a whole sheet of graph paper and the data above, make a
graph with time on the x-axis and number of atoms on the y-axis.

Extensions
Repeat the experiment starting with 50 atoms and 75 pieces of candy.
Compare the resulting graphs. (The graphs can be plotted on the same paper
used for the first graph.

41
Assessment
(Please write complete sentences):

1. Define half-life in your own words.

1. In the experiment, what was the half-life of the isotope M&Mium?
Skittlium?

3. At the end of 2 half-lives, what fraction of the atoms had not decayed?

4. Describe the shape of the curve from the graph of your data?

5. As a class, compare and contrast the graphs made by the different lab
groups.

42
Answers to Assessment
1. Half-life is the length of time required for one half of the isotope to decay.
2. The half-life of M&Mium in this activity was 10 seconds. The half-life of
Skittlium in this activity was 20 seconds.
3. At the end of two half-lives 1/4 of the original sample remained; 3/4 of the
sample had decayed into a new element.
4. The graph is a decreasing logarithmic curve.
5. The graphs will be almost the same.

43
 Nuclear Chemistry
Activity #7 - Protection from Radiation

Questions:
Motivation for Learning
What are nuclear reaction products? Are all forms of radiation equal? What types
of protection exist for exposure to radiation? Ask the students some of these
questions and try to obtain a response. What do they know about radiation?
Most of them will think it is bad. Some of them may know that radiation is used
to treat some forms of cancer, and from that standpoint, is considered good.

Objectives
Students will
• define alpha particles, beta particles, gamma waves;
• compare penetrating ability of alpha particles, beta
particles, gamma waves;
• identify various types of protective shielding for radiation;
• identify hazards presented by radiation

Teacher Notes:
Background Information
Radiation is energy being emitted in the form of particles or waves. Radiation is
emitted from atoms and nuclei that are changing their energy states. Most
radiation is naturally occurring; some radiation is manmade. In general, the
following kinds of radiation are monitored for purposes of radiation protection:
alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, x-rays and neutrons.

Illustration used by permission of the Uranium Information Centre, Melbourne,

Australia

44
An alpha particle (a) consists of two protons and two neutrons (a helium
nucleus). It has a relatively large mass and a positive charge. Alpha particles are
easily shielded by a piece of paper or human skin. Therefore, health effects of
alpha exposure occur only when the particles are inhaled, ingested, or enter the
body through a cut in the skin. More serious would be a material that is
radioactive (alpha emitter) that is ingested into the body. The alpha particles
emitted inside the body, for example in bone marrow, can be exceedingly
dangerous.
Beta particles (b) are fast electrons produced following nuclear decay of certain
radioactive materials. The amount of energy (speed) that a beta particle contains
determines its penetrating capacity. Six millimeters of aluminum are needed to
stop most b particles.
Gamma rays (g), an electromagnetic wave, are similar in form to visible light and
radio waves. However, gamma waves are very energetic and have a far shorter
wavelength. Gamma rays are produced from radioactive decay, in nuclear
reactions, and in fission. Gamma rays are dangerous because they have great
penetrating ability. Several millimeters of lead are needed to stop g rays.

Various types of shielding for different nuclear particles

Illustration used by permission of the Uranium Information Centre, Melbourne,
Australia
Radiation is measured in two units - rads and rems. A rad stands for "radiation
absorbed dose" and measures the amount of energy that is actually absorbed
per unit mass. A rem stands for "roentgen equivalent man" and is a unit that
measures the absorbed dose in human tissue and relates it to the effective
damage done to your tissue. It is significant because not all radiation has the
same biological effect. The radioactivity of a source is usually measured in how
many rads or rems you would receive per hour; a Geiger counter normally
measures radiation in millirems per hour (mr/hr).
X-rays have the same characteristics as gamma ways, but they are produced
differently. In 1895, Wilhelm Roentgen observed that when high-speed electrons
hit metals, the electrons stopped and released an electromagnetic wave. He
named this energy wave an x ray.

45
Neutrons are released during the nuclear fission process and during certain
nuclear reactions. Neutrons trigger the nuclear chain reaction. Neutrons do not
carry an electrical charge. However, when the neutrons hit the nucleus of
hydrogen (a constituent of water molecules in cells), ionizations that can lead to
damage can occur.
There are three basic forms of protection from radiation: time, distance and
shielding. The amount of time spent near a source of radiation affects the
amount of exposure received. The farther the distance from the radiation source,
the less the amount of exposure will be. A shield (specific to the type of
radiation) can limit the exposure to radiation.
When dealing with radiation, it is important for scientists to know where it exists,
and how much is present. A Geiger counter is an instrument that does just this -
it detects when radiation is present, and tells us how much is present by
electronically counting the number of radioactive particles that interact with the
counter. It is useful because it can measure very low levels of radioactivity.
To know how it works, you must first be familiar with the construction of a
common Geiger counter. The counter uses a metal tube usually containing a wire
at the center with high voltage and a gas that is ionized by particles passing
through it. The ionized particles are collected as a current, and the electronics
inside the box amplifies the pulse to where it can be recorded.
Geiger counters are more useful for detecting beta particles and gammas. Most
counters cannot detect alpha particles. Remember that alpha particles are easily
shielded. For this reason, the Geiger counter tube has to be made with a special
window, or else the window itself will block the alpha particles and they won't be
detected. Secondly, the counter must be held steady for several seconds at the
same distance in order for us to obtain a good reading. Moving the counter
around will change the number of particles that enter the tube; so make sure
that you hold the tube the same distance from each object that you are trying to
measure, or else your results will not be accurate. A third disadvantage of a
Geiger counter is that it cannot measure very high amounts of radiation; in fact,
the machine can be damaged if you expose it to an extremely high radiation, but
that is unlikely in our case.

46
An excellent Geiger counter to use in student experiments is the CD V-700,
because thousands of them were made in the 50s and 60s for civil defense. The
American Nuclear Society gives each teacher a Geiger counter who takes their
workshop. Another similar instrument is called a Survey Meter. A survey meter is
similar to a Geiger counter, except that it is used to measure very high levels of
radiation. However, a survey meter cannot measure very low levels of radiation,
so it is not very useful in classroom experiments.

47
Student Activity
Materials
• Geiger counter
• Radioactive sources such as:
o Gas lantern mantle
o Fiesta ware pottery (orange glaze)
o Luminescent clock face
o Smoke detector
o Commercially available radioactive source from science supplier
• Shielding materials such as:
o Paper
o Aluminum foil
o Brick
o Jar of water
o Piece of wood
o Sheet of lead
Source:
http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/outreach/8thgradesol/RadiationProtectionFrm.ht
m

Procedure
1. Set up the Geiger counter according to the unit's instructions; be sure it is
calibrated.
2. Test each source item by placing the item 5 cm away from the Geiger
counter probe. Keep the probe steady for 15 seconds, and find the
average reading on the meter. The needle will shift around some, so
choose a value in the middle of its oscillations. Record your findings in the
data table.
3. Select the three source items with the highest readings. One at a time,
place the source far enough away from the Geiger counter probe so that
you will be able to fit the thickest piece of shielding in between the probe
and the source. Test each of the shielding materials by placing them
between the source and the counter. Follow the same procedure as in
step 2 when taking the reading. Remember to keep the probe at the same
distance for each measurement. Record your findings in the data table
along with the thickness of each type of shielding that you use.
4. Answer the questions on the worksheet after you have recorded your
findings.

48
Data Table
Without Jar of
Source Paper Aluminum Brick Wood Lead
Shielding Water

Gas lantern
mantel
Fiesta ware
pottery

Luminescent
clock face

Smoke detector

49
Questions
1. Which item had the highest reading?

2. Which item had the lowest reading?

3. Do you think the density of the shield was important? Why?

4. Do you think the thickness of the shield was important? Why?

Extensions
1. Do experiments for different thickness of the same absorbing material.
2. Do the experiment for various distances from the source. Make a graph
and describe the result.

Assessment
1. Each student should complete a data table and the questions on the
worksheet.
2. If you were designing a building to protect the occupants from alpha
particles, what type of shielding would you need to consider?
3. If you were designing a building (or a room) to protect the workers from
beta particles, what type of shielding would you include in your project?
4. Why do x-ray technicians stand behind a lead barrier when they take an
x-ray of someone?

50
Nuclear Chemistry Activity #8

51
52
Links:
53
 Resources for Chemistry Teachers
Resource List
http://www.hschem.org/Resources/links.htm

lab safety article

http://www.cpsc.gov/CPSCPUB/PUBS/NIOSH2007107.pdf

Nuclear Chemistry
http://www.nclark.net/NuclearChem

Chemistry Resources Topics

http://www.chemtopics.com/unit11/unit11.htm

Chemistry: The Science In Context

http://www2.wwnorton.com/college/chemistry/gilbert/tutorials/ch2.
htm

Cheap smoke detector and lantern mantle have radiation sources that can be
used.

Uncontrolled and controlled nuclear reaction demonstration

Materials: matches, ring-stand, metal bar, clamp

Tape the open match packs in a line on the metal bar and clamp the metal bar to
the ring-stand. Light the lowest match and watch the reaction propagate from
the bottom up. This represents an uncontrolled nuclear reaction like a nuclear
bomb. To represent a controlled nuclear reaction (like a nuclear power plant)
interstice “blank matches” (matches with the head removed) between normal
matches. This will allow you to control the reaction by controlling the rate of
propagation. These “blank matches” represent control rods in a nuclear reactor.
Be sure to do this demonstration in a fume hood or in a well-ventilated area as it
produces copious amounts of smoke.

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Nuclear Energy Worksheet #1

1. Approximately when did scientists first cause fission?

2. Give two nuclear fission reactions:

3. Name the only naturally-occurring isotope that undergoes fission.

4. How does the amount of energy produced by fission compare to the energy
released by ordinary chemical reactions?

5. In ordinary chemical and physical reactions changes, there is no overall

change in the total ________; there also is no change in the total __________.

6. In nuclear reactions a lot of energy is released as the total _________

decreases.

7. If one gram of matter were completely converted into energy (according to

Einstein's famous equation E = mc2), the amount of energy would equal what?

8. Each time a nucleus undergoes fission, two or three ____________ are

emitted.

9. Suppose you have some fissionable material. What would be true if you have
a critical mass of it?

10. How many commercial nuclear power plants are producing electricity in the
U.S.?

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11. What percent of the U.S. electricity is generated in nuclear power plants?

12. In most nuclear power plants the heat energy released from fission is used to
do what?

13. How often are fuel rods loaded into a nuclear reactor?

14. What percent of the uranium atoms in reactor fuel are fissionable U-235
atoms?

15. What percent of the uranium atoms in atom bombs are fissionable U-235
atoms?

16. The U in fuel rods is in what chemical compound?

17. What do control rods do to the neutrons that zoom around in a nuclear
reactor?
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Nuclear Fusion Worksheet

1. Nuclear fusion involves the formation of a new, more _________ atom by

forcing two less-_________ nuclei to combine.

2. The energy released from fusion can be enormous due to the conversion of
__________ into __________.

3. In the sun, hydrogen begins to "fuse" when the temperature reaches WHAT?

4. What force causes the temperature of a star to get so high?

5. The energy released when 1 gram of H-1 fuses equals WHAT?

6. What is the ONLY use people have made of the energy of fusion?

7. A hydrogen bomb is called a ____________ device.

8. How long have scientists been trying to harness fusion to produce electricity?

9. What remains as the biggest problem with controlling fusion?

10. Is there any problem with scarcity of fuel for fusion?

11. WHAT would cause the containment wall (of a fusion reactor) to become
radioactive?

12. Since the containment wall (and other parts of the reactor) can become
radioactive, how does the expected volume of radioactive waste produced by
fusion compare with the volume of waste produced by fission?
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