Joshua Urbano

BPE203
“STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM THEORY”
Structural functionalism, or simply functionalism, is "a framework for building theory that
sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and
stability".This approach looks at society through a macro-level orientation, which is a broad
focus on the social structures that shape society as a whole and believes that society has evolved
like organisms. This approach looks at both social structure and social functions. Functionalism
addresses society as a whole in terms of the function of its constituent elements;
namely norms, customs, traditions, and institutions.A common analogy, popularized by Herbert
Spencer, presents these parts of society as "organs" that work toward the proper functioning of
the "body" as a whole. In the most basic terms, it simply emphasizes "the effort to impute, as
rigorously as possible, to each feature, custom, or practice, its effect on the functioning of a
supposedly stable, cohesive system". For Talcott Parsons, "structural-functionalism" came to
describe a particular stage in the methodological development of social science, rather than a
specific school of thought. In the late 19th century French Sociologist Émile Durkheim laid the
primary foundations of Structural Functionalism. ... Later the focus for structural
functionalism changed to be more about the ways that social institutions in society meet the
social needs of individuals within that society.

1. Theological stage: From the beginning of human history until the end of the
European Middle Ages, people took a religious view that society expressed God's
will. In the theological state, the human mind, seeking the essential nature of beings, the
first and final causes (the origin and purpose) of all effects—in short, absolute
knowledge—supposes all phenomena to be produced by the immediate action of
supernatural beings.
2. Metaphysical stage: People began seeing society as a natural system as opposed to the
supernatural. This began with enlightenment and the ideas of Hobbes, Locke, and
Rousseau. Perceptions of society reflected the failings of a selfish human nature rather
than the perfection of God.
3. Positive or scientific stage: Describing society through the application of the scientific
approach, which draws on the work of scientists.
 “CRITICAL THEORY”
Critical theory is the reflective assessment and critique of society and culture by applying
knowledge from the social sciences and the humanities. Critical theory has origins
in sociology and also in literary criticism. The sociologist Max Horkheimer described a theory as
critical insofar as it seeks "to liberate human beings from the circumstances that enslave
them."]In sociology and political philosophy, the term "Critical Theory" describes the Western
Marxist philosophy of the Frankfurt School, which was developed in Germany in the 1930s. This
use of the term requires proper noun capitalization, whereas "a critical theory" or "a critical
social theory" may have similar elements of thought, but not stress its intellectual lineage
specifically to the Frankfurt School. Frankfurt School critical theorists drew on the critical
methods of Karl Marx and Sigmund Freud. Critical theory maintains that ideology is the
principal obstacle to human liberation. Critical theory was established as a school of thought
primarily by the Frankfurt School theoreticians Herbert Marcuse, Theodor Adorno, Max
Horkheimer, Walter Benjamin, and Erich Fromm. Modern critical theory has additionally been
influenced by György Lukács and Antonio Gramsci, as well as the second generation Frankfurt
School scholars, notably Jürgen Habermas. In Habermas's work, critical theory transcended its
theoretical roots in German idealism and progressed closer to American pragmatism. Concern
for social "base and superstructure" is one of the remaining Marxist philosophical concepts in
much of contemporary critical theory. Postmodern critical theory politicizes social problems "by
situating them in historical and cultural contexts, to implicate themselves in the process of
collecting and analyzing data, and to relativize their findings." Critical theory was established
as a school of thought primarily by the Frankfurt School theoreticians Herbert Marcuse, Theodor
Adorno, Max Horkheimer, Walter Benjamin, and Erich Fromm. ... In Habermas's work, critical
theory transcended its theoretical roots in German idealism and progressed closer to American
pragmatism.
TYPES:
1. Traditional Literary Criticism
2. Formalism and New Criticism
3. Marxism and Critical Theory
4. Structuralism and Poststructuralism
5. New Historicism and Cultural Materialism
6. Ethnic Studies and Postcolonial Criticism
7. Gender Studies and Queer Theory
8. Cultural Studies
9. References and Further Reading
a. General Works on Theory
b. Literary and Cultural Theory
 “SYMBOLIC INTERATIONIST THEORY”

Symbolic interactionism is a sociological theory that develops from practical considerations

and alludes to people's particular utilization of dialect to make images and normal implications,
for deduction and correspondence with others. In other words, it is a frame of reference to better
understand how individuals interact with one another to create symbolic worlds, and in return,
how these worlds shape individual behaviors. It is a framework that helps understand how
society is preserved and created through repeated interactions between individuals. The
interpretation process that occurs between interactions help create and recreate meaning. It is the
shared understanding and interpretations of meaning that affect the interaction between
individuals. Individuals act on the premise of a shared understanding of meaning within their
social context. Thus, interaction and behavior is framed through the shared meaning that objects
and concepts have attached to them.Symbolic interactionism comes from
a sociological perspective which developed around the middle of the twentieth century and that
continues to be influential in some areas of the discipline. It is particularly important
in microsociology and social psychology. It is derived from the American philosophy
of pragmatism and particularly from the work of George Herbert Mead, as a pragmatic method to
interpret social interactions. Two other theorists who have influenced symbolic interaction theory
are Yrjö Engeström and David Middleton. Engeström and Middleton explained the usefulness of
symbolic interactionism in the communication field in a variety of work settings, including
"courts of law, health care, computer software design, scientific laboratory, telephone sales,
control, repair, and maintenance of advanced manufacturing systems".Other scholars credited for
their contribution to the theory are Thomas, Park, James, Horton Cooley, Znaniecki, Baldwin,
Redfield, and Wirth. Unlike other social sciences, symbolic interactionism emphasizes greatly on
the ideas of action instead of culture, class and power. According
 to behaviorism, Darwinism, pragmatism, as well as Max Weber, action theory contributed
significantly to the formation of social interactionism as a theoretical perspective
in communication studies.
TYPES:
Three assumptions frame symbolic interactionism:
 Individuals construct meaning via the communication process.
 Self-concept is a motivation for behavior.
 A unique relationship exists between the individual and society.

“CONFLICT THEORY”
Conflict theories are perspectives in sociology and social psychology that emphasize
a materialist interpretation of history, dialectical method of analysis, a critical stance toward
existing social arrangements, and political program of revolution or, at least, reform. Conflict
theories draw attention to power differentials, such as class conflict, and generally contrast
historically dominant ideologies. It is therefore a macro-level analysis of society.Karl Marx is the
father of the social conflict theory, which is a component of the four major paradigms of
sociology. Certain conflict theories set out to highlight the ideological aspects inherent in
traditional thought. While many of these perspectives hold parallels, conflict theory does
not refer to a unified school of thought, and should not be confused with, for instance, peace and
conflict studies, or any other specific theory of social conflict.

Feminist theory: An approach that recognizes women's political, social, and economic equality to
men.

 Postmodern theory: An approach that is critical of modernism, with a mistrust of grand

theories and ideologies.
 Post-structural theory
 Postcolonial theory
 Queer theory: A growing body of research findings that challenges the heterosexual bias in
Western society.
 World systems theory
 Race-Conflict Approach: A point of view that focuses on inequality and conflict between
people of different racial and ethnic categories.[19]