Sex Roles, Vol. 51, Nos.

11/12, December 2004 (

C 2004)

DOI: 10.1007/s11199-004-0722-1

Sociocultural Influences on Body Image Concerns and Body

Change Strategies Among Indigenous and Non-Indigenous
Australian Adolescent Girls and Boys

Lina A. Ricciardelli,1,3 Marita P. McCabe,1 Kylie Ball,2 and David Mellor1

Sociocultural messages about the ideal body build have been studied predominantly among
White adolescent girls. In the current study we examined the relationships between perceived
sociocultural influences, body image concerns, and body change strategies among 47 (22 boys
and 25 girls) Indigenous Australian adolescents. These relationships were compared to those
from 47 non-Indigenous adolescents (predominantly from an Anglo-Saxon background), who
were matched on gender, age, and school grade. Overall, the sociocultural influences were
found to be associated with body image concerns and body change strategies among both
cultural groups. The only exception was that the sociocultural influences were not associated
with the Indigenous girls’ levels of body dissatisfaction or body image importance. These
findings are discussed in relation to past studies of White and Black girls.

KEY WORDS: body image concerns; sociocultural influences; indigenous Australian adolescents.

The study of the messages transmitted by the One of the main limitations of this current body
media, the family, and peers is one framework for of research is that the identified social forces have
examining the impact of sociocultural influences and been studied predominantly among White adoles-
gender on the development of body image concerns cent girls and women, where the thin ideal body
and body change strategies among adolescents. For size is valued more highly than it is in other cultural
the most part, these social forces promote the thin groups (Molloy & Herzberger, 1998). There is little
ideal for girls, as society equates thinness with beauty theoretical or empirical work on actual or perceived
and attractiveness in women (Murnen, Smolak, Mills, messages transmitted by the media, the family, and
& Good, 2003; Striegel-Moore, Silberstein, & Rodin, peers and the impact that these messages have on
1986; Thompson & Heinberg, 1999). The cultural body image concerns and body change strategies in
messages transmitted by the same sources primar- other cultures, particularly cultures that are likely to
ily reinforce the pursuit of muscularity for adoles- be accepting of a greater diversity of body sizes and
cent boys, as the attainment of a large and mus- those that place value on larger body sizes. However,
cular body is tied to cultural views of masculinity it would be expected that the social messages trans-
and the masculine gender role, which prescribe that mitted in these other cultural groups would reflect
men be powerful, strong, and efficacious (McCabe the greater acceptance and tolerance of larger body
& Ricciardelli, 2004; Mishkind, Rodin, Silberstein, & sizes.
Striegel-Moore, 1986). One cultural group that has consistently been
shown to be less likely to adopt the thin ideal
1 School of Psychology, Deakin University, Burwood, Victoria, for women is African Americans (e.g., Abrams &
Australia. Stormer, 2002; Gray, Ford, & Kelly, 1987; Poran,
2 School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences.
3 To whom correspondence should be addressed at School of 2002). In comparison to White women, Black women
Psychology, Deakin University, Burwood Highway, Burwood, have a more positive attitude toward larger body
3125, Victoria, Australia; e-mail: [email protected]. sizes, and they are less likely to equate beauty

731 0360-0025/04/1200-0731/0

C 2004 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc.
732 Ricciardelli, McCabe, Ball, and Mellor

with thinness (Gray et al., 1987). In comparison to had similar or more positive views of their own
White Americans, both adolescent and adult Black bodies, weight, and health than those in the normal
American women have been found to report lower weight range (Brewis et al., 1998). Similarly, in
levels of body dissatisfaction, less internalisation of another study, Samoan women reported feeling
the thin ideal, and less interest in pursuing the ideal fitter, stronger, and more attractive than Australian
feminine physique as portrayed in the media (Duke, women of the same weight (Wilkinson, Ben-Tovim,
2000). Black women are also more likely than White & Walker, 1994).
women to report that they would rather be a little Other cultural groups that are known to have
overweight than a little underweight, and their diet- large body sizes and high levels of obesity are In-
ing attempts are more realistic and less extreme than digenous people in the United States (Eisenmann,
White women’s attempts (Molloy & Herzberger, Arnall, Kanuho, & McArel, 2003), Canada (Hanley
1998). Fewer researchers have targeted adolescent et al., 2000), and Australia (House of Representa-
or adult Black men. In one study, Black adoles- tives Standing Committee on Family and Community
cent boys were found to be more satisfied with their Affairs, 2000). There has been limited research on
weight and proud of their bodies than were White body image concerns among these cultural groups,
adolescent boys (Story, French, Resnick, & Blum, and the findings from studies that have targeted Na-
1995). However, other studies have shown no dif- tive Americans have not been consistent. One study
ferences in body image concerns between White showed that American Indian girls were more sat-
and Black men (Adams et al., 2000; Field et al., isfied with their body image than White girls were
1999). (Bronner, 1996), but another study showed no dif-
Interacting with other heavier women, who may ferences (Snow & Harris, 1989). In contrast, other
not denigrate their weight as much as women who researchers have found that body image concerns
are thinner or place greater importance on thinness, and weight loss strategies are more prevalent among
is likely to be a powerful force that promotes higher American Indian adolescents than among White
levels of satisfaction with body size and appear- adolescents (Smith & Kreci, 1991; Story et al., 1995).
ance in the African American community (Bowen, In a recent study we compared body image concerns
Tomoyasu, & Cauce, 1991). Direct support for this and body change strategies in Indigenous Australian
view was found by Parker et al. (1995). In their study, and non-Indigenous adolescents and also found con-
African American women reported having very sup- flicting results (McCabe, Ricciardelli, Mellor, & Ball,
portive relationships with others. These relationships 2003). Although Indigenous Australian adolescent
were not based on social comparisons and competi- girls reported less body dissatisfaction than non-
tion. In addition, the families and communities of the Indigenous girls, both Indigenous adolescent boys
African American women supported their appear- and girls engaged in more body change strategies
ance and style, and also appreciated a fuller figure. to lose weight and increase muscles than did non-
Older Black women who are more accepting of their Indigenous adolescents.
weight and body size are also likely to serve as role Clearly, further research is needed to under-
models for Black adolescent girls (Adams et al., stand more fully the nature of body image concerns
2000). In fact, one study showed that Black adoles- and body change strategies among Indigenous and
cent girls were more influenced by immediate family other understudied cultural groups. A comparison of
members and adult role models, whereas White ado- the perceptions of the messages transmitted by the
lescent girls were more influenced by their peers and media, the family, and peers among Indigenous and
the media (Parnell et al., 1996). Two other studies non-Indigenous adolescents is one way of further ex-
have also shown that Black women see themselves as ploring these cultural differences.
less affected by media messages than White women
do (Duke, 2000; Poran, 2002).
Samoans are another cultural group that values The Present Study
a larger body size (Pollock, 1995). Although the
preoccupation with thinness is increasing among The primary focus of the present study was
Samoan women, most Samoan women perceive on the relationship between perceived sociocultural
“normal weight” to be a larger body size than that influences and both body image concerns and body
selected by Western groups (Brewis, McGarvey, change strategies among Indigenous Australian ado-
Jones, & Swinburn, 1998). Those defined as obese lescent girls and boys. Body dissatisfaction, body
Body Image Concerns 733

image importance, and body change strategies, which background, were drawn from our earlier cross-
included strategies to lose weight and strategies to in- sectional study (Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2001a).
crease muscles, were evaluated. The nature of these The adolescents were aged between 12 and 16
associations were compared to those found among years. The mean age of the boys and girls was
a subgroup of non-Indigenous Australian adoles- 14.02 years (SD = 1.10) and 14.00 years (SD = 1.37),
cents drawn from our earlier work (Ricciardelli & respectively.
McCabe, 2001a).
Given the current limited knowledge base for
Indigenous adolescents, the rationale for the study Measures
was more exploratory and empirical than theoretical.
However, this type of research is needed if we are to Body Image Concerns and Body Change Strategies
develop a framework for understanding how culture
may moderate sociocultural messages for both young Four subscales from the body image and body
women and men. The study was guided by previous change inventory (Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2001b,
research with Black adolescent girls. As Indigenous 2002) were employed: body dissatisfaction (7 items),
Australians resemble Blacks in their larger body sizes body image importance (7 items), strategies to de-
(McMurray et al., 2000), we examined whether In- crease weight (6 items), and strategies to increase
digenous girls were also similar to Black girls in their muscles (6 items). Body dissatisfaction assessed re-
perceptions of sociocultural messages about weight spondents’ attitudes toward seven body parts (hips,
concerns. Black adolescent girls have been found to thighs, chest, abdominal region/stomach, shoulders,
be less influenced by their peers but more influenced legs, and arms). Body image importance included the
by adult role models who are less likely to promote same body parts, but respondents indicated the im-
weight loss behaviors (Parnell et al., 1996). In ad- portance they placed on each. Strategies to decrease
dition, Black girls have also been found to be less weight assessed behaviors and cognitions relating to
affected by media messages, as the media tend to eating practices and the use of exercise to lose weight
portray a limited view of what is considered attrac- (e.g., How often do you change your eating to de-
tive for women (Duke, 2000). No comparable study crease your body size?” and “How often do you think
was located which has examined the same sociocul- about exercising to lose weight?”). Strategies to In-
tural influences among Black boys, however, a grow- crease Muscles assessed behaviors and cognitions re-
ing number of studies have shown that parents and lating to eating practices and the use of exercise that
peers also exert pressure on White adolescent boys to were directed at increasing muscles (e.g., “How of-
both lose weight and increase muscles (see review by ten do you change your levels of exercise to increase
Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2004). On the hand, White the size of your muscles?” and “How often do you
adolescent boys have been found to be less influ- think about changing your eating to increase the size
enced by media messages, which has been attributed of your muscles?”).
to the fact that men are still subjected to a wider For body dissatisfaction and body image impor-
range of acceptable body shapes and sizes and rela- tance respondents indicated their level of satisfaction
tively fewer media messages in comparison to women or importance with each body part using a 3-point
(Andersen & Di Domenico, 1992). We tested scale. In the case of body dissatisfaction, 1 repre-
whether the same findings generalize to Indigenous sented extremely satisfied, 2 represented in between,
adolescent boys. and 3 represented extremely dissatisfied. For body
image importance, 1 represented not important, 2
represented in between, and 3 represented extremely
METHOD important. Responses on the two body change scales
were also rated on a 3-point scale, but in this case the
Participants rating scale responses included never (1), sometimes
(2), and lots of times (3). Each of the scales has
The participants were 47 (22 boys and 25 demonstrated high level of internal consistency. In
girls) Australian Indigenous adolescents who were addition, the scales have been validated using both
matched on gender, grade, and age with 47 non- exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, and
Indigenous adolescents. The non-Indigenous partic- they have demonstrated concurrent and discriminant
ipants, who were mainly Anglo-Saxon in cultural validity (Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2001a, 2002).
734 Ricciardelli, McCabe, Ball, and Mellor

Sociocultural Influences the State Education Department. Approval to con-

duct the study with the Indigenous population
Sociocultural pressures to lose weight and in- was also sought from Aboriginal Cooperatives and
crease muscles were assessed by the Perceived Socio- Indigenous elders in the regions where the data were
cultural Influences on body image and body change collected.
questionnaire (McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2001). Specif- The procedure for collecting the data was sim-
ically, the scale assessed perceived pressure to lose ilar to that outlined in Ricciardelli and McCabe
weight from father, mother, best male friend, best (2001a) for non-Indigenous participants. However,
female friend, and the media (five subscales each of two Indigenous female research assistants, who were
which consists of three items), and perceived pres- members of the local community, were employed
sure from each of the same sources to increase mus- to collect the data from the Indigenous partici-
cles (five subscales each of which consists of three pants. The research assistants distributed letters that
items). In the case of father, mother, best male friend, outlined the purpose of the study and obtained
and best female friend, the feedback included direct informed consent from both the parents and the
encouragement, modeling of the behaviors, and teas- participants. The research assistants administered
ing (e.g., “Does your father encourage you to lose the test materials to the Indigenous participants in
weight?” and “Does you best male friend try to be their school or home, and provided assistance as
more muscular”). In the case of the media, the items required. All participants completed the question-
in the scale focused on the extent to which the media naires anonymously, and these took about 30 min to
gave adolescents the idea that they should be thinner complete.
or more muscular (e.g., “Do the media give the idea
that you should eat less to lose weight?” and “Do the
media give the idea that you should exercise more RESULTS
to be more muscular?”). Respondents rated their an-
swers on a 3-point scale that ranges from never (1) Preliminary Analyses
to lots of times (3). The subscales have demonstrated
high levels of internal consistency and have been vali- A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA)
dated using both exploratory and confirmatory factor was conducted to examine cultural (Indigenous vs.
analysis (McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2001). non-Indigenous) and gender differences on each of
the assessed variables. A summary of the descrip-
Procedure tive data, which includes means and standard devi-
ations on each variable for the four groups (Indige-
Approval to conduct the study was obtained nous girls, Indigenous boys, non-Indigenous girls and
from the Deakin University Ethics Committee and non-Indigenous boys), is presented in Table I.

Table I. Descriptive Data for Indigenous and Non-Indigenous Adolescents on the Body Image, Body Change Strategies, and
Sociocultural Influences Subscales
Indigenous girls Indigenous boys Non-Indigenous girls Non-Indigenous boys
Variables Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Body dissatisfaction 11.88 3.23 11.46 3.38 14.02 3.51 9.55 3.17
Body image importance 13.44 3.48 14.00 4.12 14.78 3.06 11.31 3.40
Strategies to decrease weight 12.24 3.35 10.09 2.67 11.35 3.87 6.58 2.95
Strategies to increase muscles 10.08 3.76 11.14 3.06 7.02 3.24 7.20 2.84
Lose weight—father 4.12 1.17 4.00 1.07 5.22 1.01 5.41 0.62
Lose weight—mother 4.72 0.94 4.23 1.23 6.39 1.13 5.61 0.33
Lose weight—best male friend 4.00 1.32 4.23 1.38 5.02 0.64 5.05 0.62
Lose weight—best female friend 4.24 1.17 4.09 1.27 5.61 0.69 5.23 0.41
Lose weight—media 6.64 2.06 5.68 2.03 3.85 1.20 4.05 1.20
Increase muscles—father 4.40 1.26 4.68 1.39 4.21 0.55 4.30 0.45
Increase muscles—mother 4.04 1.27 4.00 1.20 4.32 0.49 4.34 0.40
Increase muscles—best male friend 4.80 1.44 5.09 1.48 4.27 0.40 4.43 0.21
Increase muscles—best female friend 3.96 1.02 4.09 1.31 4.19 0.48 4.46 0.11
Increase muscles—media 5.48 1.78 6.46 1.95 1.89 0.77 2.11 0.51
Body Image Concerns 735

An overall multivariate effect was found for to lose weight from male friend, and pressure to lose
the culture by gender interaction, Pillais’ Trace = weight from female friend.
.26, F (14, 77) = 1.96, p < .05. Specific univari- An overall multivariate effect was further found
ate effects were found for body dissatisfaction, for gender, Pillais’ Trace = 0.50, F (14, 77) = 5.50,
F (1, 90) = 8.67, p < .01, and body image impor- p < .001. Univariate tests indicated significant gen-
tance, F (1, 90) = 7.68, p < .01. An inspection of the der differences on body dissatisfaction, F (1, 90) =
means in Table I shows that non-Indigenous girls 12.69, p < .01, body image importance, F (1, 90) =
had higher scores on body dissatisfaction and body 4.00, p < .05, strategies to decrease weight,
image importance than did Indigenous girls, whereas F (1, 90) = 26.26, p < .001, pressure from mother to
Indigenous boys demonstrated higher scores on lose weight, F (1, 90) = 10.05, p < .01, and pressure
Body Dissatisfaction and Body Image Importance from media to increase muscles, F (1, 90) = 4.32,
than did non-Indigenous boys. p < .05. As shown in Table I, girls scored higher than
An overall multivariate effect was also found boys on body dissatisfaction, body image importance,
between the two cultural groups, Pillais’ Trace = strategies to decrease weight, and pressure from
0.83, F (14, 77) = 26.66, p < .001. Univariate effects mother to lose weight, whereas boys scored higher
indicated significant differences between the two on pressure from the media to increase muscles.
cultural groups on strategies to decrease weight,
F (1, 90) = 10.60, p < .01, strategies to increase Main Analyses
muscles, F (1, 90) = 26.96, p < .001, pressure to lose
weight from father, F (1, 90) = 36.84, p < .001, pres- Pearson correlations were conducted to exam-
sure to lose weight from mother, F (1, 90) = 57.13, ine the associations between the body image and
p < .001, pressure to lose weight from male friend, body change subscales (body dissatisfaction, body
F (1, 90) = 17.81, p < .001, pressure to lose weight image importance, strategies to decrease weight,
from female friend, F (1, 90) = 40.85, p < .001, pres- and strategies to increase muscles) and each of the
sure to lose weight from media, F (1, 90) = 40.80, subscales from the perceived sociocultural influences
p < .01, pressure to increase muscles from male on body image and body change questionnaire.
friend, F (1, 90) = 7.42, p < .01, and pressure to These were computed for each of the four groups
increase muscles from the media, F (1, 90) = 188.90, (Indigenous girls, Indigenous boys, non-Indigenous
p < .01. Indigenous adolescents scored significantly girls, and non-Indigenous boys) and are summarized
higher on strategies to decrease weight, strategies in Tables II–V. Significant correlations, all of which
to increase muscles, pressure to lose weight from were positive, are highlighted in the next sections.
the media, pressure to increase muscles from male
friend, and pressure to increase muscles from the Correlates of Body Dissatisfaction
media. On the other hand, non-Indigenous adoles-
cents scored higher on pressure to lose weight from None of the sociocultural variables were corre-
father, pressure to lose weight from mother, pressure lated with body dissatisfaction among the Indigenous

Table II. Correlations Between Body Image and Body Change Subscales and Subscales for the Perceived Sociocultural
Influences on Body Image and Body Change Questionnaire for Indigenous Girls
Body Body image Strategies to Strategies to
Variable dissatisfaction importance decrease weight increase muscles
1. Lose weight—father .17 .12 .60∗∗ .40∗
2. Lose weight—mother .21 .24 .65∗∗ .30
3. Lose weight—best male friend .25 .05 .71∗∗ .28
4. Lose weight—best female friend .07 .04 .49∗ .04
5. Lose weight—media .27 .02 .50∗ .18
6. Increase muscles—father .32 .11 .61∗∗ .25
7. Increase muscles—mother .01 .14 .57∗∗ .28
8. Increase muscles—best male friend .16 .01 .38 −.01
9. Increase muscles—best female friend .02 .13 .57∗∗ .52∗∗
10. Increase muscles—media −.29 −.16 .09 .16
∗p < .05.∗∗ p < .01.
736 Ricciardelli, McCabe, Ball, and Mellor

Table III. Correlations Between Body Image and Body Change Subscales and Subscales for the Perceived Sociocultural
Influences on Body Image and Body Change Questionnaire for Indigenous Boys
Body Body image Strategies to Strategies to
Variable dissatisfaction importance decrease weight increase muscles
1. Lose weight—father .48∗ .50∗ .38 −.15
2. Lose weight—mother .26 .28 .24 .05
3. Lose weight—best male friend .00 .22 .01 −.04
4. Lose weight—best female friend .20 .01 .11 .08
5. Lose weight—media .49∗ .15 .41∗ .24
6. Increase muscles—father .13 .02 .33 −.19
7. Increase muscles—mother .04 −.10 .27 −.15
8. Increase muscles—best male friend −.17 .01 −.08 −.36
9. Increase muscles—best female friend .49∗ .00 .38 .00
10. Increase muscles—media .30 .20 .21 .23
∗p < .05. ∗∗ p < .01.

girls, whereas pressure to lose weight from both media (.52). Only pressure to lose weight from father
mother (.52) and the media (.47) were associated (.50) was associated with body image importance
with body dissatisfaction for the Indigenous boys. among non-Indigenous girls.
Pressure to lose weight from the media was also as-
sociated with body dissatisfaction among the non-
Indigenous girls (.49), along with two other subscales: Correlates of Strategies to Decrease Weight
pressure to lose weight from father (.48) and pressure
to increases muscles from female friend (.49). In con- Eight of the 10 sociocultural subscales were re-
trast, for the non-Indigenous boys, pressure from the lated to strategies to decrease weight among the In-
media to increase muscles was correlated with body digenous girls: pressure to lose weight from father
dissatisfaction (.50). (.60), mother (.65), male friend (.71), female friend
(.49), and the media (.50), and pressure to increase
Correlates of Body Image Importance muscles from father (.61), mother (.57), and female
friend (.57). Two subscales were associated with
There were no significant correlates of body strategies to decrease weight for the Indigenous boys:
image importance among the Indigenous girls and pressure to lose weight from male friend (.49) and the
non-Indigenous boys. However, four subscales media (.43). Only pressure to lose weight from the
were associated with Body Image Importance for media (.41) was associated with strategies to decrease
the Indigenous boys: pressure to lose weight from weight among the non-Indigenous girls, whereas
mother (.45) and male friend (.60), and pressure none of the subscales were correlated with strategies
to increase muscles from male friend (.61) and the to decrease weight among the non-Indigenous boys.

Table IV. Correlations Between Body Image and Body Change Subscales and Subscales for the Perceived Sociocultural
Influences on Body Image and Body Change Questionnaire for Non-Indigenous Girls
Body Body image Strategies to Strategies to
Variable dissatisfaction importance decrease weight increase muscles
1. Lose weight—father .48∗ .50∗ .38 −.15
2. Lose weight—mother .26 .28 .24 .05
3. Lose weight—best male friend .00 .22 .01 −.04
4. Lose weight—best female friend .20 .01 .11 .08
5. Lose weight—media .49∗ .15 .41∗ .24
6. Increase muscles—father .13 .02 .33 −.19
7. Increase muscles—mother .04 −.10 .27 −.15
8. Increase muscles—best male friend −.17 .01 −.08 −.36
9. Increase muscles—best female friend .49∗ .00 .38 .00
10. Increase muscles—media .30 .20 .21 .23
∗p < .05. ∗∗ p < .01.
Body Image Concerns 737

Table V. Correlations Between Body Image and Body Change Subscales and Subscales for the Perceived Sociocul-
tural Influences on Body Image and Body Change Questionnaire for Non-Indigenous Boys
Body Body image Strategies to Strategies to
Variable dissatisfaction importance decrease weight increase muscles
1. Lose weight—father .25 .16 .00 .15
2. Lose weight—mother −.11 .07 .13 .00
3. Lose weight—best male friend −.15 .30 .26 .17
4. Lose weight—best female friend −.31 .40 .20 .47∗
5. Lose weight—media .17 −.34 .09 .20
6. Increase muscles—father .00 −.26 −.18 .25
7. Increase muscles—mother −.13 −.13 −.29 −.02
8. Increase muscles—best male friend .20 −.06 .06 −.27
9. Increase muscles—best female friend .24 .17 .40 .04
10. Increase muscles—media .50∗ .17 .21 .32
∗p < .05. ∗∗ p < .01.

Correlates of Strategies to Increase Muscles non-Indigenous girls) was the association between
perceived pressure to lose weight from the media
Pressure to increase muscles from female friend and strategies to decrease weight. These findings are
(.52) and pressure to lose weight from father (.40) consistent with those of other studies that show that
were associated with strategies to increase muscles the media are viewed by White adolescent girls to be
among the Indigenous girls. Pressure to increase the strongest pressure that promotes the thin ideal
muscles from the media (.61) and pressure to lose (Thompson & Heinberg, 1999; Wertheim, Paxton,
weight from father (.42) and female friend (.56) were Schutz, & Muir, 1997). Our study shows that these
associated with Strategies to Increase Muscles among findings generalize to both Indigenous girls and
the Indigenous boys. None of the sociocultural sub- boys. Moreover, and unexpectedly, the Indigenous
scales were associated with Strategies to Increase participants reported more perceived pressure from
Muscles among the non-Indigenous girls, whereas the media to lose weight than did the non-Indigenous
pressure to increase muscles from female friend (.47) adolescents. Further studies are needed to verify
was correlated with this body change strategy among these findings. One possibility is that the Indigenous
non-Indigenous boys. adolescents were heavier than the non-Indigenous
participants, hence they experienced greater pres-
sure to lose weight. However, this hypothesis could
DISCUSSION
not be tested as no measure of actual body size was
included in the study. Alternatively, it may be that
The primary aim of the present study was
Indigenous adolescents are interpreting the mes-
to examine how perceived sociocultural influences
sages in different ways. Clearly additional research
were related to both body image concerns and
is needed to examine both possibilities.
body change strategies among Indigenous and non-
Only for non-Indigenous boys was there no as-
Indigenous Australian adolescent girls and boys. In
sociation between perceived pressure to lose weight
addition, mean differences on each of the included
from the media and strategies to decrease weight.
measures were examined among the four groups.
However, these findings are in line with our ear-
Overall, the sociocultural influences were found to
lier research, which showed that White boys were
be associated with adolescents’ body image concerns
less influenced than White girls by media mes-
and body change strategies. However, there were
sages (Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2001a; Ricciardelli,
both similarities and differences in these associations
McCabe, & Banfield, 2000). One factor that may
among the four groups.
account for these findings is the higher self-esteem
among White adolescent boys than among White
Perceived Messages from the Media and adolescent girls (Nolen-Hoeksema & Girgus, 1994).
Strategies to Decrease Weight For example, in one study we found that higher lev-
els of self-esteem played a protective role in the way
One of the main similarities across three of the White adolescent boys interpreted media messages
four groups (Indigenous girls, Indigenous boys, and (Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2001a).
738 Ricciardelli, McCabe, Ball, and Mellor

Perceived Messages from Friends and Body own gender. Clearly, further studies are needed in
Change Strategies order to understand these gender differences more
fully.
Indigenous adolescents reported perceived mes- Another correlate of strategies to increase mus-
sages to lose weight from their friends with lower cles among Indigenous girls was the perceived pres-
frequency than did the non-Indigenous participants. sure from father to lose weight, whilst perceived
However, for both Indigenous girls and boys there pressure from the media to increase muscles was as-
was a correlation between perceived pressure to sociated with strategies to increase muscles among
lose weight from friends and strategies to decrease Indigenous adolescent boys. Only among the non-
weight. For Indigenous girls, this included perceived Indigenous girls were none of the examined sociocul-
pressure to lose weight from both male and female tural indicators associated with strategies to increase
friends, whereas it was primarily messages from male muscles. It may be that non-Indigenous girls place
friends for Indigenous boys. An increasing number more importance on muscle tone and muscle defini-
of studies have demonstrated an association between tion, whereas the focus of the examined scale was pri-
encouragement and feedback from same-sex friends marily on muscle mass and strength (Ricciardelli &
and dieting in non-Indigenous girls (Paxton, Schutz, McCabe, 2002).
Wertheim, & Muir, 1999). There has been less re-
search on the influence of peer feedback on body
change strategies of adolescent boys, however, past Perceived Messages from Parents and Body
studies demonstrate that perceived pressure from Change Strategies
friends also predicts strategies to lose weight among
non-Indigenous boys (McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2003; For Indigenous girls there was also a strong asso-
Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2001a). The findings from ciation between weight loss strategies and perceived
the current study show that these same relationships pressure to lose weight and increase muscles from
also generalize to Indigenous adolescents. parents. Non-Indigenous adolescents scored higher
Few researchers have examined the relationship on pressure to lose weight from father and mother,
between sociocultural influences and strategies to but there were no cultural differences in pressure
increase muscles, but mounting evidence suggests to increase muscles from father and mother. Sev-
that the process is similar to that involving weight loss eral studies have shown mothers to act as both role
strategies (Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2004). The main models and social reinforcers in relation to White
sociocultural influence associated with strategies to girls’ eating behaviors and weight loss strategies
increase muscles across three of the four groups (In- (Benedikt, Wertheim, & Love, 1998; Pike & Rodin,
digenous girls, Indigenous boys, and non-Indigenous 1991). A growing number of studies have also shown
boys) was perceived pressure from female friend. For that White fathers play a significant role in trans-
Indigenous girls it was perceived pressure to increase mitting messages about weight and shape to their
muscles from female friends that was associated with daughters (e.g., Dixon, Adair, & O’Connor, 1996;
strategies to increase muscles. This finding is consis- Wertheim, Mee, & Paxton, 1999). The findings from
tent with much of the previous research with White the current study show that the same relationships
girls which shows that many of the sociocultural mes- also generalize to Indigenous girls.
sages about body image concerns are transmitted by
same-gender role models, which often include friends
(Paxton et al., 1999). The findings for the boys are Perceived Sociocultural Influences and Body
more difficult to interpret as there has been limited Image Concerns
research that has examined the influence of either
same-gender or other-gender role models on their None of the sociocultural influences were asso-
body image concerns. For both Indigenous and non- ciated with either body dissatisfaction or body image
Indigenous boys it was perceived pressure to lose importance among the Indigenous girls or the non-
weight from female friends that was associated with Indigenous boys. This may be due to the fact that
strategies to increase muscles. It may be that boys both of these subgroups demonstrated lower scores
are more receptive to messages transmitted by girls. on body image concerns. In contrast, perceived me-
However, it is also possible that boys are less likely to dia pressure to lose weight was associated with body
provide feedback about weight and muscles to their dissatisfaction among both non-Indigenous girls and
Body Image Concerns 739

Indigenous boys. Perceived pressure from father Australians (House of Representatives Standing
and female friend to lose weight was also associated Committee on Family and Community Affairs,
with body image concerns among non-Indigenous 2000), the overall evidence in this study indicated
girls. Perceived pressure from mother, male friend, that Indigenous and non-Indigenous adolescents’
and the media was associated with importance body change strategies were influenced by socio-
placed on body image among Indigenous adoles- cultural pressures in a similar way. In contrast,
cent boys. Finally, perceived pressure to increase African American girls tend to be less affected
muscles from the media and male friend and pres- than European American girls by media messages
sure to lose weight from mother and female friend and their peers, whereas they are more influenced
were associated with body image concerns among by adult role models who place an equal or even
non-Indigenous boys. Overall, non-Indigenous higher importance on a larger body size (Duke,
adolescents scored higher on measures that assessed 2000; Parnell et al., 1996; Poran, 2002). It remains
perceived pressure to lose weight, whereas Indige- unknown whether Indigenous elders value a larger
nous adolescents scored higher on measures that body size for women in a manner consistent with
assessed perceived pressure to increase muscles. African American women (White et al., 1997). Our
The fact that none of the sociocultural influences informal and independent discussions with two
were associated with Indigenous girls’ body dissatis- young adult Indigenous women revealed that there
faction or the importance they placed on body image, is a reluctance to discuss private issues such as body
whereas 8 of the 10 subscales were associated with image concerns with others and particularly, elders
their strategies to lose weight, provides a striking of the Indigenous community, as these were seen
discrepancy. A possible explanation for these find- as taboo topics of conversation. Therefore, young
ings is that Indigenous girls may have a very posi- Indigenous women and men may feel alienated from
tive self-image and high self-esteem, which is more their own cultural group in relation to body image
similar to non-Indigenous boys (Ricciardelli et al., concerns, believe that they receive little feedback
2000; Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2001a). This positive about their bodies, and so seek feedback from the
self-image may protect Indigenous girls from the dominant cultural group to determine appropriate
sociocultural messages that could increase their lev- behavior. Another factor that may also contribute
els of body dissatisfaction and body image impor- to their alienation is that, unlike African Ameri-
tance. In contrast, perceived pressure from mother, cans, many Indigenous Australians living in urban
male friend, and the media were associated with body areas may not have a well-integrated identity and
image concerns for Indigenous boys. These findings supportive community (Ring & Firman, 1998).
are consistent with gender differences on self-esteem One of the main limitations of the present study
that have been found among minority groups. In con- was the small sample size. Although the findings for
trast to White girls, who tend to report lower levels the non-Indigenous adolescents were consistent with
of self-esteem in comparison to White boys, minor- the findings from our earlier work that was based on
ity girls demonstrate higher levels of self-esteem than a larger sample size (Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2001a),
minority boys (Twenge & Crocker, 2002). the findings with the Indigenous adolescents need
Although the Indigenous girls had lower levels to be validated with a larger sample size. Another
of body image concerns they appeared to be acting limitation of the study is that the Indigenous adoles-
on the same sociocultural messages to decrease their cents were only matched on gender, age, and school
body weight. That is, Indigenous girls were engag- grade with the non-Indigenous adolescents from an
ing in weight loss strategies but were not displaying earlier study by the authors (Ricciardelli & McCabe,
body dissatisfaction. Therefore, Indigenous girls may 2001a). They were not matched on socioeconomic
be the interpreting the messages in a more positive status, school background, or body mass index.
light than are the non-Indigenous girls. Clearly, fur- These other variables need to be investigated and/or
ther research is needed to examine this possibility. controlled in future research, as they have been
found to differentiate the body image concerns
in studies that have targeted cultural differences
Further Considerations and Limitations between Blacks and Whites (e.g., Smith, Thompson,
Raczynski, & Hilner, 1999).
Although a large proportion of Indigenous Aus- Other factors that need to be targeted in fu-
tralians are more overweight then non-Indigenous ture research include the extent to which Indigenous
740 Ricciardelli, McCabe, Ball, and Mellor

adolescents identify with the dominant White cul- Adams, K., Sargent, R. G., Thompson, S. H., Richter, D., Corwin,
ture. Increasing evidence suggests that as minority S. J., & Rogan, T. J. (2000). A study of body weight concerns
and weight control practices of 4th and 7th grade adolescents.
groups become more aware of the cultural ideals gen- Ethnicity and Health, 5, 79–94.
erated by Western societies, they are more likely to Andersen, A. E., & Di Domenico, L. (1992). Diet vs. shape content
adopt the values and ideals of that society (Ball & of popular male and female magazines: A dose-response re-
lationship to the incidence of eating disorders? International
Kenardy, 2002; Lee & Lee, 2000). In addition, as Journal of Eating Disorders, 11, 283–287.
we only examined perceived sociocultural messages, Ball, K., & Kenardy, J. (2002). Body weight, body image, and eat-
future researchers need to examine the actual mes- ing behaviors: Relationship with ethnicity and acculturation
in a community sample of young Australian women. Eating
sages transmitted by family and friends and compare Behaviors, 3, 205–216.
these to the perceived messages. In all spheres of Benedikt, R., Wertheim, E. H., & Love, A. (1998). Eating at-
health, Indigenous Australians fare worse than both titudes and weight-loss attempts in female adolescents and
their mothers. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 27, 43–57.
non-Indigenous Australians and Indigenous people Bowen, D., Tomoyasu, N., & Cauce, A. (1991). The triple threat:
in other countries such as the United States and A discussion of gender, class, and race differences in weight.
New Zealand (Ring & Firman, 1998). As this is a Women and Health, 17, 123–143.
Brewis, A. A., McGarvey, S. T., Jones, J., & Swinburn, B. A.
very disadvantaged group in terms of physical, social, (1998). Perceptions of body size in Pacific Islanders. Interna-
and mental health (Hunter, 2000), the study of body tional Journal of Obesity, 22, 185–189.
image concerns and body change strategies among Bronner, Y. L. (1996). Nutritional status outcomes for children:
Ethnic, cultural, and environmental contexts. Journal of the
Indigenous Australian youth ought to be conducted American Dietetic Association, 96, 891–903.
in relation to a broad range of health issues. Dixon, R., Adair, V., & O’Connor, S. (1996). Parental influences
on the dieting beliefs and behaviors of adolescent females in
New Zealand. Journal of Adolescent Health, 19, 303–307.
Duke, L. (2000). Black in a blonde world: Race and girls’ interpre-
Conclusions tations of the feminine ideal in teen magazines. Journalism
and Mass Communication Quarterly, 77, 367–392.
Eisenmann, J. C., Arnall, D. A., Kanuho, V., & McArel, H. (2003).
In summary, Indigenous girls were found to Growth status and obesity of Hopi children. American Jour-
be similar to non-Indigenous girls in terms of their nal of Human Biology, 15, 741–745.
Field, A. E., Camargo, C. A., Taylor, C. B., Berkey, C. S., Frazier,
body change strategies, and we found a similar re- A. L., Gillman, M. W., et al. (1999). Overweight, weight con-
lationship between the sociocultural influences and cerns, and bulimic behaviors among girls and boys. Journal of
body change strategies for both groups of girls. How- the Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 754–760.
Gray, J. J., Ford, K., & Kelly, L. M. (1987). The prevalence of bu-
ever, Indigenous girls were more similar to non- limia in a Black college population. International Journal of
Indigenous boys in terms of their low body image Eating Disorders, 6, 733–740.
concerns and the fact that none of the sociocultural Hanley, A. J. G., Harris, S. B., Gittelsohn, J., Wolever, T. M. S.,
Saksvig, B., & Zinman, B. (2000). Overweight among children
influences were associated with their body image and adolescents in a Native Canadian community: Prevalence
concerns. On the other hand, Indigenous boys were and associated factors. American Journal of Clinical Nutri-
found to be more similar to non-Indigenous girls in tion, 71, 693–700.
House of Representatives Standing Committee on Family and
terms of their body image concerns, body change Community Affairs. (2000). Health is life: Report on the in-
strategies, and the perceived impact of the socio- quiry into Indigenous health. Canberra, Australia: House of
cultural messages. Indigenous boys displayed more Representatives, Standing Committee on Family and Com-
munity Affairs.
body image concerns than the Indigenous girls, and Hunter, E. (2000). Unmet need in Indigenous mental health. In
both their body image concerns and body change G. A. Andrews & S. Henderson (Eds.), Unmet need in psy-
strategies were associated with the examined socio- chiatry (pp. 356–362). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University
Press.
cultural pressures. Clearly, further research is needed Lee, S., & Lee, A. M. (2000). Disordered eating in three commu-
to understand more fully how the impact of socio- nities of China: A comparative study of female high school
cultural messages on body image concerns differs for students in Hong Kong, Shenzhen, and rural Hunan. Interna-
tional Journal of Eating Disorders, 27, 317–327.
girls and boys among Indigenous and other under- McCabe, M. P., & Ricciardelli, L. A. (2001). The structure of
studied cultural groups. the perceived sociocultural influences on body image and
body change questionnaire. International Journal of Behav-
ioral Medicine, 8, 19–41.
McCabe, M. P., & Ricciardelli, L. A. (2003). A longitudinal study
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