Mikhail V. Sh.

Unit 1
SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
and their role in
hydrocarbon
formation
 Sediment and Rock
• Sediment is composed of loose particles that are not stuck
together. This is the material that is deposited and later is made
into sedimentary rock. In field conditions sediments will destroy
in your hands or in the water.
• Sedimentary rock is composed of particles which are bound
together by cement or mud. Destroy rocks is possible using
hammer only.
Sedimentary Rocks (three main types)

Clastic Organic Chemical

(breccia) (coquina) (rock salt)
Environments of sedimentation
 Sedimentary environments
Sediments and sedimentary rocks are formed in many
environments, which can be grouped into four large categories:

1. Non-marine water sediments are formed in streams and lakes.

Both mechanical and chemical sediments are important. Lakes
or dry lake beds, especially, are places to look for chemically
deposited sediment.
2. Sediments eroded and transported by glaciers are deposited at
the base of the glacier or released at its edge during melting.
3. Wind-transported sediments are typically found in eolian
environments, better known as deserts.
4. Ocean sediments are formed either in near-shore environments
such as beaches, lagoons and deltas, offshore on the
continental shelf (like reefs), or in the deep sea.
Sedimentary environments
Carbonatic world
Microphotos of textures
different limestones
Physical properties of sedimentary rocks
Homogeneity and Inhomogeneity - Isotropy and Anisotropy
• Homogeneity or inhomogeneity of a particular volume indicates
whether or not a property is a function of local coordinates.
• Homogeneity: The property is the same at every point.
• Inhomogeneity: The property varies depending on the
measurement location
• Isotropy or inosotropy in a particular volume indicates whether
or not a property is function of the direction in which it is
measured.
• Investigation of anisotropy show a strong correlation of this
phenomenon with structural or textural properties. For example
elastic properties depend on crack or fracture orientation, grain
or mineral anisotropy. It is currently a very important subject of
study.
• Homogeneity and isotropy also depend on the scale at which
the properties are considered.
 Porosity
• The fraction of the entire
volume of material occupied
by pores, cracks, etc. (=
voids). It is a dimensionless
number.
• Porosity is extremely variable
and hardly systematic, but a
general trend can be observed
among earth materials
• Porosity generally decreases
with increasing age and depth
• The ability of a fluid
under pressure to
Permeability
flow through the
pores of a material.
• Permeability
depends on
porosity, pore size
and distribution,
pore shape,
arrangement of
pores and pore
throats.
• Permeability
increases with
increasing porosity,
increasing grain
size, it decreases
with increasing
degrees of
compaction and
cementation.
 Density
• It is the ratio mass/volume: ρ
= M/V, in kg/m3 (SI) or g/cm3.
Sometimes the Mg/m3 is
used as it gives the same
numerical values as the
g/cm3. 1 kg/m3 = 10-3 g/cm3
• The bulk density depends on
mineral composition, porosity,
and contents of voids.
• In igneous and metamorphic
rocks it is essentially a
function of the mineral
density and it increases from
acid to basic rocks. In
sedimentary rocks it is
essentially a function of the
porosity and of the saturation.
 Magnetic properties
κ = M/H where M= induced magnetization, H= applied magnetic field strength. It
is dimensionless. It is a function of % of ferromagnetic minerals
(magnetite…) present in the rock and it is one of the most variable physical
properties.

Natural radioactivity
It results from the spontaneous decay of atoms of certain isotopes. The activity
is the number of decays/unit time and is measured in Curie (Ci)
The most common radioactive isotopes are: 235U,238U, 232Th, 40K.
 Elastic properties
• Experiments performed to measure seismic
velocities show that they depend on the density
and elastic moduli (elastic coefficients).
• For a uniaxial compression or tension: σ = Eε1,
E = Young’s modulus
μ = -ε2/ε1,
Poisson’s ratio always <=0.5
• It is possible to deform a solid by simple shear.
The shear strain τ is induced by applying a
shear stress σs.
• Elastic properties are important factors
governing the speeds of seismic waves. In
rocks, the speed of seismic waves is controlled
by the elastic modul of the minerals, the nature
of contact, cementation of grains and bonding
properties.
• In igneous rocks the composition (mineralogy)
is the main controlling factor; in sedimentary
rocks it is again mostly the porosity and pore
content.
 Electrical Properties
Electrical conduction
• Ohm‘s law describes conduction currents: E = ρ J
• E=electric field, J=current density, ρ=electrical resistivity
• Resistivity has a broad range of variation. Minerals are
generally very resistive so the resistivity of rocks is essentially
controlled by water, especially in sedimentary rocks and
unconsolidated sediments. In the latter, direct relationships
exist between porosity and resistivity/conductivity (Archie‘s
―law‖). In general resistivity increases when porosity increases.
Dielectric polarization
• When displacement currents are involved the physical property
of importance is the dielectric permittivity ε.
• D = ε E where D = electric displacement, E= electric field
• Water has also an ―anomalous‖ dielectric permittivity compared
to other earth material constituents: dielectric constant of 80
compared to less than 10 for most minerals.Therefore the
dielectric permittivity of rocks is again essentially controlled by
the amount of water.
 Continental sedimentary rocks

Volcanic
Sand and Sandstone
Evaporate 14%
24%
1%

Silica
2%

Carbonates
16%

Shale
43%
 Oceanic sedimentary rocks

Volcanic
Evaporate 4%
0% Sand and Sandstone
Silica 20%
7%

Carbonates
32% Shale
37%
Abundance of sedimentary rocks
Carbonatic rocks in time
Global time sources
for oil and gas
 Lithogenetic analysis includes
• Definition of mineral an chemical composition of rocks by
different chemical, spectral, thermo, microscopic and others
methods.
• Definition of textures and structures features of sedimentary
rocks (bedding and lamination, shape and type of grains,
granulometry, maturity and sorting) especially by polar and
electronic microscopes.
• Studying physical properties of rocks (porosity, permeability,
density etc.).
Final results are usually graph columns and sections for many
wells, litho-facial profiles and litho-facial maps.
 Mikhail V. Sh.

Unit 2
Sedimentary
structures
 Flume experiments
Were conducted and researched in laboratory
conditions. For this different artificial tubes and
channels were created. The basic approach to
understanding traction-current sedimentation has
been through experimental studies of unidirectional
flow.
Different parameters used: velocity of current, size of
grains, time and section of running water, barriers,
angle of inclination for currents, composition of
depositing materials, various directions of running
water etc. These experiments allowed to separate
two flow regimes.
 Laminar and turbulent flow
Under very low velocities water flows through a
stream as smooth sheets running parallel to the
bed called laminar flow. Laminar flow has an
appearance much like that of a deck of cards with
the top card jutting forward over those below. The
tug of the channel bottom slows the water near
the bed with the water nearer the surface flowing
somewhat faster. Only the finest particles kind be
detached, so laminar flow is basically nonerosive.
With increasing velocity laminar flow can transfer
into turbulent flow
Under higher flow velocities, resistance within the
flow and that caused by the bed and sides of the
channel cause the flow to break down into
separate currents. The swirling currents of
turbulent flow undergo constant variation in
speed and direction of flow. The swirls of water
created during turbulent flow are more erosive
than laminar flow and help suspend material in
the stream. Turbulent flow is the "normal" type of
flow in most streams. Most of liquid and gas
currents in nature turbulent: air in the atmosphere,
water in river, gas in tube etc.
 Transportation
• Material is detached from the channel can be transported. Transportation is
the movement of earth material by water. As particle size increases, so too
does the velocity needed to transport it. The material transported through
the stream is it's stream load. Stream load is composed of dissolved or
solution load, suspended load, and bed load. The dissolved load comes
primarily from groundwater seepage into the stream. Ions in solution also
come from the solution of materials that line the channel.
• Suspended load is comprised of sediment suspended and transported
through the stream. Turbulent flow suspends clay and silt in the stream.
Suspended load comes from material eroded from the surface bordering the
channel and deposited in the stream as well as erosion of the channel itself.
• The stream capacity is the maximum load of sediment a stream can carry
for a given discharge. Stream capacity increases with increasing flow
velocity. Increased water velocity imparts a greater frictional drag on bed to
erode it. Turbulent flow occurs under higher velocity thus increasing the
water's ability to dislodge material from the bed or sides of the stream.
• Stream competence is the largest size material that the stream can move
under a given discharge.
 Transportation
Bed load is that which is moved across the bed of the channel. Bed load
is transported in two ways, traction, which is a scooting and rolling of
particles along the bed. The second is saltation, a bouncing-like
movement. Saltation occurs when particles are suspended in the
stream for a short distance after which they fall to the bed, dislodging
particles from the bed. The dislodged particles move downstream a
short distance where they fall to the bed, again dislodging particles
upon impact.
 Sedimentary structures
Features of layers and beds connect with mineral composition of rocks, size,
sorting, mature and usually requires studying under microscope. They are
usually available for visual observation and connect with bedding and other
process of environmental condition.
Sedimentary structures are the result of a variety of depositional processes and
are found within beds, on the tops of beds and on the bases of beds. These
structures reflect the predominant environmental conditions at the time of
deposition and are important evidents for the interpretation different
sedimentation environments. Structures show us the mechanics of fluid flow,
the direction of flow, paleobiological aspect of the environment, early
compactional forces. Primary structures show us which way was up during
deposition. Secondary structures destroy earlier structures, i.e. burrowing
organisms erase ripple stratification in some cases. Structures can be
depositional, erosional and post-depositional, biogenic or abiogenic and
others miscellaneous (as a combination of many structures).
Main and the most important feature for sedimentary structures is stratification
or bedding or the layering of the sediments on the scale of less than a
millimeter to many meters. Stratification can often be recognized by changes
in mineralogy, color or grain size. The geometry of these surfaces and their
spatial relationships to each other are characteristic of different
sedimentary structures and styles of deposition.
 Erosional structures
Erosion occurs on the tops of beds when the fluid flowing over them is fast enough to lift grains off
the sediment bed. The structures are created on top of the bed, and the next layer of
sediment fills in the topography on the surface forming casts of the erosional structures. The
structures commonly are recognized as casts because it can be difficult to prove that an
erosive structure formed during deposition of the rock rather than during weathering. In
contrast, casts of structures had to have formed prior to deposition of the sediment forming
the cast (reverse trace names as a mould). These are some common erosional structures:
Casts (traces):
Flutes form when eddies in turbulent flow touch the sedimentary surface. The deep narrow portion
points upstream. It flares and shallows downstream.
Ridge, furrow, and gutter: are elongate features on the tops of beds form from turbulence. They
are very elongate and do not have the well defined up-stream scour that flutes show. Thus,
they indicate the trend of the current, but do not usually tell you the direction of flow. Ridges
and furrows are on the scale of mm wide, whereas gutters are on the scale of cm. They can
be meters long.

Channels: These are large scale scours which are usually filled with coarser sediment
than the material the channel cuts into. River channels are an example of how large
channels can be.
Scour-and- fill marks: These form downstream of objects sitting on a sedimentary surface. The
object produces eddies, creating high flow areas with enhanced erosion and low flow areas
with enhanced deposition.
Grooves: Grooves form when objects such as sticks or rocks are dragged along the surface by the
flow. The shape and size of the groove depends on the shape and size of the object.
Impact or bounce marks: These form when an object hits sediment and bounces off or skips.
Impacts can be meteor-size down to pebble-size. Raindrop impact structures are a special
subset of these structures that form when a scattered drops hit layers of dry mud or silt
 Structures traces
raindrop prints, salt and ice crystals are the evidence periodically outcrop of deposit on
the surface or about its sedimentation on the low deep marine subaerial conditions.

Flute marks
Flow structures connect with the zones of currents. On the surface of deposits
can appear small hollows – water gull on the bottom (base) plane of layer.
 Depositional structures
Form in response to the flow characteristics of the depositing fluid
and the conditions of deposition.
1) Bedding is the smallest lithostratigraphic unit. It is simply a
package of sediment > 1 cm in thickness that has some sort of
change above and below it, like a compositional or abrupt grain
size change.
2) Lamination is < 1 cm in thickness, and is defined by changes
in grain size, color or mineralogy.
3) Cross-stratification appears as sets of laminas that truncate
older laminas within a bed. Cross-stratification can form from
infilling of channels and scours, or by the migration of dunes
and ripples. Cross-stratification forms in silts, sands, and
conglomerates and is a very useful indicator of flow conditions.
Younger lamina always cross cut older lamina, so we can tell
which way is up. Features that vary include:
a. The size range of cross-lamination and cross-stratification
b. The shape of cross-stratification/lamination
 Depositional structures
4) Ripples, dunes and sand wave forms can be preserved on
bedding surfaces. Usually, the migration of the bedforms
destroys the surfaces, but in some cases, ripple crests are
preserved by burial with sediment in the absence of erosion.
When the crests of ripples are preserved, it is easier to tell
their origin. However, you can also infer ripple type from the
cross lamination within the sediment.
5) Graded bedding show a grain size change from the bottom of
a bed to the top. Normally graded bedding is coarser material
at the base of the bed that fines up. Reversely graded bedding
is fine material grading up to coarser material. These
structures show the change in energy in the transport system.
6) Massive bedding: as the name implies, these beds have no
apparent internal structures. You may see evidence of
bioturbation, dewatering or recrystallization. When the
divisions between beds are unclear and they lack distinctive
structures, we call them amalgamated.
 Stratification (layering)
Layer – the simple element of bed stratified sedimentary rocks. It is a
geological body definitely homogenous composition restricted roofs and bases
of other layers. It has the definitely spread area and comparing with its usually
is not much thickness. Because sediments are typically laid down at the Earth‘s
surface, they tend to form in horizontal layers.
Bed – element of stratifies including one or some layers, forming in the results
of changing condition of sedimentation or environmental conditions. Beds
separated of each other bedding lanes and can be distinguished by
composition of rocks (sandstone, argillite, alevrolite etc.). The differences in
beds are clues to changes in the way sediments were deposited or transported.
Features of bedding:
• shape and thickness of layers
• strike and dip of layers
• character of interlayer contacts (conformity or disconformity)
• changing the size of debris (granolumetric changing) in limit of one layer.
different kind of bedding can be definite: horizontal, cross, wave-like or
lenticular, gradational, slip, thin and coarse, rhythmic and interrupted and other
types. Studying of beddings allows to reconstruct environment and facial
condition of forming deposits and rocks.
 Layering (bedding)
One of the most obvious features of sedimentary rocks and sediment is the
layered structure which they exhibit. The layers are evident because of
differences in mineralogy, clast(grain) size, degree of sorting, or color of the
different layers. In rocks, these differences may be made more prominent by
the differences in resistance to weathering or color changes brought out by
weathering.

Layering is usually described on the basis of layer thickness as the table

below.
Layer Thickness Names
• > 300 cm Massive
• 100-300 cm Very thickly bedded
• 30 - 100 cm Thickly bedded
• 10 - 30 cm Medium bedded
• 3 - 10 cm Thinly bedded
• 1 - 3 cm Very thinly bedded
• 0.3 - 1 cm Thickly laminated
• <0.3 cm Thinly laminated
 Horizontal bedding

Alternation of layers or beds parallel to plane of bedding. Thickness can be

variable from thin (some millimeters) to coarse (some meters). Sometimes
horizontal bedding can find rhythms or cyclites – periodical repeating thin
layers the same composition rhythmic bedding. It means that there were
changing conditions or ways of depositing sedimentary rocks (season
variations, transgression-regression events, etc.)
Cross bedding
Main features for unquiet condition of
sedimentation ―current bedding". Layers
observe in limit one bed cross position (under
angle) in relation to roof or bed of layer.
There are two type of cross bedding: with
parallel and crisscross rows of layers.
Shapes of cross-bedding in sections widely
distributed and point to sedimentation in
condition of high water dynamic environment.
Parameters of layers, theirs thickness and
angle of dip can show the dynamic of current
and its direction. Cross-bedding can be
observed in different rocks, coarse- and fine-
clastic and chemical. Thickness of layers can
change from some mm to 10 - 15 m and
more. It is more typically for fluvial, deltaic
and eolic deposition
 Wave-shape and lenticular bedding
Variation of layers with convexo-
concave shape – ripple bedding.
this type widely distributed for fine-
sandstones and alevrolites
sediments. Add to ripple important
elements of wave-shape bedding
are wave length L – the distance
between ridges of ripple, height H –
vertical distance between maximum
and minimum points of ripple (in
limits one wave).
 Gradational (graded) bedding
This type of bedding is characterized sorting of grains by size. There are some
kind of gradations. Depends on where is the most coarse debris can be
described rectilinear and reverse gradational bedding. This type of bedding is
characteristic for turbidites currents and deltaic facies.
Reverse gradational bedding with increasing grain size towards to the top of the
layer is characterized for water currents with high density, after fast stopping of
current and permanent sedimentation.

Gradational bedding of proximal turbidites

 Ripples marks
• Current ripples (size of grains must be
less than 0.65 mm)
• Wind ripple
• Oscillation ripple – wave current ripples
(agitation, surf ripple) depends on
velocity of waves and grain size,
cannot be under high and slow activity
of waves.
• Ripple marks are characteristic of
shallow water deposition (on-shore,
tidal). They are caused by waves or
winds piling up the sediment into long
ridges.
• Asymmetrical ripple marks can give an
indication of current direction when
formed in water, and when formed by
wind, give wind direction.
Oscillation ripple on the sea shelf
 Post-depositional structures
These features occur after the sediments are deposited, but usually before
lithification. They do not include regional types of deformation, such as
faulting and folding.
1) Slumps and slides occur on an inclined surfaces and show folding and
thrusts in the sediments.
2) Deformed bedding is disrupted, convoluted or contorted beds. Cross-
stratification and lamination is deformed. Convolute lamination is
common for in many types of sandstone especially for fluvial sands. In this
case layers can form microfolds.
3) Load structures form by one bed sinking into the one below it. Flame
structures form when mud is injected into overlying sands. Ball and pillar
structures form when sand sinks into mud and forms a defined blob. Dish
and pillar structures form when sand sinks into a previously deposited
sandstone. These structures are common at the base of submarine flow
deposits like turbidites.
4) Mudcracks and syneresis cracks: Mudcracks are polygonal patterns in
sediment and can be any size. They are caused by desiccation in a wet-
dry environment. The fine silt or clay laminae shrink and crack, which then
allows sediments to later fill in the cracks. Syneresis cracks occur
subaqueously due to dewatering of sediments resulting from changes in
salinity. They are usually spindle-shaped incomplete polygons.
Slumping structures Convolute
lamination
is cause of internal-layer disturbing of
horizontal bedding and looks like folding
surface
 Injection structures
can occur when vertical replacement of particles
takes place. Traces of pinching out and pressing
usually plastic clays under pressure overburden
sandy sediments (sandy dikes).
 Sutural and stylolitic structure
characterized usually for
limestone and dolomites and
very rear for clastic rocks.

Structures of mud cracks

Common for the clayey and mud surfaces, marls and clay limestones. They are trace of
cracking in result of drying on the air. These structures result from the drying out of wet
sediment at the surface of the Earth. The cracks form due to shrinkage of the sediment
as it dries. In cross section the mudcracks tend to curl up, thus becoming a good
top/bottom indicator. The presence of mudcracks indicates that the sediment was
exposed at the surface shortly after deposition, since drying of the sediment would not
occur beneath a body of water.
 Biogenic structures
Biogenic features are caused by the activity of organisms in the
sediments. Using the biological evidence available in the rocks
can make determining the environment much easier.
1) Trace fossils are marks in the sediment that result from
organisms crawling, feeding, excreting and burrowing in or on
the sediment. When well preserved, they are distinctive
indicators of specific organisms and have taxonomic
classification just as the organism itself does. They can be very
helpful in determining age relations and facies analysis.
2) Bioturbation is the process of mixing sediment as organisms
crawl around feeding and burrowing in the sediment. Generally,
it homogenizes beds, erasing other sedimentary structures.
Sometimes defined burrows can be preserved, but commonly
bioturbated beds have a mottled or massive appearance.
Bioturbation can also occur from plant roots.
Shells of brahiopoda in clay limestone
 Bioturbation structures
Form in the process of life activity by organism in
deposits or on the its surface. Can be two types:
• deformational – have not definite shape;
• figurative – having definite shape on that we can
recognize type of organisms, lived in deposit or
theirs environmental conditions ―ichnofossils."
Conclusions
• Planar or parallel bedding usually
occurs in water, where currents or
waves are minimal.
• Ripple marked bedding indicates
wave or wind action.
• Cross bedding are the work of
turbulent flow in water or wind
(dunes).
• Graded bedding or sorting of grains
with large ones near the bottom, is
usually formed from standing water in
which sediments have been able to
settle out.
Samples of different layering in sandstone
 Mikhail V. Sh.

Unit 3
Sedimentary rock
texture and its
significance
 Textures of Sedimentary Rocks
Most sedimentary rocks are derived by processes of weathering, transportation,
deposition and diagenesis (reforming soft sediments into solid rocks). The final texture
(grain size, shape, sorting, mineralolgy, etc.) in a sediment or sedimentary rocks is
dependent on process that occur during each stage.
Main features:
The nature of the source rocks (the rocks that were eroded to create the
sediments). This determines the original shape of grains and their mineralogical
composition.
The strength of the wind or water currents that carry and deposit sediments. This
determines whether or not grains are transported or deposited. The deposition process
also controls structures that could be preserved in the sediment and thus give clues to
the environment of deposition.
The distance transported or time in the transportation process. The longer grains are in
the transportation process the more likely they are to change shape and become sorted
on the basis of size and mineralogy. This also controls extent to which they break down
to stable minerals during the transportation process.
Biological activity with the sediment prior to diagenesis. Burrowing organisms can
redistribute sediment after it has been deposited.
The chemical environment under which rock occurs. What happens depends on the
composition of fluids moving through the rock, the composition of the mineral grains, and
the pressure and temperature conditions attained during diagenesis.
 Rounding(roundness)
During the transportation process, grains may be reduced in size due to
abrasion. Random abrasion results in the eventual rounding off of the sharp
corners and edges of grains. Thus, the degree of rounding of grains gives
us clues to the amount of time a sediment has been in the transportation
cycle. Rounding is classified on relative terms as well. Note that rounding is
not the same a sphericity. Sphericity is controlled by the original shape of the
grain. The longer the sediment is transported, the more time is available for
grains to lose their rough edges and corners by abrasion.
Shape

Dot chart (stencil)

for visual
identification
pebbles
 Sorting
Sorting refers to the uniformity of grain size in a sediment or sedimentary
rock. Particles become sorted on the basis of density because of the energy
of the transporting medium. High energy (high velocity) currents can carry
larger fragments. As the energy or velocity decreases, heavier particles are
deposited and lighter fragments continue to be transported. This results in
sorting due to density. If the particles have the same density, such as all
grains of quartz, then the heavier particles will also be larger so the sorting
will take place on the basis of size. We can classify this size sorting on a
relative basis: from well-sorted to poorly-sorted.

• Sorting is a conspicuous feature of many sedimentary rocks. Sorting is the

process by which grains of like size or weight are grouped together in a rock.
This process is most common in air or water transported sediments.
• Sorting is often an indicator of the energy of the transport mechanism: poor
sorting means lower energy or glacial transport.
• Grains can be sorted by specific gravity, for instance, as heavier particles
carried in a stream may fall out of the flow before lighter particles.
• Grains in a rock or bed may also be sorted by size, which is more important
when most grains are of the same mineral (and thus similar specific gravity).
• Finally if transport of sediment is particularly long, grains may be sorted by
durability. Thus, in some cases, the only grains that survive the distance are
the most resistant to weathering and fracture — typically quartz.
 Sorting in different facies
• Beach sands and dune sands tend to be well-
sorted because the energy of the waves or
wind is usually rather constant.
• The coarser grained sediment is not carried in
because the wave or wind velocity is too low to
carry such large fragments and the finer
grained sediment is kept in suspension by the
waves or wind.
• Mountain streams, because they have many
turbulent eddies where the velocity of the
stream changes suddenly usually show poorly-
sorted sediment on the bottom of the stream
channel.
• Similarly, glacial till, because it is deposited in
place as glacial ice melts and is not transported
by water tends to show poor sorting.
 Sorting rate

Rank Visual character

Name Amount of fractions
0 Very poor Some different size
1 Poor Three and more but not than
30% of each
2 Moderate Two or three in whole more
than 50%
3 Well One more than 50% and
others close by size
4 Very well Only one
Dot chart (stencil) for field identification sandy rocks
Sorting of
rocks,
examples
 Grain size
• Clastic sedimentary rocks are classified by grain size. Grain
size is an indicator of the strength or speed of the transport
mechanisms.
• An abundance of smaller grains indicate a weaker or slower
transport mechanism (wind or a slow moving stream).
Conversely, larger grains of sediment would result from
stronger or faster forces (floods, glaciers etc.).

Average grain size =

n – number of grain cut by cross-wires

d – diameter of the field of view
N – total number of fields of view counted
 Size of grains (granulometry)
Name of Size Range Scale Loose Consolidated Rock
Particle Sedim.
Boulder >256 mm <-8
Conglomerate or
Cobble 64 - 256 mm -6 to -8 Breccia
Gravel
Pebble 4 - 64 mm -2 to -6 (depends on
rounding)
Granule 2 - 4 mm -1 to -2
Very Coar. Sand 1 - 2 mm 0 to -1
Coarse Sand 0.5 - 1 mm 1 to 0
Medium Sand 0.25 - 0.5 mm 2 to 1 Sand Sandstone
Fine Sand 0.125 - 0.25 mm 3 to 2
Very Fine Sand 0.0625-0.125 mm 4 to 3
Coarse Silt 0.031 - 0.625 mm 5 to 4
Medium Silt 0.016 - 0.031 mm 6 to 5
Silt Siltstone
Fine Silt 0.008 - 0.016 mm 7 to 6
Very Fine Silt 0.004 - 0.008 mm 8 to 7
Clay <0.004 mm >8 Clay Claystone, Mudstone
 Histograms of Curved of
granulometric distribution
composition for clastic
rock
 Graph image of
Cumulative curve
composition for
triple-component
terrigenous rocks
 Mineralogy
Any mineral can occur in a sedimentary rock. Clay minerals, the dominant
mineral produced by chemical weathering of rocks, is the most abundant
mineral in mudrocks. Quartz, because it is stable under conditions present
at the surface of the Earth, and because it is also a product of chemical
weathering, is the most abundant mineral in sandstones and the second
most abundant mineral in mudrocks. Feldspar is the most common mineral
in igneous and metamorphic rocks. Although feldspar eventually breaks
down end return finally into clay minerals and quartz, it is still the third most
abundant mineral in sedimentary rocks. Carbonate minerals, either
precipitated directly or by organisms, make up most biochemical and
chemical sedimentary rocks, but carbonates are also common in mudrocks
and sandstones.
Stability Mineral
Muscovite
Albite (Ca and Na) Feldspar
Orthoclase/Microcline (K) Feldspar
Very Stable Clay Minerals – result of chemical weathering
Quartz – the most stable mineral
Tourmaline (rare)
Zircon (rare)
 Mineral composition
Mudrocks Sandstones
Mineral Composition
% %
Clay minerals 60-80 5-10

Quartz 10-30 30-65

Feldspar 4-8 10 - 45

Carbonate minerals 3-5 <1

Organic matter, hematite, &
others
<3 <1
 Mineralogical maturity
• The longer a mineral is in the weathering and transportation
cycles of sedimentary rock forming processes, the more likely it
is to break down to a more stable mineral or disappear
altogether.
• Mineralogically mature sediments and sedimentary rocks
consist entirely of minerals that are stable near the
surface. Such sediment is considered to have been in the
weathering and transportation cycle for a long amount of time.
• Mineralogically immature sediments and sedimentary rocks
consist of a high proportion of unstable minerals. Because such
minerals will not survive for a long time in the weathering and
transportation cycles, sediments and rocks with high
proportions of these minerals must not have been in the
weathering/transportation cycle for long periods of time.
Example: maturity in sandstones
 Stable
grains

Increasing net

maturity
Unstable
grains
Matrix

Triangle illustration how the composition of a sand is a function its

textural and chemical maturity (Selly, 2000)
 Mikhail V. Sh.

Unit 4
Lithification
and
diagenesis
 Diagenesis
Diagenesis it is a process of changing rocks after deposition. It can either
improve or degrade the reservoir quality of the rock. It describes the
physical and chemical processes affecting sediments after sedimentation.
In geology and oceanography, diagenesis is any chemical, physical, or
biological change undergone by a sediment after its initial deposition and
during and after its lithification, exclusive of surface alteration (weathering)
and metamorphism. These changes happen at relatively low temperatures
and pressures and result in changes to the rock's original mineralogy and
texture. The boundary between diagenesis and metamorphism, which
occurs under conditions of higher temperature and pressure, is gradational.
Main role of diagenesis: it can change physical properties of rocks, especially
it can increase or decrease porosity and permeability
Diagenesis occurs through the processes of compaction, cementation,
recrystallization and chemical alterations of the sediment.

The main processes of diagenesis are:

• compaction
• cementation
• dissolution
• replacement
 Lithification
Changes that sediment undergoes after deposition are referred to
as diagenesis. This includes any transformations during and
after formation into a rock. The actual process of rock formation
from sediment is called lithification.
Compaction
Reduction in pore space
due to:
• increased overburden
expelling pore fluids
• pore fluid production

Compaction is the simplest

change that sediments can
undergo.

Compaction occurs as the

weight of accumulating
sediment forces the rock
and mineral grains
together. This reduces
pore space and eliminates
some of the contained
water. Acts to decrease
porosity and permeability.
Evolution
of clay
(Sokolov, 2000)
 Cementation
• Cementation is a result of water circulating through the pore spaces of a
sediment. If that water carries in it dissolved substances that then precipitate
out during circulation, those substances left behind in the sediments can act
as cementing agents.
• Calcium carbonate is one of the most common cements because it is found
abundantly in seawater. Other well abundant cements are silica and clay.
• Cementation also reduces the pore space by filling the pores with calcite or
silica precipitate. Cement is usually precipitated from the pore waters
expelled from interbedded or underlying clays during compaction. Some
cementation may occur at a late stage in burial as a result of pressure
solution between adjacent grains.
 Types of cement

• By mineral composition (clayey, silica, carbonate, ferruginous etc.)

 Dissolution
Dissolution increases the pore space by dissolving some of the rock grains.
The porosity and permeability of carbonates is often improved by the flow
of acidic water through the pores (rain water picks up carbon dioxide to
form carbonic acid, and tannic acids from rotting vegetation also help
dissolve the carbonate).
Solution in sandstones
Solution in sandstones takes
place when aggressive
ground buried water react
with rocks and if the
amount of unstable
grains is sufficient for
dissolving, other mineral
appear. For example
dolomite can replace
calcite, secondary clayey
minerals substitute
feldspar etc. Rate of
solution depend upon the
amount of unstable
grains in rocks.
 Replacement
• Replacement is the chemical replacement of a calcium ion in the calcium carbonate
crystal structure with a magnesium ion. The result is dolomite, which has a higher
porosity than the calcium carbonate. After burial, occasionally less stable minerals
may change to more stable forms through recrystallization. That is, the minerals
begin to grow again, interlocking with each other.
• This process is important in the alteration of more porous limestone to harder, more
compact versions of this mineral.
• Chemical alterations can also affect sediments. If oxygen is present, organic remains
are quickly converted into carbon dioxide and water. This is called an oxidizing
environment. In the absence of oxygen to bond with, organics will be transformed
into solid carbon, such as peat and coal. From a planetary perspective, chemical
alterations can also occur. For example, the wind-transported sediments of Mars
have been subjected to the chemical process of rust.
 Secondary processes
Take place after deposition and diagenesis and can be refer to process of
late diagenesis and meta-, katagenesis or epidiagenesys
Mineral processes:
• Crystal regeneration – new restored minerals
• Carbonatization – the appearing new carbonate minerals
• Argillitization – the formation secondary clay minerals
• Sulfidization – the formation secondary sulfides
• Bituminization – the formation solid products of crude oil
Fractured processes
The miscellaneous formation different fissures and cracks in rocks caused
by global and local tectonic movements
Crystal regeneration
• The process of growth and rebuilding grains,
especially quartz crystals, when new rims of
new-restored microcrystalline quartz increase
grains with perfect crystal ridges and usually
grain size is also increase. Source for new silica
matter is dissolved quartz caused by pressure
solution.
• Regeneration tends to restore former bounds of
grains, so grains can ―repeat‖ perfect structure
of original crystal. It means for example that
quartz grains can demonstrate primary crystal
lattice hexagonal structure with angle 1200.
• Regeneration is common for quartz in depth
burial sandstones, but feldspar and micaceous
crystals also can be regenerated by new-build
structure. It has different effect on porosity and
permeability and it can either increase or
decrease free space of sandstone and its
reservoir characteristics.
Carbonatization
• The process of forming secondary
carbonate cement or crystals in the free
space in sandstones or limestones.
Water+Carbon Dioxide=Carbonic Acid
• Secondary carbonate substances are the
result of dissolving lime rocks or influence
of carbonic-acid gas to terrigenous rocks.
In this process feldspar grain can decay to
secondary minerals: carbonate and clay.
• In all cases secondary carbonatization has
negative effect on porosity and
permeability and always decrease free
space of rocks and reservoir capacity, but it
allows to propagate clastic or tectonic
processes and sometimes limestones and
other carbonized rock can have perfect
collector characteristics.
Argillization
• It is result of alumosilicates dissolving and
chemical decay with respect to the chemical
unstability porous fluids and gases. Main
regulator of this process is content of
carbonic acid, that can create acidic
environmental conditions for argillization.
• In this case kaolinite and hydromica minerals
such as illite or chlorite can appear as a
result of chemical replacement feldspars.
• It has different effect on porosity and
permeability but in most cases very thin new-
rebuilding clayey minerals take (―steal―) free
space and decrease first of all porosity of
rocks. But penetrative zones can easy
appear near these parts of rocks and be
perfect channel for hydrocarbon migration
Bituminization
• Bitumen as a definite hard substance of
organic matter is result of chemical
reactions between minerals of rocks and
crude oil and mixing different oil and gas
portion each other.
• Geologically speaking, in general,
bitumen is the product of hydrocarbon
degradation. Crude oil and gas can
condensate, solidify or oxidize.
• It has different effect on porosity and
permeability because solid bitumen will
place at first pore space or decrease
porosity of rocks. But they can form
penetrable zones because bitumen is
easy breaking substance.
• Positive result of bituminization: it stops
all chemical process of dissolution and
chemical reactions water with rocks.
Sulfidization
• Sulfidization is result of crystallization
solid grains of pyrite or marcasite (earthy
pyrite) in rocks. Sources for sulfide
mineralization are sulfur of crude oil and
iron of sediments that can contain such
minerals as biotite, chlorite and other
ferrous minerals.
• It has negative effect on porosity and
permeability and it usually decrease free
space of sandstones and limestones. Pyrite
can occur in alkaline chemical environment
– such situation can create hydrocarbon
saturated layers and sulfides can easy
redeposit in acid conditions.
• Usually sulfides meet together with
bitumen and place good penetrable zones
of oil fields. They often can be find out near
oil-water surface that is a typical
geochemical oxidization-reduction barrier.
 Fractured features

Sandy silica rock. Fissures oriented under angle 600 to layering and filled
up silica grey cement. Fissure can or cannot intersect separate lamina or
beds (black arrow). Sometimes fissures can be filled up not only silica or
carbonates but also liquid or solid bitumen. It is evident of hydrocarbon
migration pass throw these fissures
 Diagenetic History of the Sussex "B"
Sandstone

3-D Reservoir Characterization of the House Creek Oil Field, Powder River Basin,
Wyoming
Porosity and permeability
 Porosity
• The percentage of pore volume or void space, or that volume
within rock that can contain fluids. Porosity can be a relic of
deposition (primary porosity, such as space between grains
that were not compacted together completely) or can develop
through alteration of the rock (secondary porosity, such as
when feldspar grains or fossils are preferentially dissolved from
sandstones). Effective porosity is the interconnected pore
volume in a rock that contributes to fluid flow in a reservoir. It
excludes isolated pores. Total porosity is the total void space
in the rock whether or not it contributes to fluid flow. Thus,
effective porosity is typically less than total porosity.
From oilfield glossary (Schlumberger)
 Porosity
Primary porosity:
• Intergranular(interparticle) – in the space between grains
• Intragranular(intraparticle) – in the skeletal sands before burial and
diagenesis
Secondary porosity:
• Intercrystalline - after recrystallization and calcite-dolomite replacement
(usually in carbonatic rocks)
• Fenestral – subhorizontal pores between laminas in limestones caused by
dehydration, lithification and biogenic gas generation
• Moldic – formed by selective leaching in limestones. Molds are pores formed
by the solution of primary depositional grains generally subsequent to some
cementation and they usually do not cross cement, matrix and framework.
• Vuggy – produced by irregular solution, like mold but with crossing the
primary depositional fabric of the rocks: cement, matrix and framework. If
size of vugs tends to increase it is often term as ―cavernous porosity‖
• Fracture – a type of secondary porosity produced by the tectonic fracturing
of rock. Fractures themselves typically do not have much volume, but by
joining preexisting pores, they enhance permeability significantly. In
exceedingly rare cases, nonreservoir rocks such as granite can become
reservoirs rocks if sufficient fracturing occurs.
Secondary porosity
Patterns of porosity
 Porosity and channels

Interconnected pores – jointed with each other by permeable

channels, filled up oil or gas and they included in effective space
of fields collector
Dead-end pores – can be connected with permeable channels,
filled up oil or gas but usually they are not including in effective
space of fields collector
Isolated pores - they are not usually saturated oil or gas and are
not including in effective space of fields collector and they are not
connected by permeable channels between each other
Sample of collector, sandstone, depth 3400 m, West Siberia, Russia
 Porosity in sedimentary rocks
Rock Porosity Porosity probable
from to from to
Sand 4 - 55 20 - 40
Sandstone 0 - 40 10 - 30
Alevrolite 0.1 - 40 3 - 15
Silt 0.1 - 50 30 - 40
Clay 0 - 75 20 - 50
Argillite 0 - 20 1 - 10
Limestone 0 - 35 1,5 - 15
Dolostone 2 - 35 5 - 20
Chalk 5 - 55 40 - 50
 Porosity-versus-carbonatization relationship
for sandy-silty rocks

Porosity decreases with increasing the bulk

amount of carbonate mineral in the cement of
clastic rocks
 Porosity-density
function for sandy
rocks

Porosity-versus-depth relationship
 Permeability
• The ability or measurement of a rock's ability to transmit fluids, typically
measured in darcies or millidarcies. Formations that transmit fluids readily,
such as sandstones, are described as permeable and tend to have many
large, well-connected pores. Impermeable formations, such as shales and
siltstones, tend to be finer grained or of a mixed grain size with smaller,
fewer or less interconnected pores. Absolute permeability is the
measurement of the permeability conducted when a single fluid or phase is
present in the rock. Effective permeability is the ability to preferentially flow
or transmit a particular fluid through a rock when other immicible fluids are
present in the reservoir (for example, effective permeability of gas in a gas-
water reservoir). The relative saturations of the fluids as well as the nature of
the reservoir affect the effective permeability. Relative permeability is the
ratio of effective permeability of a particular fluid at a particular saturation to
absolute permeability of that fluid at total saturation. If a single fluid is
present in a rock, its relative permeability is 1.0. Calculation of relative
permeability allows for comparison of the different abilities of fluids to flow in
the presence of each other since the presence of more than one fluid
generally inhibits flow.
From oilfield glossary (Schlumberger)
 Permeability: measure
Permeability is determined from Darcy's low using the equation:

Where:
Q – the rate of flow in cubic centimeters per second
- the pressure gradient,
A – the cross-sectional area
- the fluid viscosity in centipores,
L - the length
K - permeability
Permeability-versus-
depth relationship
Porosity-versus-permability
relationship for clastic sandy rocks
Permeability – versus – amount of cement
relationship for clastic sandy rocks
Porosity and permeability – versus - carbonatization
relationship for clastic sandy rocks
 Late diagenesis (conclusions)
• Increasing compaction, porosity and permeability constantly
is decreasing
• Porous water drawn out from soft deposits (water usually
migrate from clayey rocks to sandy clastic rocks) and form
oil-bearing mineralized underground water
• Biogenic methane and other gases escape from soft unsolid
rocks to other overlap layers
• Clay minerals turn into more stable mineral: kaolinite and
montmorillonite replace by illite
• Calcium carbonate chucks and other chemical rocks
recrystallized from fine-grain to coarse-grain structure
• Sulfate reduction can form grains or powder aggregates of
pyrite
• First evidences for hydrocarbon migration appear
 Mikhail V. Sh.

Unit 5
Classification and
description of
sedimentary
rocks
 Classification
• Rudaceous
• Arenites(sandy) I. Clastic (terrigenous)
• Argillaceous
• Carbonate
• Siliceous
• Phosphates II. Chemical(chemogenous)
• Ferruginous
• Evaporites
• Organic limestones
• Caustobiolithes III. Biochemical
 Sedimentary rocks may be:
Extrabasinal in origin - sediments formed from the weathering of pre-
existing rocks outside the basin
Intrabasinal in origin - sediments form inside the basin; includes chemical,
biochemical and organic sedimentary rocks

Clastic rocks
• Clastic rocks are composed of fragments of minerals and other rocks.
Three features of texture are used to describe clastic rocks. Grain size
refers to the most frequent (median) size of the particles in the rock. Sorting
refers to whether the particles are relatively uniform in size or are many
sizes. Rounding refers to whether the particles have sharp edges or
rounded edges.
• You have to recognize the following: gravel, sand, silt and mud as well as
well sorted, moderately sorted and poorly sorted. Also well rounded,
subangular and angular grains. Sometimes you may need a hand lens
(magnifying glass) to recognize these features.
 Terrigenous sedimentary rocks
Sediments are classified according to their texture (grain size):

• Gravel: Grain size greater than 2 mm

– If rounded clasts - conglomerate
– If angular clasts - breccia
• Sand: Grain size 1/16 to 2 mm
– Sandstone
– If dominated by quartz grains - quartz sandstone (also called quartz
arenite)
– If dominated by feldspar grains - arkose
– If dominated by sand-sized rock fragment grains - lithic sandstone
(also called litharenite or graywacke)
• Silt: Grain size 1/256 to 1/16 mm (gritty)
– Siltstone
• Clay: Grain size less than 1/256 mm (smooth)
– Shale (if fissile)
– Claystone (if massive)
– Mud is technically a mixture of silt and clay. It forms a rock called
mudstone (or mudshale if fissile).
 Fabric of clastic rocks

There are three "textural components― for most clastic sedimentary rocks:
• Grains – clasts or debris (gravel, sand, silt) minerals or other magmatic,
metamorphic or sedimentary rocks
• Matrix – small fine-grained particles surrounding clasts (debris, micrograins)
the same material as a grains, but supported theirs with cement material.
• Cement – thin substance, size of less than 1/32 mm surrounding grains and
matrix. Cement usually is distinguished by its chemical composition - the
"glue" that holds the rocks together, silica, calcite, carbonate or iron oxide.
 Rudaceous rock
This corresponds to sedimentary rocks with a particle size of more than 4mm
size (for each pebble) and essentially is equivalent to terrigenous
conglomerates. These rocks are subdivided depending upon their texture
and composition.
Texture:

• Paraconglomerates – mud-supported
• Orthoconglomerates – grain-supported

Composition:

• Monomictic – pebbles of one mineral with rear abundant other mineral

• Oligomictic - pebbles of one type which is often quartz due to its
resistance to abrasion (usually feldspars and quartz grains)
• Polymictic - pebbles of several rock types, indicate sources exposed
several different rock types, for instance in areas of recent tectonic uplift.
(quartz sandstone)

Source
• Intraformational – pebbles originate within the basin
• Extraformational – pebble extrabasinal in origin
 Arenaceous(sandy) rocks
• Are those which are derived from pre-existing rocks. They are composed of
mineral or rocks grains with size about 0.1-2.0 mm which have been
weathered, eroded, transported, deposited and cemented together to form a
sedimentary rock. They are extrabasinal because they are derived from
rocks outside of the basin of deposition. The individual grains (or clasts) in
these rocks are mechanically durable (to withstand abrasion during
transport) and chemically stable. Typical clasts are made of quartz, feldspar,
muscovite, clay minerals or rock fragments.
• Raw material is sand, mainly quartz but feldspar and mica may be present in
smaller amounts; angularity, roundedness may also be classified. Typically
deposited in waters with moderate velocity. May exhibit current bedding.
• Arenite is another meanings for sandstone
• Sandstones contain sand-sized clasts or grains. Sand grains may be either
rounded or angular and they are generally more or less the same size (well
sorted). Sand-sized quartz grains could come from the weathering of source
area rocks such as granite and gneiss or other rocks which contain quartz.
• Sand-sized feldspar grains could come from the weathering of source area
rocks such as granite and other magmatic rocks or gneiss.
• Sand-sized rock fragment grains come from the weathering of fine-grained
source rocks. Possibilities include shale, slate, phyllite, basalt, rhyolite,
andesite, chert and possibly schist. Limestones(cabonat fragments) would
not be included usually because they dissolve so readily.
Classification of sandstones
 Sandstones
Sandstones are classified according to the composition of the sand grains into
three main groups:
Quartz sandstone or quartz arenite is composed mainly of quartz sand grains
(or more than 85-90%).
Arkose is composed mainly of pink or white feldspar grains with quartz and
generally some muscovite mica or sand-sized rock fragments.
Litharenite (meaning rock-sand) or lithic sandstone or graywacke is
predominantly composed of dark sand-sized rock fragments with some
mica, quartz and feldspar grains in a clay-rich matrix. A wacke is defined
as a "dirty" sand. The term "graywacke" is best used loosely; there is no
strict definition of the term with which all geologists agree. A litharenite is
more strictly defined as a rock primarily composed of sand-sized rock
fragments.
Sandstones sometimes may be called according to cementation material such
as: Siliceous sandstone with quartz cement, very hard rock with 90%
silica; Ferruginous sandstone - iron oxide coats grains thus entire rock
has red/brown appearance; Calcareous sandstone - fairly weak, easily
weathered by acid rain (will fizz in hydrochloric acid).
 Clay-dominated rocks
Shale or claystone is a fine-grained rock composed of tiny
(less than 1/256 mm) clay minerals, mica and quartz grains.
The individual grains are too small to see with the naked
eye or a hand lens and the rock feels smooth to the touch
(not gritty). Shale and claystone differ in the way that they
break. Shale is fissile; this means that it splits readily into
thin and flat layers. Claystone on the other hand is not
fissile and breaks irregularly.
The color of shale or claystone may reveal something about
its composition. Black shales contain organic matter (they
are sometimes called bituminous shales). Red shales
contain iron oxide.
There are four main groups of clay minerals:
• Kaolinite group
• Illite group
• Smectite group
• Chlorite group
 Clay minerals – Kaolinite group

Kaolinite

The kaolinite group includes such minerals as kaolinite, dickite, nacrite,

halloysite.
All members of the kaolinite group form primarily during hydrothermal
alteration or weathering of feldspars under acid conditions; but kaolinite and
halloysite are probably the only members formed in soils.
The primary structural unit of this group is a layer composed of one octahedral
sheet condensed with one tetrahedral sheet. Kaolinite and halloysite are
single-layer structures. Minerals of this group have plates-shape.
Clay minerals – Smectite group
Members of the smectite group include
minerals montmorillonite, beidellite,
nontronite and saponite (Mg-rich).
The basic structural unit is a layer
consisting of two inward-pointing
tetrahedral sheets with a central
alumina octahedral sheet. Bonds
between layers are weak and have
excellent cleavage allowing water and
other molecules to enter between the
layers causing expansion.
Smectites commonly result from the
weathering of basic rocks. Smectite
formation is favoured by level to gently
sloping terraines that are poorly
drained, mildly alkaline (such as in
marine environments) and have the
high Si and Mg potentials.
Smectites are used in industry as fillers,
absorbents and a component in drilling
fluids

Montmorillonite
Clay minerals - Illite group
Illite is essentially a group name for non-
expanding, clay-sized, dioctahedral and
micaceous minerals. It is structurally
similar to muscovite in that its basic unit
is a layer composed of two inward-
pointing silica tetragonal sheets with a
central octahedral sheet. However, illite
has on average slightly more Si, Mg, Fe
and water and slightly less tetrahedral Al
and interlayer K than muscovite.
Glauconite is the green iron-rich
member of this group.
Illites which are the dominant clay minerals
in argillaceous rocks form by the
weathering of silicates (primarily
feldspar) through the alteration of other
clay minerals and during the
degradation of muscovite. Formation of
illite is generally favoured by alkaline
conditions and by high concentrations of
Al and K. Glauconite forms
authigenically in marine environments
and occurs primarily in pelletal form.
Illite
Clay minerals – Chlorite group
Members of the chlorite group include:
chamosite, clinochlore, penninite, ripidolite
and others. The various members are
differentiated by the kind and amount of
substitutions within the brucite-like layer
and the tetrahedral and octahedral
positions of the mica-like layer.
The basic structure of chlorites consists of
negatively charged mica-like (2:1) layers
regularly alternating with positively charged
octahedral sheets.
Chlorites are common constituents of
argillaceous sedimentary rocks where
these minerals occur in both detrital and
authigenic forms.

Chlorite covered
quartz grains
 Argillaceous Rocks
The raw materials of silt and clay usually settle out under water (marine) and
possess some inherent cohesive strength. Under the weight of overburden,
the initially soft sediment consolidates - water is expelled, closer packing
leads to stronger interparticle bonding and produces a stiffer deposit of much
greater strength known as siltstone or mudstone.
Argillaceous sedimentary rocks are fine-grained rocks. Argillaceous rocks tend
to be red, brown, black or gray because they always include chemical or
biological admixtures (organic matter, iron oxide etc.) and usually originate
in relatively still waters.
Argillaceous sedimentary rocks or ARGILLITES are those with mud (mud is
defined as a mixture of silt and clay). Argillite means "mud". In general, it
takes higher energy (higher water velocity) to transport larger grains.
MUDSTONE/SILTSTONE - lithified sediments comprising appropriate particle
sizes. Rocks with both silt and clay are referred to as mudstones or
mudshales depending on whether or not they are fissile.
SHALES - are compacted mud particles with a laminated structure - the clay
particles take on a preferred orientation.
MARL - essentially a calcareous mudstone or mixed clay-lime rock, calcium
carbonate is precipitated from solution, typically 5-20% of total or more.
KAOLIN - a type of white claystone is composed of the mineral kaolinite (used
in the manufacture of china, coatings for glossy paper, rubber etc.).
 Chemical rocks
These are rocks formed in situ. The major types of chemical rocks include:
Carbonates - high in CO3, but low in SiO2. These rocks have a complex
genesis, diagenetic features and petrography. They are often intrabasinal in
origin and are easily weathered and dissolved by water.
Evaporites – haloids(salted) rocks forming as a result of evaporation from
brakish or very salted brine solution, especially in salt lakes and lacustrine
marine environments.
Ironstones or ferruginous – sedimentary rocks with grate amount of hematite
or limonite as a grains or as a preferable cement (chamosite, leptochlorite) in
other clastic rocks. Amount of iron can reach more than 50 %.
Phosphates – clastic or chemical rocks saturated calcium phosphate or P2O5
ion.
Siliceous – any rocks with bulk content of SiO2 more than 50 %.
 Carbonate rocks
• Limestone or dolostone
• Common minerals in these rocks are: calcite (CaCO3), aragonite (CaCO3),
dolomite CaMg(CO3)2 and siderite (FeCO3). Aragonite has a greater
density and hardness and a less distinct cleavage compared with calcite.
Dolomite is found in extensive beds as a compact limestone or dolomite
rock. It is also precipitated directly from seawater, possibly under warm
shallow conditions. Siderite is often found in impure form in beds and
nodules (of clay ironstone) in clays and shales and as a directly precipitated
deposit partly altered into iron oxides. Siderite is a valuable ore of iron.
• Depositional Conditions: warm and shallow seas, tropical climate, 30°N -
30°S of equator, low to no terrigenous input, light requires.
• Main source for carbonate matter: corals with symbiotic algae
(dinoflagellates) living in their tissues, called zooxanthellae. It protects the
dinoflagellates from being eaten and they have access to the by-products of
coral metabolism (waste products containing phosphorus, nitrogen and
carbon dioxide). The coral benefits from the removal of its wastes and from
the oxygen and organic nutrients that are produced by the photosynthetic
algae.
• Added source: Much lime mud forms from the disintegration of calcareous
algae. When the calcareous algae die, their skeletons break down and
disintegrate producing aragonite needle muds. The lime mud lithifies to form
micrite or calcilutite (fine-grained limestone).
 Main carbonatic components
Allochemical Particles (allochems)
• framework grains of a mechanically deposited limestone
• four main types
• some formed of calcite, some aragonite

Orthochems
• matrix and cement that fill spaces, bind allochems together and lithify
sediment
• microcrystalline Calcite (Micrite) - CaCO3 mud, disarticulated algal material,
carbonate ooze, 1- 4 μm diameter
• coarsely crystalline calcite (Sparry calcite or ―Sparite‖) - calcite cement,
precipitated from pore fluid (inorganic)
• usually one or the other, not both

Non-carbonate Minerals
Typically less than 5% terrigenous detritus (quartz, clay, chert)
 Allochems
Fossils - solid carbonate
remains of organisms
(fossils) or fragments of
fossils.
Peloids - ellipsoidal
aggregates of micro-
crystalline CaCO3, lack
internal structure, mostly
fecal pellets of worms, fish,
etc.
Ooliths - spherical
polycrystalline carbonate
particles of sand size, with
concentric or radial internal
structure, commonly have a
nucleus for precipitation.
Limeclasts - fragments of
earlier-formed limestone,
mostly intraclasts from a
local source.
Folk classification
Fossils – remnants of shells, with
quartz silt, mostly casts

Pellets or peloids are structureless,

composed mostly of micrite

Oolites - have radial and/or

concentric internal structures

Major Allochem Major

(prefix) Orthochem
(suffix)
Fossils bio- -micrite
Peloids pel- -sparite
Ooliths oo-
Limeclasts intra- >90% micrite is just
called “micrite”
Folk classification
Dunham classification
 Dunham classification (1962)
• Boundstone - limestone rock showing signs of grains being bound (by
organisms) during deposition.
• Grainstone - carbonate rock composed of grains with no carbonate mud in
the interstices.
• Packstone - carbonate rock composed of packed grains with carbonate
mud matrix.
• Wackestone - carbonate rock composed of carbonate mud with over 10%
allochems suspended in it.
• Mudstone - in referring to carbonate rock composed of carbonate mud with
less than 10% of allochems.

• In contrast, Dunham's classification and its modification by Embry and

Klovan (1971) deals with depositional texture. For this reason his scheme
may be better suited for rock descriptions that employ a hand lens or
binocular microscope. For example if the grains of a limestone are touching
one another and the sediment contains no mud, then the sediment is called
a grainstone. If the carbonate is grain supported but contains a small
percentage of mud then it is known as a packstone. If the sediment is mud
supported but contains more than 10 percent grains, then it is known as a
wackestone and if it contains less than 10 percent grains and is mud
supported, it is known as a mudstone.
 Embry and Klovan (1971)
Both terms are extremely
useful in description of
limestones. Embry and
Klovan to more graphically
reflect the role that the
organisms performed
during deposition also
modified the boundstone
classification of Dunham.
Terms such as bafflestone,
bindstone and framestone
are useful in concept but
are extremely difficult to
apply to ancient limestones
where diagenesis and
sample size limit ones
ability to assess an
organisms function.
If one compares the two classifications a rock rich in carbonate mud is termed a micrite
by Folk and a mudstone or wackestone by Dunham. A rock containing little matrix is
termed a sparite by Folk and a grainstone or packstone by Dunham. The wide range
of percentage of mud matrix that a carbonate may have and still be termed a
packstone by Dunham sometimes reduces the utility of this classification. Embry has
modified Dunham's classification and Klovan (1971) to include coarse grained
carbonates. A wackestone in which the grains are greater than 2mm in size is termed
a floatstone and a coarse grainstone is called a rudstone.
 Other carbonate name
• Micrite (microcrystalline limestone) - very fine-grained; may be light gray or
tan to nearly black in color. Made of lime mud, which is also called
calcilutite
• Oolitic limestone - look for the sand-sized oolites
• Fossiliferous limestone - look for various types of fossils in a limestone
matrix
• Coquina - fossil hash cemented together, but without microcrystalline
cement and porous
• Chalk - made of microscopic planktonic organisms such as
coccolithophores; fizzes readily in acid
• Crystalline limestone – limestone with perfect visible crystal grains
• Travertine – very porous limestone formed by underground streamlets
• Others - intraclastic limestone, pelleted limestone
• Grapestone - cluster of small calcareous pellets or other grains commonly
of sand size and stuck together by incipient cementation shortly after
deposition; occur in modern carbonate environments such as Bahama
Banks etc.
• Oncolites - small, variously shaped (often spheroid), concentrically
laminated, calcareous sedimentary structure, resembling an oolith and
formed by accretion of successive layered masses of gelatinous sheaths of
blue-green algae.
 Evaporite rocks
Evaporites are chemical sediments precipitated from brines. They can form
anywhere there is a substantial deficit in the water amount due to
evaporation. The feedstock for most large evaporite deposits are seawaters
but groundwaters are the sources for many evaporites in continental
settings.
Evaporite deposits include the following minerals:
• Gypsum (CaSO4 x 2H2O),
• Anhydrite (CaSO4),
• Halite (NaCl),
• Polyhalite (CaSO4 x MgSO4 x K2SO4 x 2H2O),
• Carnalite (KMgCl3 x 6H2O) etc.

Carbonates are commonly interlaminated with the more soluble materials and
should also be considered, when they are precipitated by similar processes,
as evaporites. Evaporites can form high thickness massive deposits and
salt domes.
• Brine concentration
• The order in which evaporite minerals precipitate is controlled by their
relative solubilities, the least soluble minerals precipitating first. Calcium
carbonate begins to precipitate from seawater concentrated 1.8 times;
gypsum begins precipitating at 3.8 times seawater concentration and halite
only when the brine reaches a concentration 10.6 times that of seawater
 Organic Sedimentary Rocks
• Coal is a slam-dunk. It's carbonized wood. As the actual wood fragments
are easily visible in low-grade varieties of coal, fossilized wood is often found
in adjacent rocks, the overall environment is typical of coastal swamp or
delta settings and ancient soils are sometimes found beneath the coal beds.
Organic matter goes through a variety of changes as it becomes coal:
• Peat - Compacted and partially decomposed organic matter. About 50%
carbon.
• Lignite - Brown or gray brittle coal with lots of impurities and often with
easily visible plant fragments. About 80% carbon.
• Bituminous - Black with banding. Some bands are dull, others shiny. These
bands reflect different types of processed plant matter which are still visible
under the microscope. About 90% carbon.
• Anthracite - Black or dark gray, metallic luster and conchoidal fracture. A
true metamorphic rock, since it's heated beyond the temperatures found in
normal sedimentary burial. About 95% carbon. Anthracite - is the purest
and best form of coal. Unfortunately, the temperature difference between
bituminous coal and graphite is small, so anthracite is uncommon. Also,
unlike flat-lying bituminous, anthracite often occurs in folded rocks, making it
hard to mine. Finally, since it burns so hot, it requires special furnaces. So
despite its desirable properties, anthracite use has declined substantially.
• Graphite - Dark gray and metallic, 100% carbon but unburnable in normal
flames.
 Siliceous rocks
• The siliceous rocks are those which are dominated by silica (SiO2). They
commonly form from silica-secreting organisms such as diatoms,
radiolarians or some types of sponges. Chert is formed through chemical
reactions of silica in solution replacing limestones.
• Diatomite - looks like chalk but does not fizz in acid. Made of microscopic
planktonic organisms called diatoms. May also resemble kaolinite, but is
much lower in density and more porous). Also referred to as Diatomaceous
Earth.
• Opoka, tripoli - soft porous silica rocks – former siliceous silt.
• Chert - massive and hard microcrystalline quartz. May be dark or light in
color. Often replaces limestone. Does not fizz in acid.
• Flint – silica massive rock from microcrystalline quartz.
• Lydite - silica black colour rock similar to chert(flint) but with the significant
content of organic matter.
• Chalcedony (opal) – vitreous conchoidal aggregates of silica having form in
hydrothermal or sedimentary process further recrystallized (turn into)
crystalline quartz.
• Jasper – colored (red, yellow, brown etc.) varieties of flint having application
in ornamental and jeweler industry.
 Mikhail V. Sh.

Unit 6
Concept of facies
and sedimentary
environments
 Facies concept rocks
• Facies - the characteristics of a unit of sediments which can be used to
interpret the depositional environment.
• Term ―facie‖ Swiss scientist Gresly applied for rocks with different
lithological composition (lithofacie) and paleontological remnants (biofacie).
Facial changing is any changing in composition, colour, grain size etc.
towards the dip of strata layers.
• Continental, lacustrine, lagoonal and near off-shore zones or shelf-zones
amount of facies especially biofacies (reef structures) much more than in
zones of continental slope and they find often changing. But in deep ocean
zones amount of facies restricted by one-two and they have covered huge
areas of sea bottom.
• Thickness different facies can change from some millimeters to some
kilometers and bounds between facies also can be as evident (fast change)
as a hidden by smooth process.
• For studying consequence and environmental condition use ―facial
analysis‖. It allows to reconstruct ancient environments for other practical
decision such as search good reservoirs for oil and gas, water supplies etc.
and for this the principle ―The present is the key to the past” mainly use.
 Sedimentary Environments
• Sedimentary environments are places where sediments accumulate and
sedimentary rocks form. They can be grouped into:
• Terrestrial environments (non-marine) The depositional
– Rivers (fluvial environment) environment impacts:
– Alluvial fans
– Lakes (lacustrine environment) • reservoir geometry
– Swamps dimensions, orientation
– Deserts (aeolian wind-born environment) and connectivity
– Glacial environments • rock properties
• Marine environments • production
– Continental shelf Knowledge of the
– Continental slope and rise (deep sea fans) depositional
– Abyssal plain environment is
– Reefs essential for:
• Transitional environments (at the transition • development of a
between the marine and non-marine environments) geological model
– Beach and barrier islands
– Delta • determining the
– Lagoons optimum field
– Estuaries development plan
 Lacustrine environment
• Lakes take 1 % of the Earth surface; 0,02% of hydrosphere and place basins
and subsidences or depressed parts of the surface
• Can be hydrological opened (where the water balance depends on outlet
and inlet by rivers and their tributaries) and closed (the water balance
defines atmosphere precipitation and evaporation)
• Significance: convenient for studying depositional system, salted lakes, Fe
and U deposits and oil-bearing formations
• Features:
1. Strong depend on climatic changing;
2. Have difficulty vertical section structure due to often changing
environments.
• pH value can change from 1,7 to 12.0: pH <4 for volcanic lakes with
inorganic asides and for swamp(bog) lakes; open lakes have normal pH
value (6-8); salted lakes are characterized pH > 8
• Deposition in lakes depends on three factors: the chemistry of water
(especially the content of oxygen); the oscillation of off-shore line (open
lakes usually have stable off-shore line versus closed seasonally and
unstable changing); amount of clastic debris as a admixture.
 Main features of lacustrine sedimentation
• Epilimnion – upper warm layer – spring and summer seasons does not mix
with hypolimnion
• Thermocline (metalimnion) – boundary between warm and cold water
• Hypolimnion – low layer of cold water – can mix with epilimnion in autumn
and winter
• Movement of river water into lake or sea depends on water-density. It is a
function of temperature. So if river and lake water have the same
temperature, sediments settle down uniform, but if densities are different
cold river water carry sediments at once near shore
 Hydrological opened lakes
• Clastic sediments prevails seasonally: bedload on early summer caused by
rainy currents and suspension on winter forming thin season lamination –
annual varve deposits
• Sedimentation is preferable near shore-line or mouth of river - similar to
marine sedimentation
• Deposition in removed parts of lake: turbidites or gravitational currents and
pelagic sediments
• Chemical sedimentation restricted by size of lake and can be caused:
primary inorganic matter as a result of photosynthesis of plants (the
escaping CO2 causes increasing pH value and deposition calcite sediments
starts) or as a result of life productivity lacustrine animals and shells or their
debris (biogenetic carbonate).
 Hydrological closed lakes
• Clastic sediments rarely but can be as a result of spring flooding high water
and they usually have fine grain (silt or mud) laminated texture
• Lakes can desiccate or dried-up on very hot season and form playas
• Sedimentation preferable in the center of lakes or all area
• Shore-line can change its position constantly and it depends on climate
conditions and temperature
• Chemical sedimentation is main source for deposition: concentrate brines
caused oversaturation and solid salted minerals settle down. Chemical
concentration has to exceed above 1000 under primary concentration in free
current water – mechanism of evaporation
• Calcium carbonate can be represent both: calcite and unstable aragonite (it
replaces further to calcite). Ferruginous sediments can appear often
• Biogenetic carbonate usually does not deposit because shells dissolve fast
in oversaturated salted water.
 Fluvial environment

Braided – step slopes; coarse and gravelly sediments; ephemeral discharge

Meandering – fine-grained sediments; gentle gradient; steady discharge
 Braided rivers develop where the slope
over which the river flows is quite steep
Braided and when the discharge fluctuates
widely. A high volume of coarse-
grained, poorly sorted clastic sediments
rivers are transported. Braided rivers are
characterized by a clear braid pattern of
channels.
The river spreads out as wide as the valley
floor with widths greater than 10 km
possible. During low water the river is
confined to channels, during flood, the
river spreads out over the whole braid
plain area.
The flood stage redistributes the bed load
so that braid river sands tend to be well
connected and reservoirs are well
connected and have good connectivity
The mineralogical composition of the
grains is rather immature (close to the
source of erosion) and are therefore
subject to diagenetic alteration. The
generated clays can clog the pore
throats.
Meandering The result of mature rivers flowing over a
flood plain and swinging from side to
side, shifting its course laterally toward
rivers the convex side of an original curve. On
the outside of a meander bend water
flows at a faster speed than on the
inside. While the outside bank of a
meander is actively eroded, sediments
are deposited on the inside bank of the
next meander downstream. These
sediments are known as sand deposits
pointbars. They are encased in lower
reservoir quality flood plain deposits.
The lateral growth and downstream
migration of point bars associated with
meanders produces a characteristic
vertical sequence of fluvial sediments.
Only the coarsest gravels are deposited
on the fast flowing outside of the bend,
forming channel lag deposits. Finer
sediment is deposited on the inside
bend, where the velocity is lower, to form
point bar deposits. The migration of the
meander belt and switching of a river
channel is slow.
 Comparison
Meandering Braided
Reservoirs fining upward sequence channel sands large scale bars parallel to direction of
and width ratio poor reservoir deposited flow; coarse sediments fair sorting for
outside channel; point bars and channels sand and gravel; streams combine to
with good quality and connectivity form sheet-like reservoir, can be
connectivity (depends on flood-plain)
Petro- good in point bar sands; porosity and high permeabilities - complex
physical permeability decrease upwards; stacked distribution; excellent or very good
properties reservoirs as main channel moves especially on foots of layers

Arenosity variable form high 45%(on the foot) to low high, sand bodies form as fluvial
25% (silt layers) elongate-channel clean sandy facies.
Geometry Lenses shape – ―tiled-structure‖ due to set of sand channels bodies plate or
lateral migration, rate of length-with- tape-shape laterally abundance; joint
thickness: 200-100-1: long and relatively each other; thickness up to 30 meters;
narrow sand bodies that are internally deposited in sheets that can cover tens
inhomogeneous of kilometers in length and width; prefer
steep slopes
Seals floodplain clays covers and perfect seals clay interlayers are perfect seals for
but they usually divide sand bodies by sand bodies, clayey seals have large
vertical partitions (lithological barriers); areas but thickness can variable; have
clays deposited outside the river channel wavy or cover shape
provide good seals
 Alluvial fans
• These are localized deposits in the form of cone-shaped fans of sediment
laid down where a river loaded with debris, flows from the steep slope of a
confined mountain valley onto a flat lowland plain.
• Alluvial fan deposits are characterized by a large range of clast sizes (poorly
sorted) - consequence of very limited transportation distance. The limited
size of fans and poor sorting of clasts makes alluvial fans generally poor
reservoirs.

Can be have fluvial

(wash by constant or
temporary rivers) or
semiaridic (origin by
rainy water) origination.
All of them are also result
of gravitational
processes
 DELTAS
Sedimentary depositions near river outlet into seas, oceans or lakes. Deltas are
―discrete shoreline protuberances formed where rivers enter oceans, semi-
enclosed seas, lakes or lagoons and supply sediment more rapidly than it can
be redistributed by basinal processes‖. Take 3% square of dry land and 9% off-
shore zone
The term delta used to describe the mouths of large rivers such as the Nile, the
Mississippi or the Ganges, comes from the similarity in shape between this
sedimentary environment and the Greek capital letter.
Velocity of deposition exceeds destroying and abrasion wave capacity and tide
activity. Facial set of rocks depends on river activity, wave and tidal forces.

Characterized clinoform structure – dip of layers towards the progradation of

delta. Many modern deltas are growing into sea or prograding because of the
vast quantities of sediments supplied by the river. Deltaic settings contain a
wide variety of sand bodies, all of which have different geometries and
permeability distributions.

Best reservoirs are the uppermost delta bar sands, which are clean and well-
sorted because the action of waves winnows out the fine-grained sediments.
Ancient and modern deltas contain more than 40 % of world recourses of oil.
 Progradation and structure of delta
Alluvial plain Deltaic platform Delta slope
Sea level

Pro-delta

Deltaic platform – TOPSET (land area, distributaries channels, lakes, marsh,

bogs) - prevail fluvial processes
Delta slope – FORESET (shore-line with mouth bars, lagoons, tidal and ebb
channels, bays, beach and limnic deposits) – influence energy both – river
and sea basin.
Pro-delta – BOTTOMSET (clayey shelf deposits) – prevail marine processes
There are three types of deltas:

• Tidal-dominated
• Wave-dominated
• River-dominated
 Tidal-dominated delta
If the tidal range is high (2 to 4 m), tidal currents become important and the
pattern of sedimentation is disrupted. The ―bird‘s foot‖ shape is lost and
distributaries develop a braided pattern. Tidal sand bars form rather than
mouth bars.
 Wave-dominated delta
When sediments are discharged into shallow water which is devoid of tidal
currents but subject to wave action, the sediments are reworked to form a
virtually continuous sand-bar round the delta front. Deltas waves and tides
sands deposited into a marine environment is reworked by waves and (or)
tides. Waves rework sediment into long beach sand deposits parallel to the
coast and at right angles to direction of river flow.
 River-dominated delta
River dominated delta – the processes from the river outflow into a stationary water body
dominate the resulting delta deposit without the marine influences of waves and tides.
The river enters the gulf in a region free with a large sediment load. Deceleration of
current means that sediment is deposited at entrance to river mouth forming a moth bar.
Contrast sediment laden waters moved both by river current and very limited sea
currents. It can form the dendritic or branching pattern to the river distributaries.

As sediments build out a delta plain

is formed through which many
distributaries channels may cut and
transport material to the prodelta.
Between distributary channels delta
plain may be richly vegetated by salt
marsh or mangrove swamps.
In areas where the discharge is
protected from excessive wave and
tide action or where the rate of
deposition is high an elongate ‗bird's
foot' delta may develop. Old
distributaries may be abandoned
and new ones cut in times of high
discharge.
 Main features of deltaic deposits
Arenosity – pro-delta has low (20-25%) but on the delta slope can meet 90%
ancient sand bodies – depends on wave and tidal activity.
Reservoirs – fine grained sands with good quality in distributary channels;
separated bodies can communicate via mouth bars or crevasse splay deposits;
porosity and permeability increases upwards; very good in clean sands.
Grain size - increasing from bottom to up.
Geometry – channels sand bodies and bar arc-shape bodies orientated at right
angles to the coast line; different bodies from narrow tape-shape to very
abundant covers; trace of branch channels of river and inter-channels bays;
structures of mouth bars, tidal channels, barrier bars (frontal parts of delta).
Physical properties – fluvial channels with good properties and proximal
facies of mouth bars have the best porosity an permeability. Distal mouth bar
have low ones.
Seals - high thickness of clay layers distal parts of delta (pro-delta) alternate
with clinoform sand bodies of delta slope. Clay layers are the best and perfect
seals in the world for oil fields.
Markers – coal layers (the evident proved the swampy floodplain) of deltaic
platform and distal sand covers of pro-delta.
 Linear clastic shore line and
Barrier Island System
• Linear clastic shore line take place near the shore line of seas. Main source
for deposition are terrigenous sediments with different grain size carry off by
big rivers, especially in deltaic zones and other debris occur as a result of
marine abrasion.
• Barriers are the sites near beaches. They form due to the combined action
of wind, waves and longshore currents whereby thin strips of land are built a
few to several tens of meters above sea level. They are called barriers
because they protect the mainland coast from the forces of the sea,
particularly during storms. They lessen the effects of storm waves,
heightened tides and salt spray. The bays, lagoons, marshes, spits and tidal
creeks are typical structures for coastal waters. Barriers occur throughout
the world‘s coastlines but are most common along passive margins where
sediment supplies are abundant and wave and tidal energy are conducive
for onshore sand accumulation.
• Most clastic linear deposit structures tend to parallel the coast, generally
occurring in groups or chains. Barriers may be less than 100 m wide or more
than several kilometers in width but they range in length from small pocket
barriers of a few hundred meters to those along open coasts that extend for
more than 100 km.
Structure of nearshore line
 Longshore currents (littoral current)
slow landward transport of water as gravity waves move landward and break
in the surf zone. The rate at which this occurs is related to the refraction
pattern of the waves as they move through the nearshore and surf zone.
This refraction produces a current that flows essentially parallel to the
shoreline. As the wave refracts during steepening and breaking, there are
both shoreward and shore-parallel vectors to its direction. This condition
produces the longshore current with a velocity that is related to the size of
the breaking wave and to its angle of approach to the shoreline. The
longshore current is essentially confined to the surf zone and has an
effective seaward boundary at the outermost breaker line and a landward
boundary at the shoreline.
 General sketch the
origin of spits and bars

Barrier island, South Caroline. Lake is the

spit that increases by longshore current
with velocity 30 meters per year and are
divided some blocks. ( From Miles Hayes,
1978).
 Beaches
Sedimentation depend on sediment supply, wave climate, overall slope of the
shelf and tidal range
Elements:
Ridge – the lower symmetrical intertidal part of the beach has a small bar
Runnel - a fiat-bottomed trough
Foreshore (forebeach). - part of the beach is essentially flat and slopes toward
the sea. In beach profiles that do not have a ridge and runnel the foreshore
includes the intertidal portion of the beach and extends to the landward
change in slope. The foreshore includes the swash zone, the part of the
foreshore over which the waves uprush and backwash as each one meets
the shore. The width and the slope of the swash zone change as the wave
climate changes.
Backshore (backbeach) - at the change in slope with the foreshore, landward
across the remainder of the beach to the next physiographic feature. The
backshore is dry and supratidal except during storm surge conditions when
high water and large waves push water and sediment over the upper part of
the beach. During these events, overwash of the beach and some wave
activity may occur directly over the backshore. Most of the time this part of
the beach is subjected to wind.
Storm ridge. Gravel beaches of shell or rock fragments commonly appear a
storm ridge that is just landward of the foreshore. This feature can rise
several meters above high tide and can totally replace the typical
backbeach.
 Barriers
• Barriers can be 3 types: barrier spits, welded barrier and barrier islands
• The overall form of barriers, their stability and future erosional or
depositional trends are related to the supply of sediment, the rate of sea-
level rise, storm cycles and the topography of the mainland.
• When a barrier builds in a seaward direction it is said to prograde and is
called a prograding barrier. The opposite of this condition occurs when a
barrier retreats landward, called a retrograding barrier. If a barrier builds
vertically and maintains its form as sea level rises, it is labeled an
aggrading barrier.
 Features of shallow-marine deposits
Arenosity Can be more than 95% near shore-line; shelf-zone
from 10% to 90%
Section structure Thickness and grain size increase upwards
Geometry From lens-shape bodies to covers – can propagate up
to 10 km
Reservoirs properties Best on the shelf-zone and near shore-line, but clay
and seals covers prevail in the middle and deep parts of the shelf
and can be good seals
 Carbonate deposits
• Carbonates are always made of fragments of calcareous skeletons built by
organisms which lived in warm, shallow and clear seas. After the death of
the organisms their calcareous remains accumulate on the sea floor where
they become cemented by chemically precipitated calcite to form different
type of limestone.
• Common carbonate geometries are reefs (Great Barrier Reef, Australia) and
platforms (Bahamas) which if leached can be excellent reservoirs that can
form in warm and shallow wave-dominated environments where particles
such as sand grains or shell fragments act as nuclei for carbonate growth.

Carbonate compensation depth (CCD)

• Above this depth water is warmer and precipitation of CaCO3 is greater than
dissolution. Calcarious plankton can be found in the water column and on
the bottom if water depth is shallower than the CCD. Above the CCD bottom
sediments can consist of calcareous sediments forming chalk or limestone.
• Below this depth water is colder and CaCO3 tends to dissolve (dissolution is
greater than precipitation). Tiny shells of CaCO3 dissolve and do not
accumulate on the bottom if water is deeper than the CCD. Below the CCD
the bottom sediments consist of clay and silica shells of plankton (diatoms,
radiolarians); approximately 4000 - 5000 m deep in Pacific
• At the CCD, rate of precipitation of CaCO3 = rate of dissolution of CaCO3
 A rimmed shelf – shallow-water platform
Carbonate with pronounced break of slope into deep
water with barrier reefs
platform Carbonate ramp – a gently sloping(less than
1 degree) surface on which nearshore
wave-agitated sandy facies pass off-
shore into deep water with mud facies
without reefs structures but with mud
mounts and pinnacle reefs.
Epeiric platform - very extensive and quite
flats covered by shallow sea. The
margins could be rimmed by barrier reefs
or lime sand shoals. They are dominated
by shallow subtidal-intertidal low-energy
facies.
Isolated platforms – shallow-water platforms
with step sides, which are surrounded by
deep water and their facies distribution is
affected by prevailing wind and storm
directions.
Drawned platforms - ramps, rimmed
shelves isolated which have been
subjected to a rapid relative sea-level
rise and deep-water facies are deposited
over the shallow-water limestones.
Depositional
processes of
carbonate
sediments
 Reef structures
• Blue-green algae are involved in the formation of oolites (or ooids). Oolites
form in warm shallow seas with constant wave agitation.
Parts of the reef
• Back-reef (lagoon) - low energy, lime muds; bordered by tidal flat on
landward side
• Reef - high energy, "boundstone"
• Fore-reef (deep water) - turbidites, breccias, grading seaward into organic-
rich lime mud

Modern carbonate sedimentation

90 % - calcitic plancton (cocolithophorida and foraminifera) and their deposits of
pelagic carbonate ooze on the deep seafoore
6 % - reef structures
3 % - aragonitic lime muds
1 % - benthic organism on shelves
 Deep sea basins
They are abundant in modern deep marine environments

• Facial composition: deposits of channels an canyons, near fluvial deposits

and covered lobes of sandstones

• Form after replacement shelf sediments via the continental slope and
towards the pedestal of sea bottom.

• Caused by instability of sediments, earthquake, flooding etc.

Gradational lamination of turbidite flow:
- Turbidite current in movement
- Sedimentation coarse particles
- Sedimentation completed except of clay mad
- Mud deposited
 Structure of turbidite flow

ake

ead ody

(Wagerle, 2001)
Energy, grain size and amount of deposits decrease bottom-up. In result of this
process whole sand body with gradational lamination forms. This sequence is
called as a cycle of Bouma. Main result for petroleum geology – forming high
thickness layers with perfect space properties analogous fluvial facies and sand
bodies
 Bouma unit

Te Laminated mud

Td Laminated silt-
sands
Tc Cross-laminated
sands

Tb Laminated sands

Massive sands
Ta
including five components
less than 1 meter of thickness
Most of turbidite flows do not content all layers due to the constant erosion
activity and amalgamation different cycles.
Facies of deep water deposition
 Geometry of turbidite fans
A B A
Proximal
Lobe

lobes of fans can replace laterally.

Progradation tends to thick layers of
average part of lobe overlay thin
marginal parts of fan.
Sandy bodies repeated overlied.

Distal
B Lobe
Current channels
 Main features of turbidite deposits
Arenosity – can be high (80-90% of body) especially for middle parts of
turbidites. Physical properties (porosity and permeability) due to this fact can be
very good and have proper capacity for oil fields
Grain size – constantly changing – in channels it decrease to up of layer in
deep zone increase to bottom
Geometry – channels have elongate shape length-with rate 1-20 and lobe
shape
Size - Channels can get 50 km and width 1500 metes, thickness is more than
20-30 meters
Seals - distal part of lobes and channels can be perfect seals for oil fields
according to high content of clayey rocks, but clayey seals can be different
thickness and quality
Markers – sea marine clay layers with high abundant laterally
 Climatic lithogenic types
Climate is the main regulator physic-chemical conditions (temperature,
humidity, atmospheric precipitation etc.), for controlling of process of
sedimentation. There are three main types of climate:
Humid – wet, rainy, wormy with excess of water, tropic and subtropic zones,
moderate and cold areas with intensive chemical weathering, diversity or
multiformity of sedimentary rocks (clastic, clayey, chemical and biochemical)

Aridic – predominance of evaporation under atmospheric precipitation in

deserts, semi-deserts and dry areas, physical and mechanical weathering,
shortage of running water sources, water storage with salty environments with
chemogenic precipitation

Nival – continental areas where average temperature in during one year less
than -10°С. Ace caps and glaciers very often exist n these areas.
Transportation and deposition carried by glaciers and glacial streamlets,
moraines and unsorted glacial deposition such as teallites take place under this
type of lithogenesis
 Facial analysis
1. Analysis general date for fixing shapes of sedimentary bodies and their
structure in space (using seismic, regional date and logging).
2. Lithological studies: mineral composition, structure and texture of rocks with
accordance with depositional environments.
3. Paleontological research: for time definition and restore condition of
sedimentation (biofacial analysis).
4. Definition stratigrafic units (biounits, lithounits) in section.
5. Mapping facial ancient environments for find out main features: sea line,
shore-line, relief, depth of sea etc.
 Mikhail V. Sh.

Unit 7
Sequence
stratigraphy
 Definition and use
Sequence Stratigraphy - the study of rock relationships within a
chronostratigraphic framework where in the succession of rocks is cyclic and
is composed of genetically related stratal units (sequences and systems
tracts) or stratigraphycal gaps (absence of sedimentation).
Sequence stratigraphy which is an outgrowth of seismic stratigraphy is a more
multidisciplinary approach to stratigraphic analysis. It is based on well-log,
core and outcrop data in addition to seismic profiles.

• Results:
We get chronostratigraphycal units (not lithostatigraphycal units) and decide
tasks of facial distribution
These boundaries are base for further correlation and mapping
These boundaries can be beginning for seals or for ways of hydrocarbon
migration
 History
• Stratotype – lithological section forming for the definite geological time
• Gressly theory – we can distinguish facies in space using continuous vertical
sequence
• Walter's low – vertical sequence of rocks is function of their horizontal
displacement in time
• Subdividing different depositional sequences on the cycles, depositional
episodes and units
• Seismic survey development and seismostratigraphical investigation. Facial
analysis and sedimentological models of oil and gas reservoirs
• Exxon concept of sequence stratigraphy that allow to study: conditions and
sequence of deposition; divide and obtain genetic units of rocks and their
stratigraphycal frameworks
 Eustasy
The term eustasy refers to global sea level independent of local factors; namely
the position of the sea surface with reference to a fixed datum including the
center of the earth or a satellite in fixed orbit around the earth. The word
"eustatic" was first used by Eduard Suess in 1888.
Eustasy — a world-wide change of sea level relative to a fixed point such as
the centre of the earth. Eustatic changes result from variations in the volume
of water in the ocean basins. The eustatic sea level curve describes cyclic
changes in sea level.
 Sea level

First-order lasting 200-400 m.y. are recognized in Phanerozoic

Second-order (10-100 m.y.) and third-order (1-10 m.y.) cycles are the most important
for sequence stratigraphy and they explained by global events in the history.
Fourth-order (500,000-200,000 yr) and fifth-order (200,000-10,000 yr) cycles are
widely documented in shallow-marine and pelagic rocks and explained by changes in
climate.
Causes of eustasy
 Causes of eustasy
1. Changes in the volume of water in the ocean; these are largely controlled
by the volume of terrestrial ice (glacio-eustatic change). Interdigitation
periods of melting and friezing polar caps in quaternary time proved for last
400000 years (Quaternary glaciations) and modern concept of global
warming.
2. New modern oceanographic analysis prove that cause of eustasy could be
rising and subsidence mid-ocean ridges, probably driven by plate
movements, but maximal velocity this changing has rate 1 cm per 1000
years (tectono-eustatic change).
3. Concept of changing the volume of water trapped in terrestrial aquifers.
4. Local changing caused by thermogaline events – temperature and climatic
oscillations and also changes in the availability of sediment supply,
changing rates of sediment runoff and the initiation and extinction of
drainage systems.
5. Long subsidence of sea level during phanerozoic time and disturbing only
in Mesozoic can consider as the prove slowly expansion of the Earth.
6. Changes in water depth in a particular area depend on both global and
local controls.
Different facies react on
the eustasy or the sea-
level changing.
Consequent sea-level
rise and down are
caused rock changing:
in shallow environments
can deposit course-
clastic and sandy rocks
with fast deposition, but
in deep-water basic
fine-clastic and mud
rocks with slow the rate
of sedimentation.
Transgression is fixed
by the decreasing the
dryland and expansion
seas and oceans, but
regression events and
cycles tend to increase
dryland and reduce
sea.
 3 System tracts
System tract - a linkage of contemporaneous depositional systems. They
defined by unconformities and MaxFS –
Maximum Flooding Surface (MaxFS) - a surface separating a transgressive
systems tract (below) from a highstand systems tract (above). It is commonly
characterized by a condensed horizon reflecting very slow deposition; markers
in the overlying systems tract downlap onto the MFS.

Lowstand system tract (LST) – tract of low sea level connect with depositing
currents (lowstand wedge) – commonly form in deep water beyond the shelf
edge, commonly as submarine fans. The base of the lowstand systems tract
may be erosional (canyons and channels cut by turbidity currents) and the top
is correlative with a MaxFS.
Transgressive System Tract (TST) (depositional-shoreline break) – are
floored by unconformities or bounding discontinuities an are terminated by
MaxFS.
Highstand System Tract (HST) – are floored by MaxFS and terminated by
unconformities or bounding discontinuities. Its foot is the surface maximal
flooding.
System tracts
 Terminology
Parasequence (genetic increment, facies successions) - a relatively
conformable succession of genetically related beds or bedsets bounded by
MFS marine flooding surfaces and their correlative surfaces.
Sequence - a relatively conformable succession of genetically related strata
bounded at its top and base by unconformities and their correlative
conformities. It is composed of a succession of systems tracts and is
interpreted to be deposited between eustatic-fall inflection points. Regional
stratigraphical units in basins distinct on the basin slopes and often
indiscernible in deep areas
Parasequence set (genetic sequence) - sequence of parasequences in vertical
section (transgressive, regressive, aggradational)
Marine Flooding Surface (MFS) - a surface separating younger from older
strata across which there is evidence of an abrupt increase in water depth. It is
a key stratigraphic surface.
 Model
Marine flooding surface
Transgressive surface Maximum
flooding surface

Sequence Boundary

Fluvial sandstones in incised valleys

Coastal plain sandstones and mudstone
Shallow marine sandstones
Shelf and slope mudstones and thin sandstones
Submarine fans and levee channel sandstones
 Sequence Boundary
Sequence boundary can be
chosen as an
unconformities and their
relative correlative
conformities
Unconformity - a surface
separating younger from
older strata, along which
there is evidence of
subaerial erosional
truncation or subaerial
exposure, with a significant
hiatus indicated.
Discontinuities can be
erosional or nonerosional.

Hierarchy
Parasequence
Sequence
Supersequence
Megasequence
Difference of boundaries
 Lithostrata versus allostrata
Allostratigraphy is not intended to replace lithostratigraphy; it is a parallel
scheme that emphasizes bounding discontinuities. This is in its turn
emphasizes the processes external to the depositional system that initiate and
terminate the depositional of a sedimentologically related succession of facies.
 Seismic method
The most important geophysical method for finding and producing oil and gas.
Seismic consists of creating an acoustic (sound) signal (an oscillation or vibration). Part
of the signal‘s energy is reflected off the different rock layers underground and is
received by a sensor on the surface that can measure the vibration. From the point of
view of the sensor (receiver), the vibration appears to have reflected off the strata at a
point midway between the receiver and the source of the signal. The receiver records
the sensing of the vibration as a function of time. It time=0 is the time the vibration is
made at the source, the time that the signal is received is equal to the distance the
signal travels (down and up) divided by the acoustic velocity of the rock layers it is
traveling through. This time is the ―2-way travel time‖. The trace shows a displacement.
Than the traces for all of the receivers are plotted together and analyzed, they create
across-sectional picture of the subsurface.
Vertical Seismic Profiles (VSP) are the main method of seismic survey.
 Synthetic seismogams
If a rock layer is homogeneous, P-waves and S-waves will travel through
without producing a reflection. At the boundary between two rock types
where there is a change in density or velocity an anomalous reflection will
occur – it is a seismic or acoustic impedance (than larger the change is in
acoustic impedance, the reflection is also larger). Than we can define
reflectivity series comparing wells logs of density and velocity with seismic
date. Than we take a representation wavelet in each point and join them
together use special computer process (convolution) and get the synthetic
seismogram and convert the synthetic seismogram to time to obtain the
seismic for calibration. Seismic boundaries are not coincide with lithological
bounds and their thickness.
Shape of log
Examples
Reflector relationships
 Reflector relationships
• Onlap - the successive deposition of stratal packages toward the shoreline,
often progressively covering an erosional surface. Onlap occurs during
transgression as depositional environments backstep shoreward; the
situation where “an initially horizontal stratum laps out against an
initially inclined surface”.
• Downlap - the successive depositon of stratal packages over underlying
strata toward the basin center. This is generally a progradational pattern,
occurring during relative sea level fall as sediment packages build farther out
into the basin; the situation where “an initially inclined layer terminates
downdip against an initially horizontal or inclined surface”.
• Toplap - the pattern made by the deposition of a horizontal strong reflector
above a succession of downlapped or inclined packages of strata.
• Offlap - a pattern of stratal packages and their reflectors the both prograded
and aggraded, building upward and outward into the basin.
• Truncation: this implies the deposition of strata and their subsequent tilting
and removal along an unconformity surface. This termination is the most
reliable top-discordant criterion of a sequence boundary. Such truncation
can also be caused by termination against erosional surface, as, for instance
a channel.
 Seismic facies and Seismostratigraphy
Some general information as to the nature of the rock in a seismic profile can
be gleaned from the patterns of the reflectors.
• Continuous reflectors - suggest sedimentary strata deposited in a
relatively stable environment that changes periodically through time.
Example: continental shelf
• Discontinuous reflectors - suggest sedimentary strata deposited in
regionally heterogeneous environments. Terrestrial and shallow water
carbonate depositional environments tend to produce discontinuous
reflectors.
• Chaotic reflectors - suggest crystalline rock such as evaporites, igneous or
metamorphic bedrock.

Seismostratigraphy – geological approach to interpretation seismic data. It

studies structure, development and features fluid-saturation sedimentary
fields and helps to reconstruct in three dimensional sedimented bodies and
finds out sequences their deposition, geological time, material composition,
conditions of forming and their following changing.
Main task of seismostratiraphy – searching and prospecting unusual non-
anticline traps and oil and gas fields by mapping of relief seismic bounds.
 Interpreting seismic profiles
• Continuous reflectors - these are strong lines on a seismic profile that
mark significant, widespread changes in lithology, denoting a widespread
change in depositional environment in the basin. Changes in tectonic
setting, climate, and/or sea level create strong reflectors, which often are
associated with parasequence, systems tract and sequence boundaries.
• Clinoforms - these are inclined surfaces on reflectors bounding stratal
packages. It is tempting to relate clinoforms to depositional processes such
as progradation, but again, there is a problem with scale. Clinoform slopes
are very steep - much steeper than most depositional slopes, which are
generally less than a few degrees. Only in carbonate environments are
steep slopes common (for example, slopes of 25° can develop in front of
reef crests), however, not all clinoforms can be related to carbonate
environments. It is likely that differential compaction explains the
development of some clinoforms in clastic settings, where mud-rich
sediments will compact more than sand-rich sediments, causing a
downwarping of the distal end of stratal packages.
• Erosional truncation and unconformities - these do not create reflectors
themselves, rather, they are revealed by reflector terminations. Generally,
some angular discordance is needed between the reflectors and the
unconformity for the unconformity to be resolved; the greater the angle the
better it is. Minor episodes of erosion and unconformity generation may not
show up on a seismic profile unless the relief of erosion exceeds the
resolution depth of seismic imaging.
Image
Stage A
Stage A (cont.)
Stage B
Stage C
Stage D
Stage E
 Mikhail V. Sh.

Unit 8
Petroleum
Geology
 Origin of petroleum - problems
• Place of origin. Near of present oil pools or on long distance?
• What type of rock can produce petroleum? Most hydrocarbon deposits occur
in sedimentary rocks, most of the sedimentary rocks with oil are marine.
• Reservoirs problems. Many hydrocarbon deposits occur in porous and
permeable sandstones and carbonate rocks but sometimes collectors can
be other: nonporous and impermeable rock.
• Total balance of carbon. On earth surface: 82% is in rocks in the shape of
inorganic carbon (limestones, carbonates) and 18% is in hydrocarbons.
• Ways of migration. Vertical or horizontal? With or without circulating water?
• Nature of energy involved for genesis of petroleum.
• Hydrogen shortage problems. There is not much hydrogen for explanation
grate amount of hydrogen in hydrocarbons.
• Optical rotary powder (biological or not).

All theories of the origin of petroleum may be divided into two

groups – organic and inorganic
 Inorganic theory
1. Cosmic facts. The outer planets and their moons contain methane.
Carbonaceous chondrites (meteorites) contain traces of various
hydrocarbons, including complex molecules. Some famous scientist believe
these hydrocarbons form from inorganic reactions and thus hydrocarbons on
earth may have formed in a similar manner.
2. Volcanic facts. If hydrocarbons are abiotic, they should be contained in the
mantle and migrate to their positions in the crust. Test of the theory is to look
at occurrences of hydrocarbons connected with volcanoes. Would
hypothesize an association with igneous rocks, deep crustal structures and
faults: Methane is present in volcanoes (typically 1% of gases, up to 15%).
In all cases, the volcanoes erupt through cover of sediments. Generally
three types of occurrences of hydrocarbons in volcanic rocks:
• Gases, bitumen and liquids in vesicles and inclusions. None of these
are commercial. This type of "igneous" hydrocarbons can be originated from
alteration of intruded sediments prior to freezing of magma.
• Trapped hydrocarbons where igneous rocks intrude sediments. These
are relatively common although form only a very minor part of commercial
deposits.
• Hydrocarbons in weathered igneous basement. These deposits usually
underlie unconformities that separate the igneous rocks from overlying
sediment. The porosity is provided by weathering and thus the oil must have
migrated into the basement rocks after they were emplaced and weathered.
Unlikely that the oil migrated along with the deposits.
 Inorganic theory
3. Chemical facts. Some hydrocarbons: methane, ethane, acetylene, benzene
have been made from inorganic sources or in laboratory conditions. But all
of them have simple construction. Hydrocarbons, containing great numbers
of individual members are found only in petroleum.
4. Place facts. Modern drilling search showed that oil deposits can be found on
very deep levels - 7-8 km. Therefore, they may need to drill more wells to
find the mantle oil. Some magmatic or metamorphic rocks can contain oil
fields, for example oil field White Tiger in Vietnam situates in granite
massive. But only 1,5-2 % of world oil resources contain in such rocks.
5. Unusually scientific theories. There are many other theories about the
origin of the earth. For example, one of them considers that core of the earth
consist of hydrides of metal, that can be sources for hydrocarbons. Other
assume that internal radioactive decay can be main sources for rock heating
and production oil and gas and hydrogen is as a product of radioactive
decay. Hypothesis of methane-ammonia ancient atmosphere also is one of
main for inorganic explanation for origin crude oil.
 Organic theory
1. Photosynthesis. It is the main mechanism of production of organic matter
when sun energy converts to chemical energy. The reduction of oxidized
carbon is caused by photosynthesizing plants and algae. They take
energy from the sun and convert CO2 into glucose (C6H12O6). The glucose
molecules are the basis of constructing more complex organic molecules
by animals and plants. Than autotrophic organisms can reconstruct from
glucose other biological components such as cellulose or the starch.
Scientists consider than mechanism of photosynthesis has begun to act 2
billion (2000 million) year ago. Other product of this process is oxygen. So
with beginning of photosynthesis, atmosphere began to oxidize and first
forms of life and oxidized minerals have taken place on the Earth.
2. Place facts. The vast amounts of organic matter and hydrocarbons now
found in the sediments or in the sedimentary rocks of the earth. Most of oil
fields situate on the depths of 2000-5000 meters in sedimentary basins.
3. Chemistry. Carbon and hydrogen are predominant chemical elements of
modern and ancient organic material, both plants and animals.
 Organic theory
4. Organic elements of life. Many crude oils contain porphyrin pigments
(derived from matter of blood or chlorophyll) and also nitrogen (typically
organic element). They are direct indicators of the animal or plant origin.
Nitrogen is an essential component of the amino acids, hydrolyzed
proteins of all living matter. All of crude oils contain nitrogen components
and chemical formations.
5. Optical activity. The power to rotate the plane of polarization. Property of
polarization for inorganic and organic substances are not coincide. And
the polarization of crude oil is similar to polarize directions of organic
components such as cholesterol or other vegetable or animal matter.
6. Biogenic markers. In all oils were found chemofossils, organic remnants
complicated nature which were parts of lived ancient organisms and
plants.
 Organic compounds
The principal biological components of living organisms are proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids and lignin.

• Proteins - largely animal molecules containing C, H, O, N, S, P - they are

found as amino acids.
• Carbohydrates - have common formula Cn(H2O)n. They are the sugars and
polymers of sugars called cellulose, starch and chitin. Carbohydrates are
also found in animal tissue, being a principal source of energy for living
organisms.
• Lipids - organic molecules that are insoluble in water. They are fats, oils and
waxes. Contain C, H and O. Contain 5 carbon atoms - C5H8. Lipids are fatty
organic compounds, insoluble in water and found in most abundance in
algae, pollen and spores. Lipids are rich in hydrogen and hence yield high
volumes of hydrocarbon molecules on maturation. They also contains
isoprenoids, which are found in chlorophyll and include pristane and fitane.
These two molecules are preserved during petroleum formation and their
relations can indicate depositional environment and type of organic matter.
 Organic compounds
• Lignin (and tannin) - largely plant molecules, found in the high plants but
not in animals. Composed of aromatics chains or high-molecular
polyphenols.

• Lipids are not dissolve in marine water, buy hydrocarbons and proteins are
easy hydrolyze and solved in water. It means that lipid particles more stable
in sediments and their deposition potential define productivity of oil-bearing
rocks.
• Amount for marine organic matter: proteins 50 % and more, lipids (from 5 %
to 25 %), carbohydrates (less than 40 %). Relation H/C is 1.7-1.9.
• High plants contain cellulose (30-50 %) and lignin (15-25 %). Relation H/C is
1.0-1.5.

In most cases, these complex molecules are oxidized to CO2, largely by

bacteria and microbes or free oxygen. In exceptional cases, the complex
organic molecules are preserved, buried and converted into hydrocarbons.
Carbon circulation
 Composition of petroleum and
natural gas in rocks
• Oil and petroleum gas is mixture of hydrocarbons (chemical conjunctions of
carbon and hydrogen). Amount of core molecules define physical condition
of them: gaseous (natural and oil gas), liquid oil and paraffine (solid wax). In
general oil contains 82-87% carbon (С), 11-14% hydrogen (Н) and 0.4 -1.0%
other admixtures – chemical compounds with oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur,
asphalt and resin substance.
• After oil heating (process of cracking) according to based temperature at first
derive light 40-2000 С petroleum fractions, than kerosene 150-3000 С and
gasoline - 300-4000 С, above 4000 С – black oil (mazut).
• On content of resin oil can be subdivide on less-resin (resin less 18%); resin
(from 18 to 35%); high-resin (more than 35%).
• On content of high-molecular alkenes (paraffin) oil subdivided onto three
groups based on content of paraffine: without paraffin – (< 1%); less-
paraffine (1-2 %); high-paraffine (2 %).
• High compounds of resin and paraffine assist oil more viscous and low-
mobility and it caused added works for its exploration and transportation.
• On contents of sulphur oil can be divided on: less-sulphurous (0.5%),
sulphurous (0.5-2.0%), high-sulphurous (more than 2.0%). Content of
sulphur compounds reduce its quality and assist hard works on its
exploration and safety events.
 Production of organic matter
Main volume of bioproductivity reach by activity of protozoans mono-celled or
unicellular marine organisms and bacteria and high plants. Theirs relations
define type and quantity of depositing organic matter. But only aquatic
environments are ability to save and preserve primary organic matter. High
content of oxygen on land dry environment does not allow to accumulate
organic matter and all amount of carbon oxidized reform to carbon dioxide.
Modern annual productivity of organic matter 6x1010 tons. It means that only
0,05% of carbon can be buried in kind of organic matter and 99.95 % of
carbon returned back or included in circulation of CO2.
Under normal conditions, organic matter is very dilute in sediments owing to
most of its reform to CO2. For example, claystones and shales can contain
only 1 % of organic carbon, compared with 0,3 % in carbonates and
sandstones, but sometimes environmental conditions can be created where
rich source rocks can contain 5 % or even 20 % of organic matter. In
terrestrial environments all carbon will oxidize because of high oxygen
composition in atmosphere.
 Accumulation of organic matter
Biological productivity is controlled by:
• Light of water, most of organism live in limits of first meters (60-80 m) in the
column of sea water. It depends on water circulation, amount of sun energy,
transparency of water, etc.
• Temperature, pressure and time (origin of oil can be from1 mil to 100 mil
years ad can reach 300 mil. years). Basins with big velocity of subsidence
produce faster HC.
• Chemical composition or mineralization of sea water and first of all
compounds of phosphates and nitrates which are the main components for
plankton feeding.
• Sea currents and water circulation. Bioproductivity near off-shore line and
areas adjacent shelf have twice high production of organic matter than in
areas of open ocean.
• Amount of thin (clay) particles, because clays are perfect absorbent of
organic particles. Date of Hunt presented in the table show this conformity
with law.
Grain size Organic matter, %
Alevrolite 1.79
Clay (2-4 μm) 2.08
Clay (less 2 μm) 6.50
 Preservation of organic matter
Some basic requirements for the generation and preservation of organic matter
in sediments are:
• High productivity of primary organic matter by life activity. The supply of
organic matter in any depositional sites is controlled by primary productivity
within the top 50 m of its and the depth of stagnant water through which the
material has to settle.
• Oxygen deficiency of the water column because oxygen assists reforming
organic matter to CO2.
• Water activity (physical): high activity of water (waves, storms) can destroy
soft sediments and mix all components and dissolving organic matter.
• Environmental conditions: quiet and calm shelf zones, closed and restricted
by barriers sea and lagoons with bad water circulation are more favorable for
sedimentation and preserving organic matter.
• Velocity of depositing particles.
 Stages of transformation
Microbial decay – microbial activity of bacteria, algae and sponges that use
organic matter for their feeding assist decay of primary organic matter. They
transform proteins and carbohydrates to aminoacids and sugars which can
be themselves eaten. It is usually occur under oxygen shortage and it ways
to save and preserving organic matter. Processes of fermentation and
production first portions of methane prevail at first. On this stage active
influence turn out sulfate-reduction bacteria which take oxygen from SO42-
and regenerate (reactions of reduction) S2- forming sulphuretted hydrogen
reductive environments. H2S also assists to organic matter saving. Deposits
of sulphur often sediment with organic deposits and due to this fact crude
oils often contain sulphuric chemical compounds.
Polycondensation – chemical process in which mono-molecules of lipids and
others joint each other, forming insoluble organic remnant – humin. Main
part of organic matter does not hydrolyze by water and dissolve organic
solvents. Consecutively organic matter may be divided into Fulvic acids
(soluble by organic solvents), Humin acids (insoluble by organic solvents),
Humin (insoluble in NaOH) and Kerogen (insoluble in any solvent).
Transformation in insoluble condition (humin) – 90 % of organic matter
insoluble. It takes its more dark and its absorption of light increase. All
soluble compounds disappear in the sediments on the depth of 100 m.
 Chemofossils
• On the final stage of transformation of organic matter some free hydrocarbon
molecules take part in compounds. They were synthesized by living plants
or organisms and after deposition have undergone insignificant changing.
They are markers (geochemical fossils) of environmental deposition. They
are the first sources for hydrocarbons (about 10 %). Different alkenes,
steroids, porphyrins, terpenes and fat acids in oil are chemofossils.
• Chemofossils use for
recognizing primary type of
organic matter and
environments. Some methods
for ex. use relations between
even an odd alkenes
distribution. Thus, the relation
isoprene alkenes derived from
chlorophyll: pristan(C19) and
fitan(C20) use for characteristic
type of organic matter and
depositing environments.
 General
chart
transfor-
mation of
organic
matter and
different
sources
hydro-
carbons
Black sea sedimentation –
carbon budget
For last 2000 years –
100 gram of organic
carbon per each 1
cubic meter of clay
sediment.
 Evolution of organic matter
• Diagenesis. Microbial activity assists decay organic matter revert its to CO2,
NH4 and water. In this stage organic matter produce biogenic methane.
Primary biopolymers revert to polycondensed structures – geopolymers and
further kerogen. If there is mass supply high plants can occur peat and than
coal. These process take place in limits of depth 200-500 meters, rare
before 2000 m. Vitrinite reflectance R0 - 0,5%. Boundary between diagenesis
and katagenesis – is bound brown and black coal.
• Katagenesis. Temperature change from 500 to 1500 C with high pressure
with respect to this porosity and permeability decreasing. Water escaping
and due to this factor mineralization of stratal waters increase. Organic
matter essentially change. It is the main stage of oil and gas (wet gas)
production. Aliphatic chains disappear from kerogen and due to it vitrinite
reflectance R0 - 2,0%.
• Metagenesis. Clay rocks revert to shales and slates. Kerogen can produce
only dry gas (methane) and relic carbon such as graphite. Coal reforms to
anthracite caused transformation of vitrinite with its reflectance R0 - 4,0%.
• Metamorphism. Sedimentary rocks revert to metamorphic. All organic
matter expose graphitization. Vitrinite reflectance R0 > 4,0%.
Evolution of organic matter
 Maturation of organic matter
• There is an increase in temperature with depth in the earths crust. As
organic matter is buried it is heated and transformed into kerogen, oil and
gas. The most oil is produced between the temperatures of 60 and 120
degrees C, at a depth range known as the ―oil window‖.
• Oil that migrated from the
source rocks and is
subsequently trapped will
also be influenced by
increases in temperature,
ultimately maturing to a
mixture of gases, dominated
by methane. Gas cracking in
the reservoirs is
characterized by the
occurrence of associated
bitumens (pure
hydrocarbons with large
aromatic ring structures
resulting from the loss of
hydrogen during methane
production or
dehydrogenation)
 Hydrocarbon production
Diagenesis. Gases are the main products: biogenic methane (swampy gas),
carbon dioxide, sulphuretted hydrogen. Methane can be generated by
bacteria and microbes living in fresh-depositing sediments. Carbon dioxide
occur in during escaping oxygen from kerogen. Sulphuretted hydrogen (H2S)
derive from sulphur-saturated kerogen especially from carbonate and
evaporites rocks. Sometimes in deposits other gases inorganic origination
can situate– carbon dioxide from volcanic or radioactive gases such as
helium (more ancient rocks contain more) or argon or radon, products of
decay and gases of ancient atmospheres.
Katagenesis. Base quantity of oil: liquid hydrocarbons and bitumen products,
liquid condensed gases and wet gas the mixture of methane (70-85%),
ethane, propane and butane.
Metagenesis. Dry gas – methane (95-100%) with rare amount of other gases.
Metamorphism. Products of degradation and oxidation of oil and gas – solid
bitumen, kerites, anthraxolites, asphalts, tars, solid resin etc.
 Buried organic matter
• Organic matter can be usefully divided into two components: bitumen, which
is composed of compounds that are soluble in organic solvents; and
kerogen, the insoluble components.
• Bitumen or extractable organic matter include the indigenous aliphatic,
aromatic and N-S-O compounds, including migrated hydrocarbons
generated from sedimentary rocks saturated organic matter.
• Kerogen is the most abundant organic component on Earth and is the term
used for a set of complex organic compounds, the composition of which
depends on the original organic source. Kerogen is composed of varying
proportions of C, H and O. Such elemental date for kerogen can be
displayed on a diagram first developed by Van Krevelen.
 Types of organic matter - Kerogen
• Kerogen subdivided into
four main ―types‖ on the
basis of macerals or
original organic source
material. The main
macerals groups are:

• Liptinite (Type I)

• Exitinite (Type II)

• Vitrinite (Type III)

• Inertinite (Type IV)

 Types of Kerogen
• Kerogen type depend on the type of organic material preserved in each
sedimentary environment.
• Each kerogen type matures under different burial conditions, controlling the
timing of petroleum generation and expulsion from the source rock.
• Liptinite (Type I) – has a high hydrogen to carbon ratio but a low oxygen to
carbon ratio/ It is oil-prone, with a high yield (up to 80%). It is derived mainly
from an alga source, rich in lipids marine or lacustrine or lagoonal
environments. It is relatively rare.
• Exitinite (Type II) – has intermediate hydrogen to carbon and oxygen to
carbon ratios. It is oil- and gas-prone, with yields of 40-60 %. The source is
mainly membranous plant debris (spores, pollen and cuticle) and
phytoplankton and bacterial microorganisms in marine sediments. It is the
most abundant.
• Vitrinite (Type III) – has a low ratio of hydrogen and high ratio of oxygen
relative to carbon and therefore forms a low-yield kerogen generating only
gas. The primary source is higher plant debris found in coals and coaly
sediments.
• Inertinite (Type IV) – is final and non-fluorescing product of any three types
above kerogen. It is high only carbon and very low in hydrogen, having no
effective potential to yield oil and gas.
 Kerogen - composition
• Polycondensed substance of kerogen is forming under low temperature and
pressure in sediments.
• Amount of kerogen exceeds in 1000 times all deposits of oil, gas and coals.
• Pyrite grains are compound part of kerogen.
• For studying kerogen method of its oxidation, hydrogenation, pyrolysis are
using
 Kerogen versus coal
Both occur in the same sequence of geological process, sedimentation,
diagenesis etc. However oil and gas migrate to traps, but coal states on the
place of its origin. Most of oil-bearing rocks marine, but coal deposits were
originated in continental environments. Coal – former remnants of high plants
(sometimes we can observe remnants of ancient trees, trace of leaves, root
etc.), but hydrocarbons are product of kerogen transformation. Effectiveness of
deposition peat (coal) is in 10 times above than deposition organic matter in
marine sediments. Thickness of coal layers can reach 300 and more meters. It
means that basin requires constantly subsidence. Coals also can produce
hydrocarbons but only methane and CO2 - today it is very important problem of
exploring gas from coal layers. Coal contain carbon and oxygen. If composition
of coal and kerogen type III are near in origin, so sometimes hydrocarbons can
be found in coal deposits.
 Black shales
• Black shales (kerogen shales) – any rock reached organic matter which can
give resin or tar after its pyrolysis (after its heating about 500 degree C).
Usually they are clayey or carbonatic rocks with high quantities of kerogen. If
it is contain organic matter more than 2.5 % it is profitable for industry.
Optimal case is 5 % (25 liters resin from 1000 kg of rock). They contain
kerogen types I and II. Usually black shales occur in environments of
lacustrine and shallow marine conditions.

Bitumen and tar mates

• Bitumens can also be produced by late influx of gas into oil-field reservoirs
(de-asphalting) or by bacterial degradation or water-washing of oil in a
shallow reservoir. Bitumens due to the influx of gas, also known as tar
mates, are produced because increased gas saturation leads to a lower
solubility of dissolved heavy compounds.
 Source rock analysis
A source rock is a rock that is capable of producing hydrocarbons. There are
two key requirements for source rocks:
1) they need to have a high enough concentration of organic matter
2) they should have been heated to a high enough temperature to reach
thermal maturation.

Procedure of evaluation maturity kerogen is:

1. Find out quantity of organic matter: insoluble (kerogen) and soluble
(bitumoid). For this any kerogen-bearing rocks can be burning and amount
of CO2 after this procedure is characteristic carbon potential, but burning
exposed all amount of carbon including kerogen. Value of 0,5 % carbon
content is the level for conclude one or other rock is as a organic-bearing
rock.
2. Definition kerogen type. It needs define amount of carbon, oxygen and
hydrogen – element composition and put them Van Krevelen diagram;
isotope analysis (continental and younger organic matter more enrich C12
than marine and ancient); chemical methods; types of chemofossils
3. Conclusion about kerogen maturity using optical or physic-chemical
properties. For this approach use method of Vitrinite reflectance (R0) or
colour of spores and pollen (evolution from orange and yellow- light brown
via dark-brown and red to black).
 Pyrolysis – thermal decomposition
Sample of rock with organic matter (100 mg) gradually heating up to
temperature 550 C in sluggish atmosphere. First portions of free-volatile
hydrocarbons obtained and measured special equipment (S1) under
moderate temperature. Than stage of pyrolysis gives second portion of
hydrocarbons (S2) and other gaseous substances (S3) such as carbon
dioxide and water. Composition of fazes S1 and S2 measured by flame-
ionization detectors or gas-chromatograph. The dividing all peaks depends
on temperature program. Forth parameter is temperature corresponding
maximum expelling hydrocarbons from rock.
Value S1 corresponds index effectiveness of kerogen transformation to oil and
gas. Sum of S1 and S2 is genetic potential measured in kg per ton: < 2 kg/t –
gas-bearing rock; 2-6 kg/t – temporal oil and gas bearing rock; > 6 kg/t high-
bearing rock.
Type kerogen characterized by the relation hydrogen index S2/Ccont. and oxygen
index S3/Ccont.
Method of pyrolysis use all research companies and industry because it is
cheap, fast and effective.
 Conclusions
• The generation of oil or gas requires sediment to be deposited. Along
with the sediment, organic material is deposited. This organic material can
be the remains of plants or animals.

• The depositional environment for the sediments must be anoxic – lacking

oxygen - to prevent the organic material from oxidizing and rotting away.

• The sediment has to be buried and warmed for a period of time –

generally millions of years. The temperature and pressure conditions
determine the type and amount of hydrocarbon generated.

• The organic material undergoes a chemical change. The organic material

is first turned into kerogen - an intermediate stage of hydrocarbon. With
more heat and pressure, the kerogen turns into oil or gas.
 Mikhail V. Sh.

Unit 9
Reservoir rocks
 Characteristics of Reservoir Rocks
• Classification of reservoirs can be made on the basis of the texture,
composition and origin of the containing rock or the geometric configuration
of the reservoir trap. Classification of reservoirs on the basis of rock texture
and composition can assist in the prediction of reservoir performance.
Variations in the mineralogy of reservoir rocks can be as important in
reservoir performance as structural configuration or area extent of the
reservoir rock.
• Sedimentary reservoir rocks can be divided into two groups: chemical and
detrital. Sedimentary rocks are created by the weathering, disintegration,
erosion, reworking and deposition of material from older rocks.
• Clastic or detrital rocks are created from fragments transported by wind or
water and allowed to settle out of suspension when the weight of the
fragments is sufficient to exceed the carrying capacity of the transporting
agent (wind or water). Chemical rocks are the result of precipitation of
materials out of aqueous solution by organic growth and deposition or
evaporation of seawater in closed basins, which precipitates salt and other
evaporites.
 Relation and capacity
• Reservoirs - porous and permeable containers for hydrocarbons migrating
from source rocks
• Nearly always sedimentary in origin
• Clastic rocks – 60 %;
• Carbonatic – 30 %;
• Claystones, magmatic and metamorphic – 10 %

Porosity Appraisal Permeability

0-5 Very bad <0.01-0.1
5-10 Bad 0.1-1.0
10-15 Moderate 1-10
15-20 Good 10-100
20-25 Very good 100-1000
 Detrital (clastic) Reservoirs
• These reservoirs can be classified according to rock types, depending on
variations in source rock, transport distance and depositional environment.
• Quartzose-Type. Occur in periods of geologic quiescence, with relatively
flat coastal plains bordered by shallow seas. Weathering and chemical
decay are at a maximum and erosion is at a minimum. Only stable minerals
remain, and these are well sorted and generally uniform in texture and
composition. Blanket sands and shales over extensive areas are general
factors and the sandstones demonstrate high vertical as well as horizontal
permeability. Waterdrive reservoir mechanisms can be expected and high
recoveries by primary methods of production are the general rule because of
the homogeneity of the reservoir rock.
• Graywacke Sediments. These sediments occur in periods of moderate
geologic disturbances. The coastal region is moderately uplifted and the
depositional basins are somewhat deeper with a shorter continental shelf.
More rapid erosion and shorter distances of transportation prevent the
complete weathering and chemical decay of the sediments, and some of the
more unstable minerals are able to remain. These are poor sorting,
lenticularity, irregular porosity and permeability variations, and
heterogeneous deposition. Vertical permeability is poor, limiting water drive
and gravity drainage. Production is normally gas-depletion drive and the
opportunities for secondary recovery operations are excellent.
 Clastic reservoir rocks
• Arkose Sediments. Arkose sediments result from deposition during periods
of intense orogenic movements. Certain land areas are sharply elevated
above other land areas or the shoreline. Faulting and major isostatic
adjustments occur frequently. The continental shelf is extremely narrow or
nonexistent. Maximum erosion and the short distance of transportation
virtually eliminate chemical decay and weathering. Sediments are deposited
and covered over by younger sediments before any appreciable sorting and
weathering can take place. Unstable minerals are present in the thick
heterogeneous deposits. Highly porous stratigraphic traps are developed by
lensing, pinchouts and unconformities.
 Net to gross
• GRV - Gross Rock volume - amount of rock in the trap above the
hydrocarbon water contact
• N/G - net/gross ratio - percentage of the GRV formed by the reservoir rock
(range is 0 to 1)
 Underground stratal water
• Underground stratal water there are in the most oil and gas fields and
usually escort petrol. Beds and layers can be saturated not only oil or oil and
water but only water. Underground water can situate not only in water zone
but in zones together with oil and gas, saturating HC‘s reservoirs – it is
connate or bound water. Main factors for saturating layers are buoyancy and
further distribution and migration. Content of combined water in reservoirs
can variate from 0 % of whole porous volume to 70 % (in average, this factor
is 20-30 %).
• These waters are usually high mineralized and are brains of salt Na, Ca, Mg,
K, etc. Other main ions are Cl and carbonates. Water can contain dissolved
gases – methane and its homolog and sulphuretted hydrogen.
• Density of water changes by depending mineralization and can be 1,01-1,02
g/cm3 and more. Viscosity of stratal waters usually less than oil viscosity. It
decreases with increasing temperature. Underground water have electric
conductance, that depend upon its mineralization.
• Sh - hydrocarbon saturation - some of the pore space is filled with water -
this must be discounted
• Recoverable hydrocarbons - amount of hydrocarbon likely to be recovered
during production. This is typically 10-50% in an oil field and 50-80% in a
gas field.
 Carbonate (Chemical) Reservoirs
• Limestones and Dolomites. Limestones and dolomites also are deposited
in quiescent geologic environments.
• Carbonate Reservoirs. Carbonate reservoirs include reefs, elastic
limestones, chemical limestones and dolomite. Porosity may be
intercrystalline, intergranular, oolitic or ooliclastic, vuggy fractured,
fossiliferous, cavernous or saccharoidal. Production characteristics are
highly variable in carbonate reservoirs. depending almost entirely on the
type of porosity and fracturing developed and the resultant permeability.
• Permeabilities generally lower than clastic but in case of tectonic fracturing
or added artificial stimulation they can be very good reservoirs. Porosity can
form due to small scale intraparticle internal structure of shells. The porosity
and permeability can be improved by later diagenesis of the carbonate.

Carbonates often deposit coincide with evaporites (the remnants of the salts in
the shallow seas) or transgressive shales and so can form basin with perfect
cap rocks.
 Fractured reservoirs
• Fractured formations usually are caused by local deformation, faulting and
folding, reduction in overburden permitting expansion of the underlying rock
and differential compaction. Brittle rocks are more commonly affected
because of their inelasticity. In many cases minor joints, fractures and
fissures are modified by solution and combine with primary and secondary
porosity to give a greater effective reservoir porosity and permeability.
Fractures in reservoirs increase the wellbore radius and permit extremely
tight and impermeable areas to bleed into the fractures over a wide area and
thus be connected with channels leading to the wellbore.
• Production is sometimes obtained from igneous and metamorphosed rock
as a result of fracturing. The fractures provide the reservoir space as well as
the permeability to permit oil and gas migration, accumulation and
production from the reservoir. For a trap to occur in a fractured formation, it
must be overlain by a more pliable or less brittle rock that has not been
fractured by the deformation. Otherwise, migration would occur up through
the fractures and there would be no trap.
• Where faulting caused the fracturing, production is limited to a narrow band
along the fault. When folding or other deformation has caused the fracturing,
the reservoir can become very complex in shape and unpredictable in
production performance. Generally, the areas of greatest deformation have
the greater number of fractures, which results in better well performance and
recovery of more oil or gas.
Clastlc and Detrital Porosity
1. Sand, conglomeratic sand, and gravel (clean, argillaceous, silty, lignitic, etc.)
2. Porous calcareous sandstone and siliceous sandstone (incomplete
cementation)
3. Arkosic (feldspathic) sand, arkose, arkosic conglomerate (granite wash)
4. Detrital limestone and dolomite, oolitic and pisolitic limestone, coquina and
shell breccia

Fractured Porosity
1. Fractured sandstone and conglomerate
2. Fractured limestone, shale and chert

Crystalline Porosity
1. Crystalline limestone and dolomite Types of
2. Sugary dolomite ―saccharoidal‖ porosity
porosity in
Solution Porosity
1. Crystalline limestone and dolomite
2. Cavernous limestone and dolomite
reservoirs
3. Porous caprock
4. Honeycombed anhydrite
5. Ooliclastic limestone
 Reserves and resources
Oil reserves are primarily a measure of geological risk of the probability of oil
existing and being producible under current economic conditions using
current technology. The three categories of reserves generally used are:
• Proven reserves - defined as oil and gas "Reasonably Certain" to be
producible using current technology at current prices, with current
commercial terms and government consent - also known in the industry as
1P. Some Industry specialists refer to this as P90 - i.e. having a 90%
certainty of being produced.
• Probable reserves - defined as oil and gas "Reasonably Probable" of
being produced using current or likely technology at current prices, with
current commercial terms and government consent - Some Industry
specialists refer to this as P50 - i.e. having a 50% certainty of being
produced - also known in the industry as 2P(proven plus probable).
• Possible reserves - "having a chance of being developed under favourable
circumstances" - Some industry specialists refer to this as P10 - i.e. having a
10% certainty of being produced. - This is also known in the industry as 3P
(proven plus probable plus possible).
• Resources are hydrocarbons which may or may not be produced in the
future. A resource number may be assigned to an undrilled prospect or an
unappraised discovery. Appraisal by drilling additional delineation wells or
acquiring extra seismic data will confirm the size of the field and lead to
project sanction. At this point the relevant government body gives the oil
company a production license which enables the field to be developed.
 Please,
use this unit
with
Units 3, 4, 5, 6
 Mikhail V. Sh.

Unit 10
Migration and
accumulation
 Petroleum migration
In most cases places of petroleum origin and places of petroleum commercial
concentrations do not coincide. It assumes that most of them at first were
migrated and than accumulated.
Migration – is the process whereby petroleum moves from its place of origin,
the source rock to its destruction at the Earth's surface. Pores in rocks are
usually saturated by water, so the process of migration is a reason to study
as a movement hydrocarbons in presence of water. The process of
migration may be divided into three stages or three type of migration.
• Primary migration – expulsion of petroleum from the source rocks
• Secondary migration – the journey from source rock to trap
• Tertiary migration – leakage, seepage and dissipation of the petroleum at
the Earth's surface
 Seepage and Leakage
• Seeps – the first indicator for the presence of hydrocarbons in a basin. All
petroleum traps leak to a greater or lesser extent and in consequence
petroleum escapes naturally to the Earth's surface. Ancient seepages were
discovered near Caspian sea (Azerbaijan) and in Venezuela (Maracaibo
bay).
• Early wells were drilled next to seeps and most of them were successful.
The seeps were found near almost all sedimentary basins. In offshore
regions special observation about micron-thin iridescent oil films and via gas
bubbles using.
• Using remote sensing or direct observation and thermo surveying approach
by satellites seeps can identified. Many oilfields have warm thermal effect of
escaping. Slicks or seep detection offshore can be conducted using airborne
laser fluorescence detectors.
• A de Gama survey involves flying over the study area wearing a pair of
polarizing sunglasses. Slicks stand out as areas of particularly calm water
and low reflectivity.
• Leakage has three stage: seal failure, tertiary migration and dissipation in
the near surface
 Stages of leaking
• Seal failure – petroleum moves
upward because a force acts upon
its and buoyancy (caused be
density contrast between
petroleum and water) is the major
force in most settings and
expelling.
• Tertiary migration – refers to the
movement of petroleum from trap
to surface. Buoyancy again is the
main mechanism of moving and it
may be assisted or retarded by
overpressure gradient or
hydrodynamic.
• Dissipation – when seeps reach
water table near surface, gases will
be exsolved and separate from the
oil. Liquid bitumen is the result of
oil decay and contamination.
 Mud volcano
Migration is confirmed mud volcanoes and clay diapirs formed by the
catastrophic release of gas that associated oil fields. The forming gas tends to
move the surface and as depositing rocks are not else good stable they can be
captured by gas and water-oil fluids and than go up to the surface.
 Migration - factors
• Temperature – owing to geothermal gradient or thermal currents most of oil
deposits (in depth of 2000-5000 m) undergo influence of temperature about
100 degree C during in time of origin and migration of hydrocarbons. Under
temperature water and gases can expand and give push (shove) for
migration. Fluids have to migrate from hot to cold areas; from bottom to
upwards; from the center of basin to its ridges.
• Pressure – overburden layers create hydrostatic pressure on the rocks. If
rock has space for water expelling, thus its porosity reduces. But in case that
fluids in pores can not be expelled, rock stops to press and anomaly high
reservoir pressure creates. With increasing depth salinity also increases.
• Consolidation - tends to increasing volumetric weight of rock and reducing
porosity. Consolidation causes the movement of liquid and gaseous phases
in rocks, forming permeable and impermeable layers in basin.
• Gaseous factor – methane and other gases begin to press on the liquid and
solid parts of reservoirs. High pressure in reservoirs usually is aligned with
content of methane.
• Diameter pores – hydrocarbons can migrate only throw free space and size
of channels between pores is one of significant factor for this.
 Primary migration
Primary (expulsion) - microfracturing of source rock after overpressure has
built up due to HC generation.
• Compounds carrying throw the porous space can variate molecular weight
from 16 (CH4) to more than 5000 (high-molecular asphalts). It depends on
size of molecules.
• Hydrocarbons can carry by mechanism of: self-dependent oil and gas
phases; drops and bubbles of oil and gas; colloidal and micelles or
molecular solutions. Mass migration can reach by diffusion or bulk flow.
Main factors are temperature and pressure. For example methane moves
from areas with high to areas with low temperature. Other factors are
wettability of capillaries and fluids composition (singular or multiphased).
• Continuous petroleum phase – if water join with rock and fixed water
takes passive role in migration; it needs high concentration of bitumoids and
low content of free-moving water. Main factor is pressure.
• Hydrocarbons drops and bubbles – these drops flow in water and carry
by its in the immixed medium. In this case drops have to deformed in order
to pass throw capillary and overcome its size. Than less diameter of pore is
than higher is the capillary pressure (main factor). It is not significant without
fractured zones in collectors, because requires constantly high pressure.
 Primary migration
• Colloidal and micelles solutions – polar organic molecules having
hydrophobic (inside) or hydrophilic (outside) layers. One micelle can joint
100 and more molecules. In this case hydrocarbons can be periodically in
solution-absolution forms in water. This process exists hypothetically but it
can take their role only in very porous reservoirs on the shallow or superficial
depth in basins.
• Molecular solutions – some hydrocarbons are solved in water (alcohol,
benzol etc.) especially under high temperature and pressure. Some of them
can carry by water, but the solubility decreases with increasing molecular
weight of HC's. Presence heteroatoms (0, N and S) also increase solubility
of HC‘s and salinity decreases its.
• Diffusion mechanism – the gaseous single and simple molecules can free
diffusive throw rocks in case of absence of bulk migration.
• Migration by fractured channels – microfissuring can occur under high
anomalous pressure by pores which press in thin rocks such as claystones
or fine-grained limestones. In this case water does not required but gradient
of internal pressure has to exceed hydrostatic pressure in 1.5-2.5 times.
Fractures can periodically open and close under changing pressure balance.
 Time and depth of migration
Early migration takes place on the depth of 1500 m under expelling first
portion of water in the process of consolidation rocks. Main amount of HC‘s
migrate in this stage. Before 1500 meters of depth in any basin there are no
HC‘s except of biogenic methane or the case of seepages. Water can be
source after decompressing sediments and reforming clayey mixed-layering
minerals to illite so the main mechanism is migration in water solution.
Late primary migration – takes after 1500 meters and coincide with beginning
of ―oil window‖ or main phase of oil-origination. Difference with above early
primary migration is strong absence of free-moving water on the depth of
1500-2000 meters.
Distance – meters and first tens meters for primary migration.
It is possible that migration of oil can be carried by gases. Drops of oil can solve
in gas phase under high pressure and than again condense after the
pressure reducing.
Moreover, any mechanism of migration must explain compounds of real oil in
fields and pools with connection of compound oil-bearing rocks in basin.
Since as the oil solubility in water is enough less, preferable mechanism of
primary migration is consider as free petroleum phase.
 Secondary migration
Secondary migration takes place usually in porous and permeable rocks. It
finishes the beginning of oil pools and fields origin. However tectonic
movements (folding and faults) can redistribute HC‘s in new pools (other
case of next phase of secondary migration or tertiary migration). Fields can
origin if produced petroleum will meet seal (perfect cover) for accumulation.
Main mechanism movement (or migration) of oil, gas and water –
buoyancy, because specific weight of oil 0.7-1.0 g/cm3; gases 0.001 g/cm3;
water 1.05-1.2 g/cm3. In this process different size parts and drops of oil, gas
and water have to divide each other and begin to move. Force of buoyancy
depends on force of gravity; height of column oil; balance oil-water density.
Other important factors are hydrodynamic currents and capillary pressure.
Capillary pressure – balance of pressure in place of phases (liquid-liquid or
gas-liquid) bound. It can change shape of oil drops, because for these drops
can pass throw thin channels in porous rocks due to they have to change
their shape. Force required for this process is the injection pressure and it is
main factor for capturing HC‘s. Capillary pressure prevents buoyancy and
movement thin drops of oil or secondary migration, but it helps dividing
different phases. So vertical balance between capillary pressure and force
of buoyancy caused direction of movement or standing oil drops.
 Secondary migration
Hydrodynamic currents – underground waters are constantly moving under
hydrodynamic gradient of pressure. It defines the final direction of moving
HC‘s which depends on all act together regional and local pressures. This
factor acts especially for layers owing horizontal propagation of migration
and insignificant roles of buoyancy and capillary pressure. Hydrodynamic
movement of currents is important factors especially on the first stages of
secondary migration. On the late stage oil drops will joint together forming
large drops, gaseous bubbles, oil ―laces‖ etc.
Tectonic movements are also very important factors for changing character of
migration and accumulation oil and gas fields.
Secondary migration can change chemical composition of oil and divide
different …relation between aromatic, alkenes, paraffines etc. Final
composition of crude oil ―reflects the way of migration‖ and its following
degradation and ageing. Secondary carries HC‘s from site of expulsion to
sites of accumulation (traps) or seepage. It takes place when moving force is
the buoyancy and stopped when Pc>buoyancy.
No evident precisely predict moving and HC‘s accumulation because it is
system with numerous factors: depth, temperature, pressure, strata age,
type of rocks, type of organic matter, petrophysical properties of collectors,
density and viscosity of oil, etc.
 Factors controlling accumulation
Occurrence of porous rocks in section. Accumulation oil and gas usually
occur in elevated (high) parts of traps, but volume of porous space in each
real and specific trap has to be sufficient for industrial accumalation fields of
oil and gas. HC‘s can collect independently on the mineralogical or
petrological compound of rocks. Occurrence permeable layers and channels
are also important.
Size of trap – geometrical capacity of real geological structures.
Quality of seal. Seal (cap rock) has to have high capillary pressure more than
moving force of water and rigid on its structure in order to not allowed pass
throw the seal or seep HC's.
Relation forces of hydrodynamic current and buoyancy. In hydrodynamic
preferable condition fields and pools can take not apex positions but on side
(pinch out parts) – main factor is hydrodynamic current allowing to hold fields
in definite volume.
Distance and size migration areas – controlled in average relation 1:10 or oil-
collected areas approximately in 10 times more than diameter of oil pool.
Horizontal migration – tens kilometers, vertical is possible via faults, tectonic
zones, mud volcanoes – some kilometers. Sometimes there are multi-layers
oil deposits.
Relation in sedimentary basin kerogen-bearing and water-saturated layers.
 Fluid contacts
A critical part of any appraisal program is determination of the fluid contacts in
petroleum pool. Boundary between oil and water in pools is named as oil-
water contact (OWC), analogically oil-gas contact (GOC) between oil pool
and gas cap. Position fluid contacts define reservoir capacity of pools and
their size for further exploring. In each point (of well) must be define ―oil (or
gas) down to‖ and ―water up to‖ elevations. But fluids contacts can also be
gradational with transition zone. In poor-quality reservoirs, an abundance of
small pores and hydrophilic minerals tends to promote high water
saturations and gradational petroleum/water contact. For an oil and gas pool
at its critical point, there will be a continuous transition from oil down into
gas. Sometimes one pool can be structured or divided onto some local
compartments – in this case each small pool will have own local fluid
contact. Moreover position of contact can change (up or down) by capillary
pressure or gas-increasing pressure – in this case in core can be visible
traces of ancient fluid contacts. Pressure also can change on the quantity of
dissolved gas in oil and water. In the absence of a direct identification of a
petroleum/water contact in a well, the depth to a contact can be calculated
from measurements of pressure data in both the oil or gas legs and in the
aquifer.
Pool displacement Moving water under high
hydrodynamic activity can
displace oil and gas pools. The
intensity of this process depends
on strength of water currents and
physical properties of penetrated
rocks.
OWC or GOC can be horizontal or
plunging – depend on: force
relation of capillary pressure
versus hydrodynamic factors;
movement and direction of
flowing stratal water; different
size of pores in rocks.
Gas fields are generally situate the
deeper structures and oil in the
shallower structures in anticline.
However, gas also can be
source of pressing and can push
and displace oil during migration.
 Ways and trace of
migration
• Horizontal or vertical
• Fissures, fractures zones – many ancient and
modern faults have trace of migration
hydrocarbons on their walls.
• Layering weak zones via bedding planes –
layering is good way for migration especially
between two different types on structure layers.

Solid bitumen trace – most of ancient pools of

hydrocarbons were destroyed and degraded and
crude oil were deformed to solid bitumens – we
can confirm that these remnants are old ways of
migration, such as bituminous dikes etc.

Some liquid oils with high viscosity can be

explore via mining pits. Solid or semisolid liquid
bituminous lakes are known in Trinidad and other
places and use for modern asphalt production.
 Concept of petroleum province,
system and plays
• Province – region in which a number of oil and gas pools and fields occur in
a similar or related geologic environment (Levorsen).
• Petroleum System - a natural system that links an active or once active
source rock to all of the geological elements that are essential for a
hydrocarbon accumulation to exist in time and space (regardless of
economics). Results of reconstruction and studying these systems are set of
maps with the geographical extent of source rocks, defining and modeling
their maturity, mapping out reservoir extent and trapping configurations.
• Hydrocarbon Play - a group of hydrocarbon fields and prospects having a
chance for charge, reservoirs and traps and belonging to a geologically
related stratigraphic unit, which usually consists of well defined stratigraphic
objectives.
• Geological basins - are areas containing the likely ingredients for working
hydrocarbon systems (source rock, reservoir, seal, traps) There may be
many plays (where components of the ingredients are common and
repeatedly) in individual basins. For a play to work, all the ingredients must
be present in real basin.
 Other units and terms
• Field – several pools are related to a single geologic feature, either
structural or stratigraphical or the group of pools that can lay in vertical
(above another) or horizontal sequence throughout the geologic feature.
• Pool – the simplest unit of commercial occurrence, defined as the body of oil
or gas or both occurring in a separate reservoir and under a single pressure
system.
• Lead - a forecast structure, which may contain hydrocarbons.
• Prospect - a lead which has been fully evaluated and is ready to drill.
Volume metric conversion factors
• Barrels - Cubic meters 0.15899 – Gallons 42
• Barrels (U.S.) - Cubic meters 0.11924 - Gallons 31.5
• Gallons - 3.785 Liters - 231 cubic inches
 Mikhail V. Sh.

Unit 11
Trapping
mechanism.
Seals and traps
 Trapping
• A reservoir trap is a combination of physical conditions that will cause HC‘s
and water to accumulate in porous and permeable rock and prevent them
from escaping either laterally or vertically because of differences in specific
gravity, pressure, fluid and gas characteristics, lithology. It has the capability
of collecting, holding and yielding hydrocarbon fluids and water. The portion
of the trap that contains oil or gas accumulations is the petroleum reservoir.
It generally occupies a limited portion of the trap capacity, the remainder
being occupied by formation waters that underlie and are interspersed within
the petroleum accumulation.
• Traps are formed by an infinite variety of structural and stratigraphic
conditions of rock formations combined with pressure differentials among the
various fluids within the reservoir rock. A trap consists of an impervious
cover or roof rock overlying a porous and permeable rock. Reservoir
pressure gradients and fluidflow within the reservoir rock can create traps
that do not have structural closure. The boundary between oil and water or
between gas and water need not be flat or level when these pressure
gradients are present. The water underlying the oil and gas exerts a buoyant
force on the oil/water boundary or contact, lifting and holding the oil and gas
to the crest of the structure or area of minimum hydrostatic pressure.
 Type of traps
There are two main type of traps – structural and stratigraphic or mix variant
with both or combination. Structural traps may be generated through
tectonic, diapiric, compactional and gravitational processes. Stratigraphic
traps are formed by lithological variations imparted to a sediment at
deposition or generated subsequently by alteration of the sediment or fluid
through diagenesis.

Structural
Anticlines – 75 %
Faults - 1%
Salt domes – 2 %

Stratigraphic
Unconformity – 3 %
Reef -3%
Other stratigraphic – 7 %

Combination – 9 %
 Seal
In order for oil or gas to accumulate, there must be a seal and a trap. Seal is an
impermeable rock covering the trap and preventing hydrocarbons to expel to
the surface. Most seals are shales and evaporites. Maximal common volume or
closed volume of trap is volume between highest its point and spilling plane or
level of outflow.

The trap can be

described by its closure
- its ability to accumulate
hydrocarbons. The
structural closure
determines its capacity
to accumulate
hydrocarbons. The point
to which the reservoir
can be filled before the
hydrocarbon overflows
into the next trap is the
structural spill point.
Migration vs. trapping time

• HC‘s usually fill traps gradually, step by step

• Gas has the property push out liquid HC‘s towards next trap
Spill point and fluid contact definition

• Position of spill point can

change during both
exploration and appraisal
after drilling.
• Some traps have a
variety of possible spill
points, the integrity of
each depending upon
different factors, such as
four-way dip closure or
fault closure.
• In full traps, position of
fluid contact usually
equals position of spill-
point, otherwise it can be
higher in the non-full
traps.
 Structural traps
• Structural traps - a deformation in the rock layer that contains the
hydrocarbons (examples: fault traps or anticlinal traps). Compressive
tectonic regimes commonly lead to the development of large-scale
contractional folds and thrusts. Such contraction is most common at
convergent plate boundaries and transgressional strike-slip plate boundaries
(wrench system). Structure implies some form of rock deformation,
commonly expressed as a positive uplift, which may result in four-way dip
closure. With the proper stratigraphy, structural traps may be present.
Domes, anticlines and folds are common structures. Structural traps are the
easiest to locate by surface and subsurface geological and geophysical
studies. They are the most numerous among traps.
• Domes, anticlines and folds caused by structural deformation of sedimentary
rocks generally create many potential traps because the deformation
extends vertically through potential reservoirs. Thus a single well can reveal
many possible pay zones when drilled on the crest of a domal structure.
Domes, anticlines and folds in general must have structural closure to
become effective traps. The reservoir rock must dip away in all directions
from the crest of the structure.
 Folded traps
• Most hydrocarbon anticlinal traps are relatively
simple. However in mountain belts and in
basins located in front of mountains
overturned folds are common. Folds, anticlines
and domes arc the easiest to interpret in
subsurface studies. They vary in size from a
few tens meters to several thousand meters
(and some kilometers). Folds and anticlines
were created by compressional or tensional
forces in the earth‘s crust or by differential
compaction of the sediments. Asymmetrical
anticlines, overturned anticlines, thrust faulting
and fracturing generally indicate areas of
compression. Symmetrical folds and
anticlines, low-angle normal faulting,
monoclines, homoclines and low-relief domal
structures generally indicate areas of tensional
forces or compaction.
 Faulted traps
• Faults are important to petroleum geology because:
the fault can form the trap or part of traps; faults
can separate the reservoir into local compartments
that are not in pressure communication with each
other. Moreover, faults can be good ways for HC‘s
migration, especially if the fault is vertical.
• The fault usually displaces layers and one side of
trap is wall of fault and other opposite side is a non
reservoir layer. The displacement of reservoir
layers can break up the continuity of the layers into
a series of fault blocks or reservoir compartments.
This is termed reservoir compartmentalistion. Such
faults can act seals and prevent flow from one
block to another, allowing different pressures to
exist in the same sand across a fault. Such
pressure differences recur naturally or by
production of HC‘s out of one of the blocks.
Situation with many faults requires the
development with more wells, as each block may
require separate wells.
 Fault Traps
• Fault traps are classified as structural traps where closure is effected in one
or more directions by faulting or where faulting has caused definite changes
in the reservoir configuration (such as a long strike-slip faults). They can
occur in both the up- and downthrown blocks.
• Reverse or thrust faults result from compressional forces and involve
horizontal shortening of the earth‘s crust. The angle of the fault plane with a
horizontal plane can vary from a few degrees to 90 and can be recognized in
the subsurface by repetition of stratigraphic section in wells drilled through
the fault plane. The occurrence of a trap against a fault depends on the fault
plane sealing the porous reservoir rock and preventing migration across or
along the fault plane.
 Fault Traps
• Normal or gravity faults occur as a result of tensional or gravitational
forces. Two common types of normal fault-related traps are: (1) fault
closures and (2) rollover fault closures. The direction of throw on the fault is
not important but the closure created by the fault is. The fault throw may be
in either direction. A trap will result if the fault acts as a seal or if the potential
reservoir is thrown against a shale or other impermeable member on the
opposite side of the fault. Gravity-type faulting commonly occurs in areas of
tension and over the crests of domes and anticlines because of the stresses
involved. Fault traps are common in such an environment and hydrocarbon
accumulations may occur on either the up- or downthrown blocks, in horsts
or in grabens. Rollover fault closures are common in sedimentary basins
receiving great quantities of sediments. Closure is created on the
downthrown block by contemporaneous sedimentation and fault movement.
• The specific gravity of salt is about 2.2
g/cm-3, that of fully consolidated rock is
Salt domes
about 2.5-2.7 g/cm-3. In consequence, salt is
buoyant relative to most other sediments
and sedimentary rocks. Salt is also able to
deform plastically.
• Salt domes are classified as piercement,
intermediate and deep-seated domes. Salt
plugs or masses have moved up from
greater depths through overlying
sediments, forming traps in the sediments
that have not been penetrated by the salt.
• The movement of the salt mass up through
the surrounding rock creates many complex
structures and sedimentary variations.
Radial and peripheral faulting provide the
avenue for the salt pushing up through
overlying sediments. Some of the domes
are very near the surface of the ground and
others can reach the surface and are
currently extruding salt.
 Salt domes
• Traps occur on the flanks of salt domes
where sands have been faulted and
deformed or terminate against the salt
mass and where facies changes have
resulted because of the associated uplift.
• Traps occur in the caprock, which
consists of calcite, anhydrite and
limestone. Caprock is the insoluble
residue on top of the plug that results
from the dissolution of the salt from the
crest of the plug. Porosity and
permeability in the caprock result from
fracturing, solution, chemical alteration or
any combination of these and are
generally restricted to the calcite or
limestone portions of the caprock.
 Stratigraphic traps
• Stratigraphic traps: form when other beds seal a reservoir bed or when the
permeability changes within the reservoir bed itself.
• Traps created by changes in stratigtaphy have the same physical
requirements as structural traps. There is an up-dip limitation or termination
of the reservoir rock, creating an area of minimum hydrodynamic potential or
concave closure. In case of structural limitations, this is obtained by faulting
or a turnover of the reservoir rock.
• In stratigraphic traps, this limitation is accomplished by changes in porosity
and permeability, which result from nondeposition, erosion and overlap,
facies and lithological changes caused by depositional variations, truncation,
and differential compaction.
• Stratigraphic traps can be classified as primary or secondary. Primary traps
are those formed during sedimentary deposition: lenses, facies changes,
shoestring sands, offshore sandbars, reefs and detrital limestone or dolomite
reservoirs can be classified as primary. Secondary traps are those resulting
from later causes such as solution, cementation, erosion, fracturing and
chemical alteration or replacement.
 Stratigraphic traps

• Primary Stratigraphic Traps. These traps

result from deposition of elastic or chemical
materials. Shoestring sands, lenses, sand
patches, bars, channel fillings, facies
changes, strand-line (shoreline) deposits,
coquinas and weathered or reworked
igneous materials are classified as elastic
sedimentary deposits and can result in
stratigraphic traps.
 Reefs traps
• Organic reefs or bioherms and biostromes are
the primary chemical stratigraphic traps; they
are built by organisms and are foreign bodies to
the surrounding deposits. limestone reefs that
have had younger sediments deposited on the
flanks and eventually over the crest of the reef
deposits. The shale serves as the seal.
• Differential compaction of the thicker shales
on the flanks of the reef as compared with the
thinner shale at the crest has created structural
closure in younger overlying formations.
Additional traps in other reservoirs arc the
result of up-dip permeability and porosity
barriers and are either primary or secondary
stratigraphic traps.
 Unconformity traps
• Secondary Stratigraphic Traps. Traps of
this type were formed after the deposition of
the reservoir rock by erosion or alteration of a
portion of the reservoir rock through solution
or chemical replacement. Secondary
stratigaphic traps actually should fall into the
combination-trap classification because most
are associated with or are the result of
structural relief during some stage of
development of porosity and permeability or
limitation of the reservoir rock. Erosion
creates a major part of these through
truncation of the reservoir rock. On-lap
deposition (when the water is encroaching
landward), off-lap deposition (when the water
is regressing), and the chemical alteration of
limestone result in many secondary
stratigraphic traps.
 Combination traps
• Combination trap: this happens when more than
one kind of trap forms. Combination traps are
structural closures or deformations in which the
reservoir rock covers only part of the structure.
Both structural and stratigraphic changes are
essential to the creation of this type of trap.
• Traps of this nature are dependent on
stratigraphic changes to limit permeability and
structure to create closure and complete the trap.
Updip shale-outs, strand-lines and facies
changes on anticlines, domes or other structural
features causing dip of the reservoir rock create
many combination traps.
• Unconformities, overlap of porous rocks and
truncation are equally important in forming
combination traps. Faulting is also a controlling
factor in many of these traps. Asphalt seals and
other secondary plugging agents may assist in
creating traps.
 Summary of Basic Petroleum
Geology (Units 8, 10, 11)
For oil and gas to form and accumulate in the subsurface in economic
quantities, a number of conditions must be met. These are:

1) presence of a ―source rock‖ rich in organic material.

2) the source rock must be matured and have generated hydrocarbons.
3) a migration pathway must exist for the oil or gas to move from the
place of origin to a reservoir.
4) presence of a porous rock to form a reservoir for the oil or gas.
5) presence of a non-permeable rock that forms a ―seal‖ to the reservoir.
6) the sealing rock must form a trap in three dimensions to prevent the
hydrocarbons from escaping to the surface.