Page |1

TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION DESIGN State and justify whether the following statements are true
1. Introduction [4 hours] (8) or false:

1.1. Advantages of grid systems

Grid connected power system is more stable.
[1+3] Qno:1(a) 2071 Bhadra
Explain the merits and demerits of grid connected power
system.  False
[6] Qno:2(a) 2070 Magh

Interconnected system reduces the fault MVA of the

1. Reliability connected bus.
 If one generator fails to operate remaining [3] Qno:1(a)(i) 2072 Magh
generators can feed the load.

2. Load effect is minimum (less voltage drop)  False

 Parallel connection reduces the overall impedance
and thus voltage drop decreases
1.2. Transmission line design & planning
3. Swing equation:
2𝐻 𝑑 2 𝛿 Transmission line designed given following information:
= 𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑒
𝜔𝑠 𝑑𝑡 2
2𝐻 𝑑2𝛿 Input:
If ↑ for same 𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑒 , acceleration ↓ is MIN.
𝜔𝑠 𝑑𝑡 2 1. Power to be transferred
2. Length of transmission.
 Swinging together implies equally sharing of
𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑒 effect or deviation.

4. For several no. of generators inertia tends to ∞ and 𝑍𝑒𝑞

tends zero.
Amount of power available increases

5. Frequency deviation is minimum and for many

generators H tends ∞

2𝐻1 𝑑 2 𝛿
= 𝑃𝑚1 − 𝑃𝑒1
𝜔𝑠 𝑑𝑡 2

2𝐻2 𝑑 2 𝛿
= 𝑃𝑚2 − 𝑃𝑒2
𝜔𝑠 𝑑𝑡 2

For 2 generators:
2(𝐻1 + 𝐻2 ) 𝑑 2 𝛿
= 𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑒
𝜔𝑠 𝑑𝑡 2 Design:
1. Voltage selection with no. of circuits
Greater load can be supplied power 2. Air clearances
3. Insulator design
Demerits:[3] 4. Conductor Selection
5. Tower Selection
Requirement of long length Increased cost of
transmission lines and tie transmission Q. Even the load is operating at low pf, the transmission line
lines. operates t high pf. Justify
Requirement of frequency Stability concerns to high
synchronization. frequency level. 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓
Requirement of high rating Increased fault level and
protective devices. currents.
 Page |2

1.3. Technical and economic comparison of ac and dc End point to end point long haul bulk power
transmission transmission without intermediate taps.

7. Interference with nearby communication lines:

Make a detail technical and economic comparison of ac and
Interference with nearby communication lines is lesser
dc transmission.
[8] Qno:2(a) 2072 Ashwin in HVDC overhead line.

HVDC HVAC 8. Low Short circuit current:

HVDC system does not contribute to the short circuit
Power transmission capacity of HVDC and HVAC lines are current of the interconnected AC system.
equal
Advantages of HVAC:
More economic for bulk Economic for 1. Control of system is cheap and simpler
power distance < break even 2. Substation cost is lower compared to DC
distance > break even distance
distance Disadvantages HVAC:
1. Number of circuits required is high
The break-even distance for overhead lines is around 600 km Line cost is high
and for submarine lines it is around 50 km. Ground return not possible

Disadvantages HVDC: 2. High line Losses

1. Converters generate harmonics on both ac and dc sides Skin effect is present
so filters are required Corona and radio interference is more
2. Converter stations are expensive
3. More maintenance of line insulators required 3. Voltage regulation becomes difficult
4. Circuit breaking in multi terminal DC system is Series and Shunt compensation necessary
difficult and costlier.
5. Voltage transformation not easy hence cannot be 4. Low stability of AC network due to line inductive
employed for distribution, sub-transmission and reactance
backbone transmission. Power transferred limited by line inductance
Intermediate substation is required
Advantages of HVDC:
1. Needs less number of conductors 5. High Short circuit current:
Reduced line cost In longer distance HVAC transmission, short circuit
Typically bipolar HVDC line is compared to three current level in the receiving system is high.
phase HVAC

2. Reduces pylon (steel lattice tower structure) and

wiring size/ dimensions for given power transmission
capacity.

3. Losses
Skin effect is absent in DC.
Corona loss significantly lower in the case of DC.

4. Controllability
Better voltage regulation.
Absence of charging current and limitation of cable
length
No reactive compensation needed

5. Increasing capacity of an existing power grid in

situation where additional wires are difficult.

6. Asynchronous interconnection:
No stability and synchronization problem
 Page |3

State and justify whether the following statements are true

or false:

HVDC transmission system is better choice in case of

longer length than HVAC transmission system.
[1+3] Qno:1(b) 2070 Magh

 Depends on length
 The break-even distance for overhead lines is around
600 km and for submarine lines it is around 50 km
 HVDC is better/ more economic for bulk power
distance > break even distance

HVDC converter station requires huge amount of reactive

power support.
[3] Qno:1(ii) 2072 Magh

 True
 Page |4

1.4. Physical structures of transmission lines: ampacities,

towers, sire choices, insulation and protection against
lightning, shielding, grounding, sagging and clearances

1.5. Right‐of‐way and other design and construction

problems, terrain and weather implications

1.6. Transmission system design for Nepal

 Page |5

2. Transmission voltage level and number of circuit

selection [4 hours] (8)

2.1. Effect of voltage level in power and energy loss,

conductor and insulator economy

Discuss the effect of voltage level in power and energy loss,

conductor and insulator economy.
[10] Qno:2(a) 2071 Magh

𝑃𝑙 𝜌
%𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 =
𝑁𝑐 𝑉 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜑 𝐴

Explain the effect of varying following parameter on

conductor and insulator cost per unit length of transmission
line.
i. Power to be transmitted and length of line
ii. Voltage level
iii. Number of circuit
[8] Qno:2(a) 2073 Bhadra

𝑃𝑙 𝜌
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡/ 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = ( )
𝑁𝑐 𝑉 %𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜑
2

Need of High voltage in transmission line:

For a given power to be transmitted over a given distance the
cost of conductor per unit length goes on decreasing as 1. Reduce power loss and transmit power over long
inversely proportional to square of voltage. distances
2
𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = ×𝑅
𝑉2
2. Reduce current, conductor area size weight and cost
3. Transmission towers need not support heavier wires.
 Page |6

1/2
Problems with high voltage: 100 90 × 1000
1. Cost of insulator goes higher. 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑜 = 5.5 [ + ] = 148.5𝑘𝑉
2. Possibility of corona increases 1.6 1 × 0.95 × 150

Not considered because technical requirement and cost

will be higher for special particular design so standard
ratings are followed.

2.2. Technical aspects of alternating current overhead lines:

power and VAR transmission capability as functions of line
length, line impedance and voltage level

𝑉2
𝑃𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
𝑥×𝑙

𝑃𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = Real power transfer limit through line for transient

stability
𝛿𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = Power angle transient stability limit
𝛿𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = 300 𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥, Should be kept minimum as possible
x = inductance per unit length
𝐺𝑀𝐷
𝑥 = 2 × 10−7 ln
𝐺𝑀𝑅
GMD dependent on spacing decided by voltage.
GMR dependent on size of conductor decided by current
𝐺𝑀𝐷 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 400 𝑡𝑜 1200
𝐺𝑀𝑅 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 0.6 𝑡𝑜 0.7
𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 = 1𝑚𝐻/𝑘𝑚

Series compensation needed for long lines where 𝑥 × 𝑙 is high.

𝑉2
𝑃𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 ∝
𝑙

Most economical Voltage 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑜 :

 Voltage where sum of conductor cost and insulation
cost is minimum

1/2
𝐿𝑡 𝑃 × 1000
𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑜 = 5.5 [ + ]
1.6 𝑁𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 × 150

P = power in MW
𝐿𝑡 = Length of transmission line in km

Q. Show that 𝑽𝒆𝒄𝒐 = 𝟏𝟒𝟖. 𝟓𝒌𝑽 for P = 90MW, l=100km

and 𝑵𝑪 = 𝟏. Suggest why this voltage is not considered to be
in design although it is economical?

Solution:
1/2
𝐿𝑡 𝑃 × 1000 For transmission line of fixed length power transfer limit
𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑜 = 5.5 [ + ] increases for higher voltage level.
1.6 𝑁𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 × 150
 Page |7

Comparing Thermal and transient limit: 2.3. Choice of voltage level for transmission for single and
multiple circuit

With the clear distinction, explain the suitability of

increasing the system voltage and increasing the number of
circuits during the voltage selection process for a HV
transmission line design.
[8] Qno:1(a) 2070 Bhadra

Reason to increase 𝑁𝑐 :
 Insulation problem
 Substation of new level is to be developed
 Improve transient stability

Discuss the economic and technical criterion to be

considered while selecting the best suitable standard voltage
level and number of circuits for transmission line design.
[8] Qno:2(a) 2071 Bhadra
Thermal limits, as typically calculated, are not a function of line
length. Thus for a given line design, a line 1 km long and one Discuss and explain the appropriateness of Empirical
500 km long typically have the same thermal limit. Formula used for most Economical Voltage Selection based
on number of circuit to transmit P MW power over a distance
Thermal limits usually determine the maximum power flow for of L km given in Appendix.
(Short lines SL) lines less than 80km in length. [4] Qno:2(a)(i) 2073 Magh

For short line once thermal capability is satisfied the transient

stability is automatically satisfied. Steps to selection of Voltage level and No. of circuits:

For long line LL dominant criterion is transient stability. Given: P, 𝐿𝑡

Step 1: Compute most economical voltage for 𝑁𝑐 = 1
and 𝑁𝑐 = 2
Step 2: Choose nearest Standard Voltage above/ below
Step 3: Check Transient capability requirements
Power handling capacity (transfer capability) of EHV
transmission line solely depends on the current carrying 3.1 𝑀𝐹𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 from capability curve or table given
capacity of conductor used in EHV line. 3.2 Compute SIL
3.3 Compute MF
Step 4: Criteria for stable system for same standard
Transfer Capability refers to the amount of electric power
voltage level
that can be passed through a transmission network from
𝑀𝐹 ≤ 𝑀𝐹𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
one place to another.
Option 1: One of them meet the criteria
So if you want to calculate the power handling capacity of EHV  Choose that number of circuit
line, then first find out current carrying capacity of that
conductor. Current carrying capacity of OH conductor in EHV Option 2: Both meet the criteria
line depends upon following;
 Choose single circuit

1. Cross-sectional area of that conductor Option 3: None meet the criteria

2. Conductor Material  Go for higher voltage
3. Surrounding temperature (Ambient temp.) of
conductor used in EHV line
4. Age of the conductor
 Page |8

Criteria for stable system for different standard 𝑃𝑀 = 𝑀𝐹 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 × 𝑆𝐼𝐿 − 𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑
voltage level
𝑃𝑀 = 𝑃𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑀𝐹 ≤ 𝑀𝐹𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
𝐺𝑀𝐷
Option 1: Both of them meet the criteria 𝑙 = 2 × 10−7 ln
𝐺𝑀𝑅
 Evaluate power margin PM Depends on internal and external flux
 Select lower power margin
 Double circuit since it is more reliable 2𝜋𝜖0
𝑐=
and stable 𝐺𝑀𝐷
ln
𝐺𝑀𝑅
Depends on electric field on the surface
Explain the dependency of power transfer limit to surge
impedance ratio and length of transmission line. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
[4] Qno:2(b) 2070 Magh P = power transmitted in MW
𝐿𝑡 = Length of transmission line in km
2
𝑘𝑉𝐿−𝐿
𝑆𝐼𝐿 (𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑊) = SIL = Surge Impedance Loading
𝑍𝑐 𝑍𝑐 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
For loss less line: 𝑘𝑉𝐿−𝐿 = Standard voltage
𝑙 MF = Multiplying factor
𝑍𝑐 = √ PM = Power margin
𝑐
Line considered lossless at high voltage transmission: State and justify whether the following statements are true
or false:
System 𝑹
voltage kV 𝑿
11 1−4 Most economical voltage increases with increase in number
132 0.1 of circuits.
[1+3] Qno:1(a) 2073 Magh
𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑀𝐹 =
𝑆. 𝐼. 𝐿  False
Determining𝑀𝐹 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 :

𝑉2
𝑃𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑘 𝑙 𝑍𝑐 𝑘 ′ The X/R ratio is high for transmission line while low for
𝑀𝐹 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = = 2 =𝑘 = distribution lines.
𝑆𝐼𝐿 𝑉 𝑙 𝑙 [3] Qno:1(iii) 2072 Ashwin
𝑍𝑐
 True

System 𝑹
voltage kV 𝑿
11 1−4
132 0.1

For 765kV line transient stability is more than the thermal

limit.
[3] Qno:1(a)(iii) 2072 Magh

 False
Line Length (km) MF limit
80 2.75
While designing the long transmission line, if the stability
160 2.25
criterion is met then the thermal criterion is also met.
240 1.75
[1+3] Qno:1(c) 2070 Magh
320 1.35
480 1
 True
640 0.75
 Page |9

𝐿𝑡 𝑃 × 1000 1/2
For satisfying the technical requirement in a transmission 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑜 = 5.5 [ + ]
1.6 𝑁𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 × 150
line design, it’s more effective to increase the number of
circuit rather than increasing voltage level.
100 150 × 1000 1/2
[4] Qno:1(a) 2068 Bhadra = 5.5 [ + ] = 133.46 𝑘𝑉
1.6 2 × 0.95 × 150
 True
Nearest Standard voltage = 132kV
 In choosing between circuits of different transmission
voltage both satisfying transient capability choose 2
𝑘𝑉𝐿−𝐿 1322
double circuit since it is more reliable and stable. 𝑆𝐼𝐿 (𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑊) = = = 87.1 𝑀𝑊
𝑍𝑐 200
Qno:1
𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 150
Choose the most suitable standard voltage and number of 𝑀𝐹 = = = 1.72
𝑆. 𝐼. 𝐿 87.1
circuit 150MW power over distance of 100km.
[6] Qno:2(a)(ii) 2073 Magh 𝑀𝐹 ≤ 𝑀𝐹𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 so system is stable.

Solution:
For single circuit:
P = power in MW=150MW
𝐿𝑡 = Length of transmission line in km =100km 𝑃𝑀 = 𝑃𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑

Using table and linear interpolation relationship: 𝑃𝑀 = 𝑀𝐹 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 × 𝑆𝐼𝐿 − 𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 2.625 × 121 − 150
= 317.625 − 150 = 167.62 𝑀𝑊
Line Length (km) MF limit
80 2.75
160 2.25 For double circuit:

𝑃𝑀 = 𝑃𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑
2.75 − 2.25
𝑦 − 2.25 = × (100 − 160)
80 − 160 𝑃𝑀 = 𝑀𝐹 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 × 𝑆𝐼𝐿 − 𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 2.625 × 87.1 − 150
= 228.64 − 150 = 78.64 𝑀𝑊
𝑦 = 2.625
Choose 132kV double circuit because of its low power margin.
𝑀𝐹𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 =2.625

For single circuit: Qno:2

Select the most economical and technically adequate voltage
𝐿𝑡 𝑃 × 1000 1/2 level and no of circuit for a transmission line to transmit
𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑜 = 5.5 [ + ]
1.6 𝑁𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 × 150 160MW at a distance of 100 km.

100 160 × 1000 1/2 [8] Qno:2(a) 2072 Magh

= 5.5 [ + ] = 183.6𝑘𝑉
1.6 1 × 0.95 × 150
Solution:
Nearest Standard voltage = 220kV
P = power in MW=160MW
2
𝑘𝑉𝐿−𝐿 2202 𝐿𝑡 = Length of transmission line in km =100km
𝑆𝐼𝐿 (𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑊) = = = 121𝑀𝑊
𝑍𝑐 400
Using table and linear interpolation relationship:
𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 150
𝑀𝐹 = = = 1.23 Line Length (km) MF limit
𝑆. 𝐼. 𝐿 121
80 2.75
160 2.25
𝑀𝐹 ≤ 𝑀𝐹𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 so system is stable.

For double circuit: 2.75 − 2.25

𝑦 − 2.25 = × (100 − 160)
80 − 160

𝑦 = 2.625
 P a g e | 10

𝑀𝐹𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 =2.625 Qno:3

Select most economical and technically adequate voltage level
For single circuit: and number of circuits for a transmission line to transmit
300MW of power over distance of 200km.
𝐿𝑡 𝑃 × 1000 1/2
𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑜 = 5.5 [ + ] [8] Qno:1(b) 2070 Bhadra
1.6 𝑁𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 × 150
Solution:
100 160 × 1000 1/2 P = power in MW=300MW
= 5.5 [ + ] = 189.4𝑘𝑉 𝐿𝑡 = Length of transmission line in km =200km
1.6 1 × 0.95 × 150

Nearest Standard voltage = 220kV Using table and linear interpolation relationship:
2
𝑘𝑉𝐿−𝐿 2202 Line Length (km) MF limit
𝑆𝐼𝐿 (𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑊) = = = 121𝑀𝑊
𝑍𝑐 400 160 2.25
240 1.75
𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 160 1.75 − 2.25
𝑀𝐹 = = = 1.32 𝑦 − 2.25 = × (200 − 160)
𝑆. 𝐼. 𝐿 121 240 − 160

𝑦=2
𝑀𝐹 ≤ 𝑀𝐹𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 so system is stable.
𝑀𝐹𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 =2.0
For double circuit:
For single circuit:
𝐿𝑡 𝑃 × 1000 1/2 𝐿𝑡 𝑃 × 1000 1/2
𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑜 = 5.5 [ + ] 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑜 = 5.5 [ + ]
1.6 𝑁𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 × 150 1.6 𝑁𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 × 150

100 160 × 1000 1/2 200 300 × 1000 1/2

= 5.5 [ + ] = 137.38 𝑘𝑉 = 5.5 [ + ] = 259.74𝑘𝑉
1.6 2 × 0.95 × 150 1.6 1 × 0.95 × 150

Nearest Standard voltage = 132kV Nearest Standard voltage = 220kV

2
𝑘𝑉𝐿−𝐿 2202
2
𝑘𝑉𝐿−𝐿 1322 𝑆𝐼𝐿 (𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑊) = = = 121𝑀𝑊
𝑆𝐼𝐿 (𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑊) = = = 87.1 𝑀𝑊 𝑍𝑐 400
𝑍𝑐 200
𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 300
𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 160 𝑀𝐹 = = = 2.48
𝑀𝐹 = = = 1.84 𝑆. 𝐼. 𝐿 121
𝑆. 𝐼. 𝐿 87.1
𝑀𝐹 ≥ 𝑀𝐹𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 so system is not stable.
𝑀𝐹 ≤ 𝑀𝐹𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 so system is stable.
For double circuit:
𝐿𝑡 𝑃 × 1000 1/2
For single circuit: 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑜 = 5.5 [ + ]
1.6 𝑁𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 × 150
𝑃𝑀 = 𝑃𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑
200 300 × 1000 1/2
= 5.5 [ + ] = 188.74 𝑘𝑉
𝑃𝑀 = 𝑀𝐹 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 × 𝑆𝐼𝐿 − 𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 2.625 × 121 − 160 1.6 2 × 0.95 × 150
= 317.625 − 160 = 157.62 𝑀𝑊
Nearest Standard voltage = 220kV
2
𝑘𝑉𝐿−𝐿 2202
𝑆𝐼𝐿 (𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑊) = = = 242 𝑀𝑊
For double circuit: 𝑍𝑐 200

𝑃𝑀 = 𝑃𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 300

𝑀𝐹 = = = 1.24
𝑆. 𝐼. 𝐿 242
𝑃𝑀 = 𝑀𝐹 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 × 𝑆𝐼𝐿 − 𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 2.625 × 87.1 − 160
𝑀𝐹 ≤ 𝑀𝐹𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 so system is stable.
= 228.64 − 160 = 68.64 𝑀𝑊

Choose 132kV double circuit because of its low power margin.

Hence choose double circuit with standard voltage of 220kV.
 P a g e | 11

2
Qno:4 𝑘𝑉𝐿−𝐿 2202
A transmission line is to be designed for interconnecting a 𝑆𝐼𝐿 (𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑊) = = = 121𝑀𝑊
𝑍𝑐 400
generation of 250MW power to power system grid. The
scenario of generating site and vicinity of grid is depicted in 𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 2500
𝑀𝐹 = = = 2.066
the figure below. Suppose you are appointed as an electrical 𝑆. 𝐼. 𝐿 121
engineer to design the voltage level and number of circuit for
above power transmission, what would be your selection
𝑀𝐹 ≥ 𝑀𝐹𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 so system is not stable.
among the options? Justify your selection.
For double circuit:

1/2
𝐿𝑡 𝑃 × 1000
𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑜 = 5.5 [ + ]
1.6 𝑁𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 × 150

1/2
190 250 × 1000
= 5.5 [ + ] = 173.57 𝑘𝑉
1.6 2 × 0.95 × 150

Nearest Standard voltage = 132kV but this is not the bus

voltage at 190km end.

Case 2:
Note: V in figure above is voltage as per your convenience.
Solution:
[10] Qno:3(a) 2072 Ashwin
P = power in MW=250MW
Solution:
𝐿𝑡 = Length of transmission line in km =160km
Case 1:
Using table
P = power in MW=250MW
𝑀𝐹𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 =2.25
𝐿𝑡 = Length of transmission line in km =190km
For single circuit:
Using table and linear interpolation relationship:
1/2
𝐿𝑡 𝑃 × 1000
Line Length (km) MF limit 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑜 = 5.5 [ + ]
160 2.25 1.6 𝑁𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 × 150
240 1.75
1/2
160 250 × 1000
= 5.5 [ + ] = 236.84 𝑘𝑉
1.6 1 × 0.95 × 150
1.75 − 2.25
𝑦 − 2.25 = × (190 − 160)
240 − 160 Nearest Standard voltage = 220kV but this is not the bus
voltage at 160km end.
𝑦=2
For double circuit:
𝑀𝐹𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 =2.0625
1/2
For single circuit: 𝐿𝑡 𝑃 × 1000
𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑜 = 5.5 [ + ]
1.6 𝑁𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 × 150
1/2
𝐿𝑡 𝑃 × 1000
𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑜 = 5.5 [ + ] 160 250 × 1000
1/2
1.6 𝑁𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 × 150 = 5.5 [ + ] = 171.9 𝑘𝑉
1.6 2 × 0.95 × 150
1/2
190 250 × 1000
= 5.5 [ + ] = 238.0 𝑘𝑉 Nearest Standard voltage = 132 kV
1.6 1 × 0.95 × 150
2
𝑘𝑉𝐿−𝐿 1322
Nearest Standard voltage = 220kV 𝑆𝐼𝐿 (𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑊) = = = 87.12 𝑀𝑊
𝑍𝑐 200
 P a g e | 12

𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 250 𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 250

𝑀𝐹 = = = 2.87 𝑀𝐹 = = = 2.87
𝑆. 𝐼. 𝐿 87.12 𝑆. 𝐼. 𝐿 87.1

𝑀𝐹 ≥ 𝑀𝐹𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 so system is not stable. 𝑀𝐹 ≥ 𝑀𝐹𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 so system is not stable.

Case 3: Hence go for Case 3 new single 150km transmission line with
P = power in MW=250MW standard voltage of 220kV.
𝐿𝑡 = Length of transmission line in km =150km

Using table and linear interpolation relationship:

Line Length (km) MF limit

80 2.75
160 2.25

2.75 − 2.25
𝑦 − 2.25 = × (150 − 160)
80 − 160

𝑦 = 2.625

𝑀𝐹𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 =2.31

For single circuit:

1/2
𝐿𝑡 𝑃 × 1000
𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑜 = 5.5 [ + ]
1.6 𝑁𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 × 150

1/2
150 250 × 1000
= 5.5 [ + ] = 236.44𝑘𝑉
1.6 1 × 0.95 × 150

Nearest Standard voltage = 220kV

2
𝑘𝑉𝐿−𝐿 2202
𝑆𝐼𝐿 (𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑊) = = = 121𝑀𝑊
𝑍𝑐 400

𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 250
𝑀𝐹 = = = 2.06
𝑆. 𝐼. 𝐿 121

𝑀𝐹 ≤ 𝑀𝐹𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 so system is stable.

For double circuit:

1/2
𝐿𝑡 𝑃 × 1000
𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑜 = 5.5 [ + ]
1.6 𝑁𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 × 150

1/2
100 160 × 1000
= 5.5 [ + ] = 171.3 𝑘𝑉
1.6 2 × 0.95 × 150

Nearest Standard voltage = 132kV

2
𝑘𝑉𝐿−𝐿 1322
𝑆𝐼𝐿 (𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑊) = = = 87.1 𝑀𝑊
𝑍𝑐 200
 P a g e | 13

3. Overhead line insulator design [8 hours] (16)

Need of insulators: [2]

 Separate charged conductors from grounded objects at
supportive structure.
 Acts as mechanical support to the conductor at
supporting structure.

3.1. Factors affecting insulator design

1. Dielectric Strength
2. Mechanical Strength

3.2. Air clearance computations, shield wires and tower

grounding ℎ1 = Minimum permissible
Ground clearance = ℎ𝑔

Discuss the various factors affecting the air clearance for a

transmission line of a given voltage. ℎ2 = Maximum sag = 𝐷𝑚
[6] Qno:2(b) 2073 Magh

ℎ3 = Vertical spacing
Air clearance: 𝒂 = 𝒇(𝑽) between alternate
 Physical distance between charged conductor and conductors = y
earthed objects

 Distance between conductor and tower at swing worst ℎ4 = Vertical clearance

scenario which is also equal to distance between between earth wire and top
conductor and cross arm conductor = d

Fig: Double circuit line

 Air clearance depends on voltage level and swing
worst scenario
𝐻𝑡 = ℎ1 + ℎ2 + ℎ3 + ℎ4
𝐻𝑡 = ℎ𝑔 + 𝐷𝑚 + 2𝑦 + 𝑑
 Minimum air clearance depends only on voltage level
1 × 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑎= ( √2 + 30) 𝑐𝑚 Total height of tower increases when either voltage level
√3 increases of number of circuit increases.
1 × 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 6.5
𝑎= ( × + 8) 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ 𝐻𝑡 = 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
√3 10
a = air clearance
cl = cross arm length
l = length of string
Factors affecting air clearance:
y = vertical spacing between conductors sane face
 Voltage level b= tower width
 Swing worst scenario 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 45⁰ d = Vertical clearance between earth wire and top conductor
ROW = right of way
Ground Clearance:
 Physical height of bottommost conductor from
ground.
 P a g e | 14

𝑝
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝑙+𝑎

𝑦 2 = (𝑙 + 𝑎)2 + 𝑝2

𝑥2
𝑦 2 = (𝑙 + 𝑎)2 + (𝑙 + 𝑎)2 ( )
𝑐𝑙2
𝑥
Obtaining recursive relation of y in terms of
𝑦
𝑥2
𝑦2 − (𝑙 + 𝑎)2 = (𝑙 + 𝑎)2
𝑐𝑙2

𝑙+𝑎 2
𝑦2 − 𝑥 2 ( ) = (𝑙 + 𝑎)2
𝑐𝑙

2
𝑥 2 𝑙+𝑎 2
𝑦 (1 − ( ) ( ) ) = (𝑙 + 𝑎)2
𝑦 𝑐𝑙

𝑙 = 𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑙 + 𝑎)2
𝑐𝑙 = 𝑎(1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) 𝑦2 =
𝑥 2 𝑙+𝑎 2
𝑏 = 1.5𝑎 1−( ) ( )
𝑦 𝑐𝑙

(𝑙 + 𝑎)2
𝑦=
√ 𝑥 2 𝑙+𝑎 2
1−( ) ( )
𝑦 𝑐𝑙

𝑙+𝑎
𝑦=
2 2
√1 − (𝑥 ) (𝑙 + 𝑎)
𝑦 𝑐𝑙

Derive expression for vertical separation of conductors. 𝑅𝑂𝑊 = 𝑏 + 2𝑐𝑙

[5] Qno:3(b)(ii) 2072 Ashwin
1 𝑥 1
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ∶ < <
𝑥 4 𝑦 3
For in close range:
𝑦
𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝑐𝑙
 P a g e | 15

State and justify whether the following statements are true

or false:

Horizontal conductor configuration is general choice for

and above 400 kV transmission line.
[4] Qno:1(a) 2073 Bhadra

Q. Compute cross arm length, length of string, conductors

vertical spacing in terms of air clearance when swing
angle 𝜽 = 𝟑𝟎⁰.

Solution:

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛30⁰ = 0.577

𝑐𝑙 = 𝑎(1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ) = 𝑎(1 + 0.577) = 1.577𝑎

𝑙 = 𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 = 1.155𝑎

𝑙+𝑎 1.155𝑎 + 𝑎
𝑦= =
2
2 2
√1 − (0.3)2 (1.155𝑎 + 𝑎)
√1 − (𝑥 ) (𝑙 + 𝑎 ) 1.577𝑎
𝑦 𝑐𝑙

𝑏
For single earth wire: 𝑑 = √3 ( + 𝑐𝑙) 2.155𝑎
2 𝑦= = 2.362 𝑎
2
𝑏 √1 − (0.3)2 (2.155)
+ 𝑐𝑙 should be made smaller than d during lightening (with 1.577
2
compromise through height of tower as it increases as result)
so that lightening surge goes through ground wire. Q. Compute cross arm length, length of string, conductors
vertical spacing in terms of air clearance when swing
Voltage level kV No. Earth wire angle 𝜽 = 𝟒𝟓⁰.
Upto 33 Single circuit 1
Solution:
Upto 66 Single circuit 1
Double circuit 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛45⁰ = 1
132 and 220 Single circuit 1
Double circuit 2 𝑐𝑙 = 𝑎(1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ) = 𝑎(1 + 1) = 2𝑎
400kV Double circuit 2
𝑙 = 𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 = 1.414𝑎
Common adaptation of horizontal configuration in EHV and
UHV lines: 𝑙+𝑎 1.414𝑎 + 𝑎
𝑦= =
2
2 2
√1 − (0.3)2 (1.414𝑎 + 𝑎)
√1 − (𝑥 ) (𝑙 + 𝑎 ) 2𝑎
𝑦 𝑐𝑙

2.414𝑎
𝑦= = 2.589 𝑎
2
√1 − (0.3)2 (2.414)
2

Hence as swing angle ↑ goes on increasing

Cross arm length ↑
Length of string ↑
Conductor’s vertical spacing ↑
Overall height of tower ↑

For double earth wire: 𝑑 = √3𝑐𝑙

 P a g e | 16

Qno:1
𝑑 = √3𝑐𝑙 = √3 × 5.0198 = 8.6945𝑚
For a 220kV double circuit transmission line, suggest the
dimensions for following:

i. Cross arm length

ii. Insulator string length
iii. Horizontal and vertical separation of conductors
iv. Number of earth wires
v. Height of earth wire from the top most
conductor.

Take max. Swing of insulator as: 45⁰

[8] Qno:2(a) 2070 Bhadra || [8] Qno:2(b) 2071 Bhadra

Solution:

1 × 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 6.5

𝑎=( × + 8) 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
√3 10
1 × 220 × 1.1 6.5
=( × + 8) 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
√3 10

= 98.8172 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ = 250.996 𝑐𝑚 = 2.50996 𝑚

i. Cross arm length

𝑐𝑙 = 𝑎(1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) = 2.50996(1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛450 )

= 5.0198𝑚 Qno:2

ii. Insulator string length Compute various air clearances required for a 220kV single
circuit transmission line. [8] Qno:2(b) 2073 Bhadra
𝑙 = 𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √2 × 2.509957 = 3.5496𝑚
1 × 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 6.5
iii. Horizontal and vertical separation of conductors 𝑎=( × + 8) 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
√3 10
1 × 220 × 1.1 6.5
Horizontal spacing =( × + 8) 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
√3 10
𝑅𝑂𝑊 = 𝑏 + 2𝑐𝑙 = 1.5𝑎 + 2𝑐𝑙
= 1.5 × 2.509957 + 2 × 5.0198 = 13.8045𝑚 = 98.8172 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ = 250.996 𝑐𝑚 = 2.50996 𝑚

Vertical spacing: i. Cross arm length

𝑙+𝑎 𝑐𝑙 = 𝑎(1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) = 2.50996(1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛450 )

𝑦=
2 2 = 5.0198𝑚
√1 − (𝑥 ) (𝑙 + 𝑎)
𝑦 𝑐𝑙
ii. Insulator string length

3.5496 + 2.50996 𝑙 = 𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √2 × 2.509957 = 3.5496𝑚

= = 6.50𝑚
2
√1 − (0.3)2 (3.5496 + 2.50996)
5.0198 iii. Horizontal and vertical separation of conductors

Horizontal spacing
iv. Number of earth wires =2
𝑅𝑂𝑊 = 𝑏 + 2𝑐𝑙 = 1.5𝑎 + 2𝑐𝑙
= 1.5 × 2.509957 + 2 × 5.0198 = 13.8045𝑚
v. Height of earth wire from the top most conductor
 P a g e | 17

Vertical spacing:

𝑙+𝑎 For 220kV:

𝑦=
2 2
√1 − (𝑥 ) (𝑙 + 𝑎) 𝑎=(
1 × 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
×
6.5
+ 8) 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
𝑦 𝑐𝑙 10
√3
1 × 220 × 1.1 6.5
3.5496 + 2.50996 =( × + 8) 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
√3 10
= = 6.50𝑚
2
√1 − (0.3)2 (3.5496 + 2.50996) = 98.8172 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ = 250.996 𝑐𝑚 = 2.50996 𝑚
5.0198
iv. Cross arm length
iv. Number of earth wire =1
𝑐𝑙 = 𝑎(1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) = 2.50996(1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛450 )
v. Height of earth wire from the top most conductor = 5.0198𝑚

𝑏 v. Insulator string length

𝑑 = √3 ( + 𝑐𝑙)
2
1.5 × 2.509957 𝑙 = 𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √2 × 2.509957 = 3.5496𝑚
= √3 × ( + 5.0198)
2
= 8.6945𝑚 vi. Vertical separation of conductors

𝑙+𝑎
𝑦=
Qno:3 2 2
Compute the ratio of vertical separation of conductors of √1 − (𝑥 ) (𝑙 + 𝑎)
𝑦 𝑐𝑙
132kV and 220kV double circuit transmission line.
[3] Qno:3(b)(i) 2072 Ashwin
3.5496 + 2.50996
= = 6.50𝑚
2
For 132kV: √1 − (0.3)2 (3.5496 + 2.50996)
5.0198
1 × 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 6.5
𝑎=( × + 8) 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ 220𝑘𝑉 6.50
√3 10 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 = = 1.58
1 × 132 × 1.1 6.5 132𝑘𝑉 4.11
=( × + 8) 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
√3 10

= 62.49 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ = 158.72 𝑐𝑚 = 1.5872 𝑚

i. Cross arm length

𝑐𝑙 = 𝑎(1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) = 1.5872(1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛450 )

= 3.1744𝑚

ii. Insulator string length

𝑙 = 𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √2 × 1.5872 = 2.2446𝑚

iii. Vertical separation of conductors

𝑙+𝑎
𝑦=
2 2
√1 − (𝑥 ) (𝑙 + 𝑎)
𝑦 𝑐𝑙

2.2446 + 1.5872
= = 4.11𝑚
2
√1 − (0.3)2 (2.2446 + 1.5872)
3.1744
 P a g e | 18

3.3. Overhead line insulator material, types of overhead line

insulators

Classify overhead line insulators.

[3] Qno:4(b) 2072 Magh

1. Shackle Type:

3. Disc Type Insulator

2. Pin type:

 Compressive force on insulator due to wire

 Used in poles type structure
 Cost of insulator depends on weight of material  Tensile force on the conductor due to wire
 Varies non linearly 𝐶 ∝ 𝑉 𝑛  Used in lattice or tower type structure
 Used below 33kV
 P a g e | 19

Overhead line insulator material:

1. Porcelain
2. Toughened glass
3. Polymer insulator

Compare Toughened glass insulator and Porcelain insulator.

[6] Qno:2(b) 2071 Magh

Porcelain Toughened glass

has better compressive has better tensile strength
strength than toughened than porcelain and is
glass. transparent.

Compressive strength: Compressive strength: ?????

70000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2
Not suitable for HV More suitable for HV

Toughened glass:
 More condensed with moisture
 Not suitable for dusty area
 Heavier than porcelain
 Two string for increasing mechanical strength
 Costlier than porcelain
 Greater partial discharge than porcelain

3.4. Advantages of string insulators, string efficiency, string

insulator configurations

Explain basic concept of insulating string in brief.

[6] Qno:2(c) 2070 Magh

String insulator configurations

Write advantages of string insulators for HV lines and state

the various configuration of string insulator.
[3] Qno:4(b) 2072 Magh

 Obvious choice for voltage above 400kV

 Provides additional mechanical strength and
 Necessary to control insulator swing and therefore air
clearance
 Used to restrict cross arm length and ultimately
height of the tower
 Better washing facility
 P a g e | 20

Insulation Coordination:
 Selection of an insulation structure which will
withstand the voltage stresses to which system or
equipment will be subjected.

Different voltage stress considered in determining insulation:

1. Power frequency operating voltage
2. Lightning voltage
3. Switching voltages

Jumper uses: Power frequency operating voltages/ Temporary over

voltage:
 Provide tension in conductor
 Horizontal turning (Plain areas)
Maximum System voltage:
 Vertical turning (Hilly areas)
 Maximum allowed voltage at any conductor
 As voltage during operation along transmission line
don’t remain same.

During insulation design,

 Pre-fault voltage is equal to maximum system voltage
 Worst post fault voltage SLG Fault voltage

For fault in phase A: |𝐕𝐀 | = 0

𝟐
√(𝐗 𝐨 ) + 𝐗 𝐨 + 𝟏
𝐗𝟏 𝐗𝟏
|𝐕𝐁 | = |𝐕𝐂 | = |𝐕𝑳−𝑳 | ×
𝐗𝐨
+𝟐
𝐗𝟏
Q. Dust deposition is seen more in DC than in AC
VB , VC = phase voltage in phase B and C
DC: unipolar: Either +𝑣𝑒 or −𝑣𝑒 polarity 𝑋𝑜 = 𝑋1 + 3𝑋𝑛
 Either it attracts and only attracts 𝑋𝑜 = Zero sequence reactance
 Else it repels and only repels 𝑋𝑛 = Neutral reactance

AC: sinusoidal: +𝑣𝑒 as well as −𝑣𝑒 polarity If neutral is grounded solidly, 𝑋𝑛 = 0

 Both attracts and repels √(𝟏)𝟐 + 𝟏 + 𝟏 |𝐕𝐋−𝐋 |
|𝐕𝐁 | = |𝐕𝐂 | = |𝐕𝐋−𝐋 | × = = |𝐕𝐩𝐡𝐬𝐚𝐞 |
𝟏+𝟐 √𝟑
3.5. Selection of overhead line insulators considering
continuous operating voltage and over voltages 𝐗𝐨
For isolated ground: 𝑋𝑜 = ∞, →∞
𝐗𝟏
Insulator must withstand normal voltage continuously and it
𝟏 𝟏
should also withstand abnormal voltage or over voltages for the 𝟏+ 𝐗 +
time it appears. √ 𝐨 𝐗𝐨 𝟐
𝐗 𝟏 (𝐗 𝟏 )
|𝐕𝐁 | = |𝐕𝐂 | = |𝐕𝐋−𝐋 | × = |𝐕𝐋−𝐋 |
Classification of over voltage: 𝟐
1. Internal over voltage 𝟏+ 𝐗
𝐨
a. Temporary Over voltage 𝐗𝟏
b. Switching Over voltage
2. External over voltage In between solid ground and isolated ground:
a. Lightening over voltage |𝐕𝐁 | = |𝐕𝐂 | = 𝒌𝒆𝒇𝒇 |𝐕𝐋−𝐋 |
Where,
Another classification says: 𝒌𝒆𝒇𝒇 𝟏
1. Sustained/Steady state over voltage 𝒕𝒐 𝟏
√𝟑
 For long duration in minutes
2. Transient Overvoltage Once SL-G fault is limited than L-L and DL-G are also limited
 For short period and decaying so just go for L-G fault.
 Order of ms or µs
 P a g e | 21

When k decreases cost of insulation decreases but grounding

cost increases and vice versa. Describe the steps to be followed while selecting the number
of insulator discs for a transmission line design.
Effective grounding: k = 0.8 [8] Qno:2(b) 2072 Ashwin
 Compromise condition for grounding and insulator
cost.
 Healthy phase voltage should not increase L-L volt. Creep age path should be made longer and larger.

Ferranti Effect:

𝑉𝑠 = 𝐴𝑉𝑅 + 𝐵𝐼𝑅
When line is open circuited or very lightly loaded
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐴𝑉𝑅

𝑉𝑠
𝑉𝑟 =
𝐴

𝐴 = cosh 𝛾𝑙

𝑉𝑠
𝑉𝑟 =
cosh 𝛾𝑙

𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽

Assuming lossless line:

𝑉𝑠
𝑉𝑟 =
cosh 𝑗𝛽𝑙
For 100km, A= cos 6⁰
For 200km, A= cos 12⁰

Ferranti effect is the effect of internal overvoltage so the voltage

is not allowed to increase more than 10% for 220kV line and
5% for 400kV and above.
 P a g e | 22

Solid insulator:
1
𝐸∝
𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟

Void:
Pores at lower dielectric strength is exposed to higher electric
field which leads to insulation failure.

𝜀𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝜀𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑 = 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑

𝜀𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 > 𝜀𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑

𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝜀𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑
=
𝐸𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝜀𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
Hence
𝐸𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑 > 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟

 A puncture arc is a breakdown and conduction of the

material of the insulator, causing an electric arc
through the interior of the insulator. The heat resulting
from the arc usually damages the insulator irreparably.
Puncture voltage is the voltage across the insulator
(when installed in its normal manner) that causes a
puncture arc.
 A flashover arc is a breakdown and conduction of the
air around or along the surface of the insulator, causing
an arc along the outside of the insulator. Insulators are
usually designed to withstand flashover without
State and justify whether the following statements are true
damage. Flashover voltage is the voltage that causes a
or false:
flash-over arc.

Flashover: For an overhead line insulator, the flash over voltage should
 Condition when 𝐸𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑝 > 𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 be made greater than puncture voltage.
[1+3] Qno:1(c) 2071 Bhadra
Most high voltage insulators are designed with a lower
flashover voltage than puncture voltage, so they flash over While designing the insulator the flash over voltage should
before they puncture, to avoid damage. be made greater than puncture voltage.
[1+3] Qno:1(c) 2071 Magh
Dirt, pollution, salt, and particularly water on the surface of a
high voltage insulator can create a conductive path across it,
causing leakage currents and flashovers. The flashover voltage  False
can be reduced by more than 50% when the insulator is wet.  Most high voltage insulators are designed with a lower
High voltage insulators for outdoor use are shaped to maximize flashover voltage than puncture voltage, so they flash over
the length of the leakage path along the surface from one end to before they puncture, to avoid damage.
the other, called the creepage length, to minimize these leakage
currents.[8] To accomplish this the surface is molded into a
series of corrugations or concentric disc shapes. These usually
include one or more sheds; downward facing cup-shaped
surfaces that act as umbrellas to ensure that the part of the
surface leakage path under the 'cup' stays dry in wet weather.
Minimum creepage distances are 20–25 mm/kV, but must be
increased in high pollution or airborne sea-salt areas
 P a g e | 23

Lightning Over voltage: Withstand Impulse Voltage/ Max lightning voltage:

Insulation coordination:  Voltage surge that peaks in 1.5 microseconds and

 Arrangement of the electrical insulation levels falls to one-half that value in 40 microseconds
 of different components in the electrical power system (thousandths of a second).
including transmission network,
 in such a manner, that the failure of insulator, if occurs,
 confides to the place where it would result in the
o least damage of the system,
o easy to repair and replace, and
o results least disturbance to the power supply.

Scenario:
Insulators in some points are easily replaceable and repairable
compared to other. Insulation in some points are not so easily
replaceable and repairable and the replacement and repairing
may be highly expensive and require long interruption of
power. Lightning over voltage rises very fast but decays slowly.
Problem insulation failure results: According to IEC:
 Moreover failure of insulator at these points may 1.2/50 µs impulse is the time by wave to reach peak value when
causes bigger part of electrical network to be out of lightening occurs.
service.

Aim of insulation coordination Vlightning kV = Maximum peak system phase voltage + IlA R t
 in situation of insulator failure, only the easily
replaceable and repairable insulator fails.
 to reduce cost and disturbance caused by insulation Maximum peak phase voltage considered
failure to level that is economically and operationally
√2
acceptable. during design of insulation = × 1.1 × VL−L
√3
To sacrifice choose order of priority:
𝑉𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑘𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
Components Priority
Lightning arrestor 1 𝐼𝑙𝐴 =Current flowing through lighting arrestor
Transformer 2
Transmission line insulator 3 Lightening current ~10kA

𝑅𝑡 = 𝑇𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 ∶ Resistance offered by

the metal parts of the tower + the ground resistance.

R t = 50-70Ω

Suppose lightning current: 10kA

Account System Max

of voltage peak 𝑅𝑡 𝑉𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑘𝑉
Ferranti L-L phase Withstand impulse
effect System voltage
voltage
11 9.88 50-70 509.88 709.88
10% 33 29.64 50-70 529.64 729.64
132 118.56 50-70 618.56 818.56

220 188.61 50-70 688.61 888.61

5% 400 342.93 50-70 842.93 1042.93
765 655.85 50-70 1155.85 1355.85
 P a g e | 24

Lightning Arrestor: Usually taken 3. If k is higher than insulation cost will also be
During over voltage it is conducting and acts as closed circuit: higher and insulator will be underutilized for temporary over
During normal volt condition, LA behaves as open circuit. voltage and system voltage.

Protection ratio:
𝑰𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍
𝑷𝑹 =
𝑩𝑰𝑳

System voltage kV Impulse withstand voltage kV

11 75
132 550
220 900
400 1550

Insulating withstand capability > Residual voltage >BIL

𝑉 = 𝐼 𝑛 𝑅𝐴

n depends on material used in LA.

Low is the value of ‘n’ better is the lightning arrestor.

Residual voltage:
 Actual voltage across terminals of lightning arrestor
 When lightening arrestor is conducting

Residual voltage depends on

 Material of LA
 Current flowing through lighting arrestor 𝐼𝑙𝐴

𝑅𝑡 is decreased for lower system voltage so as to decrease

difference in residual voltage and BIL 𝑽 = 𝒌𝑰𝒏
n depends on material
𝐼𝑓 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 ↓
𝑤𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑅𝑡 ↓ Conversion of Lightning voltage to system dependent
𝑠𝑜 𝑎𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝐿𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 ↓ voltage:

Basic Insulation Level: BIL Step1 : Given system voltage L-L

 minimum voltage across terminals of lightning
arrestor Step 2: Determine temporary over voltage rms
 for which lightening arrestor starts conducting
𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝 𝑂𝑉 (𝑟𝑚𝑠) = 𝑉𝐿−𝐿 × 0.8 × 1.1
LA starts conducting
Residual voltage > BIL Step 3:
𝐵𝐼𝐿 𝐿𝐴 = 𝑘 × 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝 𝑂𝑉 (𝑟𝑚𝑠)
BIL of equipment depends on
 Impulse withstand voltage Take k=3
 Grounding condition.

LA should not operate at temporary over voltage but nearly

Lightning Over voltage BIL of LA around BIL LA.
500kV 30kV 𝑰𝟏 𝑘 ↑ Impulse withstand voltage increases.
500kV 200kV 𝑰𝟐 𝑘 ↓ Operates at temporary overvoltage

𝐵𝐼𝐿 ↓ 𝐼𝑙𝐴 ↑ Residual volt ↑

Protective ratio:
𝐵𝐼𝐿 𝐿𝐴
𝑘=
𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝 𝑂𝑉 (𝑟𝑚𝑠)
 P a g e | 25

Discharge current through LA:

Reflection coefficient of V=1

Determine protective ratio for 11kV effective grounded:

𝐵𝐼𝐿 𝐿𝐴 75 75
𝑘= = = = 7.75𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠
𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝 𝑂𝑉 (𝑟𝑚𝑠) 11 × 0.8 × 1.1 9.68
2𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝐿𝐴
Determine protective ratio for 132kV effective grounded: 𝐼𝐿𝐴 =
𝑍𝑠
𝐵𝐼𝐿 𝐿𝐴 550 75
𝑘= = = = 4.7𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠
𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝 𝑂𝑉 (𝑟𝑚𝑠) 132 × 0.8 × 1.1 9.68

Ratio k decease for LV as current increases and LA rating

increases.

Comparison with Temporary overvoltage:

Maximum Solid Max Effective Impulse Lightning

Peak ground Peak grounding Withstand temporary
phase phase Peak Voltage over
System voltage Phase voltage
voltage voltage
Isolated k
ground
9.88 9.88 17.11 13.69 709.88 51.85
29.64 29.64 51.34 41.07 729.64 17.77
118.56 118.56 205.35 164.28 818.56 4.98

188.61 188.61 326.68 261.35 888.61 3.40

342.93 342.93 593.97 475.18 1042.93 2.19
655.85 655.85 1135.97 908.77 1355.85 1.49

From the above table:

Lightening over voltage is more dominating in lower system
voltage. Lightning over voltage is not function of system
voltage.

If system voltage is high system controls the current flow due

to lightning. There is optimum utilization of insulation such that
lightning over voltage is function of system voltage.
Mechanism to decrease lightning over voltage:

1. Equipment BIL > LA residual voltage

2. Minimize lightning over voltage by reduction in tower
footing resistance.
 P a g e | 26

Switching Over voltage/ High frequency over voltage:

Frequency of line length decides whether to use distributed or

lumped parameter model.

For 50Hz,

𝑐 3 × 105
𝜆= = = 6000𝑘𝑚
𝑓 50

Distributed parameter used even for short line if operating

frequency is high.

Lumped parameter model used when high degree of accuracy

is not required.

𝑽(𝒔)
𝑰𝒄 =
𝟏
𝒔𝑳 +
𝒔𝑪

Explain the factors affecting the choice of BIL of a 𝑽(𝒔) 𝟏

𝑽𝒄 (𝒔) = ×
transmission line for insulator disc selections. 𝟏 𝒔𝑪
𝒔𝑳 +
[6] Qno:3(a) 2073 Bhadra 𝒔𝑪
𝑽(𝒔) 𝟏
𝑽𝒄 (𝒔) = 𝟐 ×
𝒔 𝑳𝑪 + 𝟏 𝒔𝑪
𝒔𝑪

𝑽(𝒔)
𝑽𝒄 (𝒔) =
𝒔𝟐 𝑳𝑪 +𝟏

For source with step input:

𝑉
𝑉(𝑠) =
𝑠
𝑉
𝑉𝑐 (𝑠) =
𝑠× (𝑠 2 𝐿𝐶 + 1)

𝑉 1
𝑉𝑐 (𝑠) = ×
𝐿𝐶 𝑠 × (𝑠 2 + 1 )
𝐿𝐶
Let
 P a g e | 27

1
= 𝜔2
𝐿𝐶

𝜔2
𝑉𝑐 (𝑠) = ×𝑉
𝑠 × (𝑠 2 + 𝜔 2 )

Applying partial fraction:

1 𝑠
𝑉𝑐 (𝑠) = ( − 2 )×𝑉
𝑠 (𝑠 + 𝜔 2 ) Closing Sequence Auxiliary CB on
Main CB on
Taking inverse Laplace transform: Auxiliary CB off
𝑉𝑐 (𝑡) = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡) × 𝑉
Opening Sequence Auxiliary CB on
Capacitor can have some energy stored initially as trap charge Main CB off
when load is connected hence equation redefined as: Auxiliary CB off
𝑉𝑐 (𝑡) = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡)𝑉 + 𝑉𝑜
A= System voltage
𝑽𝒐 = Trap charge
B= Max system voltage L-L = 𝐴 × 𝐹𝐸
C=Temporary Overvoltage = 0.8 × 𝐴 × 𝐹𝐸
For worst case:
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 = −1, 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 D= Lightening over voltage = 𝐶 + 10 × 70
E= Switch over voltage SSR 𝐵
= × √2 × 𝑆𝑆𝑅
𝑉𝑐 (𝑡) = (1 − (−1))𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 √3
F = Equivalent impulse voltage = 1.3 × 𝐸
𝑆𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑐 (𝑡) = 3𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 G = BIL of LA =3×𝐶
H= Equipment BIL 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑥 − 2

FE = Account to Ferranti effect

A B C D E F G H
1 11 12.1 9.68 709.68 28.7 37.3 29.04 75
2 132 145.2 116.16 816.16 343.8 447.0 348.48 550
3 220 231 184.8 884.8 547.0 711.1 554.4 900
4 400 420 336 1036 994.5 1292.8 1008 1550
5 765 803.3 642.6 1342.6 1902.0 2472.6 1927.8 2400

Table above works both for lighting over voltage and

switching over voltage.
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑆𝑆𝑅 =
𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 Mechanism to decrease lightning over voltage:

Switching Surge Ratio 𝟐. 𝟔 − 𝟐. 𝟗 1. Equipment BIL > LA residual voltage

Upto 220kV 2.9 2. Minimize lightning over voltage by reduction in tower
Above 220kV < 2.8 =2.75 footing resistance.

Switching to impulse Ratio 𝟏. 𝟑 − 𝟏. 𝟒 Difference between Lightning over voltage and LA BIL:

Case 1 and 2:
Resistance Switching: At LV Lightning over voltage should be minimized as far as
As system over voltage increases switchover voltage starts possible because difference of 𝐷 − 𝐸 is high. So reduction in
dominating and we may need to control the switching over insulation is not justifiable.
voltage.
Lighting arrestor of high quality is needed.
Line resistance decreases than Switching over voltage increases
Case: 3
For ultra HV lines the resistance is increased at the instant of At HV switching over voltage should be controlled as
switchover voltage and then again it is disconnected. difference of 𝐹 − 𝐺 is very high.
 P a g e | 28

Insulator Design:
Lighting arrestor of high quality is needed because of reduction
of insulation level so as to decrease 𝐹 − 𝐺 in HV All insulator have to pass
1. 1 min dry equivalent withstand test
Case 4 and 5: 2. 1 min wet equivalent withstand test
Difference between Equivalent impulse voltage − 𝐵𝐼𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝐴 is 3. Temporary over voltage withstand test
so high, so for this equivalent impulse voltage needs to be 4. Lightning Withstand test
reduced. By following SSR calculation. 5. Switching over voltage withstand test

Switching over voltage for 4th case Manufacturers provide data for Flashover voltages for their
𝐵𝐼𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝐴 1008 designed insulation:
= =
𝑆𝐼𝑅 1.3
Table A-2:
1008 400 × 1.05 With stand voltage capability for different system voltages
= × √2 × 𝑆𝑆𝑅
1.3 √3
Max 1 min. 1 min. Impulse
𝑆𝑆𝑅 = 2.26 system dry wet withstand
voltage withst withst (kV)
Switching over voltage for 5th case (kV) and and
𝐵𝐼𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝐴 1927.8 (kV) (kV)
= = 75
𝑆𝐼𝑅 1.3
123 215 185 450
1927.8 765 × 1.05 145 265 230 550
= × √2 × 𝑆𝑆𝑅
1.3 √3 245 435 395 900
420 760 680 1550
𝑆𝑆𝑅 = 2.26 2400

Q: Determine lightning withstand voltage, switching Table A-3:

withstand voltage and equivalent impulse voltage for an Flashover voltages for 𝟐𝟓𝟒 × 𝟏𝟓𝟒𝒎𝒎 disc insulators
insulator in 132kV line
No. 1 min 1 min Impulse
Solution: of dry wet Withstand
Lightning withstand voltage (µs) = 550kV [From table A-2] disc FOV FOV (kV)
(kV) (kV)
132 1 80 50 150
𝑆𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = × √2 × 1.1 × 𝑆𝑆𝑅
√3 2 155 90 255
132 3 215 130 355
(𝑚𝑠) = × √2 × 1.1 × 2.9
√3 4 270 170 440
= 344𝑘𝑉 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 5 325 210 525
Equivalent impulse voltage 6 380 250 610
= 𝑆𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 × 𝑆𝐼𝑅 7 435 290 695
=1.3 × 344 𝑘𝑉 = 447𝑘𝑉
8 486 330 780
Q: Determine lightning withstand voltage, switching 9 535 370 860
withstand voltage and equivalent impulse voltage for an 10 585 410 945
insulator in 400kV line 11 635 450 1025
12 685 485 1105
Solution: 13 730 520 1185
14 775 565 1265
Lightning withstand voltage (µs) = 1550kV[From table A-2] 15 820 590 1345
16 865 620 1425
400
𝑆𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = × √2 × 1.05 × 𝑆𝑆𝑅 17 910 650 1505
√3 18 955 680 1585
400
(𝑚𝑠) = × √2 × 1.05 × 2.9 19 1000 710 1665
√3 20 1045 740 1745
= 994𝑘𝑉 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
Equivalent impulse voltage
= 𝑆𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 × 𝑆𝐼𝑅
FWR 1.15
=1.3 × 994 𝑘𝑉 = 1290 𝑘𝑉
 P a g e | 29

NAC 1.1
FS 1.2 On increasing the voltage level, the cost of pin type insulator
varies linearly.
FS= factor of safety [1+3] Qno:1(a) 2071 Magh
NAC = Nonstandard atmospheric condition
FWR = Flashover withstand ratio  False
 Cost of insulator depends on weight of material
1. 1 min dry equivalent withstand test  Varies non linearly 𝐶 ∝ 𝑉 𝑛
 Used below 33kV
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
1 min 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 For the same operating voltage level, lossless line and lossy line
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 × 𝐹𝑊𝑅 × 𝑁𝐴𝐶 × 𝐹𝑆 have same switching over voltage.
[1+3] Qno:1(d) 2071 Magh
2. 1 min wet equivalent withstand test
The value of Switching Surge Ratio (SSR) is kept smaller as the
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = system voltage is higher over 220kV.
1 min 𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 [1+3] Qno:1(b) 2071 Bhadra
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 × 𝐹𝑊𝑅 × 𝑁𝐴𝐶 × 𝐹𝑆
Summary:
3. Temporary over voltage withstand test
Neutral grounding condition is more important in HV because
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = switching over voltage and temporary over voltage is more
𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 dominating
× 𝐹𝑊𝑅 × 𝑁𝐴𝐶 × 𝐹𝑆
Lightening is more important for LV
4. Lightning Withstand test

𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 =

𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 × 𝐹𝑊𝑅 × 𝑁𝐴𝐶 × 𝐹𝑆

5. Switching over voltage withstand test

𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 =

𝑆𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
× 𝑆𝐼𝑅 × 𝐹𝑊𝑅 × 𝑁𝐴𝐶 × 𝐹𝑆

Discuss the role of system neutral earthing in insulation level

selection for a transmission line.
[6] Qno:3(a) 2073 Magh

Discuss the role of system earthing in selection of overhead

transmission line insulation level for temporary, lighting and
switching over voltages.
[8] Qno:2(b) 2070 Bhadra

State and justify whether the following statements are true

or false:

The value of SSR is kept larger as the system voltage is higher

over 220kV.
[3] Qno:1(iv) 2072 Ashwin

The value of SSR should not be chosen below 1.8

[1+3] Qno:1(b) 2071 Magh
 P a g e | 30

2
Qno:1 𝑘𝑉𝐿−𝐿 1322
𝑆𝐼𝐿 (𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑊) = = = 87.1 𝑀𝑊
Design of transmission line is carried out to deliver 250MW 𝑍𝑐 200
of power over a distance of 160km. Design
a. Standard voltage of power transmission 𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 250
𝑀𝐹 = = = 2.87
b. Number of transmission line circuits 𝑆. 𝐼. 𝐿 87.1
c. Number of disc insulators needed to withstand
𝑀𝐹𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 =2.25
lightning voltage.
𝑀𝐹 ≥ 𝑀𝐹𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 so system is not stable.
Assume that flashover withstand ratio = 1.15

Non atmospheric condition factor = 1.1 Lightning Withstand test:

Factor of safety = 1.1 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑣𝑖𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 × 𝐹𝑊𝑅 × 𝑁𝐴𝐶 × 𝐹𝑆
Use attached Appendix for relevant data.
= 900 × 1.15 × 1.1 × 1.1 = 1366.2𝑘𝑉
[8] Qno:6 2072 Magh

Solution: a. Standard voltage of power transmission = 220kV

P = power in MW=250MW
b. Number of transmission line circuits = 1
𝐿𝑡 = Length of transmission line in km =160km

For single circuit: c. Number of disc insulators needed to withstand

lightning voltage =16
1/2
𝐿𝑡 𝑃 × 1000
𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑜 = 5.5 [ + ]
1.6 𝑁𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 × 150

1/2
160 250 × 1000
= 5.5 [ + ] = 236.8𝑘𝑉
1.6 1 × 0.95 × 150

Nearest Standard voltage = 220kV

2
𝑘𝑉𝐿−𝐿 2202
𝑆𝐼𝐿 (𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑊) = = = 121𝑀𝑊
𝑍𝑐 400

𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 250
𝑀𝐹 = = = 2.07
𝑆. 𝐼. 𝐿 121

𝑀𝐹𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 =2.25

𝑀𝐹 ≤ 𝑀𝐹𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 so system is stable.

For double circuit:

1/2
𝐿𝑡 𝑃 × 1000
𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑜 = 5.5 [ + ]
1.6 𝑁𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 × 150

1/2
160 250 × 1000
= 5.5 [ + ] = 171.9 𝑘𝑉
1.6 2 × 0.95 × 150

Nearest Standard voltage = 132kV

 P a g e | 31

4. Conductor & support selections [10 hours] (16) 4.2. Conductor material and preliminary size selection

4.1. Electrical, mechanical and economical requirements Al Cu

Cost Low High Al
Density (g/𝒈𝒎𝟑 ) 2.70 8.96 Al
Explain the electrical considerations required to be made Electrical conductivity: 3.77 5.96 Cu
while selecting a conductor for a high voltage transmission × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝑺/𝒎
line. Thermal conductivity W/(m-K) 237 401 Cu
[8] Qno:4(a) 2071 Magh || [6] Qno:2(b) 2068 Bhadra Thermal expansion µm/(m-K) 23.1 16.5 Cu
Young’s Modulus 70 110-128 Cu
Requirements of conductor:
 To transmit power over required distance Reason for choosing Al over Cu for overhead conductors:
economically 1. Low cost
 Have enough capacity to maintain continuous supply  Because of its relative abundance
without failure.
 Low cost of installation and maintenance 2. Conductance of Al per weight > Conductance of Cu
 High life span per weight

1. Mechanical Requirements
𝜎𝐶𝑢 5.96
 Have high tensile strength = = 1.6
𝜎𝐴𝑙 3.77
o To span between towers as long as possible
o Sag as small as possible For same conductance
o Avoiding/ reducing number and height of 𝐴𝐴𝑙
towers and insulation. = 1.6
𝐺𝐶𝑢 = 𝐺𝐴𝑙 𝐴𝐶𝑢
 Withstand weather conditions of locality in which they
are laid (wind pressure, temperature variation,
mechanical loading etc.)
𝜌𝐴𝑙 2.70 1
2. Electrical Requirements = =
𝜌𝐶𝑢 8.96 3
 Current carrying capacity (High conductivity)
 Suitable Line parameters 𝑤𝐴𝑙 𝜌𝐴𝑙 𝑙 × 𝐴𝐴𝑙 𝑤𝐴𝑙 × 𝑙 × 𝐴𝐴𝑙 1
o Efficiency > 94% = × =
o Voltage regulation < 12% 𝑤𝐶𝑢 𝜌𝐶𝑢 𝑙 × 𝐴𝐶𝑢 𝑤𝐶𝑢 × 𝑙 × 𝐴𝐶𝑢 3
 High Corona Inception Voltage
𝑤𝐴𝑙 1 𝑤𝐴𝑙 < 𝑤𝐶𝑢
3. Economic Requirements = × 1.6 = 0.533
𝑤𝐶𝑢 3
 Weight of conductor should be as less as possible
𝐺𝐴𝑙 𝐺𝐶𝑢
o Sag decreases ↓ as >
𝑙 2 𝑤𝐴𝑙 𝑤𝐶𝑢
𝑤( )
𝑆𝑎𝑔 = 2
2𝑇 3. Larger diameter than copper for same resistance so
o Less stress on towers decreasing cost of same voltage leads to
installation and less stress on insulators  Lower voltage gradient at conductor surface
decreasing cost of maintenance.  Reduce ionization level of air and corona loss

4. Tensile Strength of Al > Tensile Strength of Cu

 1% of Cd in Al increases tensile strength of
Al to almost same as that of Cu without
sacrificing its conductivity remarkably.

Copper is preferred where space is limited and aluminum is

preferred where cost is the constraint.

For small size transformer, Aluminum winding is used

For large size transformer, Copper winding is used
 P a g e | 32

Application of copper: Spontaneous corona discharges occur naturally in high-voltage

1. High tension string systems unless care is taken to limit the electric field strength.
2. Less skin effect
3. Space limitation
4. High wind
5. Need of low thermal expansion.
6. Transformer
7. Motor
8. Generator
9. Large size underground cables

State and justify whether the following statements are true

or false:

𝑞
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
The AAAC conductor are superior to the AAC in terms of 2𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟𝐿
electrical conductivity.
[1+3] Qno:1(d) 2070 Magh 2𝜋𝜖𝑜
𝐶=
𝐺𝑀𝐷
ln
𝑟
 False AAC conductivity > AAAC
 AAC used at distribution level for lesser spans 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉
 Aluminum provides necessary conductivity and alloy
provides necessary mechanical strength. 𝐶𝑉
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
AAAC is 2𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟𝐿
 Superior in terms of tensile strength, low sag
 Can be operated at higher temperature 𝐶 𝑉
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ×
𝐿 2𝜋𝑟

ACSR (Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced) is preferred 2𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑉

𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ×
choice than AAAC (All aluminum alloyed conductor) for 𝐺𝑀𝐷 2𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟
ln
transmission line because of its high tensile strength. 𝑟
[3] Qno:1(iii) 2072 Ashwin 1 𝑉
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ×
𝐺𝑀𝐷 𝑟
ln
𝑟
 False
 ACSR has almost same tensile strength as AAAC A corona will occur when the strength of the electric field
 ACSR has problem of corrosion so AAAC is preferred (potential gradient) around a conductor is high enough to form
in areas of pollution and moisture, coastal areas and a conductive region, but not high enough to cause electrical
high in breakdown or arcing to nearby objects.

Corrected version: For no corona: At NTP

 ACSR is preferred than AAAC because it is cheaper 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≤ 𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑉 1
× < 30 𝑘𝑉/𝑐𝑚
𝑟 ln 𝐺𝑀𝐷
HTLS: 𝑟
ACFR: 𝐺𝑀𝐷
𝑉 = 30 𝑘𝑉/𝑐𝑚 × 𝑟 × ln
 Efficiency is poor 𝑟
 Then coefficient of expansion 10% lesser than ACSR
30 𝐺𝑀𝐷
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑘𝑉/𝑐𝑚 × 𝑟 × ln
√2 𝑟
4.3. Meeting electrical requirements; voltage regulation,
efficiency, corona etc. 30 𝐺𝑀𝐷
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √3 × 𝑘𝑉/𝑐𝑚 × 𝑟 × ln ×𝛿×𝑚
√2 𝑟
Corona discharge
 an electrical discharge For stranded or bundled conductor ‘r’ changes to GMR
 brought on by the ionization of a fluid
 Such as air surrounding a conductor that is electrically 𝐺𝑀𝐷
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √3 × 21.1 𝑘𝑉/𝑐𝑚 × 𝐺𝑀𝑅 × ln ×𝛿×𝑚
charged. 𝐺𝑀𝑅
 P a g e | 33

𝜹 0.95
m 0.95 Ensure that 𝑉𝑐𝑖 ≥ 1.1𝑉𝐿−𝐿

𝛿 = Air density correction factor Increasing GMR increases cross arm length and conductor
m = smoothness factor spacing.
V= peak voltage limit
r = radius in cm If difference between 𝑉𝑐𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1.1𝑉𝐿−𝐿 is marginal, then
increase conductor size.
It is often seen as a bluish (or other color) glow in the air
adjacent to pointed metal conductors carrying high voltages, If difference between 𝑉𝑐𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1.1𝑉𝐿−𝐿 is large, then increase
and emits light by the same property as a gas discharge lamp. GMR.

Increasing GMR is just increasing virtual radius of ACSR

conductor by filling with jute to increase size.

For voltage regulation, line resistance is reduced by increasing

conductor area.

Using expanded ACSR conductor increases size of tower again,

so better use bundled conductor.

State and justify whether the following statements are true

or false:

Corona is more dominating design criterion for LV

Transmission lines.
[4] Qno:1(c) 2073 Bhadra

 False

Corona Inception Voltage is inversely proportional to the

GMR of conductor.
[1+3] Qno:1(b) 2073 Magh

 False
𝐺𝑀𝐷
 𝑉𝑐𝑖 = 𝑘 × 𝐺𝑀𝑅 × ln
𝐺𝑀𝑅

The effective way to increase the corona inception voltage is

to increase the conductor size.
[1+3] Qno:1(d) 2071 Bhadra

 True
 To increase corona inception voltage GMR must be
increased
 P a g e | 34

4.4. Conductor choices, wire types and size, bundled

conductors

Current carrying capacity of a cable:

 Amperage a conductor can carry before melting of
either conductor or insulation.

Factors affecting current carrying capacity of cable:

1) Ambient temperature
2) Conductor temperature
3) Material
4) Conductor size
5) Conductor Number spacing

With 1% decrease in ambient temperature there is 1% increase

in current carrying capacity

𝑃 Why can we neglect dielectric loss in Overhead lines but not

𝐼=
𝑁𝑐 √3𝑉𝐿−𝐿 cos 𝜑 𝐼𝑓 𝐼 ↑ 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 ↑ in Underground lines: [1]

Heat dissipated = 𝑘(𝜃𝑐 − 𝜃𝑎𝑚𝑏 )

𝜌𝑙  tan 𝛿 is very small for air
Heat generated = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡
𝑅=  𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑉 2 𝜔𝐶 tan 𝛿
𝐴

Temperature rise ∝ Heat 𝑘(𝜃𝑐 − 𝜃𝑎𝑚𝑏 ) = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡

Choosing conductor according to electrical requirement:
generated
𝜌𝑙
𝑘(𝜃𝑐 − 𝜃𝑎𝑚𝑏 ) = 𝐼 2 𝑡 Step 1: Calculate Line current
𝐴
𝑃
𝑘(𝜃𝑐 − 𝜃𝑎𝑚𝑏 ) 𝐼 2 𝐼=
= 𝑁𝑐 √3𝑉𝐿−𝐿 cos 𝜑
𝜌𝑙𝑡 𝐴
Step 2: See Table A-2.2
Determine nearest current carrying
Stranded conductor: capacity conductor higher than given
 One or more layers wrapped helically over central line current at 40⁰𝐶
wire.
Step 3: Check Efficiency criteria > 94%

Note from table :resistance per unit

length of the conductor at 20⁰C

Determine total resistance at 20⁰C

Advantages:
1. Increased flexibility Determine total resistance at 65⁰C
2. Increased mechanical strength
3. Skin effect decreases
Determine power loss per conductor
at 65⁰C
Dielectric loss quantifies a dielectric material's inherent
dissipation of electromagnetic energy (e.g. heat)
𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑉 2 𝜔𝐶 tan 𝛿
Determine total power loss at 65⁰C
𝜔 = Angular frequency
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛿 = Loss tangent/ loss fraction of insulation
Determine efficiency
C = cable capacitance per unit length
ESR= effective series resistance
If < 94% repeat step 3 for next higher
current capacity conductor
 P a g e | 35

Step 4: Check voltage regulation criteria:

Note from table : Conductor diameter

mm

Compute 𝐺𝑀𝑅𝐿

Compute 𝐺𝑀𝑅𝑐

Compute GMD

Compute line parameters:

Compute ABCD parameters:

Compute V.R

If > 10% repeat step 4 for next higher

current capacity conductor

Step 5: Compare corona Inception voltage

with Max system voltage

𝐼𝑓 𝑉𝑐𝑖 > max 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

Select the conductor

State and justify whether the following statements are true

or false:

The current carrying capacity of conductor increases with

increase in ambient temperature.
[4] Qno:1(b) 2073 Bhadra
 P a g e | 36

Demerits:
What is Aerial bundled conductor?  Additional cost for the cable itself.
[2] Qno:5(a)(i) 2068 Bhadra  Insulation degrades due to sun exposure, though the
critical insulation between the wires is somewhat
Aerial bundled cables/Aerial bundled conductors/ ABC): shielded from the sun.
 Overhead power lines using several insulated phase  Shorter spans and more poles due to increased weight.
conductors bundled tightly together, usually with a bare  Can lead to much longer repair times for installations
neutral conductor. in hilly areas due to much higher line weights
requiring bigger and more specialized equipment to
 Contrasts with the traditional practice of using uninsulated repair.
conductors separated by air gaps.  Older installations are known to cause fires in areas
where falling large trees or branches regularly cause
 variation of overhead power lines utilizes the same breaks in lines and or in insulation leading to short
principles as bundled conductors, except that they are circuits which can then lead to burning insulation
closer together to the point of touching but each conductor dripping to ground and starting ground fires.
is surrounded by an insulating layer (except for the neutral  Failure modes through punctures, electrical tracking,
line). and erosion.

Discuss merits and demerits of ABC (Aerial Bundled

Conductor) in LT distribution system.
[6] Qno:5(b) 2070 Magh
[8] Qno:4(c) 2071 Magh
[6] Qno:5(a)(ii) 2068 Bhadra

Merits:
1. Relative immunity to short circuits caused by external
forces (wind, fallen branches), unless they abrade the
insulation.
2. Can stand in close proximity to trees/buildings and
will not generate sparks if touched.
3. Little to no tree trimming necessary
4. Simpler installation, as crossbars and insulators are not
required.
5. Ease of erection and stringing, less labor intensive,
less construction resources needed.
6. More aesthetically appealing.
7. Can be installed in a narrower right-of-way.
8. At junction poles, insulating bridging wires are needed
to connect non-insulated wires at either side. ABC can
dispense with one of these splices.
9. Less risk of a neutral-only break from tree or vehicle
damage, increasing safety with TNC-s systems.
10. Significantly improved safety for linespersons,
particularly when working on live conductors.
11. Electricity theft is made harder, and more obvious to
detect.
12. Less required maintenance and necessary inspections
of lines.
13. Improved reliability in comparison with both bare
conductor overhead systems and underground
systems. Insulated conductors prevent accidental
contact and supply can be maintained temporarily in
the event of a suspension system collapse.
 P a g e | 37

Qno:1
For a 3-phase 50Hz transmission line to deliver 100MW of 𝑃𝑐 = 𝐼 2 𝑅65 = 460.4072 × 15.00016 = 3.1796𝑀𝑊
power over 80km, 132kV single circuit line with following air
clearances of phase conductors has been decided to design. 𝑃𝐿 = 𝑁𝑐 × 3 × 𝑃𝑐 = 1 × 3 × 3.1796 = 9.53896𝑀𝑊
Suggest the best suitable conductor which meets the following
technical criterion: 𝑃𝐿 9.53896
i. Satisfy the thermal limits 𝜂 =1− × 100% = (1 − ) × 100% = 90.46%
𝑃 100
ii. Efficiency of line not be less than 94%
iii. No corona in fair weather condition Here, Efficiency < 94%. Hence we go for higher size conductor.

For PANTHER/ LION/BEAR:

Here, Efficiency < 94%. Hence we go for higher size conductor.

For GOAT:

𝑅20 = 𝑟 × 𝐿𝑡 = 0.08989 × 80 = 7.1912 Ω

𝑅65 = 𝑅20 [1 + 0.04(𝑇 − 20)]

= 7.1912 × [1 + 0.04(65 − 20)] = 8.4856 Ω
[10] Qno:3(b) 2073 Magh

Given: 𝑃𝑐 = 𝐼 2 𝑅65 = 460.4072 × 8.4856 = 1.7978 𝑀𝑊

P = 100MW
L= 80km 𝑃𝐿 = 𝑁𝑐 × 3 × 𝑃𝑐 = 1 × 3 × 1.7978 = 5.3962𝑀𝑊
V=132kV
𝑃𝐿 5.3962
Nc = 1 𝜂 =1− × 100% = (1 − ) × 100% = 94.60%
𝑃 100
𝑦
= 2.5𝑚 Here, Efficiency > 94%. Hence we select conductor GOAT..
2
𝑅𝑂𝑊 = 9𝑚
iii. No corona in fair weather condition
𝑓 = 50𝐻𝑧
For GOAT:

Solution: Number of 𝑮𝑴𝑹𝑳

strands
i. Satisfy the thermal limits 1 0.7788
3 0.6778
𝑃 100 × 106 7 0.7256
𝐼𝐿 = = = 460.40𝐴 19 0.7577
√3𝑉𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 √3 × 132 × 103 × 0.95
37 0.7678
From conductor Table: Conductor LYNX is nearest one to 61 0.7722
satisfy thermal limit/ continuous current carrying capacity.

ii. Efficiency of line not be less than 94% The conductor has 37 strands (30 Aluminum strands and 7 Steel
Strands).
For LYNX:
Diameter of conductor = 25.97 mm
𝑅20 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 20°
𝑅65 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 65° Radius of conductor (R) = 25.97/2 =12.985mm
𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑃𝐿 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝑀𝑅𝐿 = 0.768𝑅 = 0.768 × 12.985𝑚𝑚 = 9.97248𝑚𝑚
𝐺𝑀𝑅𝐶 = 𝑅 = 12.985𝑚𝑚
𝑅20 = 𝑟 × 𝐿𝑡 = 0.15890 × 80 = 12.712Ω

𝑅65 = 𝑅20 [1 + 0.04(𝑇 − 20)]

= 12.712 × [1 + 0.04(65 − 20)] = 15.00016Ω
 P a g e | 38

𝑌 2
𝑘 = √( ) + 𝑅𝑂𝑊 2 = √2.52 + 92 = 9.34𝑚
2

3
𝐺𝑀𝐷 = 3√𝑑𝑅𝑌 𝑑𝑅𝐵 𝑑𝑌𝐵 = √9.34 × 9.34 × 5 = 7.584𝑚

𝛿 0.95
m 0.95

𝛿 = Air density correction factor

m = smoothness factor

𝐺𝑀𝐷
𝑉𝑐𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √3 × 21.1 𝑘𝑉/𝑐𝑚 × 𝐺𝑀𝑅 × 𝑙𝑛 ×𝛿×𝑚
𝐺𝑀𝑅

𝑘𝑉 758.4
= √3 × 21.1 × 1.2985 × 𝑙𝑛 × 0.95 × 0.95
𝑐𝑚 12.985
= 174.20𝑘𝑉

𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 132 × 1.1 = 145.2𝑘𝑉 (𝑟𝑚𝑠)

𝑉𝑐𝑖 𝑟𝑚𝑠 > 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 Hence GOAT satisfies no

corona in fair weather condition.
 P a g e | 39

4.5. Economical size determination

𝑘2
𝑘1 𝜗 =
𝐴2
State and prove Kelvin’s Law of most economical conductor
size. Explain its limitation. 𝑘2
𝐴2 =
[4] Qno:5(b)(i) 2071 Bhadra 𝑘1 𝜗

𝑘2
 If the cross-sectional area of the conductor is decreased, the 𝐴=√
total capital cost of the conductor decreases but the line 𝑘1 𝜗
losses increase (resistance increases with the decrease in 𝑘2
the conductor size, hence, I2R loss increases) 𝐶 = (𝑘0 + 𝑘1 𝐴)𝜗 +
𝐴
 𝑘2 𝑘1 𝜗
Whereas, if the cross-sectional area of the conductor is 𝐶 = (𝑘0 + 𝑘1 √ ) 𝜗 + 𝑘2 √
increased, the line losses decrease but the total capital cost 𝑘1 𝜗 𝑘2
increases.
𝑘1 𝑘2
𝐶 = (𝑘0 + √ ) 𝜗 + √𝑘1 𝑘1 𝜗
Therefore, it is important to find the most economical size of 𝜗
the conductor. Kelvin's law helps in finding this.
𝐶 = 𝑘0 𝜗 + √𝑘1 𝑘1 𝜗 + √𝑘1 𝑘1 𝜗
Annual transmission line cost (𝐶1 ) = (𝑘0 + 𝑘1 𝐴)𝜗 𝐶 = 𝑘0 𝜗 + 2√𝑘1 𝑘1 𝜗

Where , The most economical size of conductor is that for which annual
𝑘0 = Conductor size independent cost energy loss cost is equal to annual conductor size dependent
𝑘1 = Conductor size dependent cost cost.
𝜗 = Annuity factor 𝑘2
𝑘1 𝜗𝐴 =
𝐴
𝑘2 = 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 × 1 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
Annual Energy loss cost(𝐶2 ) =
𝐴 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 × 1 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 Explain limitations of Kelvin law.
2
𝜌𝑙 [2] Qno:5(b)(ii) 2071 Bhadra
=𝐼 × 1 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝐴
𝑘2
=
𝐴 Only applicable to distribution line not for transmission line

Up to to 33kV
Pole height is fixed
Span length is fixed

Up to 33kV, varying the size of conductor mainly vary the cost

of conductor but not the size of the tower i.e 𝑘0 is fixed and
Kelvin’s Law is applicable here.

But once the size of tower varies kelvin’s law doesn’t apply but
the fundamental principle Annual transmission line cost (𝐶1 ) =
(𝑘0 + 𝑘1 𝐴)𝜗 still applies.

Above 132kV
Pole height ↑
If Span length fixed

Cndtr =Conductor
Total annual cost (C)
TLC = Transmission line cost
= Annual transmission line cost + Annual energy loss cost
𝑘2 𝜗𝑇𝐿𝐶 = Annual transmission line cost
= (𝑘0 + 𝑘1 𝐴)𝜗 +
𝐴 Cndtr Cndtr Tower T 𝜗𝑇𝐿𝐶 Energy Total
For minimum cost :
Size cost cost L loss cost F
𝑑𝐶 𝑘2 C cost E
=0 0 + 𝑘1 𝜗 − =0 ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↓ ↓
𝑑𝐴 𝐴2
 P a g e | 40

Qno:1 Qno:2
For the transmission line design following computations has For the transmission line design following computations has
been made. Select the most economical conductor. been made. Select the most economical conductor.

A B C A B C
Conductor Tower cost/ Total Annual Conductor Tower cost/ Total Annual
km conductor energy km conductor energy
(1000 Rs.) cost/km loss/km (1000 Rs.) cost/km loss/km
(1000 Rs.) (1000 (1000 Rs.) (1000
kWhr.) kWhr.)
Goat 890 1254 32 Goat 890 1254 32
Sheep 936 1450 27 Sheep 936 1450 27
Zebra 974 1585 24 Zebra 974 1585 24
Deer 964 1663 24 Deer 964 1663 24
Elk 968 1847 21 Elk 968 1847 21

Using the following data. Using the following data.

Energy rate = Rs 7.2 per unit Energy rate = Rs 9.0 per unit
Interest rate = 10% Interest rate = 10%
Project life = 20 years Project life = 20 years
[10] Qno:3(b) 2071 Bhadra
[10] Qno:3(b) 2071 Magh
Solution:
Solution:
D=Transmission line cost/ km (1000 Rs.)
E= Annual transmission line cost/km (1000 Rs.) D=Transmission line cost/ km (1000 Rs.)
F= Annual energy loss price /km (1000 Rs.) E= Annual transmission line cost/km (1000 Rs.)
G= Total cost/km F= Annual energy loss price /km (1000 Rs.)
G= Total cost/km
𝐷 =𝐴+𝐵
𝐷 =𝐴+𝐵
𝑖(1 + 𝑖)𝑁 0.1 × (1.1)20
𝐸= 𝐷 = 𝐷 = 0.11746𝐷 𝑖(1 + 𝑖)𝑁 0.1 × (1.1)20
(1 + 𝑖)𝑁 − 1 (1.1)20 − 1 𝐸= 𝐷= 𝐷 = 0.11746𝐷
𝑁
(1 + 𝑖) − 1 (1.1)20 − 1
𝐹 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 × 𝐶
𝐹 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 × 𝐶
𝐺 =𝐸+𝐹
𝐺 =𝐸+𝐹
Conductor D E F G
Goat 2144 251.834 230.4 482.234 Conductor D E F G
Sheep 2386 280.260 194.4 474.66 Goat 2144 251.834 288 539.834
Zebra 2559 300.580 172.8 473.38 Sheep 2386 280.260 243 523.26
Deer 2627 308.567 172.8 481.367 Zebra 2559 300.580 216 516.58
Elk 2815 330.650 151.2 481.85 Deer 2627 308.567 216 524.567
Elk 2815 330.650 189 519.65
Hence Zebra is the most economical size conductor as total
cost/km is lowest. Hence Zebra is the most economical size conductor as total
cost/km is lowest.
 P a g e | 41

4.6. Route selection for transmission lines

The reconnaissance survey for electrical power

lines employs many of the same principles and practices
that you studied for highway work; however, the design
considerations are different.

For convenience, those principles are listed as follows:

1. Select the shortest possible route.
2. Follow the highways and roads as much as possible.
3. Follow the farmer’s property or section lines
4. Route in the direction of possible future loads. 𝝎𝟐 𝒍𝟑
5. Avoid going over hills, ridges, swamps, and bottom 𝒍𝒄 = 𝒍 +
𝟐𝟒𝑻𝟐
lands.
6. Avoid disrupting the environment

4.7. Surveying requirements for transmission line design

and construction

4.8. Mechanical aspects; tensioning and sagging, stringing

chart, supports at unequal level

Tensioning, Stringing and Sagging:

 Tension in conductor during operation varies for a
given conductor at a given span.
 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≤ UTS / FS is limiting factor
 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 = Sag is the limiting factor
𝝎𝟏 = √(𝝎𝒄𝟏 + 𝝎𝒊𝒄𝒆 )𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅
Using the equation of maximum sag and conductor length 𝒍𝒄𝟐 = 𝒍𝒄𝟏
directly derive the stringing equation. + 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
[6] Qno:3(a) 2070 Magh − 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒓𝒆𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔

Why is it necessary to compute tension in conductor for 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
transmission line under varying condition? Derive the = 𝛼(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )𝑙𝑐1
equation correlating the tension in line in two different
conditions. 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐸=
[2+8] Qno:3(a) 2072 Magh 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

𝑙𝑐1 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
𝑇1 = 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∆𝑙 = (𝑇 − 𝑇2 ) 𝐴
𝐸𝐴 1 𝐸=
 Minimum temperature 𝜃1 ∆𝑙
 Maximum wind 𝑙𝑐1
 Ice loading maximum
(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
𝐸 = 𝑙𝑐1
𝑇2 = 𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴∆𝑙
i. Ambient temperature 𝜃2 𝑙𝑐1
ii. No wind ∆𝑙 = (𝑇 − 𝑇2 )
iii. No ice 𝐸𝐴 1

𝑇3 = 𝐸𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑐1

 Maximum allowable temperature 𝑙𝑐2 = 𝑙𝑐1 + 𝛼(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )𝑙𝑐1 − (𝑇 − 𝑇2 )
𝐸𝐴 1
 No wind
 No Ice 𝜔22 𝑙 3 𝜔12 𝑙 3 𝑙𝑐1
𝑙+ 2 = 𝑙 + )𝑙
2 + 𝛼(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 𝑐1 − 𝐸𝐴
(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
24𝑇2 24𝑇1
Given To find
𝑇1 𝑻𝟐 Let 𝑙𝑐1 ~𝑙 as 𝛼 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐸 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ and complexity is reduced
𝜔1 𝜔2
𝜃1 𝜃2
 P a g e | 42

𝜔22 𝑙 3 𝜔12 𝑙 3 𝑙
𝑙+ = 𝑙 + )𝑙
2 + 𝛼(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 −
(𝑇 − 𝑇2 )
24𝑇2 2
24𝑇1 𝐸𝐴 1 Starting from the expression for the maximum sag, derive
the expression for location of the maximum sag on
𝜔22 𝑙 2 𝜔12 𝑙 2 𝑇1 𝑇2 transmission conductor supported at different level.
2 =
)
2 + 𝛼(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 − + [4] Qno:2(c) 2068 Bhadra
24𝑇2 24𝑇1 𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴

Let
𝜔12 𝑙 2 𝑇1
𝑘1 = )
2 + 𝛼(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 −
Suppose
24𝑇1 𝐸𝐴 AOB = conductor that has point lowest point O
Then,
𝜔22 𝑙 2 𝑇2
2 = 𝑘1 +
L = Span of the conductor.
24𝑇2 𝐸𝐴 h = difference in height level between two supports
𝑥1 = distance of support at lower level point A from O.
𝜔22 𝑙 2 𝑘1 𝐸𝐴 + 𝑇2
𝑥2 = distance of support at upper level point B from O.
2 =
24𝑇2 𝐸𝐴 T = tension of the conductor.
w = weight per unit length of the conductor.
𝜔22 𝑙 2 𝑘1 𝐸𝐴 + 𝑇2 2
= ( ) 𝑇2
24 𝐸𝐴
𝜔22 𝑙 2
𝐸𝐴 = 𝑘1 𝐸𝐴𝑇22 + 𝑇23
24
Let
𝑘2 = 𝑘1 𝐸𝐴
𝜔22 𝑙 2
𝑘3 = 𝐸𝐴
24
Then,
𝑇23 + 𝑘2 𝑇22 − 𝑘3 = 0

Stringing chart:
 Graph for tension vs temperature and sag vs
temperature for fixed span
𝑤𝑥1 2
𝑆1 =
2𝑇

𝑤𝑥2 2
𝑆2 =
2𝑇

𝑤𝑥2 2 𝑤𝑥1 2
𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = −
2𝑇 2𝑇

𝑤(𝑥2 2 − 𝑥1 2 )
𝑆2 − 𝑆1 =
2𝑇
𝑤(𝑥2 + 𝑥1 )(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
𝑆2 − 𝑆1 =
2𝑇
Supports at unequal level:
𝑤𝐿(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
𝑆2 − 𝑆1 =
2𝑇
Determine the position of maximum sag from either
supporting towers of equal height at a different elevation 2𝑇ℎ
= 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
from a common reference. Also, explain the condition of 𝑤𝐿
virtual sag. [6] Qno:3(a) 2071 Magh

Determine the horizontal position of maximum sag from 𝑥2 + 𝑥1 = 𝐿

either supporting towers of equal height at a different 2𝑇ℎ
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 =
elevation from a common reference. Also, explain the 𝑤𝐿
condition of virtual sag.
[6] Qno:3(a) 2071 Bhadra
 P a g e | 43

2𝑇ℎ Explain the factors affecting the tower cost for transmission
2𝑥2 = +𝐿
𝑤𝐿 line. [6] Qno:4(a)(i) 2073 Magh

𝐿 𝑇ℎ
𝑥2 = + >0
2 𝑤𝐿 Depends on
Tower cost ↑ Strength required for tower ↑
𝐿 𝑇ℎ Strength required for tower Force acting on tower ↑
𝑥1 = −
2 𝑤𝐿 ↑ Height of application of force
𝑥1 Could be both positive and negative. Force acting on tower ↑ Conductor size/diameter ↑
Wind force ↑
State and justify whether the following statements are true Height of application of
or false: force ↑ ℎ1 ↑ ℎ2 ↑ ℎ3 ↑ ℎ4 ↑
Maximum sag in stringing condition is greater than in toughest
and easiest conditions
[1+3] Qno:1(c) 2073 Magh
ℎ1 = Minimum permissible
Ground clearance
4.9. Tower design: span selection, ground clearance

Span selection:
ℎ2 = Maximum sag
Ruling Span:
 defined as the assumed uniform span that most
ℎ3 = Vertical spacing
closely resembles the variety of spans that are in between conductors
any particular section of the line.

𝑙13 + 𝑙23 + 𝑙33 + ⋯ . 𝑙𝑛3 ℎ4 = Vertical clearance

𝑙𝑟 = √ between earth wire and top
𝑙1 +𝑙2 + 𝑙3 + ⋯ . 𝑙𝑛
conductor

Minimum permissible Ground clearance: ℎ1

 Fixed by voltage level

(𝑉𝑘𝑣 𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 33)

ℎ𝑔 = 17 + 𝑓𝑡
Where, 33
𝑙1 , 𝑙2 , 𝑙3 , . 𝑙𝑛 = span under certain band closer to the value 𝑙𝑟 .
Maximum sag: ℎ2
𝑙𝑖 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 2𝑘1 𝑙𝑟  has greater influence on tower height
𝑙 2
𝑤( )
𝑙𝑖 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 2𝑘2 𝑙𝑟 𝑆𝑎𝑔 = 2 =ℎ
2
2𝑇
L= span length T = tension in conductor
𝒌𝟏 2
w = per unit length of conductor
𝒌𝟐 0.5
 once the conductor is selected w is fixed
State and justify whether the following statements are true
or false:
 P a g e | 44

4.10 Moments acting on tower and tower strength

computation
Height of the tower is independent of span line.
[3] Qno:1(iv) 2072 Magh
Derive the expression for computing the bending moment
 False acting on tower due to turning of line by an angle of 𝛼.
 Span length ↑ [6] Qno:4(a)(ii) 2073 Magh
 Maximum sag ↑
 Height of conductor above ground ↑
 Height of tower ↑ Force acting on tower:

 Tension unbalance at angled tower

The height of the tower is same for single circuit and double  Due to tension unbalance at angled tower on
circuit for the same voltage level. Earth Wire.
[4] Qno:1(b) 2068 Bhadra  Due to wind force on conductor.
 Due to wind force on earth wire

Span length Advantages Disadvantages Tension unbalance:

↑ No. of tower ↓ Maximum sag ↑
Height of conductor above
ground ↑
Height of tower ↑
Required tower strength ↑
Cost of tower ↑

Comparison for most economical span:

𝑙𝑡 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

Span length Per tower cost No. of tower

𝑙1 𝑇𝑐1 𝑁1
𝑙2 𝑇𝑐2 𝑁2
𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = √(𝑇 − 𝑇 cos 𝛼)2 + (𝑇 sin 𝛼)2
𝑙𝑡 = 𝑁1 𝑙1 = 𝑁2 𝑙2
= √𝑇 2 − 2𝑇 2 cos 𝛼 + 𝑇 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 + 𝑇 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼
𝑙𝑡
For 𝑙1 : Total tower cost = 𝑁1 𝑇𝑐1 = 𝑇𝑐1 ×
𝑙1
𝑙𝑡 = √𝑇 2 − 2𝑇 2 cos 𝛼 + 𝑇 2
For 𝑙2 : Total tower cost = 𝑁2 𝑇𝑐2 = 𝑇𝑐2 ×
𝑙2
𝑇𝑐1 𝑇𝑐2
𝐼𝑓 < = √2𝑇 2 − 2𝑇 2 cos 𝛼
𝑙1 𝑙2
Then,
= 𝑇√2(1 − cos 𝛼)
Total power cost for 𝑙1 < Total power cost for 𝑙1
𝛼
Most economical span: = 2𝑇 sin
2
 Ratio for which per tower cost to span length is
minimum Types of Tower according to angle deviation:

Most economical span guide us selecting number of towers and Tower Type Angle of deviation
span length: Horizontal A 00 𝑡𝑜 2⁰
B 20 𝑡𝑜 15⁰
Span length Angled C 15⁰ 𝑡𝑜 30⁰
Conductor l1 l2 …. lm
D 30⁰ 𝑡𝑜 60⁰
1 Tc1 Tc2
Dead end E −
l1 l2
m Tcm
If deviation is 90⁰, first make 60⁰ then 30⁰.
lm

Tcij = cost of tower for ith conductor for jth length

P a g e | 45
 P a g e | 46

Wind force on conductor: 𝑭𝒘𝒇𝒄𝒓

𝑭𝒘𝒇𝒄𝒓 = Projected area of conductor × wind pressure (kg/𝑚3 )

Per conductor projected area of circular surface in geometry

2
= dcr × span length
3

dcr = Diameter of conductor

For single conductor:

𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐵𝑀 = 𝑭𝒘𝒇𝒄𝒓 × (ℎ1 + ℎ2 + ℎ3 )

For 𝑁𝑐 Circuit:

𝑩𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑩𝑴 =
𝑭𝒘𝒇𝒄𝒓 × 𝑵𝒄 × (𝒉𝟏 + 𝒉𝟐 + 𝒉𝟑 )
+
𝜶
𝟐𝑻 𝐬𝐢𝐧 × 𝑵𝒄 × (𝒉𝟏 + 𝒉𝟐 + 𝒉𝟑 )
𝟐
+
𝑭𝒘𝒇𝒄𝒓 × 𝑵𝑬𝒘 × 𝑯
+
𝜶
𝟐𝑻𝑬𝑾 𝐬𝐢𝐧 × 𝑵𝑬𝒘 × 𝑯
𝟐
𝑈𝑇𝑆
T = worst condition tension so take 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐹𝑆

𝐴𝑣𝑔. 𝑇𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐵𝑀 = 𝐵𝑀𝐴 × %𝐴 + 𝐵𝑀𝐵 × %𝐵+. . +𝐵𝑀𝐷

× %𝐷
 P a g e | 47

Qno:1 𝑏 1.5 × 1.587

𝑑 = √3 ( + 𝑐𝑙) = √3 ( + 3.174)
Compute the ratio of bending moment acting on transmission 2 2
tower of a 132kV and 220kV single circuit transmission lines = 7.56𝑚
of span 300m with DEER conductor. Use data from Appendix
and assume suitable data if necessary. max 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 − 33
ℎ𝑔 = + 17 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡
33
[20] Qno:3 2068 Bhadra 132 × 1.1 − 33
= + 17 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡 = 20.4𝑓𝑡
33
Given: = 6.22 𝑚
𝐿𝑠𝑝 = span length=300m
For 220kV:
Nc = Number of circuits = 1
1 × 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 6.5
Ne = Number of earth wire = 1 𝑎=( × + 8) 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
√3 10
Solution: 1 × 220 × 1.1 6.5
=( × + 8) 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
√3 10
AIR CLEARANCE COMPUTATIONS:
= 98.8172 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ = 250.996 𝑐𝑚 = 2.50996 𝑚
For 132kV:
1 × 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 6.5 i. Cross arm length
𝑎=( × + 8) 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
√3 10
1 × 132 × 1.1 6.5 𝑐𝑙 = 𝑎(1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) = 2.50996(1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛450 )
=( × + 8) 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
√3 10 = 5.0198𝑚

= 62.490 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ = 158.725 𝑐𝑚 = 1.587𝑚 ii. Insulator string length

i. Cross arm length 𝑙 = 𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √2 × 2.509957 = 3.5496𝑚

𝑐𝑙 = 𝑎(1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) = 1.587(1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛450 ) iii. Horizontal and vertical separation of conductors
= 3.174𝑚
Horizontal spacing
ii. Insulator string length 𝑅𝑂𝑊 = 𝑏 + 2𝑐𝑙 = 1.5𝑎 + 2𝑐𝑙
= 1.5 × 2.509957 + 2 × 5.0198 = 13.8045𝑚
𝑙 = 𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √2 × 1.587 = 2.244 𝑚
Vertical spacing:
iii. Horizontal and vertical separation of conductors
𝑙+𝑎
Horizontal spacing 𝑦=
2 2
𝑅𝑂𝑊 = 𝑏 + 2𝑐𝑙 = 1.5𝑎 + 2𝑐𝑙 √1 − (𝑥 ) (𝑙 + 𝑎)
= 1.5 × 1.587 + 2 × 3.174 = 8.7285𝑚 𝑦 𝑐𝑙

Vertical spacing: 3.5496 + 2.50996

= = 6.50𝑚
2
𝑙+𝑎 √1 − (0.3)2 (3.5496 + 2.50996)
𝑦= 5.0198
2 2
√1 − (𝑥 ) (𝑙 + 𝑎)
𝑦 𝑐𝑙 iv. Number of earth wires =1

2.244 + 1.587 v. Height of earth wire from the top most conductor
= = 4.11𝑚
2
√1 − (0.3)2 (2.244 + 1.587)
3.174 𝑏 1.5 × 2.51
iv. Number of earth wires =1 𝑑 = √3 ( + 𝑐𝑙) = √3 ( + 5.0198)
2 2
= 11.955𝑚
v. Height of earth wire from the top most conductor

max 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 − 33

ℎ𝑔 = + 17 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡
33
 P a g e | 48

220 × 1.1 − 33 𝜃3 = 650

= + 17 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡 = 23.33𝑓𝑡
33 𝑤12 𝑙𝑠𝑝 2
= 7.10𝑚 𝑘1′ = −𝑇2 + 𝛼(𝜃3 − 𝜃2 )𝐴𝐸 + 𝐴𝐸
24𝑇22
= −6914 + [17.73 × 10−6 (65 − 27)
TENSION AND SAG COMPUTATIONS:
28072 × 0.32 529.80
+ ] × 0.787 × 106
For DEER as power conductor: 24 × 69142 106
UTS = 18230 kg × 104

𝑇1 = 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = −1528 𝑘𝑔

18230
𝑇1 = = 9115𝑘𝑔
2 𝑤22 𝑙𝑠𝑝 2
𝑘2′ = 𝐴𝐸 = 𝑘2 = 6.11 × 1010
𝑤𝑐 = Weight of deer per km =1977kg/km 24
dcr p = Diameter of power conductor = 29.89 mm=0.02989mm
𝑇3 = Tension in easiest condition
Wind pressure WP = 100 kg/𝑚3
𝑤𝑤 = Weight due to wind per km 𝑇32 (𝑇3 + 𝑘1′ ) − 𝑘2′ = 0
2 Solving we get:
𝑤𝑤 = 𝑊𝑃 × 106 × dcr p × 10−3 𝑘𝑔/𝑘𝑚
3 𝑇3 = 4519 𝑘𝑔
2
= 𝑊𝑃 × dcr p × 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑘𝑚
3 𝑤3 = 𝑤𝑐
2
= 100 × × 0.02989 × 103 = 1993𝑘𝑔/𝑘𝑚
3 𝑙𝑠𝑝 2
𝑤3 ( ) 1977 × (. 150)2
2
𝑤1 = per km weight of conductor at toughest condition 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑆𝑎𝑔 = = = 0.00492 𝑘𝑚
2𝑇3 2 × 4519
= 4.92 𝑚
𝑤1 = √𝑤𝑐2 + 𝑤𝑤2 = √19772 + 19932 = 2807 𝑘𝑔/𝑘𝑚

TOWER HEIGHT COMPUTATIONS:

𝜃2 = 270
𝜃1 = 0⁰ ℎ1 = ℎ𝑔 + 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝛼 = 17.73 × 10−6
ℎ2 = ℎ1 + 𝑦/2
A=529.80 mm2
ℎ3 = ℎ2 + 𝑦/2
E=0.787× 106 𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚2
𝐻𝑡 = ℎ3 + 𝑑
𝑤12 𝑙𝑠𝑝 2 For ℎ1 (𝑚) ℎ2 (𝑚) ℎ3 (𝑚) 𝐻𝑡 (𝑚)
𝑘1 = −𝑇1 + 𝛼(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )𝐴𝐸 + 𝐴𝐸
24𝑇12 132kV 11.14 13.20 15.26 22.82
220kV 12.02 14.39 17.64 29.60
28072 × 0.32 529.80
= −9115 + [17.73 × 10−6 (27 − 0) + ]
24 × 91152 106
× 0.787 × 106 × 104 CHOICE OF EARTH WIRE:

= −5636.2
For GUINEA as earth conductor:
𝑤22 𝑙𝑠𝑝 2 2
1977 × 0.25 2
529.80 UTS = 6664 kg
𝑘2 = 𝐴𝐸 = × × 0.787 × 106 6664
24 24 106 𝑇1𝑒𝑤 = = 3332 𝑘𝑔
× 104 2
= 6.11 × 1010 dcr ew =Diameter of earth wire conductor= 14.6 mm =0.0146m

𝑇2 = Tension in stringing /normal condition

𝑇22 (𝑇2 + 𝑘1 ) − 𝑘2 = 0

Solving we get:
𝑇2 = 6914 𝑘𝑔
 P a g e | 49

BENDING MOMENT COMPUTATIONS: 𝐵𝑀220𝑘𝑉 78608

= = 1.15
𝐵𝑀132𝑘𝑉 68459

𝑭𝒘𝒑 =Wind force on conductor

𝑭𝒘𝒆 =Wind force on earth conductor

Per power conductor projected area of circular surface in

geometry
2 2
= dcr p × 𝐿𝑠𝑝 = × 0.02989 × 300 = 5.978𝑚2
3 3

𝑭𝒘𝒑 = Projected area of power conductor × wind pressure

(kg/𝑚2 )
= 100 × 5.978 = 597.8𝑘𝑔

Per power conductor projected area of circular surface in

geometry
2 2
= dcr ew × 𝐿𝑠𝑝 = × 0.0146 × 300 = 2.92𝑚2
3 3

𝑭𝒘𝒆 = Projected area of earth conductor × wind pressure

(kg/𝑚3 )
= 100 × 2.92 = 292.0 𝑘𝑔

𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑤 = 𝐹𝑤𝑝 × 𝑵𝒄 × (𝒉𝟏 + 𝒉𝟐 + 𝒉𝟑 )

𝜶
𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑡 = 𝟐𝑻𝟏𝒑𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧 × 𝑵𝒄 × (𝒉𝟏 + 𝒉𝟐 + 𝒉𝟑 )
𝟐

Tower Type Angle of deviation

A 20
B 15⁰
C 30⁰

Assume maximum conductor deviation of 5⁰ is permissible for

all towers
𝜶 𝟓𝟎
𝐬𝐢𝐧 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐. 𝟓𝟎
𝟐 𝟐

𝑭𝒘𝒑 ℎ1 + ℎ2 + ℎ3 (m) 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑤 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑡

597.8 39.6 23672.88 31489.18
597.8 44.05 26333.09 35027.74

𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑤 = 𝐹𝑤𝑒 × 𝑵𝒆 × 𝑯𝒕

𝜶
𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑡 = 𝟐𝑻𝟏𝒆𝒘 𝐬𝐢𝐧 × 𝑵𝒆 × 𝑯𝒕
𝟐

𝑭𝒘𝒆 𝐻𝑡 (𝑚) 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑤 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑡

292.0 22.82 6663.44 6633.308
292.0 29.6 8643.2 8604.116

𝑇𝐵𝑀 = 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑤 + 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑡 + 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑤 + 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑡

𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑤 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑡 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑤 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑡 TBM

23672.88 31489.18 6663.44 6633.308 68458.81
26333.09 35027.74 8643.2 8604.116 78608.15
 P a g e | 50

Qno:1 ℎ1 (𝑚) ℎ2 (𝑚) ℎ3 (𝑚) ℎ1 + ℎ2 + ℎ3 (m)

The design data for a double circuit transmission line with a 12.18 15 17.82 45
double earth wire are as follows: 14.21 17.03 19.85 51.09
16.56 19.38 22.2 58.14
Span 𝑫𝒎𝒂𝒙 (𝒎) 𝒉𝟏 (𝒎) 𝒉𝟐 (𝒎) 𝒉𝟑 (𝒎) 𝑯𝒕 (𝒎)
250m 5.27 12.18 15.00 17.82 28.44 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑤 = 𝐹𝑤𝑝 × 𝑵𝒄 × (𝒉𝟏 + 𝒉𝟐 + 𝒉𝟑 )
300m 7.30 14.21 17.03 19.85 30.47
350m 9.65 16.56 19.38 22.20 32.82 𝜶
𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑡 = 𝟐𝑻𝟏𝒑𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧 × 𝑵𝒄 × (𝒉𝟏 + 𝒉𝟐 + 𝒉𝟑 )
𝟐
Where 𝒉𝟏 , 𝒉𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒉𝟑 heights of lower, middle and top are
power conductor from ground and 𝑯𝒕 is the total height of the Tower Type Angle of deviation
tower. A 20
The power conductor has maximum working tension of B 15⁰
6000kg and diameter of 4cm. C 30⁰
The earth wire has maximum working tension of 2000kg and
diameter of 2 cm. 𝜶 𝟓𝟎
Assume maximum conductor deviation of 5⁰ is permissible for 𝐬𝐢𝐧 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐. 𝟓𝟎
𝟐 𝟐
all towers and wind force is 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟐 .
Compute most economical span. 𝑭𝒘𝒑 ℎ1 + ℎ2 + ℎ3 (m) 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑤 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑡
[10] Qno:4(a) 2072 Magh
666.7 45 60000 47108.94
Solution:
800.0 51.09 81744 53484.35
933.3 58.14 108528 60864.75
Wind pressure = 100 kg/𝑚3
dcr p = Diameter of power conductor = 0.04m 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑤 = 𝐹𝑤𝑒 × 𝑵𝒆 × 𝑯𝒕
dcr ew = Diameter of earth wire conductor = 0.02m 𝜶
𝑇1𝑝𝑐 = 6000 kg 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑡 = 𝟐𝑻𝟏𝒆𝒘 𝐬𝐢𝐧 × 𝑵𝒆 × 𝑯𝒕
𝟐
𝑇1𝑒𝑤 = 2000kg
Nc = Number of circuits = 2 𝑭𝒘𝒆 𝐻𝑡 (𝑚) 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑤 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑡
Ne = Number of earth wire = 2 333.3 28.44 18960 9924.283
366.7 30.47 24376 10632.66
𝑭𝒘𝒑 =Wind force on conductor 400.0 32.82 30632 11452.71
𝑭𝒘𝒆 =Wind force on earth conductor
𝐿𝑠𝑝 = span length 𝑇𝐵𝑀 = 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑤 + 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑡 + 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑤 + 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑡

Per power conductor projected area of circular surface in 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑤 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑡 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑤 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑡 TBM
geometry 60000 47108.94 18960 9924.283 135993.2
2
= dcr p × 𝐿𝑠𝑝 81744 53484.35 24376 10632.66 170237
3
108528 60864.75 30632 11452.71 211477.5
𝑭𝒘𝒑 = Projected area of power conductor × wind pressure
(kg/𝑚2 ) TW = 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠

𝑇𝑊 = 0.000631 × 𝐻𝑡 √𝑇𝐵𝑀 × 𝐹𝑆
𝑭𝒘𝒆 = Projected area of earth conductor × wind pressure
(kg/𝑚3 ) Take FS =2

Per power conductor projected area of circular surface in TBM (kg m) 𝐻𝑡 (m) TW
geometry 135993.2 28.44 9.4
2
= dcr ew × 𝐿𝑠𝑝 170237 30.47 11.2
3
211477.5 32.82 13.5

Material Price
Span 𝑭𝒘𝒑 𝑭𝒘𝒆 Cost of aluminum per tones Rs 20105/tones
Cost of steel per tones Rs 150000/ tones
250m 666.7 333.3
per unit energy cost Rs 7.5 / unit
300m 800.0 400.0
350m 933.3 466.7
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠 × 𝑇𝑊
 P a g e | 51

𝐿𝑡 = Total length
𝑁𝑡 =Number of towers
𝐿𝑡
𝑁𝑡 ≅
𝐿𝑠𝑝
𝑁𝑡
𝑇𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 ×
𝐿𝑡

Span Cost Per tower Tower cost per km

250m 1403860.1 5615441

300m 1682809.9 5609366
350m 2020255.2 5772158

The most economical span is minimum ratio of per tower cost

to span length. i.e 300 m.
 P a g e | 52

Qno:2
To transmit a given amount of power to a given distance a Span 𝑭𝒘𝒑 𝑭𝒘𝒆
double circuit line with a double earth wire is chosen for 250m 666.7 333.3
which the following design steps are completed, compute the 275m 733.3 366.7
most economical span. 300m 800.0 400.0
Span 𝑫𝒎𝒂𝒙 (𝒎) 𝒉𝟏 (𝒎) 𝒉𝟐 (𝒎) 𝒉𝟑 (𝒎) 𝑯𝒕 (𝒎) 325m 866.7 433.3
250m 5.27 12.178 14.998 17.818 28.444 350m 933.3 466.7
275m 6.24 13.148 15.968 18.788 29.414
300m 7.30 14.208 17.028 19.848 30.474 ℎ1 (𝑚) ℎ2 (𝑚) ℎ3 (𝑚) ℎ1 + ℎ2 + ℎ3 (m)
325m 8.43 15.338 18.158 20.978 31.604 12.178 14.998 17.818 44.994
350m 9.65 16.558 19.378 22.198 32.824 13.148 15.968 18.788 47.904
14.208 17.028 19.848 51.084
Where 15.338 18.158 20.978 54.474
𝒉𝟏 = Height of lower conductor from ground 16.558 19.378 22.198 58.134
𝒉𝟐 = Height of middle conductor from ground
𝒉𝟑 = Height of top conductor from ground and 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑤 = 𝐹𝑤𝑝 × 𝑵𝒄 × (𝒉𝟏 + 𝒉𝟐 + 𝒉𝟑 )
𝑯𝒕 = total height of the tower.
The power conductor has maximum working tension of 𝜶
6000kg and diameter of 4cm. 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑡 = 𝟐𝑻𝟏𝒑𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧 × 𝑵𝒄 × (𝒉𝟏 + 𝒉𝟐 + 𝒉𝟑 )
𝟐
The earth wire has maximum working tension of 2000kg and
diameter of 2 cm. Tower Type Angle of deviation
Assume maximum conductor deviation of 5⁰ is permissible for A 20
all towers and wind force is 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟐 . B 15⁰
[16] Qno:3 2070 Bhadra
C 30⁰

𝜶 𝟓𝟎
Solution: 𝐬𝐢𝐧 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐. 𝟓𝟎
𝟐 𝟐

𝑭𝒘𝒑 ℎ1 + ℎ2 + ℎ3 (m) 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑤 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑡

Wind pressure = 100 kg/𝑚3
dcr p = Diameter of power conductor = 0.04m 666.7 44.994 59992 47102.66
733.3 47.904 70259.2 50149.04
dcr ew = Diameter of earth wire conductor = 0.02m
𝑇1𝑝𝑐 = 6000 kg 800.0 51.084 81734.4 53478.07
866.7 54.474 94421.6 57026.94
𝑇1𝑒𝑤 = 2000kg
933.3 58.134 108516.8 60858.47
Nc = Number of circuits = 2
Ne = Number of earth wire = 2
𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑤 = 𝐹𝑤𝑒 × 𝑵𝒆 × 𝑯𝒕
𝑭𝒘𝒑 =Wind force on conductor 𝜶
𝑭𝒘𝒆 =Wind force on earth conductor 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑡 = 𝟐𝑻𝟏𝒆𝒘 𝐬𝐢𝐧 × 𝑵𝒆 × 𝑯𝒕
𝟐
𝐿𝑠𝑝 = span length
𝑭𝒘𝒆 𝐻𝑡 (𝑚) 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑤 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑡
Per power conductor projected area of circular surface in 333.3 28.444 18962.67 9925.679
geometry 366.7 29.414 21570.27 10264.17
2
= dcr p × 𝐿𝑠𝑝 400.0 30.474 24379.2 10634.06
3
433.3 31.604 27390.13 11028.38
𝑭𝒘𝒑 = Projected area of power conductor × wind pressure 466.7 32.824 30635.73 11454.1
(kg/𝑚2 )
𝑇𝐵𝑀 = 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑤 + 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑡 + 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑤 + 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑡

𝑭𝒘𝒆 = Projected area of earth conductor × wind pressure 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑤 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑡 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑤 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑡 TBM
(kg/𝑚3 ) 59992 47102.66 18962.7 9925.679 135983
70259.2 50149.04 21570.3 10264.17 152242.7
Per power conductor projected area of circular surface in 81734.4 53478.07 24379.2 10634.06 170225.7
geometry 94421.6 57026.94 27390.1 11028.38 189867.1
2
= dcr ew × 𝐿𝑠𝑝 108516.8 60858.47 30635.7 11454.1 211465.1
3

TW = 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠

 P a g e | 53

𝑇𝑊 = 0.000631 × 𝐻𝑡 √𝑇𝐵𝑀 × 𝐹𝑆

Take FS =2

TBM (kg m) 𝐻𝑡 (m) TW

135983 28.444 9.4
152242.7 29.414 10.2
170225.7 30.474 11.2
189867.1 31.604 12.3
211465.1 32.824 13.5

Material Price
Cost of aluminum per tones Rs 20105/tones
Cost of steel per tones Rs 150000/ tones
per unit energy cost Rs 7.5 / unit

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠 × 𝑇𝑊

𝐿𝑡 = Total length
𝑁𝑡 =Number of towers
𝐿𝑡
𝑁𝑡 ≅
𝐿𝑠𝑝
𝑁𝑡
𝑇𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 ×
𝐿𝑡

Span Cost Per tower Tower cost per km

250m 1404004.8 5616019

275m 1536235.9 5586312
300m 1682975.0 5609917
325m 1843327.4 5671777
350m 2020442.4 5772693

The most economical span is minimum ratio of per tower cost

to span length. i.e 275 m.
 P a g e | 54

Qno:3
To transmit a given amount of power to a given distance a Span 𝑭𝒘𝒑 𝑭𝒘𝒆
double circuit line with a double earth wire is chosen for 250m 666.7 333.3
which the following design steps are completed, compute the 275m 733.3 366.7
most economical span. 300m 800.0 400.0
325m 866.7 433.3
Span 𝑫𝒎𝒂𝒙 (𝒎) 𝒉𝟏 (𝒎) 𝒉𝟐 (𝒎) 𝒉𝟑 (𝒎) 𝑯𝒕 (𝒎) 350m 933.3 466.7
250m 5.27 12.178 14.998 17.818 28.444
275m 6.24 13.148 15.968 18.788 29.414 ℎ1 (𝑚) ℎ2 (𝑚) ℎ3 (𝑚) ℎ1 + ℎ2 + ℎ3 (m)
300m 7.30 14.208 17.028 19.848 30.474 12.178 14.998 17.818 44.994
325m 8.43 15.338 18.158 20.978 31.604 13.148 15.968 18.788 47.904
350m 9.65 16.558 19.378 22.198 32.824 14.208 17.028 19.848 51.084
15.338 18.158 20.978 54.474
Where 16.558 19.378 22.198 58.134
𝒉𝟏 = Height of lower conductor from ground
𝒉𝟐 = Height of middle conductor from ground 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑤 = 𝐹𝑤𝑝 × 𝑵𝒄 × (𝒉𝟏 + 𝒉𝟐 + 𝒉𝟑 )
𝒉𝟑 = Height of top conductor from ground and
𝑯𝒕 = total height of the tower. 𝜶
𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑡 = 𝟐𝑻𝟏𝒑𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧 × 𝑵𝒄 × (𝒉𝟏 + 𝒉𝟐 + 𝒉𝟑 )
𝟐
The power conductor has maximum working tension of
6000kg and diameter of 4cm. Assume 80% as tower A, 15% as tower B and 5% tower C
The earth wire has maximum working tension of 2000kg and
diameter of 2 cm. Tower Type Angle of deviation
Assume 80% as tower A, 15% as tower B and 5% tower C and A 20
wind force is 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟐 . B 15⁰
[15] Qno:4 2072 Ashwin
C 30⁰
Solution: 𝜶
𝐬𝐢𝐧 = (𝟎. 𝟖 × 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 × 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟕. 𝟓𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓
𝟐
Wind pressure = 100 kg/𝑚3 × 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟓⁰)
dcr p = Diameter of power conductor = 0.04m
dcr ew = Diameter of earth wire conductor = 0.02m 𝑭𝒘𝒑 ℎ1 + ℎ2 + ℎ3 (m) 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑤 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑡
𝑇1𝑝𝑐 = 6000 kg 666.7 44.994 59992 50193.66
𝑇1𝑒𝑤 = 2000kg 733.3 47.904 70259.2 53439.95
Nc = Number of circuits = 2 800.0 51.084 81734.4 56987.44
Ne = Number of earth wire = 2 866.7 54.474 94421.6 60769.2
933.3 58.134 108516.8 64852.16
𝑭𝒘𝒑 =Wind force on conductor
𝑭𝒘𝒆 =Wind force on earth conductor 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑤 = 𝐹𝑤𝑒 × 𝑵𝒆 × 𝑯𝒕
𝐿𝑠𝑝 = span length
𝜶
𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑡 = 𝟐𝑻𝟏𝒆𝒘 𝐬𝐢𝐧 × 𝑵𝒆 × 𝑯𝒕
Per power conductor projected area of circular surface in 𝟐
geometry
2
= dcr p × 𝐿𝑠𝑝 𝑭𝒘𝒆 𝐻𝑡 (𝑚) 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑤 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑡
3
333.3 28.444 18962.67 10577.03
𝑭𝒘𝒑 = Projected area of power conductor × wind pressure 366.7 29.414 21570.27 10937.73
400.0 30.474 24379.2 11331.89
(kg/𝑚2 )
433.3 31.604 27390.13 11752.09
466.7 32.824 30635.73 12205.75
𝑭𝒘𝒆 = Projected area of earth conductor × wind pressure
(kg/𝑚3 ) 𝑇𝐵𝑀 = 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑤 + 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑡 + 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑤 + 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑡

Per power conductor projected area of circular surface in 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑤 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑡 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑤 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑡 TBM
geometry 59992 50193.7 18962.7 10577.0 139725.4
2 70259.2 53440.0 21570.3 10937.7 156207.1
= dcr ew × 𝐿𝑠𝑝
3 81734.4 56987.4 24379.2 11331.9 174432.9
94421.6 60769.2 27390.1 11752.0 194333
108516.8 64852.2 30635.7 12205.8 216210.4
 P a g e | 55

TW = 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠

𝑇𝑊 = 0.000631 × 𝐻𝑡 √𝑇𝐵𝑀 × 𝐹𝑆

Take FS =2

TBM (kg m) 𝐻𝑡 (m) TW

139725.4 28.444 9.5
156207.1 29.414 10.4
174432.9 30.474 11.4
194333 31.604 12.4
216210.4 32.824 13.6

Material Price
Cost of aluminum per tones Rs 20105/tones
Cost of steel per tones Rs 150000/ tones
per unit energy cost Rs 7.5 / unit

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠 × 𝑇𝑊

𝐿𝑡 = Total length
𝑁𝑡 =Number of towers
𝐿𝑡
𝑁𝑡 ≅
𝐿𝑠𝑝
𝑁𝑡
𝑇𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 ×
𝐿𝑡

Span Cost Per tower Tower cost per km

250m 1423193.306 5692773

275m 1556109.467 5658580
300m 1703645.844 5678819
325m 1864880.331 5738093
350m 2042986.298 5837104

The most economical span is minimum ratio of per tower cost

to span length. i.e 275 m.
 P a g e | 56

2
Qno:4 = dcr ew × 𝐿𝑠𝑝
3
To transmit the given amount of power to a given distance a
single circuit with single earth wire is chosen for which the
Span 𝑭𝒘𝒑 𝑭𝒘𝒆
following design steps are completed, compute the most
economical span if the transmission length is 200km. Assume 250m 266.7 213.3
10% of towers have been used to take care of maximum angle 275m 293.3 234.7
deviation of 15⁰ and rest are straight line towers. 300m 320.0 256.0
325m 346.7 277.3
Span 𝑫𝒎𝒂𝒙 (𝒎) 𝒉𝟏 (𝒎) 𝒉𝟐 (𝒎) 𝒉𝟑 (𝒎) 𝑯𝒕 (𝒎) 350m 373.3 298.7
250m 3.14 10.245 13.555 16.865 28.815
275m 3.69 10.801 14.111 17.421 29.371 ℎ1 (𝑚) ℎ2 (𝑚) ℎ3 (𝑚) ℎ1 + ℎ2 + ℎ3 (m)
300m 4.27 11.383 14.693 18.003 29.953 12.178 14.998 17.818 40.665
325m 4.88 11.965 15.298 18.608 30.558 13.148 15.968 18.788 42.333
350m 5.50 12.548 15.923 19.233 31.183 14.208 17.028 19.848 44.079
Where 15.338 18.158 20.978 45.871
𝒉𝟏 = Height of lower conductor from ground 16.558 19.378 22.198 47.704
𝒉𝟐 = Height of middle conductor from ground
𝒉𝟑 = Height of top conductor from ground and 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑤 = 𝐹𝑤𝑝 × 𝑵𝒄 × (𝒉𝟏 + 𝒉𝟐 + 𝒉𝟑 )
𝑯𝒕 = total height of the tower. 𝜶
𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑡 = 𝟐𝑻𝟏𝒑𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧 × 𝑵𝒄 × (𝒉𝟏 + 𝒉𝟐 + 𝒉𝟑 )
The power conductor has UTS of 8000 kg and diameter of 20 𝟐
mm. The earth wire has maximum working tension of 4000kg
and diameter of 16mm. As 90% is tower A, 10% is tower B
Wind force = 80 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟐 and Factor of safety for Tension is
2. Tower Type Angle of deviation
[10] Qno:3(b) 2073 Bhadra A 20
B 15⁰
C 30⁰
Solution:
𝜶
𝐬𝐢𝐧 = (𝟎. 𝟗 × 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟏 × 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟕. 𝟓𝟎 )
𝟐
Wind pressure = 80 kg/𝑚3 𝑭𝒘𝒑 ℎ1 + ℎ2 + ℎ3 (m) 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑤 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑡
dcr p = Diameter of power conductor = 0.02m 266.7 40.665 10844 9356.133
dcr ew = Diameter of earth wire conductor = 0.016m 293.3 42.333 12417.68 9739.904
UTS power conductor = 8000kg 320.0 44.079 14105.28 10141.62
𝑇1𝑒𝑤 = 4000kg 346.7 45.871 15901.95 10553.92
Nc = Number of circuits = 1 373.3 47.704 17809.49 10975.65
Ne = Number of earth wire = 1
𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑤 = 𝐹𝑤𝑒 × 𝑵𝒆 × 𝑯𝒕
𝑈𝑇𝑆 𝑝𝑐 𝜶
𝑇1𝑝𝑐 = = 4000𝑘𝑔 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑡 = 𝟐𝑻𝟏𝒆𝒘 𝐬𝐢𝐧 × 𝑵𝒆 × 𝑯𝒕
2 𝟐

𝑭𝒘𝒑 =Wind force on conductor 𝑭𝒘𝒆 𝐻𝑡 (𝑚) 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑤 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑡

𝑭𝒘𝒆 =Wind force on earth conductor 213.3 28.815 6147.2 6629.706
𝐿𝑠𝑝 = span length 234.7 29.371 6892.395 6757.629
256.0 29.953 7667.968 6891.535
Per power conductor projected area of circular surface in 277.3 30.558 8474.752 7030.732
geometry 298.7 31.183 9313.323 7174.531
2
= dcr p × 𝐿𝑠𝑝
3 𝑇𝐵𝑀 = 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑤 + 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑡 + 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑤 + 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑡
𝑭𝒘𝒑 = Projected area of power conductor × wind pressure
𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑤 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑡 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑤 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑡 TBM
(kg/𝑚2 ) 10844 9356.133 6147.2 6629.706 32977.04
12417.68 9739.904 6892.395 6757.629 35807.61
14105.28 10141.62 7667.968 6891.535 38806.4
𝑭𝒘𝒆 = Projected area of earth conductor × wind pressure
15901.95 10553.92 8474.752 7030.732 41961.35
(kg/𝑚3 )
17809.49 10975.65 9313.323 7174.531 45273
Per power conductor projected area of circular surface in
geometry TW = 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠
 P a g e | 57

𝑇𝑊 = 0.000631 × 𝐻𝑡 √𝑇𝐵𝑀 × 𝐹𝑆

Take FS =2

TBM (kg m) 𝐻𝑡 (m) TW

32977.04 28.815 4.7
35807.61 29.371 5.0
38806.4 29.953 5.3
41961.35 30.558 5.6
45273 31.183 5.9

Material Price
Cost of aluminum per tones Rs 20105/tones
Cost of steel per tones Rs 150000/ tones
per unit energy cost Rs 7.5 / unit

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠 × 𝑇𝑊

𝐿𝑡 = Total length
𝑁𝑡 =Number of towers
𝐿𝑡
𝑁𝑡 ≅
𝐿𝑠𝑝
𝑁𝑡
𝑇𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 ×
𝐿𝑡

Span Cost Per tower Tower cost per km

250m 700422.5 2801690

275m 743947.0 2705262
300m 789819.1 2632730
325m 837886.7 2578113
350m 888123.1 2537494

The most economical span is minimum ratio of per tower cost

to span length. i.e 350 m.
 P a g e | 58

Qno:1 𝑭𝒘𝒆 = Projected area of earth conductor × wind pressure

(kg/𝑚3 )
For the design of most economical span of an extra high voltage
transmission line, following data are available for a particular Per power conductor projected area of circular surface in
conductor. Select the most economical span. geometry
2
= dcr ew × 𝐿𝑠𝑝
Given that: 3

Conductor diameter = 21mm

Span 𝑭𝒘𝒑
Conductor cross section area = 262 𝑚𝑚2
Conductor UTS = 9127kg 250m 350
Wind pressure = 100kg/𝑚2 275m 385
300m 420
325m 455
350m 490

ℎ1 = ℎ𝑔 + 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥
ℎ2 = ℎ1 + 𝑦/2
ℎ3 = ℎ2 + 𝑦/2
𝐻𝑡 = ℎ3

ℎ1 (𝑚) ℎ2 (𝑚) ℎ3 (𝑚) ℎ1 + ℎ2 + ℎ3 (m)

Span (m) Maximum sag (m)
14.36 17.36 20.36 52.08
250 4.36
15.22 18.22 21.22 54.66
275 5.22
16.04 19.04 22.04 57.12
300 6.04
16.89 19.89 22.89 59.67
325 6.89
17.81 20.81 23.81 62.43
350 7.81

Assume: All the towers are straight line towers. The air 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑤 = 𝐹𝑤𝑝 × 𝑵𝒄 × (𝒉𝟏 + 𝒉𝟐 + 𝒉𝟑 )
𝜶
clearance is shown in figure, Minimum ground clearance is 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑡 = 𝟐𝑻𝟏𝒑𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧 × 𝑵𝒄 × (𝒉𝟏 + 𝒉𝟐 + 𝒉𝟑 )
10m. Neglect the effect of ground wire. 𝟐
[10] Qno:3(b) 2070 Magh
As 100% is tower A
Solution:
Tower Type Angle of deviation
A 20
Wind pressure = 100 kg/𝑚3 B 15⁰
dcr p = Diameter of power conductor = 0.021m C 30⁰
Conductor cross section area = 262 𝑚𝑚2 𝜶
ℎ𝑔 = 10m 𝐬𝐢𝐧 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟎
𝟐
UTS power conductor = 9127kg 𝑭𝒘𝒑 ℎ1 + ℎ2 + ℎ3 (m) 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑤 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑡
350 52.08 18228.0 8295.725
Nc = Number of circuits = 1
𝑈𝑇𝑆 𝑝𝑐 385 54.66 21044.1 8706.688
𝑇1𝑝𝑐 = = 4563.5𝑘𝑔 420 57.12 23990.4 9098.537
2
455 59.67 27149.9 9504.722
𝑭𝒘𝒑 =Wind force on conductor 490 62.43 30590.7 9944.357
𝑭𝒘𝒆 =Wind force on earth conductor
𝐿𝑠𝑝 = span length 𝑇𝐵𝑀 = 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑤 + 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑡 + 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑤 + 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑡

𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑤 𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑡 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑤 𝐵𝑀𝐸𝑡 TBM

Per power conductor projected area of circular surface in
geometry 18228.0 8295.725 0 0 26523.7
2 21044.1 8706.688 0 0 29750.8
= dcr p × 𝐿𝑠𝑝
3 23990.4 9098.537 0 0 33088.9
27149.9 9504.722 0 0 36654.6
𝑭𝒘𝒑 = Projected area of power conductor × wind pressure 30590.7 9944.357 0 0 40535.1
(kg/𝑚2 )
TW = 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠
 P a g e | 59

𝑇𝑊 = 0.000631 × 𝐻𝑡 √𝑇𝐵𝑀 × 𝐹𝑆

Take FS =2

Neglecting presence of ground wire

TBM (kg m) 𝐻𝑡 (m) TW

26523.7 52.08 7.6
29750.8 54.66 8.4
33088.9 57.12 9.3
36654.6 59.67 10.2
40535.1 62.43 11.2

Material Price
Cost of aluminum per tones Rs 20105/tones
Cost of steel per tones Rs 150000/ tones
per unit energy cost Rs 7.5 / unit

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠 × 𝑇𝑊

𝐿𝑡 = Total length
𝑁𝑡 =Number of towers
𝐿𝑡
𝑁𝑡 ≅
𝐿𝑠𝑝
𝑁𝑡
𝑇𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 ×
𝐿𝑡

Span Cost Per tower Tower cost per km

250m 1135335 4541338

275m 1261986 4589039
300m 1390802 4636006
325m 1529170 4705138
350m 1682458 4807024

The most economical span is minimum ratio of per tower cost

to span length. i.e 250 m.
 P a g e | 60

5. Electric power Distribution [4 hours] (8)  Economic point of view utilization voltage is higher
and from safety point of view utilization voltage is
Distribution lower.

 Distance proximity to consumer  Developed countries set utilization voltage from safety
 Power factor ↓ aspects. Lower is the V lower is the power flow so
 Lower Voltage level what they (developed ones) do is shorted the line
 Unbalanced load length.
Load may be 1−𝜑 or 3 − 𝜑
𝑅
 is higher  US JAPAN utilization voltage: 110V
𝑋

5.1. Underground and overhead lines systems

Justify the following statements:

The underground distribution feeder may not only be a

necessity but also economical in urban area.
[2] Qno:1(b)(i) 2072 Magh

5.2. Radial and networked systems

Transmission Distribution
Designed in grid Designed in network but operates
in radial
Radial design increases reliability
and decreases losses

State and justify whether the following statements are true

or false:

Network Distribution System is more reliable than Radial

distribution system.
[4] Qno:1(d) 2073 Bhadra Load center:
 Area served by a distribution line
5.3. Distribution equipment: overhead lines, single phase  Size of load center depends on load density and
and there phase cables, distribution transformers, switcher utilization voltage.
Distribution Transformer: Secondary Distribution:
 Several transformers for several voltage level among  Lower side of distribution transformer
which distribution transformer lowers voltage to
 Secondary side of distribution transformer
utilization level.
 No voltage level option for secondary distribution,
 Secondary of distribution transformer is always at
fixed by utilization voltage.
utilization voltage.
Primary Distribution:
Primary High voltage High tension
 Supplies power to primary of distribution transformer
Secondary Low voltage Low Tension
 Voltage level option for primary distribution 11kV,
33kV in Nepal up to 132kV in developed countries.

Area substation:
 Substation from which primary distribution originate.

Sub transmission line:

 Line that supplies power to area substation.
 It is an optional part

 Utilization voltage useless from economical Feeder and Distributer:

perspective and set from safety aspects  Distributer is conductor that feed the power to
consumer and are tapped.
 P a g e | 61

 The current through distributor is not constant. 5.4. Voltage levels, regulation, compensation
 Feeder supplies power without being trapped
 Sometimes part of distributor also called feeder until In distribution system consumer has voltage that vary from:
being trapped. 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝑉 < 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
Where, V = voltage that needs to be maintained in range.
Distribution system:
 Part of power delivery system Voltage regulation should be maintained at±5%.
 Between transmission system and consumer meters 𝑉𝑠
− 𝑉𝑅
 Includes distributor, the transformer that lowers the 𝑉𝑅 = 𝐴
𝑉𝑅
voltage at utilization voltage, line that supplies
primary distribution and area substation.
A close to 1 for distribution system.

Increasing tapping could increase voltage regulation above

permissible value.

To limit voltage regulation receiving end voltage need to be

maintained. Whereas sending end is not considered much.

State and justify whether the following statements are true

or false:

For design of rural distribution first select the transformer size

and then size of the load center.
[1+3] Qno:1(d) 2073 Magh
 P a g e | 62

Derive expression for voltage drop and power loss over a

distribution feeder assuming uniformly varying loading.

[6] Qno:5(c) 2071 Bhadra

In Power system:
“Direction of active power flow is from leading phase angle to
lagging phase angle whereas direction of reactive power flow is
from higher voltage magnitude to lower voltage magnitude.”

In Distribution system:
“Direction of active power flow and direction of reactive power
flow both is from higher voltage magnitude to lower voltage
magnitude.”

For uniformly distributed load:

1
𝑉𝐷 = 𝐼𝑍𝐿
2
1 2
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐼 𝑟𝑙
3
 P a g e | 63

VD = Voltage drop in line

𝑙
𝑉𝐷 = ∫ 𝐼𝑥 𝑧 𝑑𝑥
0
𝑙
𝑥2
= ∫ 𝐼 (1 − ) 𝑧 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑙2

𝑙
𝑥2
= 𝐼𝑧 ∫ (1 − ) 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑙2

𝑥3 𝑙
= 𝐼𝑧 [𝑥 − ]
3𝑙 2 0
dx = elementary segment at distance x from substation 𝑙3 𝑙 2𝑙
= 𝐼𝑧 [𝑙 − 2 ] = 𝐼𝑧 [𝑙 − ] = 𝐼𝑧
3𝑙 3 3
z = elemental impedance
𝑧 = 𝑟 + 𝑗𝑥 PL = Power loss in the line
𝑙
I = current flowing in the line of length ‘l’ 𝑃𝐿 = ∫ 𝐼𝑥2 𝑟 𝑑𝑥
1 0
𝐼 = ×𝑙×𝑏
2 2
𝑙
𝑥2
= ∫ 𝐼 2 (1 − ) 𝑟 𝑑𝑥
𝐼𝑎 = Current in arbilary load a 0 𝑙2
1
𝐼𝑎 = 𝑥 × 𝑎 2
2 𝑙
𝑥2
Dividing we get, = 𝐼 2 𝑟 ∫ (1 − ) 𝑑𝑥
𝐼𝑎 𝑥 × 𝑎 0 𝑙2
=
𝐼 𝑙×𝑏 𝑙
𝑥2 𝑥4
= 𝐼 2 𝑟 ∫ (1 − 2 + ) 𝑑𝑥
From similar triangle: 0 𝑙2 𝑙4
𝑎 𝑥
= 𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑙
𝑏 𝑙 = 𝐼 2 𝑟 [𝑥 − 2 2 + 4 ]
3𝑙 5𝑙 0
𝑥2
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼 𝑙3 𝑙5
𝑙2 = 𝐼 2 𝑟 [𝑙 − 2 + ]
3𝑙 2 5𝑙 4
𝐼𝑥 = Current beyond point ‘x’ = current flowing in the line of
length ‘ 𝑙 −x’ 2𝑙 𝑙 8𝑙 2
= 𝐼 2 𝑟 [𝑙 − + ]= 𝐼 𝑟
3 5 15
𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼 − 𝐼𝑎

𝑥2
𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼 − 𝐼
𝑙2

𝑥2
𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼 (1 − )
𝑙2
 P a g e | 64

Qno:1
Compute the power loss and voltage drop for a 15km long 11kV Current through feeder 1: I
three phase distribution feeder having sending end current of
100A with uniformly distributed load, Use 𝑧 = 0.6 + 3𝑗 Ω/𝑘𝑚. 𝑃 40 × 103
Derive expression used in above calculation. 𝐼= = = 75.967 𝐴/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
√3𝑉𝐿−𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 √3 × 380 × 0.8
[10] Qno:4(b) 2070 Magh
Solution: Current through distributer 1 D1:
Line length (L) = 15km 75.967
r = 0.6Ω/km 𝐼= = 18.99𝐴/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
4
x = 3 Ω/km
1 1
𝑉𝐷 = 𝐼𝑍𝐿 = × 100 × (0.6 + 3𝑗) × 15 = 450 + 2250𝑗 For uniformly distributed load:
2 2 i. LT percentage peak power loss
= 2294.56∠78.69⁰
1 2
1 1 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝐼 𝑟𝑙
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐼 2 𝑟𝑙 = 1002 × 0.6 × 15 = 30𝑘𝑊 3
3 3

Qno:2 ∑ 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 × 𝑁𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ × 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑟

Compute the power loss and voltage drop for a 10km long 11kV
three phase distribution feeder having sending end current of 1
100A with uniformly distributed load, Use 𝑧 = 0.4 + 0.3𝑗 Ω/ ∑ 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 3 × 4 × 18.992 × 1.1 × 2 = 3.173𝑘𝑊
3
𝑘𝑚. Derive expression used in above calculation.
[4+4] Qno:5(b) 2068 Bhadra ∑ 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
Solution: 𝐿𝑇 % 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = × 100%
𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑
Line length (L) = 10km 3.173
r = 0.4Ω/km = × 100% = 7.93%
40
L = 3 H/km
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐻 = 2𝜋 × 50 × 0.003 = 0.3𝜋 Ω/𝑘𝑚 ii. Maximum percentage voltage drop in LT
1 1
𝑉𝐷 = 𝐼𝑍𝐿 = × 100 × (0.4 + 0.3𝜋𝑗) × 10 𝑍 = √1.12 + 0.252 = 1.128
2 2
= (200 + 150𝜋𝑗)𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 1 1
𝑉𝐷 = 𝐼𝑍𝐿 = × 18.99 × √1.12 + 0.252 × 2
1 2 1 2 2
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐼 𝑟𝑙 = 1002 × 0.4 × 10 = 13.3𝑘𝑊 = 21.42 𝑉/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
3 3
𝑉𝐷 21.42
Qno:3 𝐿𝑇 % 𝑉𝐷 = × 100% = × 100% = 9.76%
A particular load center with uniformly distributed load of peak 𝑉𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 380
demand 40kW has a power factor of 0.8. The distribution √3
transformer has four 3 − 𝜑 LT feeders at 380V of equal length Qno:4
of 2km each. If the per phase resistance and reactance of LT A particular load center has a peak demand of 50kW at a power
conditions are 1.1Ω/km and 0.25Ω/km, determine: factor of 0.8 lagging. For the following two cases of 3 phase LT
i. LT percentage peak power loss feeder configuration at distribution transformer, compute the
ii. Maximum percentage voltage drop in LT % peak power loss and maximum percentage voltage drop in
[10] Qno:5 2072 Magh LT.
Solution:
Option 1: 4 feeders each of length 2km
Option 2: 2 feeders each of length 4km

The resistance and reactance per phase of LT conductors are

1.1 Ω/km and 0.25 Ω/km. Assume uniformly distributed load
along the feeders. The distribution transformer is rated
11/0.4kV.
[10] Qno:5(a) 2072 Ashwin
 P a g e | 65

Solution: Option 2: 2 feeders each of length 4km

Option 1: 4 feeders each of length 2km

Current through feeder 1: I

Current through feeder 1: I
𝑃 50 × 103
𝑃 50 × 10 3 𝐼= = = 90.210𝐴/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝐼= = = 90.210𝐴/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 √3𝑉𝐿−𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 √3 × 400 × 0.8
√3𝑉𝐿−𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 √3 × 400 × 0.8
Current through distributer 1 D1:
Current through distributer 1 D1: 90.210
90.210 𝐼= = 45.105 𝐴/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
2
𝐼= = 22.55 𝐴/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
4
For uniformly distributed load:
For uniformly distributed load:
iii. LT percentage peak power loss
ii. LT percentage peak power loss
1 2
1 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝐼 𝑟𝑙
3
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝐼 2 𝑟𝑙
3
∑ 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 × 𝑁𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ × 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑟
∑ 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 × 𝑁𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ × 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑟
1
1 ∑ 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 3 × 2 × 45.1052 × 1.1 × 4 = 17.903 𝑘𝑊
3
∑ 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 3 × 4 × 22.552 × 1.1 × 2 = 4.475𝑘𝑊
3
∑ 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
∑ 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐿𝑇 % 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = × 100%
𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝐿𝑇 % 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = × 100% 17.903
𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑
= × 100% = 35.806 %
4.475 50
= × 100% = 8.95 %
50
iv. Maximum percentage voltage drop in LT
iii. Maximum percentage voltage drop in LT
𝑍 = √1.12 + 0.252 = 1.128
𝑍= √1.12 + 0.252 = 1.128
1 1
𝑉𝐷 = 𝐼𝑍𝐿 = × 45.105 × √1.12 + 0.252 × 4
1 1 2 2
𝑉𝐷 = 𝐼𝑍𝐿 = × 22.55 × √1.12 + 0.252 × 2 = 101.76 𝑉/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
2 2
= 25.438 𝑉/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑉𝐷 101.76
𝐿𝑇 % 𝑉𝐷 = × 100% = × 100% = 44.06%
𝑉𝐷 25.438 𝑉𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 400
𝐿𝑇 % 𝑉𝐷 = × 100% = × 100% = 11.01%
𝑉𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 400 √3
√3
 P a g e | 66

Qno:1
For the 11kV primary distribution network shown below, 𝑝𝑓 = 0.6 𝑙𝑎𝑔
determine the size (kVAR) of the capacitor to be placed at the
location shown in diagram to achieve maximum loss reduction. 𝑃𝐷 = 𝑆𝐷 cos 𝜑 = 0.2 × 0.6 = 0.12 𝑝𝑢
For simplifying the analysis assume voltage at each node is 1
p.u. All impedance are in p.u at 1000 kVA.
𝑄𝐷 = √𝑆𝐷2 − 𝑃𝐷2 = √0.22 − 0.122 = 0.16 𝑝. 𝑢

Power loss calculation at D:

𝑃𝐿 (𝐷) =

[10] Qno:5(a) 2070 Magh Pg :14

Solution:

Voltage at each node 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉𝐷 = 1.0 𝑝𝑢

Base kVA= 1000kVA

At Bus Bar A:

100
𝑆𝐴 = = 0.1 𝑝𝑢
1000

𝑝𝑓 = 0.6 𝑙𝑎𝑔

𝑃𝐴 = 𝑆𝐴 cos 𝜑 = 0.1 × 0.6 = 0.06𝑝𝑢

𝑄𝐴 = √𝑆𝐴2 − 𝑃𝐴2 = √0.12 − 0.062 = 0.08 𝑝. 𝑢

At Bus Bar B:

100
𝑆𝐵 = = 0.1 𝑝𝑢
1000

𝑝𝑓 = 0.8 𝑙𝑎𝑔

𝑃𝐵 = 𝑆𝐵 cos 𝜑 = 0.1 × 0.8 = 0.08 𝑝𝑢

𝑄𝐵 = √𝑆𝐵2 − 𝑃𝐵2 = √0.12 − 0.082 = 0.06 𝑝. 𝑢

At Bus Bar C:

150
𝑆𝐶 = = 0.15 𝑝𝑢
1000

𝑝𝑓 = 0.9 𝑙𝑎𝑔

𝑃𝐶 = 𝑆𝐶 cos 𝜑 = 0.15 × 0.9 = 0.135 𝑝𝑢

𝑄𝐶 = √𝑆𝐶2 − 𝑃𝐶2 = √0.152 − 0.1352 = 0.065 𝑝. 𝑢

At Bus Bar D:

200
𝑆𝐷 = = 0.2 𝑝𝑢
1000
 P a g e | 67

5.5. Urban and rural distribution system

There is a point from where transition from 3 − 𝜑 to 1−𝜑

transition is to be made in utility distribution.

 Primary distribution is 1−𝜑,

 Either primary distribution is 3−𝜑 , transformer is

1−𝜑 and further 1−𝜑 lines are distributed.

 Either primary distribution is 3 − 𝜑 , transformer is

3 − 𝜑 and further 1−𝜑 lines are distributed.

Discuss the suitability and choice of American and European

distribution system layout in context of Nepal.
𝑃𝑙 𝜌
[6] Qno:3(b) 2072 Magh %𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 =
𝑁𝑐 𝑉 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜑 𝐴

American system: In rural areas, voltage drop and power loss is limits design and
 3 − 𝜑, 4 wire for primary distribution from substation in urban thermal/current carrying capacity limits design.
and laterals are run as 1−𝜑
In urban
 3 − 𝜑 to single phase transition occur at distribution 𝑃
transformer As length 𝑙 ↑, 𝐼 = ↑ tremendously and current carrying
𝑉 cos 𝜑
conductor cannot carry that much current even for maximum
 Suitable for areas with low load density. size conductor for Power flow P

 Rural Distribution philosophy Load density is high ↑ and current carrying capacity decides
𝑃𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑡 and span limit l

𝑃𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑡 = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑

Design criteria:
𝑃 > 𝑃𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑡

In rural

Load density is low ↓

Even we go for maximum length Power will be less
Current carrying capacity independent of line length.

As length 𝑙 ↑, 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 ↑ so line design limited by 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝

Load center cannot be made too large, load center is dominated

by 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝

 If power flow is high 3 − 𝜑 transformer is economic

as in case of urban distribution. If power flow is less
European system: than certain limit 1 − 𝜑 transformer is economic as in
case of rural distribution.
 3 − 𝜑, 3 wire for primary distribution from substation  American system utilization voltage is less tha
and laterals are run as 1−𝜑 European system
 3 − 𝜑 to single phase transition occur at secondary  In American system, whether it is urban or rural the
distribution load center is small and transformer is also small.
 Urban Distribution philosophy
From the distribution point of view, justify the following:
 P a g e | 68

The "MV" section is a delta-connected "three-wire" system, so

v. Though the thermal limit design for distribution feeder you are correct in asserting that there is no neutral wire.
is applicable in highly dense urban areas but the power However, there is a path for neutral or "zero-sequence" currents
losses are more in rural areas. to flow to ground, via the earthing 'zig-zag' transformer that is
installed for this purpose. (The reasons for installing a earthing
vi. The underground distribution feeder may not only be transformer deserve a separate question and answer.)
necessary but also economical in urban area with
respect to rural area. There are a few phenomenon that may give rise to neutral
[4+4] Qno:4 2068 Bhdara current on a MV transmission line, but unbalanced LV loads,
which cause a current to flow in the LV star-point/neutral, don't
cause MV neutral current.
State and justify whether the following statements are true
or false:

In rural distribution its good practice to go for higher primary

distribution voltage than usual.
[1+3] Qno:4(a) 2070 Bhadra

 True

The underground distribution is relatively economical in

rural distribution than urban distribution.
[1+3] Qno:4(b) 2070 Bhadra

 False

5.6. Right‐of‐way, effects of terrain and weather and other

construction problems

5.7. Distribution practices in rural and urban Nepal

"If no neutral wire is needed on the delta-connected system,

why do we bother putting an earthing transformer on it?"
 P a g e | 69

Show that the percentage voltage regulation in a primary

distribution feeder is inversely proportional to the square of the
line voltage.
[8] Qno:4(b) 2073 Bhadra

List out the considerations to be made while setting an area

substation.
[4] Qno:5(a) 2071 Bhadra || [4] Qno:5(c) 2068 Bhadra

Discuss different factors to be taken into consideration for

producing power loss in distribution system.
[6] Qno:5(b) 2071 Magh

State and justify whether the following statements are true

or false:

In Nepal, the primary and secondary distribution systems

operate in parallel.
[1+3] Qno:4(c) 2070 Bhadra

If utilization voltage is lower, single phase distribution

transformers are preferable choice.
[1+3] Qno:4(d) 2070 Bhadra
 P a g e | 70

6. Electrical loads Characteristics & Load forecast [7 hours]

(16)

6.1. Characterization of loads: domestic, commercial,

industrial

6.2. Time dependence of electrical loads: load duration

curves, load factor, daily variation, seasonal and annual
variation, long and short term prediction of load, effects of
conservation, effects of rates, diversity, load uncertainty

Load factor:
 measure of the utilization rate, or efficiency of
electrical energy usage
 low load factor indicates that load is not putting a
strain on the electric system
 high load factor indicates consumers or
generators put more of a strain on the electric
distribution
 can be derived from the load profile of the
specific device or system of devices.
 value always less than one
o because maximum demand is always
higher than average demand,
o since facilities likely never operate at full
capacity for the duration of an entire 24-
hour day

Average load(kW)
load factor = The load factor has been increase by offering customers
Peak load (kW) “time-of-use” rates. Electricity Provider use pricing
Energy supplied during certain power to influence consumers to shift electric-intensive
period(kWhr) activities during off-peak times (such as, electric water
load factor = and space heating, air conditioning, irrigating, and pool
Maximum energy demand during
that period(kWhr) filter pumping.

Explain the advantages of higher value of load factor with

mathematical aid. [6] Qno:5(b) 2070 Bhadra

A high load factor means power usage is relatively

constant.

Low load factor shows that occasionally a high demand is

set. To service that peak, capacity is sitting idle for long
periods, thereby imposing higher costs on the system.

Electrical rates are designed so that customers with high

load factor are charged less overall per kWh. With financial incentives, some electric customers are
also allowing utilities to interrupt large electric loads
remotely through radio frequency or power line carrier
during periods of peak use. Utilities can try to design in
higher load factors by running the same feeders through
residential and commercial areas
 P a g e | 71

𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 (𝑡) 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒.

Explain the dependency of energy loss computation in a 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑃𝑠 − 𝑃𝑅
transmission / distribution line on the load factor with proper
mathematical aid. “Load loss” (also sometimes referred to as ‘copper
[8] Qno:4(a) 2073 Bhadra losses’) means the loss arising from the heating effects of
the resistance in the network conductors. Load loss is
proportional to the square of the current and occurs in the
sub transmission, HV and LV network conductors, and
zone substation and distribution transformers.

𝑇
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = ∫ 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
0

“Loss load factor” (LLF) means the ratio between

average load loss and peak load loss.

Average loss(kW)
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 load factor =
Peak loss (kW)
 P a g e | 72

2
1
With the help of arbitrary load curve derive the correlation K=( ) R
between load factor (LF) and loss of load factor (LLF) as √3VL−L cos φ
LLF = K1 × LF + K 2 × LF 2
[6] Qno:4(a) 2070 Magh 𝐏𝟏𝟐 𝐭 + 𝐏𝟐𝟐 (𝐓 − 𝐭)
𝐋𝐋𝐅 =
𝐏𝟐𝟐 𝐓

For load curve below: Correlation between LF and LLF:

P1 t + P2 (T − t) P2 T
lim LF = lim = =1
𝑡→0 𝑡→0 P2 T P2 T

P12 t + P22 (T − t) P22 T

lim LLF = lim = 2 =1
𝑡→0 𝑡→0 P22 T P2 T

𝐿𝐿𝐹 = 𝐿𝐹

P1 t + P2 (T − t) P1 T P1
lim LF = lim = =
𝑡→𝑇 𝑡→𝑇 P2 T P2 T P2

P12 t + P22 (T − t) P12 T P1 2

lim LLF = lim = = ( ) = 𝐿𝐹 2
𝑡→𝑇 𝑡→0 P22 T P22 T P2
Energy supplied during certain
period(kWhr) 𝐿𝐿𝐹 = 𝐿𝐹 2
load factor =
Maximum energy demand during
that period(kWhr)

𝐏𝟏 𝐭 + 𝐏𝟐 (𝐓 − 𝐭)
𝐋𝐅 =
𝐏𝟐 𝐓

Energy lost during certain

period(kWhr)
load loss factor =
Maximum energy lost during
that period(kWhr)

I12 Rt + I22 R(T − t)

LLF =
I22 RT

R = line resistance

Pi
Ii =
√3Vl−L cos φ
Where, 𝐿𝐹 2 ≤ 𝐿𝐿𝐹 ≤ 𝐿𝐹
Ii = cureent flow in line during ith interval
Boundary conditions:
2 2
P1 P2
( ) Rt + ( ) R(T − t) t=0 𝑘1 = 1 𝑘2 = 0 LF maximum
√3VL−L cos φ √3VL−L cos φ
LLF = 2 t=T 𝑘1 = 0 𝑘2 = 1 LF minimum
P2
( ) RT
√3Vl−L cos φ Solution of boundary value problem:

𝐿𝐿𝐹 = 𝑘1 𝐿𝐹 + 𝑘2 𝐿𝐹 2
kP12 t + kP22 (T − t)
LLF =
kP22 T 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 = 1
Where,
For TL Nepal: 𝑘1 = 0.3 , 𝑘2 = 0.7, 𝐿𝐹 = 0.5
 P a g e | 73

Qno:1 6.3. Characteristics of electric loads in Nepal

Using equation
𝐿𝐿𝐹 = 𝐾1 × 𝐿𝐹 + 𝐾2 × 𝐿𝐹 2 6.4. Load forecasting techniques, small area load forecast
Compute the appropriate value of 𝐾1 and 𝐾2 of system having
following load pattern:
Electric load and demand forecasting involves the
Time 0.00 6.00 10.00 14.00 18.00 21.00 projection of peak demand levels and overall energy
(hrs.) − − − − − − consumption patterns to support an electric utility’s future
6.00 10.00 14.00 18.00 21.00 24.00 system and business operations.
Demand 0 4 2 2 10 4
(MW)
Explain one of the small area forecasting method.
[10] Qno:4(b) 2071 Bhadra || [6] Qno:5(a) 2073 Bhadra
[6] Qno:4(b) 2071 Magh

Solution:
∑𝑃 × 𝑇
𝐿𝐹 = State and justify whether the following statements are true
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∑ 𝑇 or false:
6 × 0 + 4 × 4 + 2 × 4 + 2 × 4 + 3 × 10 + 3 × 4
=
10 × 24 The simulation method of the load forecasting is more
suitable for small area load forecast.
= 0.3083 [1+3] Qno:1(a) 2070 Magh
∑ 𝑃2 × 𝑇
𝐿𝐿𝐹 = 2
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∑𝑇
Justify the following statements:
6 × 02 + 4 × 42 + 22 × 4 + 22 × 4 + 3 × 102 + 3 × 42
=
102 × 24
The trending method of load forecast is only suitable for
= 0.185 large area load forecast.
[2] Qno:1(b)(ii) 2072 Magh
Hence,
𝐿𝐿𝐹 = 𝑘1 𝐿𝐹 + 𝑘2 𝐿𝐹 2
0.3803𝑘1 + 0.30832 𝑘2 = 0.185

𝑘1 + 𝑘2 = 1

Solving both equations:

𝑘1 = 0.423
𝑘2 = 0.578

State and justify whether the following statements are true

or false:

Loss of load factor (LLF) is always unity while evaluating

energy loss from constant power loss.
[3] Qno:1(i) 2072 Ashwin
 P a g e | 74

Qno:1
From the initial survey of particular load center, the following Average monthly consumption (kWhr) for nth year
consumer data has been obtained: = Average monthly consumption (kWhr)× consumption growth
factor for nth year
Consumer Potential Avg. Monthly No. of 5th year load pattern
Class consumer Consumption effective Contribution Load 𝑟 𝑛−1
days / factor to factor 30 × (1 + )
month peak 100
Domestic 100 30 kWh 30 1.0 0.25 5 4
= 30 × (1 + ) = 36.47 𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟
Commercial 20 30 kWh 25 0.5 0.30 100
Non- 50 20 kWh 20 0.1 0.25
commercial

𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Assuming consumption growth factors of 5% in each year for
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟)𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
each class and electrification coverage factor by 5th year is 70%
for all consumers classes determine 5th year peak load of the × 𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
=
load center in kW. (Neglect project implementation method.) 𝐿𝐹 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
[10] Qno:5(a) 2070 Bhadra || [12] Qno:4(b) 2068 Bhadra
36.47 × 15
= = 3.04 𝑘𝑊
Solution: 0.3 × (25 × 24)
Population growth factor =1.8%
For Non-commercial consumers:
For domestic consumers:
No of effective consumer nth year
No of effective consumer nth year = Potential consumers’ × population growth factor of nth year
= Potential consumers’ × population growth factor of nth year × electrification coverage factor
× electrification coverage factor
𝑟 𝑛−1
= 50 × (1 + ) × 0.7
𝑟 𝑛−1 100
= 100 × (1 + ) × 0.7 1.8 4
100 = 50 × (1 + ) × 0.7 = 38
4
1.8 100
= 100 × (1 + ) × 0.7 = 76
100
Average monthly consumption (kWhr) for n th year
Average monthly consumption (kWhr) for nth year = Average monthly consumption (kWhr)× consumption growth
= Average monthly consumption (kWhr)× consumption growth factor for nth year
factor for nth year
𝑟 𝑛−1
= 20 × (1 + )
𝑟 𝑛−1 100
30 × (1 + ) 5 4
100 = 20 × (1 + ) = 24.31 𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟
5 4 100
= 30 × (1 + ) = 36.47 𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟
100

𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟)𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟)𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
× 𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 × 𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
= =
𝐿𝐹 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝐿𝐹 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

36.47 × 76 24.31 × 38
= = 15.4 𝑘𝑊 = = 7.698 𝑘𝑊
0.25 × (30 × 24) 0.25 × (20 × 24)

For commercial consumers:

𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒
No of effective consumer nth year = ∑ 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 × 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
= Potential consumers’ × population growth factor of nth year
= 15.4 × 1 + 3.04 × 0.5 + 7.698 × 0.1 = 17.68𝑘𝑊
× electrification coverage factor

𝑟 𝑛−1
= 20 × (1 + ) × 0.7
100
1.8 4
= 20 × (1 + ) × 0.7 = 15
100
 P a g e | 75

Qno:2
From the initial survey of particular load center, the following 2 𝑛−1
consumer data has been obtained: = 20 × (1 + ) × 0.7
100
4
1.8
Consumer Potential Avg. Monthly No. of 5th year load pattern = 20 × (1 + ) × 0.7 = 16
Class consumer Consumption effective Contribution Load 100
days / factor to factor
month peak Average monthly consumption (kWhr) for n th year
Domestic 100 30 kWh 30 1.0 0.25 = Average monthly consumption (kWhr)× consumption growth
Commercial 20 30 kWh 30 0.5 0.30 factor for nth year
Non- 50 20 kWh 20 0.1 0.25
commercial
𝑟 𝑛−1
30 × (1 + )
Determine the 5th year peak load of load centre in kW. 100
5 4
= 30 × (1 + ) = 36.47 𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟
Data for load forecast (for all consumer classes): 100

Load growth factor: 5% for first year and an

increment of 1% from 2nd year 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟)𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
Population growth factor: 2% each year × 𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
=
𝐿𝐹 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Percentage coverage factor: 70% by 5th year
[9] Qno:5(b)2072 Ashwin 36.47 × 16
= = 2.70 𝑘𝑊
0.3 × (30 × 24)
Solution:
For Non-commercial consumers:
For domestic consumers:
No of effective consumer nth year
No of effective consumer nth year = Potential consumers’ × population growth factor of nth year
= Potential consumers’ × population growth factor of nth year × electrification coverage factor
× electrification coverage factor
𝑟 𝑛−1
𝑟 𝑛−1 = 50 × (1 + ) × 0.7
= 100 × (1 + ) × 0.7 100
4
100 2
2 4 = 50 × (1 + ) × 0.7 = 38
= 100 × (1 + ) × 0.7 = 76 100
100
Average monthly consumption (kWhr) for n th year
th
Average monthly consumption (kWhr) for n year = Average monthly consumption (kWhr)× consumption growth
= Average monthly consumption (kWhr)× consumption growth factor for nth year
factor for nth year
𝑟 𝑛−1
𝑟 𝑛−1 = 20 × (1 + )
30 × (1 + ) 100
100 5 4
5 4 = 20 × (1 + ) = 24.31 𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟
= 30 × (1 + ) = 36.47 𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟 100
100

𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟)𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟)𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
× 𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 × 𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
= =
𝐿𝐹 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝐿𝐹 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
36.47 × 76 24.31 × 38
= = 15.4 𝑘𝑊 = = 7.698 𝑘𝑊
0.25 × (30 × 24) 0.25 × (20 × 24)

For commercial consumers:

𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒
No of effective consumer nth year
= ∑ 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 × 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
= Potential consumers’ × population growth factor of nth year
× electrification coverage factor = 15.4 × 1 + 2.70 × 0.5 + 7.698 × 0.1 = 17.52 𝑘𝑊
 P a g e | 76

Qno:3 Peak demand of each class,

For each consumer class determine (100 × 30 × 1)

𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑘𝑤)𝐴 = = 13.88 𝑘𝑤
i. peak load (0.3 × 30 × 24)
ii. load factor (daily and annual)
iii. contribution factor (30 × 20 × 0.9)
iv. annual energy sell 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑(𝑘𝑤)𝐵 = = 2.9 𝑘𝑤
(0.31 × 25 × 24)
For distribution transformer determine 40 × 30 × 0.95
i. annual load factor 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑘𝑤)𝐶 = = 5.75 𝑘𝑤
0.33 × 25 × 24
The consumer data for particular distribution transformer for
a specified year is as shown Annual load factor of each class
Table:1 100 × 30 × 12
Consumer Class A Class B Class C 𝐿. 𝐹𝐴 (𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐴 = = 0.296
13.88 × 365 × 24
class
Consumer 100 30 40 30 × 20 × 12
Number 𝐿. 𝐹𝐵 (𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐵 = = 0.283
2.9 × 365 × 24
Monthly 30kWh 20kWh 20kWh
energy 40 × 30 × 12
consumption 𝐿. 𝐹𝐶 (𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐶 = = 0.295
5.75 × 365 × 24
No. of 30 25 25
effective days
per month
Coincidence 1 0.9 0.95
factor
Power factor 0.9 0.8 0.85
Load pattern Table 2 Table 2 Table 2

Table:2

Time 0.00 6.00 10.00 14.00 18.00 21.00

(hrs.) − − − − − −
6.00 10.00 14.00 18.00 21.00 24.00
Class 0 0.4 0.2 0.2 1 0.4
A
Class 0 0 0.5 1 0.5 0 Hence from these curves, we found cumulative Peak load =
B 15.33 kW
Class 0 0 1 1 0 0
C
Contribution factor at system peak are;
[10] Qno:4(b) 2073 Magh
Contribution factor for class A = 90%
Determining load factor from load pattern: Contribution factor for class B = 10%
Contribution factor for class C = 0%
For class A,
𝐿. 𝐹 (𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦) Annual Energy sell
(0.4 × 4) + (0.2 × 4) + (0.2 × 4) + (1 × 3) + (0.4 × 3) 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐴 = (100 × 30 × 12) = 36000 𝑘𝑤ℎ
=
24 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐵 = (30 × 20 × 12) = 7200 𝑘𝑤ℎ
= 0.3 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐶 = (40 × 30 × 12) = 14400 𝑘𝑤ℎ

For class B, Distribution transformer

(0.5 × 4) + (1 × 4) + (0.5 × 30) = (36000 + 7200 + 14400) = 57600 𝑘𝑤ℎ
𝐿. 𝐹(𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦) = = 0.31
24
𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐿. 𝐹) 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟
For class C, 57600
(1 × 4) + (1 × 4) = = 0.43
𝐿. 𝐹 (𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦) = = 0.33 15.33 × 365 × 24
24
 P a g e | 77

7. Distribution system design [5 hours] (8) Qno:1

Three villages A,B and C are situated at an equal distance of 6
7.1. Load center selection km from each other and their respective loads are 20kW, 20kW
and 40kW. Find their distribution transformer location relative
to location of village A assuming yourself as an electrical
Discuss the primary considerations to be given when engineer.
selecting a load center and distribution transformer while [6] Qno:5(a) 2071 Magh
designing a grid extended rural and urban distribution.
[6] Qno:2(b) 2072 Magh Solution:
Let D be perpendicular distance from B to line joining AC

7.2. Selection of distribution transformer locations, their BD = 0.6 sin 60⁰ = 0.52
sizes and primary voltage level

Explain the suitability of single phase and 3-phase distribution

transformer.
[6] Qno:5(a) 2073 Magh

Discuss the primary consideration to be given while selecting a

distribution transformer size and its location.
[6] Qno:4(a) 2071 Bhadra

∑𝑛1 𝑥𝑖 𝑃𝑖
𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 =
∑𝑛1 𝑃𝑖

0 × 20 + 0.3 × 20 + 0.6 × 40
= = 0.375 𝑘𝑚
20 + 20 + 40

∑𝑛1 𝑦𝑖 𝑃𝑖
𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 =
∑𝑛1 𝑃𝑖
0 × 20 + 0.52 × 20 + 0 × 40
= = 0.13 𝑘𝑚
20 + 20 + 40
 P a g e | 78

Qno:1 Qno:2
A 11kV/ 0.4kV, 100kVA distribution transformer has 4 outgoing A 11kV/0.4kV, 50kVA distribution transformer has no load loss
secondary distribution lines of 1.5 km each. The conductor used of 120W and rated copper loss of 200W. Determine the
has resistance of 1 ohm/km. Determine the monthly energy loss percentage monthly energy loss of the transformer if the peak
in the lines if peak demand of load center has 80 KVA at load demand is 30kVA at a power factor of 0.9 and load factor of
factor of 0.4. Given 0.3. Given
𝐿𝐿𝐹 = 0.3𝐿𝐹 + 0.7𝐿𝐹 2 𝐿𝐿𝐹 = 0.3𝐿𝐹 + 0.7𝐿𝐹 2
[10] Qno:5(b) 2073 Bhadra [10] QNo:5(b) 2073 Magh
Given:
Transformer capacity = 100kVA Given:
Peak demand = 80kVA Transformer capacity = 50kVA
LF = 0.4 Peak demand = 30kVA at 0.9pf lag
r = 1 ohm/km LF = 0.3
L=1.5km No load loss = 120W
Rated Cu loss = 200W

Solution: Solution:

LLF = 0.3𝐿𝐹 + 0.7𝐿𝐹 2 = 0.3 × 0.4 + 0.3 × 0.42 = 0.232 LLF = 0.3𝐿𝐹 + 0.7𝐿𝐹 2 = 0.3 × 0.3 + 0.3 × 0.32 = 0.117

𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 80 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 30

𝑈𝐹 = = = 0.8 𝑈𝐹 = = = 0.8
𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 100 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 50

During peak Average energy consumption

=LF × 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 × 𝑇𝐻 (ℎ𝑟𝑠)
𝑆 80 × 103 = 0.3 × 30 × 103 × 30 × 24 𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟 = 6480000𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟
𝐼𝐿 = = = 115.47 𝐴 = 𝐼𝑝 = 𝐼𝐹1
√3 × 𝑉𝑙 √3 × 400 Monthly no load loss (kWh) = No load loss (kW) x TH (hrs)
= 120 × 30 × 24 𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟 = 86400 𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟
𝐼𝐹1
𝐼𝐷1 = = 28.87𝐴/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
4 𝑀𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑙𝑦 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑢 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 (𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟)

𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝐼𝐷1 2 𝑟𝐿 = 28.872 × 1.5 = 1250.22𝑊

= ∑ 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 × 𝑈𝐹 2 × 𝐿𝐿𝐹 × 𝑇

∑ 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 × 𝑁𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ × 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 200 × 0.82 × 0.117 × 30 × 24 𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟 = 10782.72 𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟

= 3 × 4 × 1250.22 = 15002.64𝑊 = 15.00𝑘𝑊

% 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 (𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟) 𝑀𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑙𝑦 𝑛𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 + 𝑀𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑙𝑦 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑢 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
=
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
= ∑ 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 × 𝑈𝐹 2 × 𝐿𝐿𝐹 × 𝑇
86400 + 10782.72
= = 1.49%
= 15.0 × 0.82 × 0.232 × 30 × 24 = 1603.584𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟 6480000
 P a g e | 79

7.3. Selection of distribution line layout, distribution

transformers, overhead lines and/or cables protection

7.4. Evaluation of capital and operation costs

Practical:
A . Design of an overhead transmission line (25 hour)

1. Evaluation of Electrical Requirements

2. Choice of AC or DC, Voltage Level, Conductors, Insulators
3. Route Selection Form Maps
4. Civil and Mechanical Engineering Aspects: Right‐Of‐Way,
Tower Design, Tensioning, Sagging, Construction Aspects
5. Electrical performance: regulation, stability compensation,
protection

B. Design of a distribution system (15 hour)

1. Evaluation of Loads: Growth, Geographical Distribution

2. Selection of Distribution Line Layout, Distribution
Transformers, Overhead Lines and/or Cables Protection
3. Evaluation of Capital and Operation Costs

References:
1. Elgerd, "Electric Energy Systems Theory," McGraw Hill
2. Stevenson, "Elements of Power System Analysis," McGraw
Hill
3. Deshpande, "Elements of Electrical Power system Design,"
Pitman and Sons

4. Marsh, Economics of Electric Utility Power Generation,"

Clarendon Press