ADVANCE MATERIALS

LAB REPORT

Name: -Aditya Bharadwaj Eyyunni

Roll No.: 19126003
Engineering Metallurgy lab

Casting
In the experiment conducted in the laboratory, two patterns as shown in the figures (Figure 1 and
Figure 2) were made through sand mould casting process. The metal used was aluminium which
has a melting point of 660‫ﹾ‬C. The types of sand used for mould and their differences were then
explained as below: -

Green sand Molasses sand

It contains moisture It does not contain moisture
It is dark brown in colour It is light brown in colour
It consists of 85% silica sand or river It consists of 10% molasses and 90%
sand, about 7% bentonite clay, 3-5% silica sand or river sand.
coal dust and 5% water.

The different tools and equipment used are shovel, trowel, leveler, rammer, screw spike (used for
lifting patterns), runner, riser, lifter(used for repairing mould), mould box(cope and drag),
induction furnace (10 Kg iron and 3 Kg aluminium can be melted in it). The green sand needs to
be rammed whereas molasses sand needs to be fixed by hand only. If molasses sand is rammed,
then it will stick to the rammer and the pattern may break.

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Casting of model 1
First molasses sand was filled in half portion of the drag by hand. Then the thermocol made
pattern was placed over it. Now rest of the portion of the drag was filled with sand and made
tight. Now cope is placed over it (orientation is matched with the help of number written on them
and the locating pins). Riser and runner made of thermocol is inserted slightly over the sand and
then sand is filled into the cope. Now molten aluminium is poured into the sprue and left for
solidification for 3-4 minutes. Then the casted part is removed, cooled and extra parts are
removed.

Casting of model 2
Drag was first inverted, and then half portion of the pattern was placed in it. After filling and
ramming green sand in the drag, it is rotated. Parting sand is sprinkled on it to prevent sticking.
Now similarly other pattern was fitted in the cope. Once both the patterns are fixed in the sand
mould, they are removed from the mould to create hollow space. A metal piece is now placed in
this space. The cope and drag are fitted and oriented with the help of locating pins and the numbers
written on it. Then the riser and runner channels are made. Now molten metal is poured and left
for solidification for 3-4 minutes. Then the casted part is removed, cooled and extra parts are
removed.

Sheet Metal Forming

First outline of the funnel was drawn on the sheet metal. Then the required part was cut and folded
on the die by hammering to form the funnel upper portion. IT was then locked at the ends. The
drawing of the lower portion of the made on the other sheet metal. Then the part was cut and
folded to get the required shape. The folded part was then assembled with the funnel upper
portion.

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Swaging
The die used here is of 6.5mm. There are rollers on the outermost periphery and two half dies
placed opposite to each other inside the rollers in contact with them. The space between the two
dies is hollow. Part is inserted from one end and can be removed from the other end. Once the
machine is started, the rollers rotate at high speed pressing the dies. Due to the compressive force
of the dies, the part’s diameter is reduced, and length is increased. Due to uniform compressive
force, the accuracy is better.

Rolling
In this process, the part is passed between two rollers
due to which thickness is reduced. The thickness of
the part is controlled by adjusting the gap between the
rollers which in turn is controlled by adjusting the
height of the top roller. The height of the roller varies
by 1mm for every 40 divisions rotated on the scale.

Welding
Manual arc welding and MAG were explained. In manual arc welding flux was used for shielding
purpose. In MAG, Co2 gas was used for shielding. The electrode used was of the same material
as the base.

Physical Metallurgy lab

The processes of polishing, etching, heat treatment was explained initially. The polishing is done
to make the scratches unidirectional. Then etching is done using nitric acid. The heated iron part
was placed on the water jet such that the jet hits only on one end of the part. It was observed that
the end exposed to jet was cooled rapidly as its colour became blackish. The other end was the
next coolest region in the part as it was in contact with the metal. The cooling became slow once
1/3 rd portion of the part from the jet exposed face was cooled. It was learned that continuous
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flow of water is required for cooling so that the hot water flows outwards from the block. In case
of still water, the water will get hot and will not lead to quenching. It was also learned that
martensite forms between 40‫ﹾ‬C-410‫ﹾ‬C. On cooling pearlite, first austenite forms which then
changes to martensite. The part becomes hard due to the formation of martensite. The hardness
of the surface which was exposed to water jet was 56 on Rockwell C scale. The hardness of the
other surface (1inch height of the piece) was 30 on Rockwell C scale.

Rockwell test was performed by ball indent of 1/16 inch diameter. 5 to 6 readings are taken on
the surface and then their standard deviation is taken to calculate the resultant value of the
hardness of the surface. In one other machine present next to Rockwell hardness tester, any
hardness test could be performed. It had conversion scale from Brinell to Rockwell hardness,
vice-versa etc.

Then microstructure of the part was seen under the microscope. The martensite was observed to
be columnar and coarse grains were observed on the less hardness surface. On the more hardness
surface, fine grains were observed. Also, photos of the microstructure of the part from its raw
stage to the stage after it is etched was shown. It was observed that the grain structure after
polishing had unidirectional scratches then earlier. Also, it was observed that as the polishing
paper grade was increased, the scratches became finer. Light grey Graphite nodules were
observed even before the part was etched. Once the
part was etched, many dark graphite nodules were
observed. The material was identified to be nodular
cast iron as per its microstructure.

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Electron microscopy lab

Scanning electron microscope

Limitation of optical microscope

1. Sample should be uniform and polished
2. Depth of focus is limited as wavelength is fixed

Electron microscope: - The electron beam diverges and converges continuously before
hitting the sample. This microscope works in vacuum (10-4 Pascal)

1) In the 1st chamber (gun chamber) tungsten filament is present where electrons are
generated.
2) The 2nd chamber (column line) has linear tube. While applying high voltage and current,
electrons flow through this tube. Here anode is present which accelerated the electrons
3) Then for adjusting the size of the electron beam there are 6-7 lenses (magnetic coils)
present in the 3rd chamber.
4) In the 4th chamber there are objective lens which are used for focusing electron beam.
5) The electron beam then hits the sample and bounces back IT is received by detectors
present in the apparatus.

In tungsten-based microscope single crystal is placed in zirconium dioxide. Soures used are

i. field emission gun

ii. Cold cathode ray
iii. Lanthanum boride: -high stability
iv. Tungsten filament

The stability is checked by leaving the electron beam for 2-5 days and then measuring its
deviation.

In this microscope 0.5 KV-35KV range is used.

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 After electron hits the sample, 3 signals are generated

i. Auger electron or OZ electron

ii. Secondary electron: - It is inelastic in nature
iii. Back scatter electron: - It is elastic in nature
iv. Characteristic X rays

OZ electron
When electron beam hits the sample, the weak signals generated are OZ electrons.

Secondary electron
Secondary electrons are placed 45‫ ﹾ‬in the faraday cup. The signals coming out from the top of the
sample are secondary electrons. It’s resolution is 20 nm.

Back scatter electron

If more energy is applied, signal will hit the sample and bounce back. These are called back
scatter electron’ Back scatter is placed behind the pole piece. The image formed is called atomic
contrast image or chemical composition image. Its resolution is 10 nm.

EDS detector
It is placed near secondary detector. It tells about the element % in the sample.

In this microscope, working distance is the distance between the top of the sample and the pole.
Element identification is done based on the X-ray scattering. On placing the cursor at a point on
the image, the element composition details at that point are displayed. Polymers cannot be
scanned with this microscope as they are not conductive.

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Mechanical testing lab
The machine present in this lab are: -

1) INSTRON 1195-Universal testing machine – Screw driven

2) BISS-Hydraulic Universal testing machine: - Here temperature tests can be done between
-20‫ﹾ‬C and 180‫ﹾ‬C.
3) MTS – Universal testing machine- Temperature tests can be done up to 1000‫ﹾ‬C
4) Axial torsion test
5) Electra creep system
6) Corrosion induced slow stain rate system- Electra 50

Charpy test
1) Standard size of sample is 10 x10 x 55mm
2) Temperature controller-90‫ﹾ‬C to 200‫ﹾ‬C
3) Blank test done with energy of 0.1 Joule
4) The part was placed, and experiment was conducted.
5) In this experiment 20.71 Joule energy was absorbed and part was cut in brittle pattern,

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PERKLIN ELMER STA 8000- Simultaneous Thermal analyzer
1) Furnace temperature is 1600‫ﹾ‬C.
2) Material variability with respect to temperature can be understood by weight loss and heat
flow can also be studied.

Thermal processing lab

Simultaneous thermal analyzer and Differential scanning calorimetry was observed. Sub-zero
temperature can be achieved by this device. IT si good for slow scanning.

BET
1) It works on the principle of absorption and dissolving
2) Sample powder is charged and N2 is passed. Amount of N2 absorbed and dissolved at a
temperature is checked and calculated through this algorithm.

X-Ray diffraction lab

1) The machine works on the principle of Bragg’s equation of nλ=2Dsinɵ
2) Amorphous sample cannot be used.
3) In the graph, the place of maximum intensity is the plane surface.

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Powder Metallurgy Lab
1) Atomized powder is compacted
2) L/D ratio is important.

Process

1) The powder is first mixed in a special mixer.

2) If enough green strength is not available in the powder, the blending is done before
compacting.
3) Then compacting is done with the use of die in the required shape. Powder is poured int eh
die and 90KN force was applied.
4) After compacting mechanical bonds are acquired.
5) Then sintering is done. The rate at which temperature increase is 5‫ﹾ‬C/min.
6) The temperature to be maintained for different materials is seen from the handbook
available.